Monarchy in ancient India

418:), the king played no direct role at all; it is not his responsibility to "propound any superstitious idea, to lay down any part of righteousness," or to help define "what is or is not religion" nor determine its practice. On the contrary, the king was to act as the enforcer and sometimes intermediary through which the "imperial sacrificial ceremonies" occurred. Indeed, a special "affinity with the gods," most notably Indra, resulting from his role in personally conducting special sacrifice and ensuring others likewise performed the rites is mentioned as a source of the king's authority. Examples of such sacrifices include the 414:

between the king and his subjects: the king's salvation "depends on his subjects, for he suffers the consequences of their sins and profits from the merits they acquire". Similarly, his subjects depend on him, for if he "protects them as he should," his people may devote themselves "to their duties". Moreover, while power was increasingly located within the king, his role was maintained within a set of boundaries and the role he played within society did not extend into previously untouched areas. For example, within the matter of spiritual salvation (i.e.

217: 664:

was fixed by the people, the taxes are paid to the king as a wage for his protection and the king has to answer to the people. From this it can be concluded that the king has the right to tax, it is the duty of the people to pay taxes, and the duty is conditional on the performance of the king in his duties. This idea of the king’s performance in protection in relationship to taxation is so important that some texts require the king to compensate for any stolen goods he failed to recover.

542: 186:

that which does not have enduring worth,” in other words, by not attaching themselves to their actions and thinking of only the end result of their action. Enabling, and if necessary enforcing everyone to behave this way, “leads finally to escape from karma” and thus achieves the spiritual goal of brahma, escape from the cycle of samsara.

506:) should be chosen based on cleverness and the ability to decipher hints and gestures, i.e., to read a rival king's appearance for clues as to his intentions and general disposition. The role of the envoy was vital for both diplomacy and reconnaissance. The importance of the role of the envoy can be seen in 686:

In the early Vedic period the king collected taxes regularly from his subjects. The taxes were called bali and consisted of 1/6 the agricultural produce or cattle for a given person. Another form of bali was tributes extracted from conquered enemies by the king. There was a system in place to collect

185:

as exemplified by stories predating some of the popular epics, such as the story of Vidula in which the warrior is emotionally roused to fulfill his duties as a warrior in the face of unpleasant adversity. According to this new philosophy, rulers are to “accept and fulfill duty without ever desiring

167:

Prior to the Vedas, the formation of a military fraternity governing the local population happened. As they became absorbed into the local population, political power within the society began to change from an inter-clan system in which various clans divided up responsibilities into a more Vedic-like

713:

Duties placed on goods imported from foreign lands, produced in country parts and within the city. The rates varied between 4% and 20%. Marriage and religious commodities were except. There were other types of toll charges including: a water ferry toll, toll to enter the city, road toll and a use of

695:

This was the main tax in the post-Vedic period as it evolved out of bali. It was important source of income for the state and it was employed in every kingdom since its founding. This tax entailed the state receiving 1/6 of the produce of the land. This tax was of the profits made from the land, not

663:

This understanding was part of a bilateral contract made between the king and the people. The people would work the land and give taxes to the king for protection. The contract implies that the people submitted to a sovereign authority that they created, they volunteered to pay the tax, the tax rate

672:

The king had limitations on how he could tax. He had to know when to tax as some times were better than others. The amount the person was taxed was to be determined by the nature of the person. If they had gotten rich from doing wrong, they were to be highly taxed, those who were prosperous were to

654:

The king's right to tax was the logical next step after the theory of absolute ownership of lands by the king. Manu describes the king as the absolute lord of the land and as such, the king was entitled to his share in the produce of the lands. The permission of the king was needed to buy, sell and

413:

Indeed, while certain sources do mention that the king kept a cohort of religious advisers to consult in regards to various religious matters, the king remained a power unto himself for the simple fact that he bore the results of his actions and decisions, an idea grounded in the reciprocity shared

372:

The basis of the king's authority is a matter of some discrepancy in the Dharma literature. Some authors of dharma texts make it seem as though the king's power lies solely in his adherence to dharma and its preservation. His edicts are powerful only in that they are in accordance with the Law; his

586:

Dharma texts uniformly stress that the king be impartial in his judgments. Manu states that a king who is partial and unjust in his inflicting of punishment will himself be punished (7.27), saying at 8.128 that punishing one who does not deserve to be punished condemns the king to hell. Elsewhere,

673:

be taxed little by little and those who could not pay should never be taxed. The limit people could pay in taxes should not be crossed. Only profits and surpluses should be taxed. Increases should be done gradually and at the proper time. The king should use the taxes to help benefit the people.

