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of the orbital spin of electrons about the nuclei of an atom induced electromagnetically by the application of an applied field. In superconductors the illusion of perfect diamagnetism arises from persistent screening currents which flow to oppose the applied field (the
Meissner effect); not solely the orbital spin.
1133:
explained by infinite conductivity, but only by the London equation. The placement and subsequent levitation of a magnet above an already superconducting material does not demonstrate the
Meissner effect, while an initially stationary magnet later being repelled by a superconductor as it is cooled below its critical
954:
as long as the current is not too large. Some type-II superconductors exhibit a small but finite resistance in the mixed state due to motion of the flux vortices induced by the
Lorentz forces from the current. As the cores of the vortices are normal electrons, their motion will have dissipation. At a
1216:
in 1935. This theory explained resistanceless transport and the
Meissner effect, and allowed the first theoretical predictions for superconductivity to be made. However, this theory only explained experimental observationsâit did not allow the microscopic origins of the superconducting properties to
1195:
are defined by the generation of a spontaneous magnetization of a material which directly opposes the direction of an applied field. However, the fundamental origins of diamagnetism in superconductors and normal materials are very different. In normal materials diamagnetism arises as a direct result
1132:
at zero resistance. However, the
Meissner effect is distinct from this: when an ordinary conductor is cooled so that it makes the transition to a superconducting state in the presence of a constant applied magnetic field, the magnetic flux is expelled during the transition. This effect cannot be
1148:. A reason this is not the case is that no change in flux was made to induce the current. Another explanation is that since the superconductor experiences zero resistance, there cannot be an induced emf in the superconductor. The persisting current therefore is not a result of Faraday's Law.
909:
A superconductor with little or no magnetic field within it is said to be in the
Meissner state. The Meissner state breaks down when the applied magnetic field is too strong. Superconductors can be divided into two classes according to how this breakdown occurs.
1227:
1272:
The cylinder has been cooled from 4.2 K to 1.6 K. The current in the electromagnet has been kept constant, but the tin became superconducting at about 3 K. Magnetic flux has been expelled from the cylinder (the
Meissner
1247:
1064:
889:
discovered this phenomenon in 1933 by measuring the magnetic field distribution outside superconducting tin and lead samples. The samples, in the presence of an applied magnetic field, were cooled below their
898:
is conserved by a superconductor: when the interior field decreases, the exterior field increases. The experiment demonstrated for the first time that superconductors were more than just perfect
902:
and provided a uniquely defining property of the superconductor state. The ability for the expulsion effect is determined by the nature of equilibrium formed by the neutralization within the
1962:
pp. 486â489 gives a simple mathematical discussion of the surface currents responsible for the
Meissner effect, in the case of a long magnet levitated above a superconducting plane.
1114:
the internal bulk of the superconductor from the external applied field. As the field expulsion, or cancellation, does not change with time, the currents producing this effect (called
1339:
1439:
1189:
1221:
in 1957, from which the penetration depth and the
Meissner effect result. However, some physicists argue that BCS theory does not explain the Meissner effect.
590:
846:
Diagram of the
Meissner effect. Magnetic field lines, represented as arrows, are excluded from a superconductor when it is below its critical temperature.
563:
1160:, meaning that the total magnetic field is very close to zero deep inside them (many penetration depths from the surface). This means that their volume
575:
2379:
1233:
A tin cylinderâin a Dewar flask filled with liquid heliumâhas been placed between the poles of an electromagnet. The magnetic field is about 8
1942:
By the man who explained the Meissner effect. pp. 34â37 gives a technical discussion of the Meissner effect for a superconducting sphere.
1092:
emerged during the phase transition from conductor to superconductor, for example by reducing the temperature below critical temperature.
2049:
1015:
870:
during its transition to the superconducting state when it is cooled below the critical temperature. This expulsion will repel a nearby
2112:
1860:
826:
595:
1095:
In a weak applied field (less than the critical field that breaks down the superconducting phase), a superconductor expels nearly all
2022:
1260:= 8 mT (80 G). Tin is in the normally conducting state. The compass needles indicate that magnetic flux permeates the cylinder.
