Medieval cuisine - Knowledge

1022:. Towards the end of the Middle Ages, the wealthy increasingly sought to escape this regime of stern collectivism. When possible, rich hosts retired with their consorts to private chambers where the meal could be enjoyed in greater exclusivity and privacy. Being invited to a lord's chambers was a great privilege and could be used as a way to reward friends and allies and to awe subordinates. It allowed lords to distance themselves further from the household and to enjoy more luxurious treats while serving inferior food to the rest of the household that still dined in the great hall. At major occasions and banquets, however, the host and hostess generally dined in the great hall with the other diners. Although there are descriptions of dining etiquette on special occasions, less is known about the details of day-to-day meals of the elite or about the 2730:, and reached England by the 15th century. Hopped beer became very popular in the last decades of the Late Middle Ages. In England and the Low Countries, the per capita annual consumption was around 275 to 300 litres (60 to 66 imp gal; 73 to 79 US gal), and it was consumed with practically every meal: low alcohol-content beers for breakfast, and stronger ones later in the day. When perfected as an ingredient, hops could make beer keep for six months or more, and facilitated extensive exports. In Late Medieval England, the word beer came to mean a hopped beverage, whereas ale had to be unhopped. In turn, ale or beer was classified as "strong" or "small", the latter less intoxicating, regarded as a drink of temperate people, and suitable for consumption by children. As late as 1693, 1987: 532:. One was expected to remain in one's social class and to respect the authority of the ruling classes. Political power was displayed not just by rule, but also by displaying wealth. Refined nobles dined on fresh game seasoned with exotic spices, and displayed refined table manners. Rough laborers could make do with coarse barley bread, salt pork and beans and were not expected to display etiquette. Even dietary recommendations were different: the diet of the upper classes was considered to be as much a requirement of their refined physical constitution as a sign of economic reality. The digestive system of a lord was considered to be more refined than that of lower-class subordinates and therefore required finer foods. 1925: 3004:(the juice of unripe grapes or fruits) vinegar and the juices of various fruits, especially those with tart flavors, were almost universal and a hallmark of late medieval cooking. In combination with sweeteners and spices, it produced a distinctive "pungeant, fruity" flavor. Equally common, and used to complement the tanginess of these ingredients, were (sweet) almonds. They were used in a variety of ways: whole, shelled or unshelled, slivered, ground and, most importantly, processed into almond milk. This last type of non-dairy milk product is probably the single most common ingredient in late medieval cooking and blended the aroma of spices and sour liquids with a mild taste and creamy texture. 3235:

the often unfamiliar combination of flavors, the perceived lack of vegetables and a liberal use of spices. The heavy use of spices has been popular as an argument to support the claim that spices were employed to disguise the flavor of spoiled meat, a conclusion without support in historical fact and contemporary sources. Fresh meat could be procured throughout the year by those who could afford it. The preservation techniques available at the time, although crude by today's standards, were perfectly adequate. The astronomical cost and high prestige of spices, and thereby the reputation of the host, would have been effectively undone if wasted on cheap and poorly handled foods.

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prayers or how long it took to walk around a certain field. Professional cooks were taught their trade through apprenticeship and practical training, working their way up in the highly defined kitchen hierarchy. A medieval cook employed in a large household would most likely have been able to plan and produce a meal without the help of recipes or written instruction. Due to the generally good condition of surviving manuscripts it has been proposed by food historian Terence Scully that they were records of household practices intended for the wealthy and literate master of a household, such as

1978:, made from by-products of the production of harder cheeses. Cheese was used in cooking for pies and soups, the latter being common fare in German-speaking areas. Butter, another important dairy product, was in popular use in the regions of Northern Europe that specialized in cattle production in the latter half of the Middle Ages, the Low Countries and Southern Scandinavia. While most other regions used oil or lard as cooking fats, butter was the dominant cooking medium in these areas. Its production also allowed for a lucrative butter export from the 12th century onward. 271:. Porridge, gruel, and later bread became the basic staple foods that made up the majority of calorie intake for most of the population. From the 8th to the 11th centuries, the proportion of various cereals in the diet rose from about a third to three-quarters. Dependence on wheat remained significant throughout the medieval era, and spread northward with the rise of Christianity. In colder climates, however, it was usually unaffordable for the majority population, and was associated with the higher classes. The centrality of bread in religious rituals such as the 1396: 314: 2167: 1777: 22: 1584:'s sermons from the early 13th century describe sellers of cooked meat as an outright health hazard. While the necessity of the cook's services was occasionally recognized and appreciated, they were often disparaged since they catered to the baser of bodily human needs rather than spiritual betterment. The stereotypical cook in art and literature was male, hot-tempered, prone to drunkenness, and often depicted guarding his stewpot from being pilfered by both humans and animals. In the early 15th century, the English monk 764:

physical labor, as well as sailors and soldiers, may have consumed 3,500 calories (15,000 kJ) or more per day. Intakes of aristocrats may have reached 4,000 to 5,000 calories (17,000 to 21,000 kJ) per day. Monks consumed 6,000 calories (25,000 kJ) per day on "normal" days, and 4,500 calories (19,000 kJ) per day when fasting. As a consequence of these excesses, obesity was common among upper classes. Monks, especially, frequently suffered from conditions that were more common among the obese, such as

1288: 386: 874: 8089: 3554: 2691:, had been used. Gruit had the same preserving properties as hops, though less reliable depending on what herbs were in it; as such, the end result was much more variable. Another flavoring method was to increase the alcohol content, but this was more expensive and lent the beer the undesired characteristic of being a quick and heavy intoxicant. Hops may have been widely used in England in the tenth century; they were grown in Austria by 1208 and in Finland by 1249, and possibly much earlier. 2449: 3391: 3257: 760:

those invited to the abbot's table from the reckoning. Overall, a monk at Westminster Abbey in the late 15th century would have been allowed 2.25 pounds (1.02 kg) of bread per day; 5 eggs per day, except on Fridays and in Lent; 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of meat per day, four days per week (excluding Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday), except in Advent and Lent; and 2 pounds (0.91 kg) of fish per day, three days per week and every day during Advent and Lent.

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distinction was applied to red and white vinegar. Milk was moderately warm and moist, but the milk of different animals was often believed to differ. Egg yolks were considered to be warm and moist while the whites were cold and moist. Skilled cooks were expected to conform to the regimen of humoral medicine. Even if this limited the combinations of food they could prepare, there was still ample room for artistic variation by the chef.

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main ingredient. The lack of recipes for many basic vegetable dishes, such as potages, has been interpreted not to mean that they were absent from the meals of the nobility, but rather that they were considered so basic that they did not require recording. Carrots were available in many variants during the Middle Ages: among them a tastier reddish-purple variety and a less prestigious green-yellow type. Various legumes, like

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population could support a wide variety of food establishments that catered to various social groups. Many of the poor city dwellers had to live in cramped conditions without access to a kitchen or even a hearth, and many did not own the equipment for basic cooking. Food from vendors was in such cases the only option. Cookshops could either sell ready-made hot food, an early form of

419:. The choice of ingredients may have been limited, but that did not mean that meals were smaller. Neither were there any restrictions against (moderate) drinking or eating sweets. Banquets held on fish days could be splendid, and were popular occasions for serving illusion food that imitated meat, cheese, and eggs in various ingenious ways; fish could be moulded to look like 2718:, breweries in the fledgling medieval towns of northern Germany began to take over production. Though most of the breweries were small family businesses that employed at most eight to ten people, regular production allowed for investment in better equipment and increased experimentation with new recipes and brewing techniques. These operations later spread to the 2154:

products like milk and eggs. It was only after the Black Death had eradicated up to half of the European population that meat became more common even for poorer people. The drastic reduction in many populated areas resulted in a labor shortage, meaning that wages dramatically increased. It also left vast areas of farmland untended, making it available for

2196:. Also included were the beaver, due to its scaly tail and considerable time spent in water, and barnacle geese, due to the belief that they developed underwater in the form of barnacles. Such foods were also considered appropriate for fast days, though the rather contrived classification of barnacle geese as fish was not universally accepted. The 2936:. Sugar, unlike today, was considered to be a type of spice due to its high cost and humoral qualities. Few dishes employed just one type of spice or herb, but rather a combination of several different ones. Even when a dish was dominated by a single flavor it was usually combined with another to produce a compound taste, for example parsley and 2242:. While large quantities of fish were eaten fresh, a large proportion was salted, dried, and, to a lesser extent, smoked. Stockfish, cod that was split down the middle, fixed to a pole and dried, was very common, though preparation could be time-consuming, and meant beating the dried fish with a mallet before soaking it in water. A wide range of 2472:, the type of grape and more importantly, the number of grape pressings. The first pressing was made into the finest and most expensive wines which were reserved for the upper classes. The second and third pressings were subsequently of lower quality and alcohol content. Common folk usually had to settle for a cheap 372:'s sacrifice for humanity. The intention was not to portray certain foods as unclean, but rather to teach a spiritual lesson in self-restraint through abstention. During particularly severe fast days, the number of daily meals was also reduced to one. Even if most people respected these restrictions and usually made 1439:. While an average peasant household often made do with firewood collected from the surrounding woodlands, the major kitchens of households had to cope with the logistics of daily providing at least two meals for several hundred people. Guidelines on how to prepare for a two-day banquet can be found in the cookbook 783:

boundaries. Geographical variation in eating was primarily the result of differences in climate, political administration, and local customs that varied across the continent. Though sweeping generalizations should be avoided, more or less distinct areas where certain foodstuffs dominated can be discerned. In the

3054:, from its first appearance in Europe, was viewed as much as a drug as a sweetener; its long-lived medieval reputation as an exotic luxury encouraged its appearance in elite contexts accompanying meats and other dishes that to modern taste are more naturally savoury. There were a wide variety of fritters, 3011:

products in water to get rid of excess salt. Salt was present during more elaborate or expensive meals. The richer the host, and the more prestigious the guest, the more elaborate would be the container in which it was served and the higher the quality and price of the salt. Wealthy guests were seated "

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it, innovations from international trade and foreign wars from the 12th century onward gradually disseminated through the upper middle class of medieval cities. Aside from economic unavailability of luxuries such as spices, decrees outlawed consumption of certain foods among certain social classes and

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of pepper and 1,000 tons of the other common spices were imported into Western Europe each year during the late Middle Ages. The value of these goods was the equivalent of a yearly supply of grain for 1.5 million people. While pepper was the most common spice, the most exclusive (though not

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The aging of high-quality red wine required specialized knowledge as well as expensive storage and equipment, and resulted in an even more expensive end product. Judging from the advice given in many medieval documents on how to salvage wine that bore signs of going bad, preservation must have been a

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to avoid having to carry their provisions with them. For the more affluent, there were many types of specialist that could supply various foods and condiments: cheesemongers, pie bakers, saucers, and waferers, for example. Well-off citizens who had the means to cook at home could on special occasions

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Before hops became popular as an ingredient, it was difficult to preserve this beverage for any time, so it was mostly consumed fresh. It was unfiltered, and therefore cloudy, and likely had a lower alcohol content than the typical modern equivalent. Quantities of beer consumed by medieval residents

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was not only popular among the affluent, but was also considered especially healthy by physicians. Wine was believed to act as a kind of vaporizer and conduit of other foodstuffs to every part of the body, and the addition of fragrant and exotic spices would make it even more wholesome. Spiced wines

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Meats were more expensive than plant foods and could be up to four times as expensive as bread. Fish was up to 16 times as costly, and was expensive even for coastal populations. This meant that fasts could mean an especially meager diet for those who could not afford alternatives to meat and animal

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or milk that was soured or watered down. Fresh milk was overall less common than other dairy products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling. On occasion it was used in upper-class kitchens in stews, but it was difficult to keep fresh in bulk and almond milk was generally used in

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was an important source of animal protein for those who could not afford meat. It would mostly come from cows, but milk from goats and sheep was also common. Plain fresh milk was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, and was usually reserved for the very young or elderly. Poor adults would

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in the Late Middle Ages developed significantly. New techniques, like the shortcrust pie and the clarification of jelly with egg whites began to appear in recipes in the late 14th century and recipes began to include detailed instructions instead of being mere memory aids to an already skilled cook.

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and, by the 15th century, it provided about 20% of the total. Even among the lay nobility of medieval England, grain provided 65–70% of calories in the early 14th century, though a generous provision of meat and fish was included, and their consumption of meat increased in the aftermath of the Black

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The most ideal food was that which most closely matched the humour of human beings, i.e. moderately warm and moist. Food should preferably also be finely chopped, ground, pounded and strained to achieve a true mixture of all the ingredients. White wine was believed to be cooler than red and the same

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In the late Middle Ages, the increasing wealth of middle class merchants and traders meant that commoners began emulating the aristocracy. This threatened to break down some of the symbolic barriers between the nobility and the lower classes. The response came in two forms: literature warning of the

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The recipes were often brief and did not give precise quantities. Cooking times and temperatures were seldom specified since accurate portable clocks were not available and since all cooking was done with fire. At best, cooking times could be specified as the time it took to say a certain number of

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was, until around 1980, a somewhat neglected field of study. Misconceptions and outright errors were quite common among historians, and are still present in as a part of the popular view of the Middle Ages as a backward, primitive and barbaric era. Medieval cookery was described as revolting due to

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was ubiquitous and indispensable in medieval cooking. Salting and drying was the most common form of food preservation and meant that fish and meat in particular were often heavily salted. Many medieval recipes specifically warn against oversalting and there were recommendations for soaking certain

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By modern standards, the brewing process was relatively inefficient, but capable of producing quite strong alcohol when that was desired. A 1998 attempt to recreate medieval English "strong ale" using recipes and techniques of the era (albeit with the use of modern yeast strains) yielded a strongly

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The intoxicating effect of beer was believed to last longer than that of wine, but it was also admitted that it did not create the "false thirst" associated with wine. Though less prominent than in the north, beer was consumed in northern France and the Italian mainland. Perhaps as a consequence of

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While wine was the most common table beverage in much of Europe, this was not the case in the northern regions where grapes were not cultivated. Those who could afford it drank imported wine; even for nobility in these areas, however, it was common to drink beer or ale, particularly towards the end

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cloth, since many medieval recipes called for food to be finely chopped, mashed, strained and seasoned either before or after cooking. This was based on a belief among physicians that the finer the consistency of food, the more effectively the body would absorb the nourishment. It also gave skilled

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The overall calorie intake is subject to some debate. One typical estimate is that an adult peasant male needed 2,900 calories (12,000 kJ) per day, and an adult female needed 2,150 calories (9,000 kJ). Both lower and higher estimates have been proposed. Those engaged in particularly heavy

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imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of beer; and uncertain quantities of bread and ale could have been consumed in between meals. The diet of the lord of the household differed somewhat from this structure, including less red meat, more high-quality wild game, fresh fish, fruit, and

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Medical science of the Middle Ages had a considerable influence on what was considered healthy and nutritious among the upper classes. One's lifestyle—including diet, exercise, appropriate social behavior, and approved medical remedies—was the way to good health, and all types of food were assigned

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has been edited by Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat. Though it is assumed that they describe real dishes, food scholars do not believe they were used as cookbooks might be today, as a step-by-step guide through the cooking procedure that could be kept at hand while preparing a dish. Few in a kitchen, at

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by adding the cost of everything from firewood and salt to the baker's wife, house, and dog. Since bread was such a central part of the medieval diet, swindling by those who were trusted with supplying the precious commodity to the community was considered a serious offense. Bakers who were caught

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also made it keep longer. Most of these methods had the advantage of shorter preparation times and of introducing new flavors. Smoking or salting meat of livestock butchered in autumn was a common household strategy to avoid having to feed more animals than necessary during the lean winter months.