172:

to be achieved, the Brahmin had to correctly “instruct the others in their duties” and guide their spiritual practice; the Ksatriya, on the other hand, was invested with the “royal function” of maintaining obedience in accordance with dharma and thus ensuring that the proper practices were being

282:

agree that it is the special duty of the king to protect, to punish, and to preserve dharma for those in his kingdom. However, a new myth of the creation of kingship not found in the Dharmasūtras and differing from those found in previous Vedic literature is seen in the Dharmaśāstras. At

731:

Everyone was expected to contribute to the common good. For poor people who could not pay their taxes in kind or with money, they would have to work in state factories. Also one day of each month, each person, including Brahmins, had to work solely for the king, called Visti.

109:

largely manifests only in the form of gods as kings. Hymns directly addressed to earthly kings, like 10.173-10.175, are the exception rather than the rule. In these hymns, the king is said to have been "established" by Indra and "made victorious" by Soma and

655:

donate land. In reality, the land was the people’s own, with the king only claiming absolute ownership. As long as the people worked the land and paid their taxes, they would be fine, but otherwise, the king could exercise his power and confiscate the land.

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these taxes, but the exact details have been lost to time. Even when other forms of taxes appeared in the later periods, bali was still present. It was used a special tax that was used differently by different kingdoms in order to gain additional revenue.

722:

There were two types of sale taxes. One was a general tax of 10% placed on all goods. The other taxes placed on special goods such as jewels, land auctions and immovable objects. The punishment of tax evasion was the confiscation of the goods purchased.

173:

executed. Given that the former decided on correct spiritual action while the later enforced it, an essential cooperation arose between the two in order to ensure the performance of dharma, and this cooperation formed “one of the fundamental elements in

410:, royal decree had been placed above all other sources of law as the most powerful, abrogating all the rest. The power behind royal decrees is thus located increasingly in the king himself, even though he is still urged to preserve dharma. 704:

The state had to look over and protect the natural sources of water. Also they had to build and maintain irrigation devices such as canals. If water was taken from rivers, tanks, lakes or wells a rate of a fourth of the produce was taken.

740:

This is a tax levied on individuals. There were two forms of the poll tax. The first was a general tax was levied on every member of a family. The second was a special tax that undesirable foreigners had to pay to enter a city.

126:

agrees with the idea that kings at this time were basically on a level with tribal chiefs and were not viewed as divine. There is a provocative line at 10.124.8 which mentions people electing their king, and 3.4.2 in the

391:, and the king will govern accordingly (1.39-41). In other texts however, or even in passages in the same texts, the authority of the king involves the application of his own reason and will. So, in contrast to 168:

system in which one ruler ruled over and provided for his subjects. In this new system first emerged the ideas of brahman and ksatra, or spiritual and temporal power, respectively. In order for the communal

64:

Vedic ideas about the establishment of the office of king ultimately draw upon legends about the coronation of one god as king of all others. Legends abound as to which of the gods won this position; In the

154:

were composed, however, the king was increasingly associated with the gods through his qualities and the rituals he performed. Also by this time, kingship had transitioned to a hereditary position and the

395:

7.28-31, 8.44-45 in the same text states that the king should rely on his own powers of deduction in the administration of justice. Reasoning as a means of reaching a judgment even appears as early as the

626:

Much as an envoy is to decipher the disposition of a rival king through bodily and gestural clues, the king is advised to note a litigant's external clues while hearing cases to discern his disposition.