605:
430:
1975:
1955:
1935:
1140:
The persisting currents that exist in the superconductor to expel the magnetic field is commonly misconceived as a result of
1125:, the magnetic field is not completely canceled. Each superconducting material has its own characteristic penetration depth.
894:, whereupon the samples cancelled nearly all interior magnetic fields. They detected this effect only indirectly because the
445:
440:
67:
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2209:
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2003:
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of regions of normal material carrying a magnetic field mixed with regions of superconducting material containing no field.
455:
1111:
2319:
965:, superconductivity is destroyed. The mixed state is caused by vortices in the electronic superfluid, sometimes called
891:
2407:
1605:
57:
325:
2128:
1205:
1460:
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2042:
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62:
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918:, superconductivity is abruptly destroyed when the strength of the applied field rises above a critical value
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2300:
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2219:
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The Meissner superconductivity effect serves as an important paradigm for the generation mechanism of a mass
1145:
600:
305:
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from whatever value it possesses at the surface. This exclusion of magnetic field is a manifestation of the
2502:
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1128:
Any perfect conductor will prevent any change to magnetic flux passing through its surface due to ordinary
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Short video from Imperial College London about the Meissner effect and levitating trains of the future.
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Callaway, D. J. E. (1990). "On the remarkable structure of the superconducting intermediate state".
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925:. Depending on the geometry of the sample, one may obtain an intermediate state consisting of a
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1167:
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570:
340:
115:
2017:
1992:
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Meissner, W.; Ochsenfeld, R. (1933). "Ein neuer Effekt bei Eintritt der SupraleitfÀhigkeit".
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Hirsch, J. E. (2012). "The origin of the Meissner effect in new and old superconductors".
989:, are type I, while almost all impure and compound superconductors are type II.
32:
8:
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leads to a mixed state (also known as the vortex state) in which an increasing amount of
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within the London penetration depth from the surface. These surface currents
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997:
The Meissner effect was given a phenomenological explanation by the brothers
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by setting up electric currents near its surface, as the magnetic field
2072:
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1218:
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Superconductors in the Meissner state exhibit perfect diamagnetism, or
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903:
738:
713:
525:
47:
2027:
2387:
2014:
is a state variable/Meissner effect/Energy gap (Giaever)/BCS model.
1059:{\displaystyle \nabla ^{2}\mathbf {H} =\lambda ^{-2}\mathbf {H} \,}
490:
485:
105:
1926:. Structure of matter series. Vol. 1 (Revised 2nd ed.).
1717:
1904:(1922). "Theoretical remark on the superconductivity of metals".
1799:
Wilczek, F. (2000). "The recent excitement in high-density QCD".
982:
970:
460:
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penetrates the material, but there remains no resistance to the
842:
966:
871:
545:
52:
2443:
2417:
1927:
2476:
1758:"Spontaneous symmetry breakdown without massless bosons"
1657:
1084:, predicts that the magnetic field in a superconductor
1658:
Bardeen, J.; Cooper, L. N.; Schrieffer, J. R. (1957).
1993:
The Meissner effect - The Feynman Lectures on Physics
1420:
1297:
1170:
1018:
1456:
1922:(1960). "Macroscopic Theory of Superconductivity".
1278:
839:
Expulsion of a magnetic field from a superconductor
1542:
1433:
1333:
1183:
1058:
936:, raising the applied field past a critical value
1217:be identified. This was done successfully by the
2494:
1970:. Dover Books on Physics (2nd ed.). Dover.
1204:The discovery of the Meissner effect led to the
1587:
1118:or screening currents) do not decay with time.
969:because the flux carried by these vortices is
2043:
820:
2023:Historical Background of the Meissner Effect
1856:"Superconductivity for particular theorists"
2050:
2036:
1861:Progress of Theoretical Physics Supplement
1009:in a superconductor is minimized provided
827:
813:
31:
1909:
1881:
1814:
1783:
1716:
1685:
1055:
1900:
1853:
1620:
1588:Landau, L. D.; Lifschitz, E. M. (1984).