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were offered to guests so they could wash their hands, as cleanliness was emphasized. Social codes made it difficult for women to uphold the ideal of immaculate neatness and delicacy while enjoying a meal, so the wife of the host often dined in private with her entourage or ate very little at such

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meant that it enjoyed an especially high prestige among foodstuffs. Only olive oil and wine had a comparable value, but both remained quite exclusive outside the warmer grape- and olive-growing regions. The symbolic role of bread as both sustenance and substance is illustrated in a sermon given by

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of many foods very expensive (perishability made other foods untransportable). Because of this, the nobility's food was more prone to foreign influence than the cuisine of the poor; it was dependent on exotic spices and expensive imports. As each level of society attempted to imitate the one above

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is often drunk with a meal in modern times, in the Middle Ages concerns over purity, medical recommendations, and its low prestige value made it less favored. As such, alcoholic beverages were preferred. They were seen as more nutritious and beneficial to digestion than water, with the invaluable

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were common foodstuffs. Many of these were eaten daily by peasants and workers and were less prestigious than meat. Cookbooks, which appeared in the late Middle Ages and were intended mostly for those who could afford such luxuries, contained only a small number of recipes using vegetables as the

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did not apply, and where a large number of monks ate. Each monk would be regularly sent either to the misericord or to the refectory. When Pope Benedict XII ruled that at least half of all monks should be required to eat in the refectory on any given day, monks responded by excluding the sick and

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The trend from the 13th century onward was toward a more legalistic interpretation of fasting. Nobles were careful not to eat meat on fast days, but still dined in style; fish replaced meat, often as imitation hams and bacon; almond milk replaced animal milk as an expensive non-dairy alternative;

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The common method of grinding and mashing ingredients into pastes and the many potages and sauces has been used as an argument that most adults within the medieval nobility lost their teeth at an early age, and hence were forced to eat nothing but porridge, soup and ground-up meat. This has been

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Fruits were popular and could be served fresh, dried, or preserved, and was a common ingredient in many cooked dishes. Since honey and sugar were both expensive, it was common to include many types of fruit in dishes that called for sweeteners of some sort. The fruits of choice in the south were

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though meat was highly valued by all, lower classes often could not afford it, nor were they allowed by the church to consume it every day. In England in the 13th century, meat contributed a negligible portion of calories to a typical harvest worker's diet; however, its share increased after the

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The calorie content and structure of medieval diet varied over time, from region to region, and between classes. However, for most people, the diet tended to be high-carbohydrate, with most of the budget spent on, and the majority of calories provided by, cereals and alcohol (such as beer). Even

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be filled in an appropriate manner. Easily digestible foods would be consumed first, followed by gradually heavier dishes. If this regimen were not respected it was believed that heavy foods would sink to the bottom of the stomach, thus blocking the digestion duct, so that food would digest very

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The period between 500 and 1300 saw a major change in diet that affected most of Europe. More intense agriculture on ever-increasing acreage resulted in a shift from animal products, like meat and dairy, to various grains and vegetables as the staple of the majority population. Before the 14th

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where the lower ranked were expected to help the higher, the younger to assist the elder, and men to spare women the risk of sullying dress and reputation by having to handle food in an unwomanly fashion. Shared drinking cups were common even at lavish banquets for all but those who sat at the

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church officials took a hard-line approach, and discouraged any culinary refinement for the clergy, their Western counterparts were far more lenient. There was also no lack of grumbling about the rigours of fasting among the laity. During Lent, kings and schoolboys, commoners and nobility, all

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lived in rural communities or isolated farms and households. The norm was self-sufficiency with only a small percentage of production being exported or sold in markets. Large towns were exceptions and required their surrounding hinterlands to support them with food and fuel. The dense urban

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The regional specialties that are a feature of early modern and contemporary cuisine were not in evidence in the sparser documentation that survives. Instead, medieval cuisine can be differentiated by the cereals and the oils that shaped dietary norms and crossed ethnic and, later, national

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The importance of bread as a daily staple meant that bakers played a crucial role in any medieval community. Bread consumption was high in most of Western Europe by the 14th century. Estimates of bread consumption from different regions are fairly similar: around 1 to 1.5 kilograms (2.2 to

1517:). Another method was to seal the food by cooking it in honey, sugar, or fat, in which it was then stored. Microbial modification was also encouraged, however, by a number of methods; grains and fruits were turned into alcoholic drinks thus killing any pathogens, and milk was fermented and 2378:

have been found in medieval recipes, with or without alcoholic content. However, the honey-based drink became less common as a table beverage towards the end of the period and was eventually relegated to medicinal use. Mead has often been presented as the common drink of the

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to have shared ownership of an oven to ensure that the bread baking essential to everyone was made communal rather than private. There were also portable ovens designed to be filled with food and then buried in hot coals, and even larger ones on wheels that were used to sell

857:, especially after the terrible mortality during the Black Death made them less scarce, were used in considerable quantities in the northern and northwestern regions, especially in the Low Countries. Almost universal in middle and upper class cooking all over Europe was the 380:

It is the nature of man to build the most complicated cage of rules and regulations in which to trap himself, and then, with equal ingenuity and zest, to bend his brain to the problem of wriggling triumphantly out again. Lent was a challenge; the game was to ferret out the

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were used at the table, but most people were expected to bring their own, and only highly favoured guests would be given a personal knife. A knife was usually shared with at least one other dinner guest, unless one was of very high rank or well acquainted with the host.

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to be a process similar to cooking. The processing of food in the stomach was seen as a continuation of the preparation initiated by the cook. In order for the food to be properly "cooked" and for the nutrients to be properly absorbed, it was important that the

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were not available to Europeans until after 1492, after European contact with the Americas. Even after their wider availability in Europe it often took considerable time (sometimes several centuries) for the new foodstuffs to be accepted by society at large.

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both for their meat and fur. It is frequently and falsely claimed that they were of particular value for monasteries because newborn rabbits were allegedly declared fish (or at least not meat) by church officials, allowing them to be eaten during Lent.

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was not as common among the lower classes, especially in the north where wheat was more difficult to grow. A bread-based diet became gradually more common during the 15th century and replaced warm intermediate meals that were porridge- or gruel-based.

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1995 0851154301 page94 "Such a fireplace and such equipment afforded the medieval cook in some respects more control over what was happening to his food ... Depending on the size and weight of the meat, the cook chose a heavy or light spit of various

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served at the high table. Banquet dishes were apart from mainstream of cuisine, and have been described as "the outcome of grand banquets serving political ambition rather than gastronomy; today as yesterday" by historian Maguelonne Toussant-Samat.

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As with almost every part of life at the time, a medieval meal was generally a communal affair. The entire household, including servants, would ideally dine together. To sneak off to enjoy private company was considered a haughty and inefficient

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in 1336, but (as mentioned above) monks were adept at "working around" these rules. Wine was restricted to about 10 imperial fluid ounces (280 mL; 9.6 US fl oz) per day, but there was no corresponding limit on beer, and, at

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cooks the opportunity to elaborately shape the results. Fine-textured food was also associated with wealth; for example, finely milled flour was expensive, while the bread of commoners was typically brown and coarse. A typical procedure was

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was far more important as a foodstuff, especially for common people, and it has been suggested that it was, during many periods, the chief supplier of animal protein among the lower classes. Many varieties of cheese eaten today, like Dutch

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area began to evolve. The first step was to move the fireplaces towards the walls of the main hall, and later to build a separate building or wing that contained a dedicated kitchen area, often separated from the main building by a covered

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in the evening. The two-meal system remained consistent throughout the late Middle Ages. Smaller intermediate meals were common, but became a matter of social status, as those who did not have to perform manual labor could go without them.

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feasts. She could then join dinner only after the potentially messy business of eating was done. Overall, fine dining was a predominantly male affair, and it was uncommon for anyone but the most honored of guests to bring his wife or her

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complained about being deprived of meat for the long, hard weeks of solemn contemplation of their sins. At Lent, owners of livestock were even warned to keep an eye out for hungry dogs frustrated by a "hard siege by Lent and fish bones".

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of 1266 listed extensive tables where the size, weight, and price of a loaf of bread were regulated in relation to grain prices. The baker's profit margin stipulated in the tables was later increased through successful lobbying from the

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could easily be swung away from the fire to keep them from burning or boiling over. Utensils were often held directly over the fire or placed into embers on tripods. To assist the cook there were also assorted knives, stirring spoons,

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in the middle of the main living area, to make efficient use of the heat. This was the most common arrangement, even in wealthy households, for most of the Middle Ages, where the kitchen was combined with the dining hall. Towards the

2383:. This is partially true since mead bore great symbolic value at important occasions. When agreeing on treaties and other important affairs of state, mead was often presented as a ceremonial gift. It was also common at weddings and 2114:, and just about any other wild bird that could be captured. Swans and peafowl were domesticated to some extent, but were only eaten by the social elite, and more praised for their fine appearance as stunning entertainment dishes, 719:

imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of alcohol. On top of these quantities, some members of these households (usually, a minority) ate breakfast, which would not include any meat, but would probably include another

1014:: "forbid dinners and suppers out of hall, in secret and in private rooms, for from this arises waste and no honor to the lord and lady." He also recommended watching that the servants not make off with leftovers to make merry at 2830:. Towards the end of the Late Middle Ages, the consumption of spirits became so ingrained even among the general population that restrictions on sales and production began to appear in the late 15th century. In 1496, the city of 3281:

Cookbooks, or more specifically, recipe collections, compiled in the Middle Ages are among the most important historical sources for medieval cuisine. The first cookbooks began to appear towards the end of the 13th century. The

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were seen as a desirable alternative to meat during fish days. Compared to meat, fish was much more expensive for inland populations, especially in Central Europe, and therefore not an option for most. Freshwater fish such as

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members of the household received a staggering 3.8 pounds (1.7 kg) of assorted meats in a typical meat meal in the autumn and 2.4 pounds (1.1 kg) in the winter, in addition to 0.9 pounds (0.41 kg) of bread and

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from a second or even third pressing, meaning that it could be consumed in quite generous amounts without leading to heavy intoxication. For the poorest (or the most pious), watered-down vinegar (similar to Ancient Roman

3023:, precious metals or other fine materials, often intricately decorated. The rank of a diner also decided how finely ground and white the salt was. Salt for cooking, preservation or for use by common people was coarser; 2460:'s dietetics, it was considered hot and dry; however, these qualities were moderated when wine was watered down. Unlike water or beer, which were considered cold and moist, consumption of wine in moderation (especially 1174:

content, or at least when fat could be afforded. This was considered less of a problem in a time of back-breaking toil, famine, and a greater acceptance—even desirability—of plumpness; only the poor or sick, and devout

668:, as well as vegetables and nuts, including pears and chestnuts, both considered difficult to digest. It was popular, and recommended by medical expertise, to finish the meal with aged cheese and various digestives. 2887:, which made them extremely expensive, and gave them social cachet such that pepper, for example, was hoarded, traded and conspicuously donated in the manner of gold bullion. It has been estimated that around 1,000 363:

Both the Eastern and the Western churches ordained that feast should alternate with fast. In most of Europe, Fridays were fast days, and fasting was observed on various other days and periods, including Lent and

468:. Newly-assigned Catholic monastery officials sought to amend the problem of fast evasion not merely with moral condemnations, but by making sure that well-prepared non-meat dishes were available on fast days. 368:. Meat, and animal products such as milk, cheese, butter, and eggs, were not allowed, and at times also fish. The fast was intended to mortify the body and invigorate the soul, and also to remind the faster of 2595:

and the influx of Arabic texts) meant that beer was often disfavoured. For most medieval Europeans, it was a humble brew compared with common southern drinks and cooking ingredients, such as wine, lemons and

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but also because they were associated with the coarse food of peasants. The importance of vegetables to the common people is illustrated by accounts from 16th century Germany stating that many peasants ate

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The numerous descriptions of banquets from the later Middle Ages concentrated on the pageantry of the event rather than the minutiae of the food, which was not the same for most banqueters as those choice

2975:(1098–1179) as poor man's food. While locally grown herbs were less prestigious than spices, they were still used in upper-class food, but were then usually less prominent or included merely as coloring. 2971:. Many of these plants grew throughout all of Europe or were cultivated in gardens, and were a cheaper alternative to exotic spices. Mustard was particularly popular with meat dishes and was described by 1618:-growing regions in the south, while unleavened flatbread of barley, rye, or oats remained more common in northern and highland regions, and unleavened flatbread was also common as provisions for troops. 504:. The relationship between the classes was strictly hierarchical, with the nobility and clergy claiming worldly and spiritual overlordship over commoners. Within the nobility and clergy there were also a 1161:

in the streets of medieval towns. But for most people, almost all cooking was done in simple stewpots, since this was the most efficient use of firewood and did not waste precious cooking juices, making

3027:, or "bay salt", in particular, had more impurities, and was described in colors ranging from black to green. Expensive salt, on the other hand, looked like the standard commercial salt common today. 1327:. This way, the smoke, odors and bustle of the kitchen could be kept out of sight of guests, and the fire risk lessened. Few medieval kitchens survive as they were "notoriously ephemeral structures". 2434:, were popular in East Asia and the Muslim world during the Middle Ages. However, neither of these non-alcoholic social drinks were consumed in Europe before the late 16th and early 17th centuries. 1875:, especially among the lower classes. With the exception of peas, legumes were often viewed with some suspicion by the dietitians advising the upper class, partly because of their tendency to cause 1645:

remained a fairly expensive import for most of the Middle Ages and was grown in northern Italy only towards the end of the period. Wheat was common all over Europe and was considered to be the most

1476:

that cause decay. In warm climates this was mostly achieved by leaving food out in the sun, and in the cooler northern climates by exposure to strong winds (especially common for the preparation of

2703:

received a ration of 1 imperial gallon (4.5 L; 1.2 US gal) of beer per day. Polish peasants consumed up to 3 litres (0.66 imp gal; 0.79 US gal) of beer per day.

1472:, thereby prolonging the durability if not the flavor of almost any type of food from cereals to meats; the drying of food worked by drastically reducing the activity of various water-dependent 403:

While animal products were to be avoided during times of penance, pragmatic compromises often prevailed. The definition of "fish" was often extended to marine and semi-aquatic animals such as

709:

in 1469, gentle members received 2.1 pounds (0.95 kg) of meat per meal, and all others received 1.04 pounds (0.47 kg), and everyone was given 0.4 pounds (0.18 kg) of bread and

1990:

A 14th-century butcher shop. A large pig is being bled in preparation for slaughter. A whole pig carcass and cuts are hanging from a rack and various cuts are being prepared for a customer.

705:

imperial gallon (1.1 L; 0.30 US gal) of beer or possibly wine (and there would have been two meat meals per day, five days a week, except during Lent). In the household of

636:, a wine flavoured with fragrant spices, along with aged cheese. A meal would ideally begin with easily digestible fruit, such as apples. It would then be followed by vegetables such as 1572:

Urban cookshops that catered to workers or the destitute were regarded as unsavory and disreputable places by the well-to-do and professional cooks tended to have a bad reputation.

2770:, which feature in manuscripts from the ninth century onwards. Distillation was believed by medieval scholars to produce the essence of the liquid being purified, and the term 1700:

or dishes for the sick, if boiled in milk (or almond milk) and sweetened with sugar. Pies filled with meats, eggs, vegetables, or fruit were common throughout Europe, as were

436:

faux eggs made from almond milk were cooked in blown-out eggshells, flavoured and coloured with exclusive spices. In some cases, the lavishness of noble tables was outdone by

2900:

provided a yellow substitute, and touches of gilding at banquets supplied both the medieval love of ostentatious show and Galenic dietary lore: at the sumptuous banquet that

2324:

was consumed on a daily basis in most of France and all over the Western Mediterranean wherever grapes were cultivated. Further north it remained the preferred drink of the

1392:

an animal, grind up the meat and mix it with spices and other ingredients and then return it into its own skin, or mold it into the shape of a completely different animal.

628:, wine and sweetened fortified milk drinks. As the stomach had been opened, it should then be "closed" at the end of the meal with the help of a digestive, most commonly a 2062:

remained a rare and highly prized commodity. In England, they were deliberately introduced by the 13th century and their colonies were carefully protected. Further south,

2328:

and the nobility who could afford it, and far less common among peasants and workers. The drink of commoners in the northern parts of the continent was primarily beer or

1653:

that modern Europeans are most familiar with was reserved for the bread of the upper classes. As one descended the social ladder, bread became coarser, darker, and its

2188:

was the mainstay of many coastal populations. "Fish" to the medieval person was also a general name for anything not considered a proper land-living animal, including

1564:, or offer cooking services while the customers supplied some or all of the ingredients. Travelers, such as pilgrims en route to a holy site, made use of professional 2608:

meat generally received more positive attention in medical texts. Beer was just an acceptable alternative and was assigned various negative qualities. In 1256, the

3066:, almond milk and eggs in a pastry shell that could also include fruit and sometimes even bone marrow or fish. German-speaking areas had a particular fondness for 1716:. Grain, either as bread crumbs or flour, was also the most common thickener of soups and stews, alone or in combination with almond milk. By the Late Middle Ages 360:. Additionally, it was customary for all citizens to fast before taking the Eucharist. These fasts were occasionally for a full day and required total abstinence. 184:

be less refined, since it was believed there was a natural resemblance between one's way of life and one's food; hard manual labor required coarser, cheaper food.

2624:, it fills the stomach with bad fumes, and as a result anyone who drinks it along with wine becomes drunk quickly; but it does have the property of facilitating 8206: 456:. Since the sick were exempt from fasting, there often evolved the notion that fasting restrictions only applied to the main dining area, and many Benedictine 5027: 4784:

According to Paul Freedman, the idea is presented as a fact even by some modern scholars, despite the lack of any credible support; Freedman (2008), pages 3–4

555:

certain properties that affected a person's health. All foodstuffs were also classified on scales ranging from hot to cold and moist to dry, according to the

440:

monasteries, which served as many as sixteen courses during certain feast days. Exceptions from fasting were frequently made for very broadly defined groups.