373:

legal decisions should be based on what is stated in the śāstras alone, not on his own will and authority. Furthermore, the king really only enforces what his Brahmin advisers declare to be dharma. The

567:. This would indicate that only the most important of cases would be heard directly by the king, i.e. cases for which a decision had not been reachable in local community or guild courts. Manu and 573:

both state that the king may either try cases himself (accompanied, of course, by Brahmin jurists), or he may appoint a Brahmin judge to oversee trials for him. Manu even allows that a non-Brahmin

519:

between ever second, third, and fifth village, and at the hundredth village. Superintendents with jurisdiction over one, ten, twenty, a hundred, and a thousand villages should also be appointed (

346:

person is forbidden to live in a country ruled over by a Śudra (4.61); likewise, Brahmins are forbidden to accept gifts from any king not of proper royal lineage (4.84). Yet commentators like

291:

created the king to restore order to the chaotic world which had existed without him. Then the Lord created Punishment (spoken of as a deity), because through punishment the world is subdued (

299:

7.107). The weak and helpless (i.e. widows, children, the mentally ill, the destitute) were to receive royal protection. Beyond protecting his subjects against each other, the king, as a

639:

8.73 to rely on what the majority of witnesses say, or else the testimony of witnesses of superior qualities; if discrepancy persists, the testimony of Brahmins is to be relied upon.

36:

was ruled by a King who functioned as its protector, a role which involved both secular and religious power. The meaning and significance of kingship changed dramatically between the

262:

18.49-50 echoes this sentiment, saying that the king's divinity is apparent in the force of his decrees: his words are law as soon as he utters them. This is in contrast to earlier

1416:

1.209-210 replaces "testimony of Brahmins" with testimony of those witnesses with the best memories. If those with the best memories disagree, the testimony is to be disqualified.

145:(10.166.4, 10.191), the governing assembly, further indicating that the early Vedic king ruled in a tribal setting where decision making by assembly still played a major role. 354:

essentially overturned such rules about the king's lineage, stating that any person recognized as having power over a territory is to be understood as king, regardless of his

696:

the gross produce. People could pay the tax either in the good produced or with money. There Also a survey would be done to assist in the proper collection of the tax.

593:

and Nārada stress that both the king and his judges be unbiased in their hearing of cases. This had religious as well as strictly legal implications; according to

609: 512:

13.328, where an involved set of preparations in made for both the dispatching and return of the dūta, including the meeting of the king with all his ministers.

48:

rulers. Although there is evidence that kingship was not always hereditary during the Vedic and into the Later Vedic period, by the time of composition of the

483:

s) should be assigned to duties based on their personal attributes, including honesty, intelligence, and cleverness. Among the tasks to be overseen by the

527:

3.9-10 has one, ten, a hundred, and a whole district). Any problems arising in villages are to be reported to progressively higher superintendents;

454:, for example, the discussion of how the king should choose his ministers directly follows the description of qualities a king should cultivate. 553:, in the fifth year of his reign (1483). Land grants made by royal decree were protected by law, with deeds often being recorded on metal plates 533:

states that when a solution is not reached by a lower superintendent, the problem must be reported to the next highest superintendent and so on.

1852: 631:

8.62-72 distinguishes who the king may or may not have questioned as a witness in connection with a trial; a greatly expanded list is given at

466:. Out of these, however, one individual should be chosen as a prime minister, and the text specifies that this individual is to be a Brahmin. 252:. This may be seen as closely related to the earlier belief that at his coronation, the king assumed various aspects of the gods. At 458:

7.54 advises the king to choose seven or eight counselors who are learned and of noble birth, without specifically defining their

1833: 450:(law of or for the king) go into great detail regarding how the king is to set up his government and manage his kingdom. In 256:

7.8, it is stated that even an infant king must never be treated with disrespect, because he is in reality a god on earth.

602:

1.65, a king who follows proper procedure in hearing lawsuits is ensured fame in this world and heaven in the afterlife.

313:

7.87, for instance, states that a king, when challenged, must never back down from a battle; indeed, doing battle is his

23: 177:’s theory of kingship”. This coincided with the development of the doctrine of the soul’s rebirth and potential release 118:. Although this implies a close dependence of the king upon the gods, the rarity of the figure of the human king in the 189:

As mentioned above, the best examples of this kind of detached devotion to duty by a king are seen in the epics of the

1779: 1756: 1737: 1696: 1659: 1640: 18:

This article is about the political theory of monarchy in ancient India. For the history of monarchy in India, see

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s were collecting taxes, supervising the royal mines, and collecting tolls for use of public transportation.

643:

1.142 states that the king should dismiss witnesses whose testimonies continuously contradict each other.

615:, the king is advised to hear cases in the morning, dressed in his regalia after having performed morning 1862: 1857: 508: 468: 307:, also had a duty to protect his subjects against external threats and wage war with rival kingdoms. 813: 623:

8.2, which states that the king's clothing during his daily hearing of court case should be modest.