1536:
841:
1965:
1798:
1151:
576:Electromagnetism and special relativity
2495:
1998:Meissner Effect (Science from scratch)
1945:
1918:
1700:
1005:, who showed that the electromagnetic
892:superconducting transition temperature
2057:
2031:
1755:
596:Maxwell equations in curved spacetime
2006:Video about Type 1 Superconductors:
1369:, which generates the masses of the
1334:{\displaystyle \lambda _{M}:=h/(Mc)}
1590:Electrodynamics of Continuous Media
1073:is the magnetic field and λ is the
13:
1894:
1020:
14:
2524:
2004:Introduction to superconductivity
1986:
1968:Introduction to Superconductivity
1948:Electricity, Magnetism, and Light
1473:
1459:
1279:Paradigm for the Higgs mechanism
1265:
1246:
1226:
1051:
1030:
1208:theory of superconductivity by
1199:
955:second critical field strength
2018:Meissner Effect (Hyperphysics)
1847:
1792:
1749:
1735:10.1088/0031-8949/85/03/035704
1694:
1651:
1614:
1596:. Vol. 8 (2nd ed.).
1581:
1511:
1361:. In fact, this analogy is an
1328:
1319:
992:
1:
1833:10.1016/S0375-9474(99)00601-6
1660:"Theory of superconductivity"
1594:Course of Theoretical Physics
1504:
1121:Near the surface, within the
601:Relativistic electromagnetism
2010:= 0/Transition temperatures/
1645:10.1016/0550-3213(90)90672-Z
1434:{\displaystyle \lambda _{M}}
1080:This equation, known as the
7:
1982:A good technical reference.
1519:"Meissner effect | physics"
1452:
10:
2529:
2380:Technological applications
326:LiĂ©nardâWiechert potential
2431:
2378:
2333:
2309:
2288:
2252:
2243:
2152:
2122:Characteristic parameters
2121:
2065:
1184:{\displaystyle \chi _{v}}
1130:electromagnetic induction
860:MeiĂnerâOchsenfeld effect
591:Mathematical descriptions
301:Electromagnetic radiation
291:Electromagnetic induction
231:Magnetic vector potential
226:Magnetic scalar potential
2139:London penetration depth
1785:10.1103/PhysRev.145.1156
1443:London penetration depth
1123:London penetration depth
1075:London penetration depth
981:superconductors, except
862:) is the expulsion of a
852:condensed-matter physics
2432:List of superconductors
2310:By critical temperature
1687:10.1103/physrev.106.162
1523:Encyclopedia Britannica
1162:magnetic susceptibility
934:type-II superconductors
141:Electrostatic induction
136:Electrostatic discharge
1946:Saslow, W. M. (2002).
1441:is identical with the
1435:
1335:
1185:
1060:
916:type-I superconductors
877:The German physicists
847:
571:Electromagnetic tensor
2078:Bean's critical state
1854:Weinberg, S. (1986).
1756:Higgs, P. W. (1966).
1598:Butterworth-Heinemann
1436:
1336:
1186:
1061:
906:of a superconductor.
845:
564:Covariant formulation
356:Synchrotron radiation
296:Electromagnetic pulse
286:Electromagnetic field
2253:By magnetic response
1966:Tinkham, M. (2004).
1418:
1295:
1287:(i.e., a reciprocal
1168:
1152:Perfect diamagnetism
1086:decays exponentially
1016:
606:Stressâenergy tensor
531:Reluctance (complex)
276:Displacement current
2503:Magnetic levitation
2205:persistent currents
2190:LittleâParks effect
1874:1986PThPS..86...43W
1825:2000NuPhA.663..257W
1776:1966PhRv..145.1156H
1727:2012PhyS...85c5704H
1678:1957PhRv..106..162B
1637:1990NuPhB.344..627C
1559:1933NW.....21..787M
1546:Naturwissenschaften
1412:high-energy physics
1410:gauge particles in
1116:persistent currents
521:Magnetomotive force
406:Electromotive force
376:Alternating current
311:Jefimenko equations
271:Cyclotron radiation
2165:Andreev reflection
2160:Abrikosov vortices
1883:10.1143/PTPS.86.43
1567:10.1007/BF01504252
1431:
1331:
1181:
1056:
848:
369:Electrical network
206:Gauss magnetic law
171:Static electricity
131:Electric potential
2513:Superconductivity
2508:Quantum magnetism
2490:
2489:
2408:quantum computing
2374:
2373:
2230:superdiamagnetism
2059:Superconductivity
1977:978-0-486-43503-9
1957:978-0-12-619455-5
1937:978-0-486-60044-4
1802:Nuclear Physics A
1672:(1175): 162â164.