8572: 1600:

A baker caught trying to cheat customers is punished by being dragged around the community on a sleigh with the offending loaf of bread tied around his neck.

5066:

Creighton, Oliver; Christie, Neil (2015). "The Archaeology of Wallingford Castle: a summary of the current state of knowledge". In Keats-Rohan, K. S. B.;

2810:

wrote that "t prolongs good health, dissipates superfluous humours, reanimates the heart and maintains youth." In the Late Middle Ages, the production of

2150:

explicitly prohibited the eating of barnacle geese during Lent, arguing that they lived and fed like ducks and so were of the same nature as other birds.

949:

consumption were considered immoral. The latter were especially associated with gambling, crude language, drunkenness, and lewd behavior. Minor meals and

376:

when they violated them, there were also numerous ways of circumventing them, a conflict of ideals and practice summarized by writer Bridget Ann Henisch:

8708: 2800:

in spirits. It would then be placed in the mouth of the stuffed, cooked and occasionally redressed animals, and lit just before presenting the creation.

4270: 3715: 3353:, citron leaves and "onions of Escalon" all appear in an eighth-century list of spices that the Carolingian cook should have at hand. It was written by 3050:

accompanied by aged cheese, and by the Late Middle Ages could also include fresh fruit covered in honey, sugar, or syrup and boiled-down fruit pastes.

2226:. The herring was of unprecedented significance to the economy of much of Northern Europe, and it was one of the most common commodities traded by the 1696:, a thick wheat porridge often boiled in a meat broth and seasoned with spices. Porridges were also made of every type of grain and could be served as 2497:

describes several methods for salvaging spoiling wine; making sure that the wine barrels are always topped up or adding a mixture of dried and boiled

5545: 1132: 5090: 4646:

Scully notes the importance of appearance to the medieval cook, who prized yellow foods achieved with saffron; Scully (1995), page 114. See also

1657:

content increased. In times of grain shortages or outright famine, grains could be supplemented with cheaper and less desirable substitutes like

1231:. This meant that food had to be "tempered" according to its nature by an appropriate combination of preparation and mixing certain ingredients, 8221: 2896:, used as much for its vivid yellow-red color as for its flavor, for according to the humours, yellow signified hot and dry, valued qualities; 1270:

pie did not appear in recipes until the 15th century. Before that the pastry was primarily used as a cooking container in a technique known as

2362:

which was especially popular in the north where both apples and pears were plentiful. Medieval drinks that have survived to this day include

2050:

or even illusion food such as giant eggs. Among the meats that today are rare or even considered inappropriate for human consumption are the

2034:

required less attention and cheaper feed. Domestic pigs often ran freely even in towns and could be fed on just about any organic waste, and

1346:, already existed, although they were often too expensive for poorer households. Other tools more specific to cooking over an open fire were 865:, which was used as a substitute in dishes that otherwise required eggs or milk, though the bitter variety of almonds came along much later. 8298: 926:

was still eaten by working men, and was tolerated for young children, women, the elderly and the sick. Because the church preached against

7803: 3266:

with recipes for "drepee", parboiled birds with almonds and fried onions, and the first part of a recipe for "mawmenee", a sweet stew of

3126:

recipe made with three kinds of cheese, eggs, beet greens, spinach, fennel fronds, and parsley. In northern France, a wide assortment of

2491:

widespread problem. Even if vinegar was a common ingredient, there was only so much of it that could be used. The 14th-century cookbook

953:

were common (although also disliked by the church), and working men commonly received an allowance from their employers in order to buy

7929: 4572: 4487:

B. M. S. Campbell, Mark Overton (1991), Land, labour, and livestock: historical studies in European agricultural productivity, page 167

2010:

was labor-intensive, requiring pastures and feed, and oxen and cows were much more valuable as draught animals and for producing milk.

1480:), or in warm ovens, cellars, attics, and at times even in living quarters. Subjecting food to a number of chemical processes such as 5865: 2683:

times, but was adopted gradually due to difficulties in establishing the appropriate proportions. Before the widespread use of hops,

922:

frowned on breaking the overnight fast too early, and members of the church and cultivated gentry avoided it. For practical reasons,

340:, and their calendars, had great influence on eating habits; consumption of meat was forbidden for a full third of the year for most 2038:

was a sought-after delicacy. Just about every part of the pig was eaten, including ears, snout, tail, tongue, and womb. Intestines,

1551:. The long meat hook in his left hand was one of the most common medieval cook's tools; from the Ellesmere manuscripts, about 1410. 811:. In the south, wine was the common drink for both rich and poor alike (though the commoner usually had to settle for cheap second- 580:

of the body and draw bad humours into the stomach. It was also of vital importance that food of differing properties not be mixed.

7065: 4194:

Hans J. Teuteberg, "Periods and Turning-Points in the History of European Diet: A Preliminary Outline of Problems and Methods" in

4061:

Hans J. Teuteberg, "Periods and Turning-Points in the History of European Diet: A Preliminary Outline of Problems and Methods" in

2792:

and cooking ingredient and for hand washing. Alcoholic distillates were also occasionally used to create dazzling, fire-breathing

6066: 5835: 4146:

Cabbage and other foodstuffs in common use by most German-speaking peoples are mentioned in Walther Ryff's dietary from 1549 and

1011: 687: 4302: 3315:

from the late 14th century. Over 70 collections of medieval recipes survive today, written in several major European languages.

2738:, while criticizing the apparently common practice among Englishmen of the time to give their children wine and strong alcohol. 2695:

of Europe, as recorded in contemporary literature, far exceed intakes in the modern world. For example, sailors in 16th-century

5095:. Translated by Thomas, Magdalena. revised and adapted by William Woys Weaver. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 3975:

Liane Plouvier, "La gastronomie dans les Pays-Bas méridionaux sous les ducs de Bourgogne: le témoignage des livres de cuisine"

3146:('parlor spices') and were taken as digestibles at the end of a meal to "close" the stomach. Like their Muslim counterparts in 819:

was the commoner's drink in the north and wine an expensive import. Citrus fruits (though not the kinds most common today) and

706: 304:

At the baptismal font you were kneaded into a single dough. In the oven of the Holy Ghost you were baked into God's true bread.

686:

Death as well. In one early-15th-century English aristocratic household for which detailed records are available (that of the

8176: 7883: 5860: 5519: 5484: 5465: 5419: 5243: 5159: 5138: 5079: 5056: 4312: 3051: 2905: 341: 1588:

articulated the beliefs of many of his contemporaries by proclaiming that "Hoot ffir and smoke makith many an angry cook."

990: 8133: 1449:. Chiquart recommends that the chief cook should have at hand at least 1,000 cartloads of "good, dry firewood" and a large 777: 4929:, which had been extinct for centuries, so may have included some purely literary items; Toussaint-Samat (2009), page 434. 2002:

that were no longer able to work were slaughtered but not particularly appetizing and therefore were less valued as meat.

484:

were often brutally enforced, food was an important marker of social status in a way that has no equivalent today in most

128:, a form of meat acquired from hunting, was common only on the nobility's tables. The most prevalent butcher's meats were 8632: 8607: 8547: 549: 1102:

servants and then eating the pieces with a golden fork shocked and upset the diners so much that there was a claim that

448:, workers and beggars, but not the poor as long as they had some sort of shelter. There are many accounts of members of 8723: 7501: 5616: 5392: 5350: 5119: 4555: 3332: 1114:

and referred to her as "... the Venetian Doge's wife, whose body, after her excessive delicacy, entirely rotted away."

1098:, and caused considerable dismay among upstanding Venetians. The princess' insistence on having her food cut up by her 4207:

Adamson (2004), pages 46–7; Johanna Maria van Winter, "The Low Countries in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries" in

3154:

introduced a wide variety of new sweets and desserts that eventually found their way to the rest of Europe. Just like

2410:

was not consumed by adults except the poor or sick, being reserved for the very young or elderly, and then usually as

1445:('On cookery') written in 1420 in part to compete with the court of Burgundy by Maistre Chiquart, master chef of Duke 540:

that put a cap on the lavishness of commoners' banquets. Animal parts were even assigned to different social classes.

8766: 8728: 8258: 7603: 5442: 5373: 5331: 5308: 5285: 5266: 5217: 5186: 5100: 5037: 5016: 4993: 4970: 4951: 4352: 3991:

Edited from the Ms. S 103 Bibliothèque Supersaxo, (in the Bibliothèque cantonale du Valais, Sion, by Terence Scully,

3042:, 'to clear a table', literally 'to un-serve', and originated during the Middle Ages. It would typically consist of 7893: 5693: 5681: 3415: 2200: 837:

was a ubiquitous ingredient in Mediterranean cultures, but remained an expensive import in the north where oils of

1724:

in the U.S.) and especially wafers, eaten for dessert, had become high-prestige foods and came in many varieties.

1468:

in the early 19th century. The most common and simplest method was to expose foodstuffs to heat or wind to remove

1223:

under the top crust. It was considered important to make sure that the dish agreed with contemporary standards of

8226: 5149: 2184:

Although less prestigious than other animal meats, and often seen as merely an alternative to meat on fast days,

1835:

were more common. Figs and dates were eaten all over Europe, but remained rather expensive imports in the north.

1464:

methods were basically the same as had been used since antiquity, and did not change much until the invention of

930:

and other weaknesses of the flesh, men tended to be ashamed of the weak practicality of breakfast. Lavish dinner

505: 2616:

But from whichever it is made, whether from oats, barley or wheat, it harms the head and the stomach, it causes

8592: 8532: 8504: 8263: 5952: 4843:

The manuscripts from which early books were printed rarely survive, as a scan of introductory materials in the

4633:, was only 5 million, and was a mere 3 million by 1450; see J.C Russel "Population in Europe 500–1500" in 3707: 1986: 1748:

to be organized were the bakers, and laws and regulations were passed to keep bread prices stable. The English

882: 2575:, beer was consumed on a daily basis by people of all social classes and age groups. By the mid-15th century, 1235:

and spices; fish was seen as being cold and moist, and best cooked in a way that heated and dried it, such as

1026:

of the common people and the destitute. However, it can be assumed there were no such extravagant luxuries as

8678: 8509: 7778: 7763: 6329: 4262: 3405: 3076:

in many forms was well-known in Italy and southern France by the 1340s, and is assumed to be of Arab origin.

2143: 1924: 1083: 2207:

wrote a very skeptical account of his reaction to being served barnacle goose at a fish-day dinner in 1456.

7783: 7669: 6215: 2743: 1756: 1569:

hire professionals when their own kitchen or staff could not handle the burden of hosting a major banquet.

2637:

and the travelling of nobles between France and England, one French variant described in the 14th century

8688: 7977: 7813: 7798: 7735: 7633: 7264: 1676:

One of the common constituents of a medieval meal, either as part of a banquet or as a small snack, were

1481: 1446: 144:, which required greater investment in land, was less common. A wide variety of freshwater and saltwater 5542: 8683: 8673: 8637: 8479: 8381: 7878: 7788: 7427: 7397: 6185: 2564: 2456:

Wine was commonly drunk and was also regarded as the most prestigious and healthy choice. According to

2388: 4629:

Adamson (2004), page 65. By comparison, the estimated population of Britain in 1340, right before the

3322:

also include many details of overseeing correct preparations in the kitchen. Towards the onset of the

965: 317:

Nuns dining in silence while listening to a Bible reading. The nuns use hand gestures to communicate.

8787: 8406: 8169: 7793: 7753: 7479: 7437: 7432: 7407: 6953: 5850: 5740: 2852: 1501:

tended to be heavily salted (5–10%) in order not to spoil. Vegetables, eggs, or fish were also often

1144:

did not appear until the 18th century, and cooks had to know how to cook directly over an open fire.

755:, were not meat. Secondly, Benedictine monasteries contained a room called the misericord, where the 5575: 4771:

Constance B. Hieatt, "Making Sense of Medieval Culinary Records: Much Done, But Much More to Do" in

4648:

The Appetite and the Eye: Visual aspects of food and its presentation within their historic context.

4523:

Though there are references to the use of hops in beer as early as 822 AD; Eßlinger (2009), page 11.

3000:

Surviving medieval recipes frequently call for flavoring with a number of sour, tart liquids. Wine,

2776:('water of life') was used as a generic term for all kinds of distillates. The early use of various 8657: 8113: 7873: 7828: 7743: 7578: 7556: 7541: 7531: 7516: 7484: 7417: 7412: 7392: 6324: 5735: 5730: 5654: 2568: 1247:. In some recipe collections, alternative ingredients were assigned with more consideration to the 1239:

or oven baking, and seasoned with hot and dry spices; beef was dry and hot and should therefore be

1107: 886: 2746:

of 1.091 (corresponding to a potential alcohol content over 9%) and "pleasant, apple-like taste".

584: 8361: 8331: 7987: 7691: 7551: 7536: 7526: 7402: 7350: 7304: 6341: 5997: 5977: 5661: 1750: 1087: 337: 169: 5508: 3311: 3301: 2514:

were usually made by mixing an ordinary (red) wine with an assortment of spices such as ginger,

1148:

were used, but they were expensive to construct and existed only in fairly large households and

8718: 8474: 8248: 7808: 7659: 7546: 7459: 7090: 6272: 5992: 5840: 5770: 5760: 5713: 5676: 5671: 5609: 4844: 3500:

Bynum (1987), page 41; see also Scully (1995), pages 58–64 and Adamson (2004), page 72, 191–92.

2986: 2846: 2807: 2572: 2203:

examined barnacles and noted no evidence of any bird-like embryo in them, and the secretary of

1170:

the most common dishes. Overall, most evidence suggests that medieval dishes had a fairly high

1033:

Things were different for the wealthy. Before the meal and between courses, shallow basins and

756: 735: 5005: 8537: 8429: 8386: 7758: 7748: 7664: 7561: 7449: 7115: 7070: 6786: 6776: 6640: 6506: 6441: 6401: 6195: 5765: 5698: 4568: 4355: 3430: 2908:

in June 1473, the bread was gilded. Among the spices that have now fallen into obscurity are

2872: 1998:

were popular among those who could obtain it, most meat came from domestic animals. Domestic

1335: 1324: 461: 449: 6863: 6267: 5206: 1054:, as was the standard etiquette of breaking bread and carving meat for one's fellow diners. 8756: 8698: 8494: 8401: 8371: 8356: 8162: 7946: 7941: 7924: 7843: 7686: 7613: 7494: 7489: 7474: 7422: 7160: 7050: 6724: 6719: 6511: 5987: 5855: 5649: 4926: 3420: 3092:, apples, and plums. The English chefs also had a penchant for using flower petals such as 2863:

were among the most luxurious products available in the Middle Ages, the most common being

2548:. By the 14th century, bagged spice mixes could be bought ready-made from spice merchants. 1768:": a baker would give 13 for the price of 12, to be certain of not being known as a cheat. 1073:

or bare hands. In lower-class households it was common to eat food straight off the table.

1062: 563:

that dominated Western medical science from late Antiquity and throughout the Middle Ages.

489: 8: 8642: 8622: 8602: 8567: 8499: 8411: 8278: 8143: 7192: 7095: 7085: 7060: 6943: 6903: 6873: 6843: 6838: 6660: 6650: 6245: 6168: 6044: 5912: 5902: 5845: 5708: 5454: 4336: 3323: 3068: 2972: 2680: 2523: 2502: 1649:

of all grains, but was more prestigious and thus more expensive. The finely sifted white

1493: 1347: 1251:

nature than what a modern cook would consider to be similarity in taste. In a recipe for

969: 878: 264: 51: 8119: 5536: 3012: 2587:, accounted for 27% of all cereal acreage in England. However, the heavy influence from 1692:

could be soaked up and eaten. Another common sight at the medieval dinner table was the

1395: 1291:

Fowl roasting on a spit. A shallow basin collects the drippings to use in sauces or for

976:, enjoys a grand meal, sitting at the high table in front of the fireplace, served by a 8746: 8582: 8557: 8459: 8336: 8288: 8283: 8273: 8211: 7956: 7823: 7703: 7319: 7299: 7294: 7182: 7150: 7125: 7075: 7055: 7003: 6973: 6958: 6948: 6908: 6883: 6816: 6791: 6781: 6761: 6645: 6630: 6620: 6518: 6476: 6451: 6426: 6381: 6336: 6262: 6200: 6175: 5972: 5922: 5892: 5830: 5820: 5815: 5569: 5490: 5431: 5398: 5362: 5320: 5297: 5255: 5232: 5192: 5165: 4982: 4848: 4569:"Recreating Medieval English Ales (a recreation of late-13–14th unhopped English ales)" 4340: 3763: 3738: 3425: 3396: 3327: 3305:

those times, would have been able to read, and working texts have a low survival rate.