148:

As was stated above, the king was not considered divine in the early Vedic period. By the time the

41: 242:

7.4, the king is said to be made out of divine particles of several gods, including Yama, Indra,

19: 1315: 1689:

Yajnavalkyasmrti: Sanskrit Text, English Translation, Notes, Introduction and Index of Verses

351: 8: 881: 616: 1768: 1033: 920: 885: 279: 1288: 549:

script on a copper plate recording a land grant made by Rāja Purushottam Deb, king of

404: 258: 1829: 1775: 1752: 1733: 1692: 1655: 1636: 877: 833: 45: 1821: 635:

1.159. Upon hearing contradictory testimony from witnesses, the king is advised at

443: 216: 1709: 1633:

Manu's Code of Law: A Critical Edition and Translation of the Mānava-Dharmaśāstra

564: 381:, for example, is explicit that Brahmins will state what is dharma for the three 51: 32:

was the predominant form of government in India until the not-too-distant past.

1302:: Critically Edited with an Introduction, Annotated Translation, and Appendices 515:

As to the organization of his kingdom, a king, according to Manu, should place

342:

who has received vedic initiation is eligible to become a king. Elsewhere, any

1825: 295:

7.22). By performing his duty as protector and punisher, the king flourishes (

1846: 550: 225: 190: 347: 1722: 1082: 1048: 818: 546: 493: 309: 266:

texts, which seem to stress the king's subordinate status in comparison to

234: 84: 37: 1620: 1429: 1385: 1369: 1359: 1329: 1316: 1297: 1286: 1270: 1251: 1200: 1155: 1108: 1090: 1055: 1013: 921: 607: 597: 588: 579:

can be appointed as a legal interpreter, but under no circumstances may a

568: 558: 528: 521: 491: 460: 402: 383: 375: 356: 337: 322: 301: 243: 149: 135: 120: 112: 102: 93: 68: 49: 44:

period, and underwent further development under the times of the Jain and

263: 129: 1177:

7.60-62. Arthaśāstra 1.8 gives a description of the differences between

56:

literature, traces of elective kingship had already begun to disappear.

1054: 343: 928: 516: 426: 385: 358: 300: 288: 1616: 828: 808: 541: 499: 420: 221: 194: 101: 67: 29: 580: 267: 182: 919:

Altekar, p. 89-90; see also Sharma, p. 165 one example from the

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Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India.

575: 415: 76: 1730:

Aspects of Political Ideas and Institutions in Ancient India

823: 238:, the divinity of the king had become well established. In 206: 88: 80: 1816:

Scharfe, Hartmut (1989-01-01). "The King and his Court".

1800:

Contributions to the History of the Hindu Revenue System

1714: 1708:. Trans. Julius Jolly. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1880. 1476:

Contributions to the History of the Hindu Revenue System

1717:

Sacred Books of the East: The Laws of Manus (Vol. XXV)

1294:, takes this to be the verse's import. See Lariviere, 646:

Following this inquiry, the case may be decided upon.

563:

According to Nārada, the king is the highest venue of

99:

are all addressed as "King." Indeed, kingship in the

1095:

1.29; see also the discussion in Altekar, p. 156-157

845: 220:

Royal inscription extolling the conquests of Badami

1767: 133:seems to confirm this. Also, several hymns in the 1844: 1682:. Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental research Institute. 200: 1710:http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/sbe07/index.htm 536: 181:from the cycle of continual rebirths known as 1284:Richard Lariviere, in his translation of the 1617:Translation by Richard W. Lariviere (1989). 1071:For a discussion of this, see Lingat, p. 210 472:1.310, on the other hand, advises that all 424:("the king's inauguration sacrifice"), the 1765: 1686: 59: 1649: 1630: 1187:Aspects of Ancient Indian Administration 540: 367: 215: 1815: 1797: 1788: 1746: 851: 211: 1845: 1806: 1727: 1668: 232:By the time of the composition of the 162: 1853:Ancient empires and kingdoms of India 1770:Kingship and Community in Early India 1749:State and Government in Ancient India 865:State and Government in Ancient India 786:Tax on villages on the water (Klŗpta) 658: 434:("The Great Consecration of Indra"). 270:and make no mention of his divinity. 1677: 985:See Alterkar, p.78; Lingat, Robert. 446:, Manu and Yājñavalkya, in defining 320: 273: 1791:A History of Indian Political Ideas 1691:. New Delhi: Parimal Publications. 1635:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 789:General tax on villages (Piņdakara) 400:(11.23-24). But by the time of the 24:List of Hindu empires and dynasties 13: 1811:. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. 927:in which the king is equated with 442:Following in the tradition of the 141:demonstrate the importance of the 14: 1874: 1715:Translation by G. Bühler (1886). 1023:8.1-3; in the Dharmaśāstras, see 699: 676: 545:A facsimile of an inscription in 430:("the horse sacrifice"), and the 1809:Public Finance in Ancient India 1598: 1589: 1580: 1571: 1562: 1553: 1544: 1535: 1526: 1517: 1508: 1499: 1490: 1481: 1468: 1459: 1450: 1445:Public Finance in Ancient India 1437: 1419: 1407: 1394: 1377: 1351: 1338: 1307: 1278: 1260: 1239: 1226: 1209: 1192: 1168: 1143: 1134: 1125: 1116: 1098: 1074: 1065: 1040: 1005: 992: 979: 970: 961: 708: 690: 336:7.2 specifically states that a 1751:. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 1732:. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. 952: 943: 934: 913: 904: 891: 870: 857: 744: 1: 1818:The State in Indian Tradition 1626:. University of Philadelphia. 1610: 437: 201:Kingship in Dharma Literature 159:began to wane in importance. 1687:Nath Dutt, Manmatha (2005). 726: 717: 537:The King and Legal Procedure 7: 1766:Drekmeier, Charles (1962). 1728:Sharma, Ram Sharan (2005). 1673:. New York: Oxford UP Publ. 1621: 1430: 1386: 1370: 1360: 1330: 1317: 1298: 1287: 1271: 1252: 1201: 1185:s. See also Ganguly, D. K. 1156: 1109: 1091: 1080:On this, see, for example, 1056: 1014: 922: 802: 774:General property tax (Kara) 735: 649: 608: 598: 589: 569: 529: 522: 492: 461: 403: 384: 376: 357: 338: 323: 302: 287:7.2, it is stated that the 244: 150: 136: 121: 113: 103: 94: 69: 50: 10: 1879: 1820:. Brill. pp. 26–126. 1802:. Kolkata: Saraswat Press. 1671:The Classical law of India 1650:Olivelle, Patrick (2004). 1631:Olivelle, Patrick (2005). 