1624:Nuclear Physics B
1447:superconductivity
1445:in the theory of
1158:superdiamagnetism
1090:superdiamagnetism
887:Robert Ochsenfeld
837:
836:
536:Reluctance (real)
506:Gyratorâcapacitor
451:Resonant cavities
341:Maxwell equations
2520:
2439:bilayer graphene
2413:Rutherford cable
2325:room temperature
2320:high temperature
2250:
2249:
2210:proximity effect
2185:Josephson effect
2129:coherence length
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1981:
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1770:(4): 1156â1163.
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1206:phenomenological
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987:carbon nanotubes
952:electric current
829:
822:
815:
496:Electric machine
479:Magnetic circuit
441:Parallel circuit
431:Network analysis
396:Electric current
331:London equations
176:Triboelectricity
166:Potential energy
35:
25:Electromagnetism
16:
15:
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2316:low temperature
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2195:Meissner effect
2148:
2144:Silsbee current
2117:
2083:GinzburgâLandau
2061:
2056:
1989:
1978:
1958:
1938:
1911:physics/0510251
1897:
1895:Further reading
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1852:
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1797:
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1763:Physical Review
1754:
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1704:Physica Scripta
1699:
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1665:Physical Review
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1553:(44): 787â788.
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1367:Higgs mechanism
1347:Planck constant
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1082:London equation
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1037:
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1019:
1017:
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995:
964:
945:
927:baroque pattern
923:
879:Walther MeiĂner
856:Meissner effect
840:
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611:
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511:Induction motor
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386:Current density
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351:Poynting vector
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259:Electrodynamics
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246:Right-hand rule
211:Magnetic dipole
201:BiotâSavart law
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116:Electric dipole
111:Electric charge
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2334:By composition
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2301:unconventional
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2289:By explanation
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2245:Classification
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2103:MattisâBardeen
2100:
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2088:KohnâLuttinger
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1987:External links
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1984:
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1893:
1890:
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1816:hep-ph/9908480
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1631:(3): 627â645.
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1494:Silsbee effect
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1481:Science portal
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1467:Physics portal
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1355:speed of light
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1040:
1036:
1032:
1026:
1022:
994:
991:
975:
974:
959:
940:
930:
921:
868:superconductor
864:magnetic field
838:
835:
834:
832:
831:
824:
817:
809:
806:
805:
802:
801:
796:
791:
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781:
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771:
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631:
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613:
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586:Four-potential
583:
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501:Electric motor
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477:
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473:
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469:
468:
463:
458:
456:Series circuit
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
426:Kirchhoff laws
423:
418:
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408:
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398:
393:
391:Direct current
388:
383:
378:
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367:
366:
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359:
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353:
348:
346:Maxwell tensor
343:
338:
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328:
323:
318:
316:Larmor formula
313:
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298:
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283:
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266:Bremsstrahlung
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91:Charge density
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84:Electrostatics
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28:
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19:Articles about
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4:
3:
2:
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2351:heavy fermion
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2321:
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2280:ferromagnetic
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2255:
2251:
2248:
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2019:
2016:
2013:
2009:
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1969:
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1949:
1944:
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1929:
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1920:London, F. W.
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1414:. The length
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1146:Faraday's Law
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1113:
1109:
1106:
1105:magnetization
1102:
1098:
1097:magnetic flux
1093:
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949:
948:magnetic flux
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454:
452:
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437:
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432:
429:
427:
424:
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421:Joule heating
419:
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365:
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357:
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352:
349:
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344:
342:
339:
337:
336:Lorentz force
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236:Magnetization
234:
232:
229:
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224:
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221:Magnetic flux
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209:
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199:
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129:
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126:Electric flux
124:
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119:
117:
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63:Computational
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44:
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40:
39:
38:
34:
30:
29:
26:
23:
22:
18:
17:
2361:oxypnictides
2296:conventional
2235:superstripes
2194:
2180:flux pumping
2175:flux pinning
2170:Cooper pairs
2011:
2007:
1967:
1950:. Academic.