2992: 2909: 2403:, was known in Europe, but as with mead was mostly something prescribed by physicians. 2391:, mead had a status equivalent to that of imported luxuries, such as spices and wines. 2338:, as well as wines, of a multitude of fruits and berries had been known at least since 2197: 2176: 1934: 1786: 1764:

with less expensive ingredients could receive severe penalties. This gave rise to the "

1441: 1407:

The kitchen staff of huge noble or royal courts occasionally numbered in the hundreds:

1007: 1003:

in a world where people depended very much on each other. In the 13th century, English

946: 645: 277: 2979:

was used to flavor fish and chicken dishes, and its seeds were served as sugar-coated

8742: 8484: 8454: 8444: 8434: 8351: 8341: 8326: 8193: 8035: 7909: 7773: 7674: 7638: 7608: 7357: 7289: 7279: 7274: 7227: 7222: 7212: 7175: 7105: 7018: 6938: 6928: 6868: 6848: 6823: 6806: 6699: 6670: 6588: 6583: 6573: 6548: 6496: 6481: 6431: 6366: 6361: 6346: 6230: 6133: 6128: 6096: 6091: 6059: 6039: 6034: 6024: 6019: 5962: 5942: 5917: 5882: 5825: 5703: 5666: 5602: 5564: 5515: 5480: 5461: 5438: 5415: 5388: 5369: 5346: 5327: 5304: 5281: 5262: 5239: 5213: 5196: 5182: 5169: 5155: 5134: 5115: 5096: 5075: 5052: 5033: 5012: 4989: 4966: 4947: 4826: 4348: 4308: 3768: 2707: 2166: 2147: 1776: 1565: 1556: 1461: 1389: 1372: 1292: 1191: 1004: 744: 739: 485: 325: 65: 39: 5587: 4251:

All Things Medieval: An Encyclopedia of the Medieval World, Ruth A Johnston, page 19

1015: 8703: 8652: 8647: 8587: 8464: 8421: 8391: 8313: 8231: 8201: 8103: 8059: 8042: 7972: 7951: 7818: 7720: 7681: 7654: 7588: 7573: 7464: 7362: 7259: 7244: 7239: 7187: 7170: 7165: 7145: 7135: 7130: 6983: 6963: 6918: 6913: 6898: 6888: 6878: 6858: 6801: 6796: 6766: 6756: 6692: 6687: 6682: 6665: 6568: 6563: 6558: 6528: 6523: 6446: 6421: 6416: 6411: 6386: 6356: 6319: 6304: 6294: 6284: 6240: 6225: 6220: 6205: 6180: 6138: 6106: 6101: 6049: 6014: 6002: 5957: 5947: 5932: 5907: 5897: 5887: 5810: 5805: 5800: 5787: 5747: 5720: 5644: 5460:. Translated by Bell, Anthea (New Expanded ed.). Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell. 5387:. California Studies in Food and Culture. Oakland: University of California Press. 3758: 3750: 3284: 3177: 2766:, but it was not practiced on a major scale in Europe until after the invention of 2727: 2715: 2649: 2227: 1581: 1573: 1547: 1542: 1400: 1315: 1153: 1061:

or in stew pots, and diners would take their share from the dishes and place it on

1058: 1027: 939: 481: 428: 352:(during the strictest fasting periods also fish), were generally prohibited during 188: 55: 47: 2780:, alcoholic or not, was varied, but it was primarily culinary or medicinal; grape 444:(about 1225–1274) believed dispensation should be provided for children, the old, 8713: 8627: 8597: 8321: 8238: 7863: 7853: 7833: 7725: 7598: 7568: 7387: 7367: 7314: 7269: 7254: 7249: 7197: 7155: 7120: 7080: 7045: 7008: 6998: 6993: 6988: 6893: 6853: 6833: 6811: 6751: 6736: 6731: 6677: 6635: 6625: 6615: 6610: 6595: 6501: 6471: 6391: 6351: 6289: 6277: 6252: 6210: 6163: 6148: 6116: 6111: 6086: 6081: 6076: 6071: 6054: 6029: 5982: 5967: 5927: 5877: 5639: 5553: 5549: 4147: 3410: 2815: 2634: 2557: 2443: 2204: 2138:

was believed to reproduce not by laying eggs like other birds, but by growing in

2127: 2063: 2011: 1701: 1611: 1287: 1042: 812: 333: 153: 133: 8123: 7623: 8617: 8562: 8516: 8469: 8449: 8293: 8216: 7982: 7919: 7888: 7848: 7618: 7521: 7469: 7454: 7377: 7372: 7309: 7207: 7140: 7110: 7100: 7033: 6978: 6968: 6923: 6828: 6771: 6741: 6714: 6709: 6704: 6578: 6543: 6533: 6486: 6436: 6396: 6376: 6371: 6314: 6299: 6257: 6235: 6158: 6121: 5795: 5755: 5725: 3921:

Barbara Santich, "The Evolution of Culinary Techniques in the Medieval Era" in

2755: 2734:

stated that the only drink he considered suitable for children of all ages was

2380: 2239: 2219: 2135: 2043: 1999: 1832: 1765: 1485: 1095: 1091: 873: 850: 441: 408: 320: 5007:

Holy Feast and Holy Fast: The Religious Significance of Food to Medieval Women

4154:('German Larder') from 1550; see Melitta Weiss Adamson, "Medieval Germany" in 4026:

Martha Carling, "Fast Food and Urban Living Standards in Medieval England" in

3754: 3336:("On honorable pleasure and health") and the physician Iodocus Willich edited 2879:, nutmeg, ginger, and cloves. They all had to be imported from plantations in 2468:

and brighten the mood. The quality of wine differed considerably according to

8781: 8376: 8015: 7936: 7868: 7768: 7593: 7583: 7511: 7382: 7284: 7217: 7202: 7038: 7028: 7023: 6933: 6655: 6605: 6600: 6538: 6491: 6309: 6190: 6153: 6143: 6007: 5937: 5870: 5782: 5688: 5227: 5067: 4830: 3362: 3318:

The repertory of housekeeping instructions laid down by manuscripts like the

3262: 3239:

demonstrated to be an unfounded theory by historians such as Terence Scully.

3097: 3077: 2948: 2916:

which almost entirely replaced pepper in late medieval north French cooking,

2901: 2519: 2448: 2189: 2123: 1959: 1804: 1473: 1436: 1364: 1297: 1141: 1023: 973: 800: 792: 784: 537: 393:

tails were of such a fish-like nature that they could be eaten on fast days;

349: 181: 173: 165: 5402: 2509:, even if the chemical processes were not understood at the time. Spiced or 1838:

While grains were the primary constituent of most meals, vegetables such as

8542: 8439: 8243: 8093: 8030: 7838: 7345: 7340: 7234: 7013: 6553: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6406: 5503: 5494: 3772: 3390: 3222:('Turkish hats'), fried, chilled pastry tubes with a sweet cheese filling. 2921: 2864: 2806:

in its alcoholic forms was highly praised by medieval physicians. In 1309,

2763: 2759: 2588: 2339: 2119: 2099: 2035: 1908: 1585: 1424: 1103: 977: 902: 577: 556: 437: 212: 145: 4039:

Margaret Murphy, "Feeding Medieval Cities: Some Historical Approaches" in

2784:

mixed with sugar and spices was prescribed for a variety of ailments, and

21: 8693: 8396: 8303: 8185: 8081: 7713: 7506: 6746: 4630: 3382: 3256: 3208: 3155: 3047: 3016: 2944: 2917: 2719: 2679:

That hops could be used for flavoring beer had been known at least since

2672: 2621: 2592: 2510: 2506: 2498: 2493: 2343: 2325: 2142:, and was hence considered acceptable food for fast and Lent. But at the 2067: 2039: 1995: 1971: 1892: 1887:

Common and often basic ingredients in many modern European cuisines like

1808: 1580:, is described as a sleazy purveyor of unpalatable food. French cardinal 1506: 1343: 981: 890: 862: 820: 796: 682: 345: 267:

since antiquity had been based on cereals, particularly various types of

252: 177: 160: 149: 125: 76:

first used in the 16th century, and much later for the wider population.

43: 5558: 2303: 1970:, were available and well known in late medieval times. There were also 1518: 831:

were available in the north, but were used rather sparingly in cooking.

313: 54:

that followed, when those changes helped lay the foundations for modern

8268: 8154: 5581: 3354: 3275: 3204: 3147: 3036: 2772: 2735: 2731: 2617: 2601: 2544: 2473: 2411: 2387:

parties, though in limited quantity due to its high price. In medieval

2351: 2223: 2103: 1896: 1881: 1876: 1864: 1807:(the sweet type was not introduced until several hundred years later), 1526: 1331: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1176: 1030:, luxurious spices or hand-washing in scented water in everyday meals. 950: 597: 452:

who flouted fasting restrictions through clever interpretations of the

196: 5092:

Food and Drink in Medieval Poland: Rediscovering a Cuisine of the Past

2591:

and Mediterranean culture on medical science (particularly due to the

2320:

bonus of being less prone to putrefaction due to the alcohol content.

632:, which during the Middle Ages consisted of lumps of spiced sugar, or 8577: 8346: 7914: 7335: 5179:

Food in Change: Eating Habits from the Middle Ages to the Present Day

3185: 3139: 2925: 2831: 2811: 2793: 2785: 2711: 2625: 2597: 2583:

known to be somewhat poorly suited for breadmaking but excellent for

2431: 2422:

products because of the lack of technology to keep it from spoiling.

2367: 2258:

were eaten by coastal and river-dwelling populations, and freshwater

2235: 2091: 2055: 2023: 1646: 1630: 1561: 1477: 1232: 1228: 1046: 923: 834: 828: 765: 734:

In monasteries, the basic structure of the diet was laid down by the

649: 567: 493: 465: 297: 289: 272: 236: 192: 117: 46:, which lasted from the 5th to the 15th century. During this period, 3349:

High-status exotic spices and rarities like ginger, pepper, cloves,

3343: 3274:

with cinnamon, ginger, cloves, dates and pine nuts and colored with

3172: 3043: 2796:(a type of entertainment dish after a course) by soaking a piece of 2534:

and sugar. These would be contained in small bags which were either

2464:) was, among other things, believed to aid digestion, generate good 1868: 1727: 1355: 1350:

of various sizes, and material for skewering anything from delicate

629: 488:. According to the ideological norm, society consisted of the three 8612: 8489: 8366: 8005: 4885: 4229:

Simon Varey, "Medieval and Renaissance Italy, A. The Peninsula" in

3271: 3231: 3131: 3101: 3073: 3072:: fried pastries and dough with various sweet and savory fillings. 3024: 3001: 2929: 2913: 2897: 2868: 2723: 2638: 2539: 2535: 2515: 2461: 2347: 2259: 2243: 2193: 2139: 2115: 2075: 2051: 2026:

was consumed in some parts of medieval Europe. Far more common was

1967: 1860: 1709: 1693: 1658: 1596: 1510: 1502: 1469: 1428: 1359: 1330:

Many basic variations of cooking utensils available today, such as

1302: 1248: 1244: 1224: 927: 919: 846: 633: 501: 423:

and fake eggs could be made by stuffing empty egg shells with fish

385: 200: 97: 3296:

have found a modern editor in Marianne Mulon, and a cookbook from

3055: 1673:, and a wide variety of more or less nutritious vegetable matter. 8253: 8010: 7708: 7628: 5625: 5385:

A history of cookbooks: from kitchen to page over seven centuries

4889: 3806:

Eszter Kisbán, "Food Habits in Change: The Example of Europe" in

3338: 3213: 3063: 3059: 2956: 2952: 2893: 2789: 2767: 2700: 2696: 2605: 2584: 2469: 2384: 2284: 2255: 2211: 2185: 2171: 2155: 2131: 2083: 2047: 1975: 1900: 1872: 1839: 1781: 1717: 1705: 1697: 1514: 1489: 1465: 1420: 1408: 1319: 1256: 1240: 1216: 1163: 1127: 1122: 1000: 931: 653: 641: 637: 613: 572: 445: 420: 373: 357: 216: 208: 137: 2477: 2307:

An abbey cellarer testing his wine. Illumination from a copy of

1358:. There were also cranes with adjustable hooks so that pots and 980:

and other servants. On the table to the Duke's left is a golden

583:

Before a meal, the stomach would preferably be "opened" with an

5299:

Living and Dying in England, 1100–1540: The Monastic Experience

5253:

Glick, Thomas; Livesey, Steven J.; Wallis, Faith, eds. (2005).

4880: 3739:"Diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis in ancient clergymen" 3350: 3297: 3289: 3197: 3189: 3163: 3151: 3138:('departure from the table'). The ever-present candied ginger, 3127: 3123: 3105: 3089: 3081: 3020: 2980: 2968: 2960: 2937: 2884: 2827: 2797: 2777: 2662: 2580: 2576: 2527: 2427: 2311:

by Aldobrandino of Siena. British Library, Sloane 2435, f. 44v.

2288: 2251: 2247: 2231: 2059: 2007: 1954: 1929: 1904: 1888: 1855: 1851: 1812: 1800: 1744:

3.3 lb) of bread per person per day. Among the first town

1721: 1713: 1662: 1634: 1626: 1537: 1522: 1498: 1432: 1416: 1368: 1339: 1310: 1260: 1252: 1236: 1208: 1196: 1149: 1099: 1066: 914: 910: 894: 858: 842: 788: 691: 621: 609: 529: 525: 521: 497: 477: 416: 412: 390: 365: 232: 220: 109: 77: 73: 61: 4825:(in French). Comité des travaux historiques et scientifiques. 4821:

Mulon, Marianne (1971). "Deux traités d'art culinaire médié".

4758:

Habeeb Saloum, "Medieval and Renaissance Italy: B. Sicily" in

4650:

Anne Wilson (ed.) Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. 1991.

2452:

A matron demonstrates how to properly treat and conserve wine.

2058:, occasionally mentioned in late medieval recipe collections. 1185:

was readily combined with meat, fish and eggs. The recipe for

536:

dangers of adapting a diet inappropriate for one's class, and

38:

includes foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of various

8020: 7442: 5514:. Medieval History and Archaeology. Oxford University Press. 4242:

The Rabbit and the Medieval East Anglian Economy, Mark Bailey

3587: 3585: 3267: 3080:

cookbooks are full of recipes for sweet and savory custards,

2976: 2933: 2876: 2860: 2781: 2684: 2653: 2609: 2531: 2483: 2465: 2457: 2419: 2400: 2396: 2392: 2359: 2355: 2335: 2316: 2292: 2280: 2276: 2111: 2095: 2087: 1912: 1847: 1843: 1820: 1816: 1796: 1761: 1745: 1732: 1689: 1666: 1650: 1615: 1606: 1505:

in tightly packed jars, containing brine and acidic liquids (

1412: 1376: 1371:. In wealthy households one of the most common tools was the 1351: 1200: 1182: 1111: 1074: 1070: 1037: 1034: 838: 824: 808: 804: 803:, the climate was generally too harsh for the cultivation of 752: 748: 657: 625: 617: 605: 601: 588: 560: 496:, that is, the working classes—by far the largest group; the 460:

would simply eat their fast day meals in what was called the

457: 453: 404: 369: 268: 248: 228: 224: 113: 105: 101: 93: 89: 8076: 5326:. University Park: The Pennsylvania State University Press. 4263:"Debunked: The Strange Tale of Pope Gregory and the Rabbits" 3376: 3365:

manuscript. Vinidarius's own dates may not be much earlier.

2612:

physician Aldobrandino described beer in the following way:

1082:

for eating were not in widespread usage in Europe until the

191:

set the standard among the nobility all over Europe. Common

16:

Foods, eating habits, and cooking methods of the Middle Ages

8054: 8025: 7698: 5594: 5257:

Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: an Encyclopedia

3093: 3085: 3007: 2964: 2880: 2714:, and on a smaller scale, in individual households. By the 2688: 2657: 2415: 2407: 2375: 2321: 2272: 2268: 2107: 2079: 2027: 2019: 2015: 2003: 1963: 1947: 1942: 1828: 1824: 1685: 1681: 1670: 1654: 1642: 1220: 1204: 1167: 1145: 1079: 1051: 1019: 854: 816: 665: 661: 648:, herbs, moist fruits, and light meats, such as chicken or 517: 513: 509: 353: 244: 240: 204: 141: 129: 121: 69: 3582: 596:, 'to open') that was preferably of a hot and dry nature: 8047: 5501: 3130:

and wafers was eaten with cheese and hypocras or a sweet

3122:("Parisian Household Book"), written in 1393, includes a 2888: 2423: 2371: 2329: 2264: 2215: 2031: 1677: 1638: 1622: 1212: 1171: 1158: 424: 85: 81: 5112:

Delizia! The epic history of the Italians and their food

3630: 3628: 2955:

were grown and used in cooking all over Europe, as were

2014:

were fairly common, especially in areas with a sizeable

1243:; pork was hot and moist and should therefore always be 199:

repertory typical of upper-class medieval food included

5278:

Preventing Alcohol Abuse: alcohol, culture, and control

5208:

The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages

4740:

Le Ménagier de Paris, page218, "Pour Faire une Tourte."