987:The Classical Law of India 777:Construction tax (Vāstuka) 556: 204: 17: 1826:10.1163/9789004491441_004 1774:. Stanford: Stanford UP. 1011:In the Dharmasūtras, see 814:Kingdoms of ancient India 795:Celebration tax (Utsanga) 667: 619:. This contradicts with 34:Monarchy in ancient India 1706:The Institutes of Vishnu 897:see Sharma, Ram Sharan. 839: 1747:Altekar, A. S. (2002). 1680:History of DharmaŚãstra 1669:Lingat, Robert (1973). 940:See Sharma, p. 64; 165. 792:Emergency tax (Praņaya) 783:Police tax (Chorarajju) 681: 20:List of Indian monarchs 1798:Ghoshal, U.N. (1972). 1789:Ghoshal, U.N. (1959). 554: 229: 60:Kingship and the Vedas 1807:Sarkar, K.R. (1978). 544: 368:Authority of the King 278:The Dharmasūtras and 219: 1793:. Bombay: Oxford UP. 1721:Available online as 1652:The Law Code of Manu 798:War tax (Senābhakta) 377:Vasiṣṭha Dharmasūtra 332:As was stated above 212:Divinity of the King 1678:Kane, P.V. (1973). 398:Gautama Dharmasūtra 235:Mānava Dharmaśāstra 163:Dharma and the King 1863:Monarchies of Asia 1858:Ancient Indian law 1577:Sarkar, p. 101-102 1046:See, for example, 998:See, for example, 923:Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa 876:See, for example, 780:Survey tax (Rajju) 659:Bilateral contract 555: 432:Aindramahabhisheka 289:Self-existent Lord 230: 1835:978-90-04-49144-1 1654:. New York: OUP. 1604:Sarkar, p. 95-111 834:Buddhist kingship 759:Excise profit tax 479:Lower officials ( 274:King as Protector 1870: 1839: 1812: 1803: 1794: 1785: 1773: 1762: 1743: 1723:The Laws of Manu 1720: 1702: 1683: 1674: 1665: 1646: 1627: 1624: 1605: 1602: 1596: 1593: 1587: 1584: 1578: 1575: 1569: 1568:Sarkar, p. 98-99 1566: 1560: 1559:Sarkar, p. 92-94 1557: 1551: 1550:Sarkar, p. 90-91 1548: 1542: 1541:Sarkar, p. 87-88 1539: 1533: 1530: 1524: 1521: 1515: 1512: 1506: 1503: 1497: 1496:Sarkar, p. 62-67 1494: 1488: 1485: 1479: 1472: 1466: 1463: 1457: 1454: 1448: 1441: 1435: 1433: 1423: 1417: 1411: 1405: 1398: 1392: 1389: 1381: 1375: 1373: 1363: 1355: 1349: 1342: 1336: 1333: 1320: 1311: 1305: 1301: 1292: 1282: 1276: 1274: 1264: 1258: 1255: 1243: 1237: 1230: 1224: 1213: 1207: 1204: 1196: 1190: 1172: 1166: 1159: 1147: 1141: 1138: 1132: 1129: 1123: 1120: 1114: 1112: 1102: 1096: 1094: 1078: 1072: 1069: 1063: 1059: 1044: 1038: 1017: 1009: 1003: 996: 990: 983: 977: 976:Drekmeier, p.154 974: 968: 967:Drekmeier, p.150 965: 959: 956: 950: 947: 941: 938: 932: 925: 917: 911: 908: 902: 895: 889: 874: 868: 861: 855: 849: 765:Professional tax 613: 601: 592: 572: 532: 525: 497: 464: 408: 389: 379: 362: 341: 326: 305: 247: 153: 139: 124: 116: 106: 97: 72: 55: 1878: 1877: 1873: 1872: 1871: 1869: 1868: 1867: 1843: 1842: 1836: 1782: 1759: 1740: 1699: 1662: 1643: 1613: 1608: 1603: 1599: 1594: 1590: 1585: 1581: 1576: 1572: 1567: 1563: 1558: 1554: 1549: 1545: 1540: 1536: 1531: 1527: 1522: 1518: 1513: 1509: 1504: 1500: 1495: 1491: 1486: 1482: 1473: 1469: 1464: 1460: 1455: 1451: 1442: 1438: 1424: 1420: 1412: 1408: 1399: 1395: 1382: 1378: 1356: 1352: 1343: 1339: 1312: 1308: 1283: 1279: 1265: 1261: 1244: 1240: 1231: 1227: 1214: 1210: 1197: 1193: 1173: 1169: 1148: 1144: 1140:Ghosal, p.24-25 1139: 1135: 1131:Derrett, p. 599 1130: 1126: 1121: 1117: 1103: 1099: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1066: 1045: 1041: 1010: 1006: 997: 993: 984: 980: 975: 971: 966: 962: 957: 953: 949:Drekmeier, p.38 948: 944: 939: 935: 918: 914: 910:Altekar, p. 83. 