1947:
1923:
1902:Einstein, A.
1865:
1859:
1849:
1806:
1800:
1794:
1767:
1761:
1751:
1708:
1702:
1696:
1669:
1663:
1653:
1628:
1622:
1616:
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1550:
1544:
1538:
1526:. Retrieved
1522:
1513:
1489:Flux pinning
1350:
1342:
1288:
1284:
1282:
1257:
1253:
1214:Heinz London
1203:
1200:Consequences
1193:Diamagnetics
1155:
1139:
1127:
1120:
1107:
1100:
1094:
1079:
1070:
1068:
1003:Heinz London
996:
976:
960:
956:
941:
937:
919:
908:
882:
881:(anglicized
876:
859:
855:
849:
581:Four-current
516:Linear motor
401:Electrolysis
281:Eddy current
241:Permeability
161:Polarization
156:Permittivity
2220:SU(2) color
2200:Homes's law
1924:Superfluids
1809:: 257â271.
1371:electroweak
1359:gauge field
1135:temperature
1007:free energy
993:Explanation
551:Transformer
381:Capacitance
306:Faraday law
101:Coulomb law
43:Electricity
2497:Categories
2356:iron-based
2215:reentrance
1505:References
1499:Superfluid
1235:millitesla
1219:BCS theory
1142:Lenz's Law
977:Most pure
900:conductors
618:Scientists
466:Waveguides
446:Resistance
416:Inductance
196:AmpĂšre law
2153:Phenomena
1868:: 43â53.
1841:119354272
1743:118418121
1718:1201.0139
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1300:λ
1173:χ
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1039:λ
1021:∇
979:elemental
971:quantized
904:unit cell
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704:Kirchhoff
689:Jefimenko
684:Hopkinson
669:Helmholtz
664:Heaviside
526:Permeance
411:Impedance
151:Insulator
146:Gauss law
96:Conductor
73:Phenomena
68:Textbooks
48:Magnetism
2388:cryotron
2346:cuprates
2341:covalent
2098:Matthias
2066:Theories
1575:37842752
1528:22 April
1453:See also
1357:) for a
1273:effect).
1103:induces
883:Meissner
799:Wiechert
754:Poynting
644:Einstein
491:DC motor
486:AC motor
321:Lenz law
106:Electret
2482:more...
2366:organic
1870:Bibcode
1821:Bibcode
1772:Bibcode
1723:Bibcode
1674:Bibcode
1633:Bibcode
1555:Bibcode
1363:abelian
1353:is the
1345:is the
983:niobium
967:fluxons
866:from a
784:Thomson
759:Ritchie
749:Poisson
734:Neumann
729:Maxwell
724:Lorentz
719:Liénard
649:Faraday
634:Coulomb
461:Voltage
436:Ohm law
58:History
2259:Types
2093:London
1974:
1954:
1934:
1839:
1741:
1604:
1573:
1341:where
1191:= â1.
1137:does.
1112:shield
1069:where
885:) and
872:magnet
854:, the
769:Singer
764:Savart
744:Ărsted
709:Larmor
699:Kelvin
654:Fizeau
624:AmpĂšre
546:Stator
53:Optics
2472:TBCCO
2444:BSCCO
2423:wires
2418:SQUID
1928:Dover
1906:arXiv
1837:S2CID
1811:arXiv
1739:S2CID
1713:arXiv
1571:S2CID
1289:range
1210:Fritz
999:Fritz
794:Weber
789:Volta
779:Tesla
694:Joule
679:Hertz
674:Henry
659:Gauss
541:Rotor
2477:YBCO
2467:NbTi
2462:NbSn
2449:LBCO
1972:ISBN
1952:ISBN
1932:ISBN
1602:ISBN
1530:2017
1391:and
1349:and
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1212:and
1001:and
985:and
858:(or
714:Lenz
639:Davy
629:Biot
2454:MgB
2403:NMR
2398:MRI
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2113:WHH
2108:RVB
2073:BCS
1878:doi
1829:doi
1807:663
1780:doi
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1731:doi
1682:doi
1670:106
1641:doi
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