4635:

The Fontana Economic History of Europe: The Middle Ages

4013:

Beth Marie Forrest, "Food storage and preservation" in

3977:

Publications du Centre Européen d'Etudes Bourguignonnes

1045:. The hierarchical nature of society was reinforced by 476:

Medieval society was highly stratified. In a time when

5412:

Histoire de la cuisine et de la gastronomie françaises

4963:

Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe: A Book of Essays

2826:'burnt wine') was commonplace, marking the origin of 2230:, a powerful north German alliance of trading guilds. 1140:

All types of cooking involved the direct use of fire.

120:

were important supplements for the lower orders while

3625: 3184:). From the south, the Arabs also brought the art of 2126:

had been domesticated but were not as popular as the

92:

was generally more expensive. These were consumed as

5234:

Out of the East: Spices and the Medieval Imagination

3906: 3372: 3207:

bowl with which it was shaped), made from marzipan,

5364:

A History of Business in Medieval Europe, 1200–1550

5343:

Revolution and Consumption in Late Medieval England

5151:

Handbook of Brewing: Processes, Technology, Markets

1110:, later interpreted her refined foreign manners as 889:, King of the Romans. Each diner has two knives, a 861:, which was in the ubiquitous and highly versatile 159:Slow and inefficient transports made long-distance 124:was more expensive and generally more prestigious. 25:Peasants sharing a simple meal of bread and drink; 5507: 5479:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. 5453: 5430: 5361: 5319: 5296: 5254: 5252: 5231: 5205: 5049:La cucina medievale. Lessico, storia, preparazioni 5046: 5004: 4981: 4375:Melitta Weiss Adamson, "The Greco-Roman World" in 3192:and several examples of sweet cakes and pastries; 2676:, a spiced honey ale prepared much like hypocras. 2538:in wine or had liquid poured over them to produce 2210:Especially important was the fishing and trade in 853:were the most affordable alternatives. Butter and 5065: 5026:Carlin, Martha; Rosenthal, Joel T., eds. (1998). 1739:; from a book of hours manuscript from about 1500 909:In Europe, there were typically two meals a day: 427:and almond milk and cooking them in coals. While 8779: 5177:Fenton, Alexander; Kisbán, Eszter, eds. (1986). 2841: 2418:. Fresh milk was overall less common than other 1309:In most households, cooking was done on an open 187:A type of refined cooking that developed in the 156:being mainstays among the northern populations. 5072:Wallingford: The Castle and the Town in Context 5025: 4896:(W.F. Giles, "Onions and other edible Alliums" 3142:, aniseed and other spices were referred to as 1555:The majority of the European population before 5451: 4083:Scully (1995), page 3; Adamson (2004), page 51 3260:A page from a late-14th-century manuscript of 1090:in the late 11th century. She was the wife of 64:remained the most important staple during the 50:and cooking changed less than they did in the 8170: 5610: 3736: 3609:Terence Scully, "Tempering Medieval Food" in 3540:Melitta Weiss Adamson, "Medieval Germany" in 3527:Melitta Weiss Adamson, "Medieval Germany" in 3225: 1259:is said to work equally well, and in another 660:. After that came the "heavy" meats, such as 5510:Food in Medieval England: Diet and Nutrition 5176: 5133:. Continuum International Publishing Group. 5074:. BAR British Series. Oxford: Archaeopress. 5011:. Berkeley: University of California Press. 4912:A generic Roman term for a cookery book, as 3993:Du fait de cuisine par Maître Chiquart, 1420 3818: 3816: 3015:", while others sat "below the salt", where 2487:) would often be the only available choice. 2342:and were still consumed in the Middle Ages: 2074:A wide range of birds were eaten, including 823:were common around the Mediterranean. Dried 394: 389:During the Middle Ages it was believed that 26: 5477:Beer in the Middle Ages and the Renaissance 4339:"Topographica Hiberniae" (1187), quoted in 4330: 3478: 3476: 2006:was not as common as today because raising 1680:, pieces of bread with which a liquid like 1576:'s Hodge of Ware, the London cook from the 1130:from the first printed cookbook in German, 957:, small morsels to be eaten during breaks. 591: 8177: 8163: 5617: 5603: 5572:on medieval and early modern European food 5359: 4898:Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society 4307:. Books for Libraries Press. p. 119. 4294: 2990:Picking green grapes for making verjuice; 2660:. In England there were also the variants 2600:. Even comparatively exotic products like 1871:were also common and important sources of 223:. These, along with the widespread use of 5584:on feeding the poor in medieval Catalonia 5368:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 5360:Hunt, Edwin S.; Murray, James H. (1999). 5088: 4944:Food in the Middle Ages: A Book of Essays 4543:Medieval Science, Technology and Medicine 4300: 4015:Medieval Science, Technology and Medicine 3943:Creighton & Christie (2015), page 13. 3813: 3802: 3800: 3762: 3112:, a 14th-century recipe collection, as a 2652:'good ale') and was made from barley and 2648:(most likely a direct borrowing from the 2238:could be found in markets as far away as 1735:with his assistant making bread rolls or 300:, you were like grain kept in the granary 8184: 5409: 5322:Fast and Feast: Food in Medieval Society 5280:. Westport: Greenwood Publishing Group. 5226: 5147: 3544:, pages 160–59; Scully (1995), page 117. 3473: 3255: 2985: 2850:Harvesting pepper; French manuscript of 2845: 2818:-speaking regions. By the 13th century, 2447: 2302: 2165: 1985: 1923: 1775: 1771: 1726: 1595: 1536: 1394: 1286: 1189:, a fish pie from the recipe collection 1121: 964: 872: 384: 312: 231:, gave many dishes a sweet-sour flavor. 72:was introduced to Europe late, with the 20: 5382: 5317: 5203: 4979: 4960: 4941: 3448: 3446: 2666:, made from hot milk and cold ale, and 2628:and makes one's flesh white and smooth. 1760:tampering with weights or adulterating 1532: 28:Livre du roi Modus et de la reine Ratio 8780: 5502:Woolgar, Chris M.; Serjeantson, Dale; 5428: 5294: 5275: 5109: 4260: 3797: 3030: 2834:issued restrictions on the selling of 2814:started to pick up, especially in the 2501:seeds with the ash of dried and burnt 2374:and blackberry wine. Many variants of 1274:. Extant recipe collections show that 795:, the northern German-speaking areas, 751:, and various processed foods such as 8158: 7804:Historical North Indian and Pakistani 5598: 5474: 5433:The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages 5340: 5181:. Edinburgh: John Donald Publishers. 5002: 4820: 3954:The Art of Cookery in the Middle Ages 2430:, both made from plants found in the 2158:and putting more meat on the market. 1126:A cook at the hearth with his ladle; 771: 8109: 5345:. Woodbridge: Boydell & Brewer. 5238:. New Haven: Yale University Press. 5148:Eßlinger, Hans Michael, ed. (2009). 5128: 4961:Adamson, Melitta Weiss, ed. (2002). 4942:Adamson, Melitta Weiss, ed. (1995). 4760:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe 4377:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe 4347:, 1928, reprinted in 2003, page 10. 4231:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe 4209:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe 4156:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe 3542:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe 3529:Regional Cuisines of Medieval Europe 3443: 3116:with a cheese and egg yolk filling. 2892:the most obscure in its origin) was 1282: 778:Regional cuisines of medieval Europe 738:in the 7th century and tightened by 675: 471: 263:The cuisines of the cultures of the 8762: 8207:Decline of the Western Roman Empire 8129: 5452:Toussant-Samat, Maguelonne (2009). 5047:Carnevale Schianca, Enrico (2011). 4823:Bulletin Philologique et Historique 4575:from the original on 29 August 2019 3718:from the original on 3 October 2012 3708:"Bones reveal chubby monks aplenty" 3561:from the original on 1 October 2023 2161: 1399:A restored medieval kitchen inside 1117: 945:, "late supper") with considerable 566:Medieval scholars considered human 550:Medieval medicine of Western Europe 292:floor of the Lord and were threshed 211:in combination with spices such as 180:also dictated that the food of the 13: 8299:Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire 5029:Food and Eating in Medieval Europe 4773:Food and Eating in Medieval Europe 4611:Quoted in Scully (1995), page 162. 4556:Some Thoughts Concerning Education 4496:Quoted in Scully (1995), page 152. 4261:Gorman, James (14 February 2018). 4041:Food and Eating in Medieval Europe 4028:Food and Eating in Medieval Europe 3452:Hunt & Murray (1999), page 16. 3333:De honesta voluptate et valetudine 3035:The term "dessert" comes from the 2838:on Sundays and official holidays. 2505:of white wine were both effective 991:Très Riches Heures du Duc de Berry 877:Banquet given in Paris in 1378 by 14: 8799: 8729:Historiography in the Middle Ages 5529: 5437:. Woodbridge: The Boydell Press. 5131:Everyday Life in Medieval England 5051:(in Italian). Florence: Olschki. 4988:. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. 3326:, in 1474, the Vatican librarian 3158:, Sicily was once famous for its 2118:, than for their meat. As today, 1919: 464:(at those times) rather than the 344:. All animal products, including 8761: 8752: 8751: 8741: 8138: 8128: 8118: 8108: 8099: 8098: 8087: 8075: 4919: 4906: 4872: 4863: 4860:Scully (1995), pages 7–9, 24–25. 4854: 4837: 4814: 4805: 4796: 4787: 4778: 4765: 4752: 4743: 4734: 4725: 4716: 4707: 4698: 4689: 4680: 4671: 4668:Adamson (2004), pages 15–19, 28. 4662: 4653: 4640: 4623: 4614: 4605: 4596: 3876:Adamson (2004), pages 55–56, 96. 3416:Guild feasts in medieval England 3389: 3375: 2234:made from herring caught in the 1884:from three to four times a day. 524:and their subordinates, such as 258: 8227:Christianity in the Middle Ages 8222:Decline of Hellenistic religion 8139: 5341:Hicks, Michael A., ed. (2001). 5204:Cipolla, Carlo M., ed. (1972). 5032:. London: The Hambledon Press. 5003:Bynum, Caroline Walker (1987). 4980:Adamson, Melitta Weiss (2004). 4602:Scully (1995), page 162, 164–65 4587: 4561: 4548: 4541:Richard W. Unger, "Brewing" in 4535: 4526: 4517: 4508: 4499: 4490: 4481: 4472: 4463: 4454: 4445: 4436: 4427: 4418: 4409: 4400: 4391: 4382: 4369: 4360: 4345:Barnacles in Nature and in Myth 4321: 4285: 4273:from the original on 4 May 2022 4254: 4245: 4236: 4223: 4214: 4201: 4188: 4179: 4170: 4161: 4140: 4131: 4122: 4113: 4104: 4095: 4086: 4077: 4068: 4055: 4046: 4033: 4020: 4007: 3998: 3985: 3969: 3960: 3946: 3937: 3928: 3915: 3897: 3888: 3879: 3870: 3861: 3852: 3843: 3834: 3825: 3788: 3779: 3730: 3700: 3691: 3682: 3673: 3664: 3655: 3646: 3637: 3616: 3603: 3594: 3573: 3547: 3534: 2710:, beer was brewed primarily in 2042:, and stomach could be used as 1456: 284:This bread retells your history 8505:Crisis of the late Middle Ages 7794:Historical Indian subcontinent 4301:Lankester, Edwin Ray (1970) . 3867:Henisch (1976), pages 185–186. 3858:Adamson (2004), pages 161–164. 3521: 3512: 3503: 3494: 3485: 3464: 3455: 2749: 2567:, the Low Countries, northern 1946:sometimes drink buttermilk or 883:Charles IV, Holy Roman Emperor 1: 8679:Disability in the Middle Ages 8352:Rise of the Republic of Genoa 8284:Rise of the Venetian Republic 5318:Henisch, Bridget Ann (1976). 4935: 4713:Henisch (1976), pages 161–64. 4505:Scully (1995), pages 151–154. 4406:Scully (1995), pages 154–157. 3737:J. J. Verlaan (August 2007). 3600:Scully (1995), pages 126–135. 3591:Scully (1995), pages 135–136. 3406:Early modern European cuisine 3361:survive in an eighth-century 2871:(and the cheaper alternative 2842:Herbs, spices, and condiments 2822:(literally 'home-burnt' from 2722:in the 14th century, then to 2144:Fourth Council of the Lateran 308: 88:were eaten by the poor while 5624: 5414:(in French). Paris: Perrin. 4925:The list, however, includes 4916:is of American dictionaries. 4851:are rare collectibles today. 4704:Adamson (2004), pages 26–27. 4695:Scully (1995), pages 111–12. 4686:Adamson (2004), pages 11–15. 4620:Scully (1995), pages 163–64. 4593:Scully (1995), pages 158–59. 4478:Scully (1995), pages 147–51. 4469:Scully (1995), pages 143–44. 4460:Scully (1995), pages 140–42. 4451:Scully (1995), pages 138–39. 4433:Adamson (2004), pages 48–51. 4388:Adamson (2004), pages 45–39. 4366:Henisch (1976), pages 48–49. 4291:Adamson (2004), pages 33–35. 4220:Adamson (2004), pages 30–33. 4128:Adamson (2004), pages 19–24. 4052:Henisch (1976), pages 64–67. 3966:Adamson (2004), pages 57–62. 3934:Henisch (1976), pages 95–97. 3831:Henisch (1976), pages 24–25. 3518:Scully (1995), pages 190–92. 3461:Henisch (1976), pages 29–58. 3294:Tractatus de modo preparandi 3251: 3211:with sweetened ricotta, and 2366:from wild plums (modern-day 1621:The most common grains were 1263:could be replaced by pears. 960: 899:Banquet de Charles V le Sage 543: 7: 7978:List of historical cuisines 7814:History of alcoholic drinks 5831:Lowcountry (South Carolina) 5303:. Oxford University Press. 5295:Harvey, Barbara F. (1993). 4869:Notaker (2021), pages 49–66 4397:Adamson (2004), pages 48–51 4110:Scully (1995), pages 35–38. 3903:Scully (1995). pages 44–46. 3885:Dembinska (1999), page 143. 3579:Scully (1995), pages 41–46. 3368: 3288:, perhaps originating near 2134:equivalent of the pig. The 1541:The disreputable cook from 1018:, rather than giving it as 396:Livre des simples médecines 10: 8804: 8480:Rise of the Ottoman Empire 7265:Trinidadian and Tobagonian 5475:Unger, Richard W. (2007). 5410:Rambourg, Patrick (2010). 5129:Dyer, Christopher (2000). 4793:Scully (1995), pages 84–86 4415:Dembinska (1999), page 80. 4304:Diversions of a Naturalist 4074:Adamson (2004), pages 1–5. 3679:Harvey (1993), pages 64–65 3670:Harvey (1993), pages 38–41 3226:Historiography and sources 3104:flowers. An early form of 2824:gebrannter wein, brandwein 2555: 2441: 1591: 1195:, includes a mix of figs, 1057:Food was mostly served on 988:, in the shape of a ship; 775: 547: 108:by people of all classes. 8737: 8666: 8525: 8420: 8407:Mongol invasion of Europe 8312: 8192: 8070: 7998: 7965: 7902: 7734: 7647: 7328: 5781: 5632: 5563:, a medieval cookbook on 5089:Dembinska, Maria (1999). 4749:Adamson (2004), page 110. 4356:full text at Google Books 4327:Adamson (2004), page 164. 4167:Adamson (2004), chapter 1 4092:Adamson (2004), pages 1–5 3849:Adamson (2004), page 170. 3840:Adamson (2004), page 162. 3755:10.1007/s00586-007-0342-x 3643:Hicks (2001), pages 15–17 3150:, the Arab conquerors of 2853:The Travels of Marco Polo 2762:knew of the technique of 1614:bread was more common in 913:at mid-day and a lighter 7884:Scottish royal household 7829:History of vegetarianism 6067:Central African Republic 5429:Scully, Terence (1995). 5276:Hanson, David J (1995). 4731:Adamson (2004), page 97. 4722:Adamson (2004), page 89. 4442:Scully (1995), page 137. 4424:Scully (1995), page 157. 4185:Adamson (2004), page 45. 3894:Scully (1995), page 113. 3822:Henisch (1976), page 17. 3785:Scully (1995), page 218. 3509:Henisch (1976), page 46. 3491:Henisch (1976), page 40. 3482:Henisch (1976), page 43. 3470:Henisch (1976), page 41. 3437: 2395:, the fermented milk of 2298: 1994:While all forms of wild 1981: 1388:'to cram'), to skin and 1108:Cardinal Bishop of Ostia 1065:of stale bread, wood or 881:(second from right) for 868: 288:You were brought to the 8362:Investiture Controversy 8332:Second Bulgarian Empire 5383:Notaker, Henry (2017). 5261:. New York: Routledge. 5154:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. 5070:; Roffe, David (eds.). 4965:. New York: Routledge. 4802:Scully (1995), page 174 4677:Scully (1995), page 86. 4659:Dickie (2008), page 63. 4176:Scully (1995), page 14. 4137:Scully (1995), page 71. 4101:Henisch (1976), page 77 4004:Scully (1995), page 96. 3923:Food in the Middle Ages 3912:Scully (1995), page 70. 3794:Scully (1995), page 83. 3652:Hicks (2001), page10–11 3634:Woolgar (2006), page 11 3611:Food in the Middle Ages 3230:Research into medieval 3180:) and almond clusters ( 2563:of the Middle Ages. In 2551: 2437: 1751:Assize of Bread and Ale 235:were very popular as a 170:conspicuous consumption 8719:Post-classical history 8475:Fall of Constantinople 8382:Capet–Plantagenet feud 8249:First Bulgarian Empire 7809:History of agriculture 5590:on early-medieval diet 5539:about medieval cuisine 5424:. coll. tempus n° 359. 4984:Food in Medieval Times 4847:demonstrates, and old 4845:Loeb Classical Library 4811:Toussanit-Samat (2009) 3555:"Gale – Product Login" 3278: 3194:cassata alla Siciliana 3188:-making that produced 2997: 2940:or pepper and ginger. 2857: 2630: 2453: 2312: 2181: 1991: 1939: 1928:Preparing and serving 1791: 1757:London Baker's Company 1740: 1601: 1552: 1404: 1306: 1266:The completely edible 1152:. It was common for a 1137: 995: 906: 757:Rule of Saint Benedict 736:Rule of Saint Benedict 592: 400: 395: 383: 329: 306: 32: 27: 7779:Early modern European 7507:Indigenous Australian 7066:São Tomé and Príncipe 5953:Bosnian-Herzegovinian 5548:20 April 2007 at the 5110:Dickie, John (2008). 4946:. New York: Garland. 4878:In modern botany the 4532:Hanson (1995), page 9 4514:Unger (2007), page 54 4119:Scully 1995, page 70. 3688:Dyer (1989), page 134 3661:Hicks (2001), page 18 3431:Pre-Columbian cuisine 3259: 2989: 2943:Common herbs such as 2849: 2808:Arnaldus of Villanova 2614: 2451: 2306: 2169: 1989: 1927: 1779: 1772:Fruits and vegetables 1730: 1599: 1540: 1447:Amadeus VIII of Savoy 1398: 1290: 1125: 968: 897:, bread and a plate ( 876: 388: 378: 316: 282: 195:in the highly spiced 148:was also eaten, with 24: 8699:Medieval reenactment 8495:Renaissance Humanism 8402:Medieval Warm Period 8372:Republic of Florence 8186:European Middle Ages 7942:Molecular gastronomy 7874:Pre-contact Hawaiian 7784:Historical Argentine 7670:Mangalorean Catholic 5851:Pacific Northwestern 4903:: (1943) pp 193–200. 4888:in Palestine is the 4554:John Locke (1693), " 3697:Hicks (2001), page 8 3622:Dyer (2000), page 85 3421:Tudor food and drink 3357:, whose excerpts of 3312:Le Ménagier de Paris 3120:Le Ménagier de Paris 2856:, early 15th century 2742:alcoholic brew with 2642:Le Menagier de Paris 2064:domesticated rabbits 1533:Professional cooking 1521:into a multitude of 1219:) and pitted damson 885:(left), and his son 608:-coated spices like 490:estates of the realm 480:was commonplace and 319:The Life of Blessed 8412:Kingdom of Portugal 8279:Old Church Slavonic 8264:Anglo-Saxon England 7799:Historical Japanese 7634:Transylvanian Saxon 7502:Indigenous American 5456:The History of Food 5212:. London: Collins. 5114:. London: Sceptre. 4337:Giraldus Cambrensis 4152:Deutsche Speißkamer 3995:Vallesia, 40, 1985. 3324:early modern period 3203:, the term for the 3088:with strawberries, 3031:Sweets and desserts 2973:Hildegard of Bingen 2687:, a mix of various 2309:Li livres dou santé 2192:such as whales and 1712:, and many similar 1084:early modern period 1012:Countess of Lincoln 879:Charles V of France 559:theory proposed by 557:four bodily humours 486:developed countries 265:Mediterranean Basin 52:early modern period 8593:In popular culture 8558:Crusading movement 8430:Hundred Years' War 8289:Civitas Schinesghe 8274:Carolingian Empire 8259:Kingdom of Croatia 8212:Barbarian kingdoms 7879:Korean royal court 7824:History of seafood 7789:Historical Chinese 7764:Antebellum America 7604:Pennsylvania Dutch 6216:Equatorial Guinean 6186:Dominican Republic 5543:Medieval cookbooks 5537:Academic resources 4341:Edward Heron-Allen 4267:The New York Times 3426:Medieval household 3397:Middle Ages portal 3328:Bartolomeo Platina 3279: 3220:cappelli di turchi 3058:with sugar, sweet 2998: 2993:Tacuinum Sanitatis 2910:grains of paradise 2858: 2524:grains of paradise 2454: 2313: 2198:Holy Roman Emperor 2182: 2177:Tacuinum Sanitatis 1992: 1962:, Northern French 1940: 1935:Tacuinum Sanitatis 1792: 1787:Tacuinum Sanitatis 1741: 1602: 1553: 1442:Du fait de cuisine 1405: 1307: 1138: 1008:Robert Grosseteste 996: 947:alcoholic beverage 907: 905:, around 1455–60). 772:Regional variation 482:social hierarchies 401: 330: 251:, particularly as 33: 8775: 8774: 8684:Basic topics list 8485:Swiss mercenaries 8435:Wars of the Roses 8342:Kingdom of Poland 8327:Holy Roman Empire 8194:Early Middle Ages 8152: 8151: 7894:Thirteen Colonies 7754:Ancient Israelite 6954:Papua New Guinean 5752:Intercontinental 5578:on medieval bread 5565:Project Gutenberg 5560:The Forme of Cury 5521:978-0-19-956335-7 5486:978-0-8122-1999-9 5467:978-1-4051-8119-8 5421:978-2-262-03318-7 5245:978-0-300-11199-6 5161:978-3-527-31674-8 5140:978-1-85285-201-6 5081:978-1-4073-1418-1 5058:978-88-222-6073-4 4314:978-0-8369-1471-9 3320:Ménagier de Paris 3302:Châlons-sur-Marne 3144:épices de chambre 2906:Eleanor of Naples 2708:Early Middle Ages 2148:Pope Innocent III 2018:industry, as was 1833:wild strawberries 1819:. Farther north, 1557:industrialization 1492:, conserving, or 1462:Food preservation 1283:Medieval kitchens 1192:The Forme of Cury 1088:Theodora Doukaina 1069:with the help of 1043:ladies-in-waiting 745:Westminster Abbey 740:Pope Benedict XII 676:Calorie structure 576:slowly and cause 472:Class constraints 338:Orthodox Churches 326:Pietro Lorenzetti 66:Early Middle Ages 56:European cuisines 40:European cultures 8795: 8788:Medieval cuisine 8765: 8764: 8755: 8754: 8745: 8704:Medieval studies 8548:Church and State 8422:Late Middle Ages 8314:High Middle Ages 8232:Christianization 8202:Migration Period 8179: 8172: 8165: 8156: 8155: 8142: 8141: 8132: 8131: 8122: 8112: 8111: 8102: 8101: 8094:Drink portal 8092: 8091: 8090: 8080: 8079: 8060:Meal preparation 7973:List of cuisines 7819:History of bread 7744:Ancient Egyptian 7721:Ritual slaughter 7579:Louisiana Creole 7517:Italian American 7336:African American 6325:Greek Macedonian 5619: 5612: 5605: 5596: 5595: 5525: 5513: 5498: 5471: 5459: 5448: 5436: 5425: 5406: 5379: 5367: 5356: 5337: 5325: 5314: 5302: 5291: 5272: 5260: 5249: 5237: 5223: 5211: 5200: 5173: 5144: 5125: 5106: 5085: 5062: 5043: 5022: 5010: 4999: 4987: 4976: 4957: 4930: 4923: 4917: 4910: 4904: 4876: 4870: 4867: 4861: 4858: 4852: 4849:children's books 4841: 4835: 4834: 4818: 4812: 4809: 4803: 4800: 4794: 4791: 4785: 4782: 4776: 4769: 4763: 4762:, pages 120–121. 4756: 4750: 4747: 4741: 4738: 4732: 4729: 4723: 4720: 4714: 4711: 4705: 4702: 4696: 4693: 4687: 4684: 4678: 4675: 4669: 4666: 4660: 4657: 4651: 4644: 4638: 4627: 4621: 4618: 4612: 4609: 4603: 4600: 4594: 4591: 4585: 4584: 4582: 4580: 4565: 4559: 4552: 4546: 4539: 4533: 4530: 4524: 4521: 4515: 4512: 4506: 4503: 4497: 4494: 4488: 4485: 4479: 4476: 4470: 4467: 4461: 4458: 4452: 4449: 4443: 4440: 4434: 4431: 4425: 4422: 4416: 4413: 4407: 4404: 4398: 4395: 4389: 4386: 4380: 4373: 4367: 4364: 4358: 4334: 4328: 4325: 4319: 4318: 4298: 4292: 4289: 4283: 4282: 4280: 4278: 4258: 4252: 4249: 4243: 4240: 4234: 4227: 4221: 4218: 4212: 4205: 4199: 4192: 4186: 4183: 4177: 4174: 4168: 4165: 4159: 4144: 4138: 4135: 4129: 4126: 4120: 4117: 4111: 4108: 4102: 4099: 4093: 4090: 4084: 4081: 4075: 4072: 4066: 4059: 4053: 4050: 4044: 4037: 4031: 4024: 4018: 4011: 4005: 4002: 3996: 3989: 3983: 3973: 3967: 3964: 3958: 3952:Terence Scully, 3950: 3944: 3941: 3935: 3932: 3926: 3919: 3913: 3910: 3904: 3901: 3895: 3892: 3886: 3883: 3877: 3874: 3868: 3865: 3859: 3856: 3850: 3847: 3841: 3838: 3832: 3829: 3823: 3820: 3811: 3804: 3795: 3792: 3786: 3783: 3777: 3776: 3766: 3734: 3728: 3727: 3725: 3723: 3714:. 15 July 2004. 3704: 3698: 3695: 3689: 3686: 3680: 3677: 3671: 3668: 3662: 3659: 3653: 3650: 3644: 3641: 3635: 3632: 3623: 3620: 3614: 3607: 3601: 3598: 3592: 3589: 3580: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3568: 3566: 3551: 3545: 3538: 3532: 3525: 3519: 3516: 3510: 3507: 3501: 3498: 3492: 3489: 3483: 3480: 3471: 3468: 3462: 3459: 3453: 3450: 3399: 3394: 3393: 3385: 3380: 3379: 3285:Liber de Coquina 3108:can be found in 2912:, a relative of 2744:original gravity 2716:High Middle Ages 2228:Hanseatic League 2162:Fish and seafood 1582:Jacques de Vitry 1578:Canterbury Tales 1574:Geoffrey Chaucer 1548:Canterbury Tales 1401:Verrucole Castle 1384:(from the Latin 1316:Late Middle Ages 1187:Tart de brymlent 1118:Food preparation 1028:multiple courses 729: 728: 724: 718: 717: 713: 704: 703: 699: 595: 398: 303: 295: 287: 189:Late Middle Ages 36:Medieval cuisine 30: 8803: 8802: 8798: 8797: 8796: 8794: 8793: 8792: 8778: 8777: 8776: 8771: 8733: 8714:Neo-medievalism 8662: 8598:Itinerant court 8521: 8416: 8337:Georgian Empire 8322:Norman Conquest 8308: 8254:Frankish Empire 8188: 8183: 8153: 8148: 8088: 8086: 8082:Food portal 8074: 8066: 7994: 7961: 7898: 7730: 7643: 7351:Arab-Indonesian 7324: 7305:Western Saharan 6777:Liechtensteiner 6342:Guinea-Bissauan 5978:Channel Islands 5866:Southwestern US 5786: 5777: 5628: 5623: 5593: 5588:Journal article 5554:British Library 5550:Wayback Machine 5532: 5522: 5506:, eds. (2006). 5487: 5468: 5445: 5422: 5395: 5376: 5353: 5334: 5311: 5288: 5269: 5246: 5220: 5189: 5162: 5141: 5122: 5103: 5082: 5059: 5040: 5019: 4996: 4973: 4954: 4938: 4933: 4924: 4920: 4911: 4907: 4894:A. ascalonensis 4877: 4873: 4868: 4864: 4859: 4855: 4842: 4838: 4819: 4815: 4810: 4806: 4801: 4797: 4792: 4788: 4783: 4779: 4770: 4766: 4757: 4753: 4748: 4744: 4739: 4735: 4730: 4726: 4721: 4717: 4712: 4708: 4703: 4699: 4694: 4690: 4685: 4681: 4676: 4672: 4667: 4663: 4658: 4654: 4645: 4641: 4628: 4624: 4619: 4615: 4610: 4606: 4601: 4597: 4592: 4588: 4578: 4576: 4567: 4566: 4562: 4553: 4549: 4540: 4536: 4531: 4527: 4522: 4518: 4513: 4509: 4504: 4500: 4495: 4491: 4486: 4482: 4477: 4473: 4468: 4464: 4459: 4455: 4450: 4446: 4441: 4437: 4432: 4428: 4423: 4419: 4414: 4410: 4405: 4401: 4396: 4392: 4387: 4383: 4374: 4370: 4365: 4361: 4335: 4331: 4326: 4322: 4315: 4299: 4295: 4290: 4286: 4276: 4274: 4259: 4255: 4250: 4246: 4241: 4237: 4228: 4224: 4219: 4215: 4206: 4202: 4193: 4189: 4184: 4180: 4175: 4171: 4166: 4162: 4148:Hieronymus Bock 4145: 4141: 4136: 4132: 4127: 4123: 4118: 4114: 4109: 4105: 4100: 4096: 4091: 4087: 4082: 4078: 4073: 4069: 4060: 4056: 4051: 4047: 4038: 4034: 4025: 4021: 4017:, pages 176–77. 4012: 4008: 4003: 3999: 3990: 3986: 3974: 3970: 3965: 3961: 3951: 3947: 3942: 3938: 3933: 3929: 3920: 3916: 3911: 3907: 3902: 3898: 3893: 3889: 3884: 3880: 3875: 3871: 3866: 3862: 3857: 3853: 3848: 3844: 3839: 3835: 3830: 3826: 3821: 3814: 3805: 3798: 3793: 3789: 3784: 3780: 3735: 3731: 3721: 3719: 3706: 3705: 3701: 3696: 3692: 3687: 3683: 3678: 3674: 3669: 3665: 3660: 3656: 3651: 3647: 3642: 3638: 3633: 3626: 3621: 3617: 3608: 3604: 3599: 3595: 3590: 3583: 3578: 3574: 3564: 3562: 3553: 3552: 3548: 3539: 3535: 3531:, pages 155–59. 3526: 3522: 3517: 3513: 3508: 3504: 3499: 3495: 3490: 3486: 3481: 3474: 3469: 3465: 3460: 3456: 3451: 3444: 3440: 3435: 3411:Guillaume Tirel 3395: 3388: 3381: 3374: 3371: 3254: 3228: 3033: 2902:Cardinal Riario 2844: 2752: 2635:Norman Conquest 2622:ruins the teeth 2560: 2558:History of beer 2554: 2446: 2444:History of wine 2440: 2340:Roman antiquity 2301: 2205:Leo of Rozmital 2164: 2068:bred and raised 2012:Lamb and mutton 2000:working animals 1984: 1922: 1774: 1594: 1535: 1459: 1435:, and numerous 1285: 1120: 963: 934:and late-night 871: 780: 774: 726: 722: 721: 715: 711: 710: 701: 697: 696: 688:Earl of Warwick 678: 616:, and seeds of 552: 546: 506:number of ranks 474: 450:monastic orders 311: 301: 296:While awaiting 293: 285: 261: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8801: 8791: 8790: 8773: 8772: 8770: 8769: 8759: 8749: 8738: 8735: 8734: 8732: 8731: 8726: 8721: 8716: 8711: 8709:Misconceptions 8706: 8701: 8696: 8691: 8686: 8681: 8676: 8670: 8668: 8664: 8663: 8661: 8660: 8655: 8650: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8630: 8625: 8620: 8615: 8610: 8605: 8600: 8595: 8590: 8585: 8580: 8575: 8570: 8565: 8560: 8555: 8550: 8545: 8540: 8535: 8529: 8527: 8523: 8522: 8520: 8519: 8517:Little Ice Age 8514: 8513: 8512: 8502: 8497: 8492: 8487: 8482: 8477: 8472: 8470:Western Schism 8467: 8462: 8457: 8452: 8447: 8442: 8437: 8432: 8426: 8424: 8418: 8417: 8415: 8414: 8409: 8404: 8399: 8394: 8389: 8384: 8379: 8374: 8369: 8364: 8359: 8354: 8349: 8344: 8339: 8334: 8329: 8324: 8318: 8316: 8310: 8309: 8307: 8306: 8301: 8296: 8291: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8271: 8266: 8261: 8256: 8251: 8246: 8241: 8236: 8235: 8234: 8224: 8219: 8217:Late antiquity 8214: 8209: 8204: 8198: 8196: 8190: 8189: 8182: 8181: 8174: 8167: 8159: 8150: 8149: 8147: 8146: 8136: 8126: 8116: 8106: 8096: 8084: 8071: 8068: 8067: 8065: 8064: 8063: 8062: 8052: 8051: 8050: 8040: 8039: 8038: 8033: 8023: 8018: 8013: 8008: 8002: 8000: 7996: 7995: 7993: 7992: 7991: 7990: 7983:Lists of foods 7980: 7975: 7969: 7967: 7963: 7962: 7960: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7933: 7932: 7927: 7917: 7912: 7906: 7904: 7900: 7899: 7897: 7896: 7891: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7871: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7836: 7831: 7826: 7821: 7816: 7811: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7776: 7771: 7766: 7761: 7756: 7751: 7746: 7740: 7738: 7732: 7731: 7729: 7728: 7723: 7718: 7717: 7716: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7695: 7694: 7684: 7679: 7678: 7677: 7672: 7667: 7657: 7651: 7649: 7645: 7644: 7642: 7641: 7636: 7631: 7626: 7621: 7616: 7611: 7606: 7601: 7596: 7591: 7586: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7566: 7565: 7564: 7559: 7554: 7549: 7544: 7539: 7534: 7529: 7519: 7514: 7509: 7504: 7499: 7498: 7497: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7477: 7467: 7462: 7460:Greek-American 7457: 7452: 7447: 7446: 7445: 7440: 7435: 7430: 7425: 7420: 7415: 7410: 7405: 7400: 7395: 7385: 7380: 7375: 7370: 7365: 7360: 7355: 7354: 7353: 7343: 7338: 7332: 7330: 7326: 7325: 7323: 7322: 7317: 7312: 7307: 7302: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7282: 7277: 7272: 7267: 7262: 7257: 7252: 7247: 7242: 7237: 7232: 7231: 7230: 7220: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7190: 7185: 7180: 7179: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7148: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7128: 7118: 7113: 7108: 7103: 7098: 7093: 7091:Sierra Leonean 7088: 7083: 7078: 7073: 7068: 7063: 7058: 7053: 7048: 7043: 7042: 7041: 7036: 7031: 7026: 7021: 7016: 7011: 7006: 7001: 6996: 6986: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6966: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6931: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6906: 6901: 6896: 6891: 6886: 6881: 6876: 6871: 6866: 6861: 6856: 6851: 6846: 6841: 6836: 6831: 6826: 6821: 6820: 6819: 6814: 6804: 6799: 6794: 6789: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6764: 6759: 6754: 6749: 6744: 6739: 6734: 6729: 6728: 6727: 6722: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6696: 6695: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6674: 6673: 6668: 6663: 6658: 6653: 6648: 6643: 6638: 6633: 6628: 6623: 6613: 6608: 6603: 6598: 6593: 6592: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6566: 6561: 6556: 6551: 6546: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6516: 6515: 6514: 6509: 6504: 6499: 6494: 6489: 6484: 6479: 6474: 6469: 6464: 6459: 6454: 6449: 6444: 6439: 6434: 6429: 6424: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6404: 6399: 6394: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6369: 6364: 6359: 6354: 6349: 6344: 6339: 6334: 6333: 6332: 6327: 6322: 6317: 6307: 6302: 6297: 6292: 6287: 6282: 6281: 6280: 6275: 6273:French Guianan 6270: 6265: 6255: 6250: 6249: 6248: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6172: 6171: 6166: 6156: 6151: 6146: 6141: 6136: 6131: 6126: 6125: 6124: 6119: 6114: 6109: 6104: 6099: 6094: 6089: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6063: 6062: 6057: 6047: 6042: 6037: 6032: 6027: 6022: 6017: 6012: 6011: 6010: 6005: 6000: 5995: 5993:Northern Irish 5990: 5985: 5980: 5975: 5965: 5960: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5940: 5935: 5930: 5925: 5920: 5915: 5910: 5905: 5900: 5895: 5890: 5885: 5880: 5875: 5874: 5873: 5868: 5863: 5858: 5853: 5848: 5843: 5838: 5833: 5828: 5823: 5818: 5808: 5803: 5798: 5792: 5790: 5779: 5778: 5776: 5775: 5774: 5773: 5771:Middle Eastern 5768: 5763: 5761:Latin American 5758: 5750: 5745: 5744: 5743: 5738: 5733: 5728: 5718: 5717: 5716: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5686: 5685: 5684: 5679: 5674: 5669: 5659: 5658: 5657: 5652: 5647: 5636: 5634: 5630: 5629: 5622: 5621: 5614: 5607: 5599: 5592: 5591: 5585: 5579: 5573: 5567: 5556: 5540: 5533: 5531: 5530:External links 5528: 5527: 5526: 5520: 5499: 5485: 5472: 5466: 5449: 5443: 5426: 5420: 5407: 5394:978-0520294004 5393: 5380: 5374: 5357: 5352:978-0851158327 5351: 5338: 5332: 5315: 5309: 5292: 5286: 5273: 5267: 5250: 5244: 5228:Freedman, Paul 5224: 5218: 5201: 5187: 5174: 5160: 5145: 5139: 5126: 5121:978-0340896419 5120: 5107: 5101: 5086: 5080: 5068:Christie, Neil 5063: 5057: 5044: 5038: 5023: 5017: 5000: 4994: 4977: 4971: 4958: 4952: 4937: 4934: 4932: 4931: 4918: 4905: 4871: 4862: 4853: 4836: 4813: 4804: 4795: 4786: 4777: 4764: 4751: 4742: 4733: 4724: 4715: 4706: 4697: 4688: 4679: 4670: 4661: 4652: 4639: 4622: 4613: 4604: 4595: 4586: 4560: 4547: 4545:, pages 102–3. 4534: 4525: 4516: 4507: 4498: 4489: 4480: 4471: 4462: 4453: 4444: 4435: 4426: 4417: 4408: 4399: 4390: 4381: 4368: 4359: 4329: 4320: 4313: 4293: 4284: 4253: 4244: 4235: 4222: 4213: 4200: 4196:Food in Change 4187: 4178: 4169: 4160: 4139: 4130: 4121: 4112: 4103: 4094: 4085: 4076: 4067: 4065:, pages 16–18. 4063:Food in Change 4054: 4045: 4043:, pages 40–41. 4032: 4030:, pages 27–51. 4019: 4006: 3997: 3984: 3968: 3959: 3945: 3936: 3927: 3925:, pages 61–81. 3914: 3905: 3896: 3887: 3878: 3869: 3860: 3851: 3842: 3833: 3824: 3812: 3808:Food in Change 3796: 3787: 3778: 3749:(8): 1129–35. 3729: 3699: 3690: 3681: 3672: 3663: 3654: 3645: 3636: 3624: 3615: 3602: 3593: 3581: 3572: 3546: 3533: 3520: 3511: 3502: 3493: 3484: 3472: 3463: 3454: 3441: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3433: 3428: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3408: 3402: 3401: 3400: 3386: 3370: 3367: 3253: 3250: 3227: 3224: 3216:alla Siciliana 3136:issue de table 3084:, sauces, and 3032: 3029: 3013:above the salt 2843: 2840: 2788:was used as a 2756:ancient Greeks 2751: 2748: 2656:, but without 2556:Main article: 2553: 2550: 2442:Main article: 2439: 2436: 2300: 2297: 2240:Constantinople 2190:marine mammals 2180:, 15th century 2163: 2160: 2136:barnacle goose 2066:were commonly 1983: 1980: 1938:, 14th century 1921: 1920:Dairy products 1918: 1805:bitter oranges 1790:, 15th century 1773: 1770: 1593: 1590: 1534: 1531: 1474:microorganisms 1458: 1455: 1284: 1281: 1142:Kitchen stoves 1133:Kuchenmaistrey 1119: 1116: 1096:Doge of Venice 1092:Domenico Selvo 962: 959: 870: 867: 776:Main article: 773: 770: 707:Henry Stafford 677: 674: 548:Main article: 545: 542: 538:sumptuary laws 473: 470: 442:Thomas Aquinas 409:barnacle geese 350:dairy products 321:Saint Humility 310: 307: 260: 257: 166:sumptuary laws 31:, 14th century 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8800: 8789: 8786: 8785: 8783: 8768: 8760: 8758: 8750: 8748: 8744: 8740: 8739: 8736: 8730: 8727: 8725: 8722: 8720: 8717: 8715: 8712: 8710: 8707: 8705: 8702: 8700: 8697: 8695: 8692: 8690: 8687: 8685: 8682: 8680: 8677: 8675: 8672: 8671: 8669: 8665: 8659: 8656: 8654: 8651: 8649: 8646: 8644: 8641: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8626: 8624: 8621: 8619: 8616: 8614: 8611: 8609: 8606: 8604: 8601: 8599: 8596: 8594: 8591: 8589: 8586: 8584: 8581: 8579: 8576: 8574: 8571: 8569: 8566: 8564: 8561: 8559: 8556: 8554: 8551: 8549: 8546: 8544: 8541: 8539: 8536: 8534: 8531: 8530: 8528: 8524: 8518: 8515: 8511: 8508: 8507: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8498: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8461: 8458: 8456: 8453: 8451: 8448: 8446: 8443: 8441: 8438: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8427: 8425: 8423: 8419: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8403: 8400: 8398: 8395: 8393: 8390: 8388: 8385: 8383: 8380: 8378: 8377:Scholasticism 8375: 8373: 8370: 8368: 8365: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8343: 8340: 8338: 8335: 8333: 8330: 8328: 8325: 8323: 8320: 8319: 8317: 8315: 8311: 8305: 8302: 8300: 8297: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8262: 8260: 8257: 8255: 8252: 8250: 8247: 8245: 8242: 8240: 8239:Rise of Islam 8237: 8233: 8230: 8229: 8228: 8225: 8223: 8220: 8218: 8215: 8213: 8210: 8208: 8205: 8203: 8200: 8199: 8197: 8195: 8191: 8187: 8180: 8175: 8173: 8168: 8166: 8161: 8160: 8157: 8145: 8137: 8135: 8127: 8125: 8121: 8117: 8115: 8107: 8105: 8097: 8095: 8085: 8083: 8078: 8073: 8072: 8069: 8061: 8058: 8057: 8056: 8053: 8049: 8046: 8045: 8044: 8041: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8028: 8027: 8024: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8016:Culinary arts 8014: 8012: 8009: 8007: 8004: 8003: 8001: 7997: 7989: 7986: 7985: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7970: 7968: 7964: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7940: 7938: 7935: 7931: 7928: 7926: 7923: 7922: 7921: 7918: 7916: 7913: 7911: 7908: 7907: 7905: 7901: 7895: 7892: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7875: 7872: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7837: 7835: 7832: 7830: 7827: 7825: 7822: 7820: 7817: 7815: 7812: 7810: 7807: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7780: 7777: 7775: 7772: 7770: 7767: 7765: 7762: 7760: 7759:Ancient Roman 7757: 7755: 7752: 7750: 7749:Ancient Greek 7747: 7745: 7742: 7741: 7739: 7737: 7733: 7727: 7724: 7722: 7719: 7715: 7712: 7711: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7693: 7690: 7689: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7676: 7673: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7665:Goan Catholic 7663: 7662: 7661: 7658: 7656: 7653: 7652: 7650: 7646: 7640: 7637: 7635: 7632: 7630: 7627: 7625: 7622: 7620: 7617: 7615: 7612: 7610: 7607: 7605: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7592: 7590: 7587: 7585: 7582: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7563: 7560: 7558: 7555: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7543: 7540: 7538: 7535: 7533: 7530: 7528: 7525: 7524: 7523: 7520: 7518: 7515: 7513: 7510: 7508: 7505: 7503: 7500: 7496: 7493: 7491: 7488: 7486: 7483: 7481: 7478: 7476: 7473: 7472: 7471: 7468: 7466: 7463: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7450:Crimean Tatar 7448: 7444: 7441: 7439: 7436: 7434: 7431: 7429: 7426: 7424: 7421: 7419: 7416: 7414: 7411: 7409: 7406: 7404: 7401: 7399: 7396: 7394: 7391: 7390: 7389: 7386: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7364: 7361: 7359: 7356: 7352: 7349: 7348: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7337: 7334: 7333: 7331: 7327: 7321: 7318: 7316: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7306: 7303: 7301: 7298: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7283: 7281: 7278: 7276: 7273: 7271: 7268: 7266: 7263: 7261: 7258: 7256: 7253: 7251: 7248: 7246: 7243: 7241: 7238: 7236: 7233: 7229: 7226: 7225: 7224: 7221: 7219: 7216: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7189: 7186: 7184: 7181: 7177: 7174: 7172: 7169: 7167: 7164: 7162: 7159: 7157: 7154: 7152: 7149: 7147: 7144: 7142: 7139: 7137: 7134: 7132: 7129: 7127: 7124: 7123: 7122: 7119: 7117: 7116:South African 7114: 7112: 7109: 7107: 7104: 7102: 7099: 7097: 7094: 7092: 7089: 7087: 7084: 7082: 7079: 7077: 7074: 7072: 7071:Saudi Arabian 7069: 7067: 7064: 7062: 7059: 7057: 7054: 7052: 7049: 7047: 7044: 7040: 7037: 7035: 7032: 7030: 7027: 7025: 7022: 7020: 7017: 7015: 7012: 7010: 7007: 7005: 7002: 7000: 6997: 6995: 6992: 6991: 6990: 6987: 6985: 6982: 6980: 6977: 6975: 6972: 6970: 6967: 6965: 6962: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6940: 6937: 6935: 6932: 6930: 6927: 6925: 6922: 6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6910: 6907: 6905: 6902: 6900: 6897: 6895: 6892: 6890: 6887: 6885: 6882: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6872: 6870: 6867: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6855: 6852: 6850: 6847: 6845: 6842: 6840: 6837: 6835: 6832: 6830: 6827: 6825: 6822: 6818: 6815: 6813: 6810: 6809: 6808: 6805: 6803: 6800: 6798: 6795: 6793: 6790: 6788: 6787:Luxembourgish 6785: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6753: 6750: 6748: 6745: 6743: 6740: 6738: 6735: 6733: 6730: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6717: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6694: 6691: 6690: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6672: 6669: 6667: 6664: 6662: 6659: 6657: 6654: 6652: 6649: 6647: 6644: 6642: 6639: 6637: 6634: 6632: 6629: 6627: 6624: 6622: 6619: 6618: 6617: 6614: 6612: 6609: 6607: 6604: 6602: 6599: 6597: 6594: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6550: 6547: 6545: 6542: 6540: 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6522: 6521: 6520: 6517: 6513: 6510: 6508: 6507:Uttar Pradesh 6505: 6503: 6500: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6488: 6485: 6483: 6480: 6478: 6475: 6473: 6470: 6468: 6465: 6463: 6460: 6458: 6455: 6453: 6450: 6448: 6445: 6443: 6442:Maharashtrian 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6428: 6425: 6423: 6420: 6418: 6415: 6413: 6410: 6408: 6405: 6403: 6402:Chhattisgarhi 6400: 6398: 6395: 6393: 6390: 6388: 6385: 6383: 6380: 6378: 6375: 6374: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6358: 6355: 6353: 6350: 6348: 6345: 6343: 6340: 6338: 6335: 6331: 6328: 6326: 6323: 6321: 6318: 6316: 6313: 6312: 6311: 6308: 6306: 6303: 6301: 6298: 6296: 6293: 6291: 6288: 6286: 6283: 6279: 6276: 6274: 6271: 6269: 6266: 6264: 6261: 6260: 6259: 6256: 6254: 6251: 6247: 6244: 6243: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6196:East Timorese 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6170: 6167: 6165: 6162: 6161: 6160: 6157: 6155: 6152: 6150: 6147: 6145: 6142: 6140: 6137: 6135: 6132: 6130: 6127: 6123: 6120: 6118: 6115: 6113: 6110: 6108: 6105: 6103: 6100: 6098: 6095: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6084: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6061: 6058: 6056: 6053: 6052: 6051: 6048: 6046: 6043: 6041: 6038: 6036: 6033: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6023: 6021: 6018: 6016: 6013: 6009: 6006: 6004: 6001: 5999: 5996: 5994: 5991: 5989: 5986: 5984: 5981: 5979: 5976: 5974: 5971: 5970: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5961: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5944: 5941: 5939: 5936: 5934: 5931: 5929: 5926: 5924: 5921: 5919: 5916: 5914: 5911: 5909: 5906: 5904: 5901: 5899: 5896: 5894: 5891: 5889: 5886: 5884: 5881: 5879: 5876: 5872: 5869: 5867: 5864: 5862: 5859: 5857: 5854: 5852: 5849: 5847: 5844: 5842: 5839: 5837: 5836:Midwestern US 5834: 5832: 5829: 5827: 5824: 5822: 5819: 5817: 5814: 5813: 5812: 5809: 5807: 5804: 5802: 5799: 5797: 5794: 5793: 5791: 5789: 5784: 5780: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5766:Mediterranean 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5753: 5751: 5749: 5746: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5723: 5722: 5719: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5697: 5695: 5692: 5691: 5690: 5687: 5683: 5680: 5678: 5675: 5673: 5670: 5668: 5665: 5664: 5663: 5660: 5656: 5653: 5651: 5648: 5646: 5643: 5642: 5641: 5638: 5637: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5620: 5615: 5613: 5608: 5606: 5601: 5600: 5597: 5589: 5586: 5583: 5580: 5577: 5574: 5571: 5568: 5566: 5562: 5561: 5557: 5555: 5551: 5547: 5544: 5541: 5538: 5535: 5534: 5523: 5517: 5512: 5511: 5505: 5504:Waldron, Tony 5500: 5496: 5492: 5488: 5482: 5478: 5473: 5469: 5463: 5458: 5457: 5450: 5446: 5444:0-85115-611-8 5440: 5435: 5434: 5427: 5423: 5417: 5413: 5408: 5404: 5400: 5396: 5390: 5386: 5381: 5377: 5375:0-521-49923-2 5371: 5366: 5365: 5358: 5354: 5348: 5344: 5339: 5335: 5333:0-271-01230-7 5329: 5324: 5323: 5316: 5312: 5310:0-19-820161-3 5306: 5301: 5300: 5293: 5289: 5287:0-275-94926-5 5283: 5279: 5274: 5270: 5268:0-415-96930-1 5264: 5259: 5258: 5251: 5247: 5241: 5236: 5235: 5229: 5225: 5221: 5219:0-00-632841-5 5215: 5210: 5209: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5190: 5188:0-85976-145-2 5184: 5180: 5175: 5171: 5167: 5163: 5157: 5153: 5152: 5146: 5142: 5136: 5132: 5127: 5123: 5117: 5113: 5108: 5104: 5102:0-8122-3224-0 5098: 5094: 5093: 5087: 5083: 5077: 5073: 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1885: 1883: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1857: 1853: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1834: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1802: 1798: 1789: 1788: 1783: 1778: 1769: 1767: 1766:baker's dozen 1763: 1758: 1753: 1752: 1747: 1738: 1734: 1729: 1725: 1723: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1695: 1691: 1687: 1683: 1679: 1674: 1672: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1656: 1652: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1619: 1617: 1613: 1608: 1598: 1589: 1587: 1583: 1579: 1575: 1570: 1567: 1563: 1558: 1550: 1549: 1544: 1539: 1530: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1495: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1463: 1454: 1452: 1448: 1444: 1443: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1427:, page boys, 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1402: 1397: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1361: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1328: 1326: 1321: 1317: 1312: 1304: 1300: 1299: 1298:The Decameron 1294: 1289: 1280: 1277: 1273: 1269: 1264: 1262: 1258: 1254: 1250: 1246: 1242: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1226: 1222: 1218: 1214: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1193: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1179:, were thin. 1178: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1160: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1135: 1134: 1129: 1124: 1115: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1076: 1072: 1068: 1064: 1060: 1055: 1053: 1048: 1044: 1039: 1036: 1031: 1029: 1025: 1024:table manners 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 1006: 1002: 994:, about 1410. 993: 992: 987: 983: 979: 975: 974:Duke of Berry 971: 967: 958: 956: 952: 948: 944: 941: 937: 933: 929: 925: 921: 916: 912: 904: 900: 896: 892: 888: 884: 880: 875: 866: 864: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 840: 836: 832: 830: 826: 822: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 794: 793:Low Countries 790: 786: 785:British Isles 779: 769: 767: 761: 758: 754: 750: 746: 741: 737: 732: 708: 693: 689: 684: 673: 669: 667: 663: 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 635: 631: 627: 623: 619: 615: 611: 607: 603: 599: 594: 590: 586: 581: 579: 574: 569: 564: 562: 558: 551: 541: 539: 533: 531: 527: 523: 519: 515: 511: 508:ranging from 507: 503: 499: 495: 491: 487: 483: 479: 469: 467: 463: 459: 455: 451: 447: 443: 439: 433: 430: 426: 422: 418: 414: 410: 406: 399:, about 1480. 397: 392: 387: 382: 377: 375: 371: 367: 361: 359: 355: 351: 347: 343: 339: 335: 327: 323: 322: 315: 305: 299: 291: 281: 279: 274: 270: 266: 259:Dietary norms 256: 254: 250: 246: 242: 238: 234: 230: 226: 222: 218: 214: 210: 206: 202: 198: 194: 190: 185: 183: 182:working class 179: 175: 174:nouveau riche 171: 167: 162: 157: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 135: 131: 127: 123: 119: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 95: 91: 87: 83: 79: 75: 71: 67: 63: 59: 57: 53: 49: 45: 41: 37: 29: 23: 19: 8552: 8538:Architecture 8510:Great Famine 8500:Universities 8440:Hussite Wars 8357:Great Schism 8244:Papal States 7947:Note by Note 7925:New American 7858: 7614:Pontic Greek 7495:South Indian 7490:North Indian 7161:Extremaduran 7051:Saint Lucian 6725:South Korean 6720:North Korean 6584:Palembangese 6512:Uttarakhandi 5998:Saint Helena 5988:Gibraltarian 5856:Puerto Rican 5582:Book chapter 5559: 5509: 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Retrieved 3549: 3541: 3536: 3528: 3523: 3514: 3505: 3496: 3487: 3466: 3457: 3358: 3348: 3337: 3331: 3319: 3317: 3310: 3307: 3293: 3283: 3280: 3261: 3244: 3241: 3237: 3229: 3219: 3212: 3200: 3193: 3181: 3171: 3167: 3159: 3143: 3135: 3119: 3118: 3114:Torte de Bry 3113: 3109: 3078:Anglo-Norman 3067: 3039: 3034: 3017:salt cellars 3006: 2999: 2991: 2942: 2865:black pepper 2859: 2851: 2835: 2823: 2819: 2803: 2802: 2771: 2764:distillation 2753: 2740: 2705: 2693: 2678: 2671: 2667: 2661: 2645: 2641: 2631: 2615: 2561: 2543: 2507:bactericides 2492: 2489: 2482: 2455: 2405: 2370:), mulberry 2363: 2334: 2314: 2308: 2209: 2201:Frederick II 2183: 2175: 2170:Fishing for 2152: 2073: 2036:suckling pig 1993: 1972:whey cheeses 1966:and Italian 1953: 1941: 1933: 1893:kidney beans 1886: 1837: 1809:pomegranates 1793: 1785: 1749: 1742: 1736: 1688:, broth, or 1675: 1620: 1603: 1586:John Lydgate 1577: 1571: 1554: 1546: 1460: 1457:Preservation 1450: 1440: 1415:, sauciers, 1406: 1385: 1381: 1344:waffle irons 1329: 1308: 1296: 1265: 1190: 1186: 1181: 1139: 1131: 1104:Peter Damian 1056: 1032: 1016:rere-suppers 1010:advised the 997: 989: 985: 954: 942: 935: 908: 903:Jean Fouquet 898: 833: 821:pomegranates 815:wine) while 781: 762: 733: 679: 670: 582: 578:putrefaction 565: 553: 534: 475: 434: 402: 379: 362: 331: 318: 283: 262: 213:black pepper 186: 178:Social norms 158: 136:, and other 60: 35: 34: 18: 8767:WikiProject 8694:Medievalism 8533:Agriculture 8397:Manorialism 8392:Communalism 8387:Monasticism 8304:Reconquista 8294:Kievan Rus' 8134:WikiProject 7714:Kosher food 7096:Singaporean 7086:Seychellois 7061:Sammarinese 6944:Palestinian 6904:New Zealand 6874:Montenegrin 6844:Mauritanian 6839:Marshallese 6651:Piedmontese 6579:Minangkabau 6549:Gorontalese 6330:Heptanesean 6246:Kapampangan 6169:Greenlandic 6045:Cameroonian 5913:Bangladeshi 5903:Azerbaijani 5861:Southern US 5846:New Mexican 5841:New English 5816:Californian 5633:Continental 5576:Information 5495:j.ctt3fj2zx 4631:Black Death 4211:, page 198. 4158:, page 163. 3743:Eur Spine J 3722:17 December 3383:Food portal 3209:sponge cake 3156:Montpellier 3048:mulled wine 2918:long pepper 2904:offered to 2778:distillates 2750:Distillates 2720:Netherlands 2712:monasteries 2681:Carolingian 2644:was called 2593:Reconquista 2573:Scandinavia 2511:mulled wine 2499:white grape 2494:Le Viandier 2344:pomegranate 2326:bourgeoisie 1951:its place. 1780:Harvesting 1507:lemon juice 1332:frying pans 1318:a separate 1207:with fish ( 982:salt cellar 943:rèire-sopar 891:salt cellar 863:almond milk 797:Scandinavia 787:, northern 683:Black Death 598:confections 438:Benedictine 415:, and even 253:almond milk 44:Middle Ages 42:during the 8689:Land terms 8643:Technology 8623:Philosophy 8603:Literature 8568:Demography 8269:Viking Age 7957:Vegetarian 7736:Historical 7480:Indonesian 7428:Indonesian 7398:Australian 7320:Zimbabwean 7300:Vietnamese 7295:Venezuelan 7183:Sri Lankan 7151:Cantabrian 7126:Andalusian 7076:Senegalese 7056:Salvadoran 7004:Circassian 6974:Portuguese 6959:Paraguayan 6949:Panamanian 6909:Nicaraguan 6884:Mozambican 6864:Monégasque 6817:Sarawakian 6792:Macedonian 6782:Lithuanian 6646:Neapolitan 6519:Indonesian 6477:Rajasthani 6452:Meghalayan 6427:Jharkhandi 6382:Arunachali 6337:Guatemalan 6268:La Réunion 6201:Ecuadorian 6176:Djiboutian 5923:Belarusian 5893:Australian 5821:Floribbean 4936:References 4637:, page 36. 4379:, page 11. 4233:, page 89. 4198:, page 18. 3355:Vinidarius 3292:, and the 3276:sandalwood 3205:terracotta 3037:Old French 2804:Aqua vitae 2773:aqua vitae 2736:small beer 2732:John Locke 2618:bad breath 2602:camel milk 2412:buttermilk 2352:blackberry 2246:including 2224:Baltic Sea 1882:sauerkraut 1877:flatulence 1869:field peas 1865:fava beans 1647:nutritious 1527:buttermilk 1494:fermenting 1411:, bakers, 1276:gastronomy 1272:huff paste 1268:shortcrust 1233:condiments 1052:high table 936:reresopers 887:Wenceslaus 600:made from 500:, and the 462:misericord 381:loopholes. 342:Christians 309:The Church 197:sweet-sour 193:seasonings 172:among the 118:vegetables 8674:Dark Ages 8583:Household 8578:Hastilude 8347:Feudalism 8036:sociology 7915:Fast food 7910:Classique 7774:Byzantine 7675:Mennonite 7660:Christian 7648:Religious 7609:Peranakan 7557:Sephardic 7542:Ethiopian 7532:Ashkenazi 7485:Malaysian 7438:Pakistani 7433:Malaysian 7408:Cambodian 7358:Aromanian 7290:Vanuatuan 7280:Uruguayan 7275:Ukrainian 7228:Zanzibari 7223:Tanzanian 7213:Taiwanese 7176:Valencian 7171:Manchegan 7106:Slovenian 7019:Mordovian 6939:Pakistani 6929:Norwegian 6869:Mongolian 6849:Mauritian 6824:Maldivian 6807:Malaysian 6700:Jordanian 6661:Sardinian 6621:Abruzzese 6589:Sundanese 6574:Minahasan 6497:Telangana 6482:Sikkimese 6432:Karnataka 6367:Icelandic 6362:Hungarian 6231:Ethiopian 6181:Dominican 6134:Congolese 6129:Colombian 6097:Hong Kong 6092:Cantonese 6060:Québécois 6040:Cambodian 6035:Burundian 6025:Burkinabé 6020:Bulgarian 5973:Anguillia 5963:Brazilian 5943:Bhutanese 5918:Barbadian 5883:Argentine 5704:Levantine 5694:Caucasian 5667:Caribbean 5570:Resources 5197:160758319 5170:106720072 4831:0775-955X 4579:29 August 4558:", §16–19 3957:lengths." 3346:in 1563. 3300:found at 3252:Cookbooks 3186:ice cream 3140:coriander 3040:desservir 2926:spikenard 2832:Nuremberg 2820:Hausbrand 2812:moonshine 2794:entremets 2786:rosewater 2663:poset ale 2626:urination 2598:olive oil 2432:Old World 2385:baptismal 2368:slivovitz 2236:North Sea 2194:porpoises 2140:barnacles 2116:entremets 2092:partridge 2076:pheasants 2056:porcupine 2024:Goat meat 1861:chickpeas 1710:doughnuts 1702:turnovers 1659:chestnuts 1631:buckwheat 1605:century, 1562:fast food 1478:stockfish 1453:of coal. 1437:scullions 1429:milkmaids 1417:larderers 1403:, Tuscany 1360:cauldrons 1354:to whole 1229:dietetics 1154:community 1063:trenchers 1047:etiquette 961:Etiquette 955:nuncheons 924:breakfast 920:Moralists 835:Olive oil 766:arthritis 568:digestion 544:Dietetics 494:commoners 466:refectory 429:Byzantine 298:catechism 290:threshing 278:Augustine 273:Eucharist 237:thickener 8782:Category 8757:Category 8724:Timeline 8613:Minstrel 8608:Medicine 8490:Chivalry 8445:Burgundy 8367:Crusades 8124:Cookbook 8104:Category 8006:Cookbook 7988:Prepared 7952:Nouvelle 7930:Eurasian 7859:Medieval 7655:Buddhist 7589:Ossetian 7574:Livonian 7552:Moroccan 7537:Bukharan 7527:American 7465:Hazaragi 7443:Peruvian 7418:Filipino 7413:Canadian 7393:American 7363:Assyrian 7260:Tuvaluan 7245:Tunisian 7240:Togolese 7188:Sudanese 7166:Galician 7146:Canarian 7136:Balearic 7131:Asturian 6984:Romanian 6964:Peruvian 6919:Nigerian 6899:Nepalese 6889:Namibian 6879:Moroccan 6859:Moldovan 6802:Malawian 6797:Malagasy 6767:Liberian 6757:Lebanese 6693:Okinawan 6688:Japanese 6683:Jamaican 6671:Venetian 6666:Sicilian 6641:Lucanian 6631:Ligurian 6569:Makassar 6564:Madurese 6559:Javanese 6529:Balinese 6524:Acehnese 6447:Manipuri 6422:Kashmiri 6417:Haryanvi 6412:Gujarati 6387:Assamese 6357:Honduran 6320:Epirotic 6305:Ghanaian 6295:Georgian 6285:Gabonese 6263:Corsican 6241:Filipino 6226:Estonian 6221:Eritrean 6206:Egyptian 6139:Croatian 6122:Xinjiang 6107:Shandong 6102:Macanese 6050:Canadian 6015:Bruneian 6003:Scottish 5958:Botswana 5948:Bolivian 5938:Beninese 5933:Belizean 5908:Bahraini 5898:Austrian 5888:Armenian 5826:Hawaiian 5811:American 5806:Algerian 5801:Albanian 5788:regional 5783:National 5748:Oceanian 5721:European 5662:Americas 5626:Cuisines 5546:Archived 5230:(2008). 4927:silphium 4573:Archived 4271:Archived 3773:17390155 3716:Archived 3559:Archived 3369:See also 3272:pheasant 3232:foodways 3182:confetti 3090:cherries 3074:Marzipan 3064:darioles 3060:custards 3025:sea salt 3002:verjuice 2930:galangal 2914:cardamom 2898:turmeric 2869:cinnamon 2768:alembics 2724:Flanders 2639:cookbook 2540:hypocras 2516:cardamom 2462:red wine 2364:prunellé 2348:mulberry 2260:crayfish 2256:scallops 2244:mollusks 2222:and the 2220:Atlantic 2172:lampreys 2146:(1215), 2052:hedgehog 1968:Parmesan 1905:tomatoes 1889:potatoes 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