909: 905: 896: 892: 875: 871: 862: 858: 850: 846: 842: 805: 747: 738: 729: 720: 711: 702: 693: 684: 679: 670: 661: 652: 565:legal procedure 561: 539: 498:in saying that 440: 370: 350:, Kullūka, and 330: 276: 228:dated to 634 CE 214: 209: 203: 165: 62: 27: 12: 11: 5: 1876: 1866: 1865: 1860: 1855: 1841: 1840: 1834: 1813: 1804: 1795: 1786: 1780: 1763: 1757: 1744: 1738: 1725: 1712: 1703: 1697: 1684: 1675: 1666: 1660: 1647: 1641: 1628: 1612: 1609: 1607: 1606: 1597: 1588: 1586:Sarkar, p. 106 1579: 1570: 1561: 1552: 1543: 1534: 1532:Sarkar, p. 105 1525: 1523:Ghoshal, p. 14 1516: 1514:Ghoshal, p. 10 1507: 1505:Ghoshal, p. 30 1498: 1489: 1487:Ghoshal, p. 26 1480: 1474:Ghoshal, U.N. 1467: 1458: 1449: 1436: 1418: 1406: 1393: 1376: 1350: 1337: 1327:8.9; see also 1306: 1277: 1259: 1238: 1225: 1208: 1191: 1167: 1142: 1133: 1124: 1115: 1097: 1073: 1064: 1039: 1004: 991: 978: 969: 960: 951: 942: 933: 912: 903: 890: 869: 863:Altekar, A.S. 856: 843: 841: 838: 837: 836: 831: 826: 821: 816: 811: 804: 801: 800: 799: 796: 793: 790: 787: 784: 781: 778: 775: 772: 769: 766: 763: 760: 757: 754: 751: 746: 743: 737: 734: 728: 725: 719: 716: 710: 707: 701: 700:Irrigation tax 698: 692: 689: 683: 680: 678: 677:Types of taxes 675: 669: 666: 660: 657: 651: 648: 610:Bṛhaspatismṛti 557:Main article: 538: 535: 439: 436: 369: 366: 329: 319: 275: 272: 213: 210: 202: 199: 164: 161: 61: 58: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 1875: 1864: 1861: 1859: 1856: 1854: 1851: 1850: 1848: 1837: 1831: 1827: 1823: 1819: 1814: 1810: 1805: 1801: 1796: 1792: 1787: 1783: 1781:0-8047-0114-8 1777: 1772: 1771: 1764: 1760: 1758:81-208-1009-0 1754: 1750: 1745: 1741: 1739:81-208-0898-3 1735: 1731: 1726: 1724: 1718: 1713: 1711: 1707: 1704: 1700: 1698:81-7110-273-5 1694: 1690: 1685: 1681: 1676: 1672: 1667: 1663: 1661:0-19-280271-2 1657: 1653: 1648: 1644: 1642:0-19-517146-2 1638: 1634: 1629: 1625: 1623: 1615: 1614: 1601: 1595:Ghoshal, p.47 1592: 1583: 1574: 1565: 1556: 1547: 1538: 1529: 1520: 1511: 1502: 1493: 1484: 1477: 1471: 1465:Sarkar, p. 59 1462: 1456:Sarkar, p. 59 1453: 1446: 1443:Sarkar, K.R. 1440: 1432: 1428: 1422: 1415: 1410: 1403: 1397: 1390: 1388: 1380: 1374:1.28 and 1.58 1372: 1368: 1364: 1362: 1354: 1347: 1341: 1334: 1332: 1326: 1322: 1321: 1319: 1310: 1303: 1300: 1293: 1291: 1290: 1281: 1273: 1269: 1263: 1256: 1254: 1248: 1242: 1235: 1229: 1222: 1218: 1212: 1205: 1203: 1195: 1188: 1184: 1180: 1176: 1171: 1164: 1160: 1158: 1152: 1146: 1137: 1128: 1122:Lingat, p.212 1119: 1111: 1107: 1101: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1084: 1077: 1068: 1062: 1060: 1058: 1051: 1050: 1043: 1036: 1035: 1030: 1026: 1022: 1018: 1016: 1008: 1001: 995: 988: 982: 973: 964: 958:Lingat, p.216 955: 946: 937: 930: 926: 924: 916: 907: 900: 894: 887: 883: 879: 873: 866: 860: 854:, p. 26. 853: 848: 844: 835: 832: 830: 827: 825: 822: 820: 817: 815: 812: 810: 807: 806: 797: 794: 791: 788: 785: 782: 779: 776: 773: 770: 767: 764: 761: 758: 755: 752: 749: 748: 742: 733: 724: 715: 714:harbor toll. 706: 697: 688: 674: 665: 656: 647: 644: 642: 638: 634: 630: 624: 622: 618: 614: 612: 611: 603: 600: 596: 591: 584: 582: 578: 577: 571: 566: 560: 552: 548: 543: 534: 531: 526: 524: 518: 513: 511: 510: 505: 501: 496: 495: 490:Manu follows 488: 486: 482: 477: 476:be Brahmins. 475: 471: 470: 465: 463: 457: 453: 449: 445: 435: 433: 429: 428: 423: 422: 417: 411: 409: 407: 406: 399: 394: 390: 388: 387: 380: 378: 365: 363: 361: 360: 353: 349: 345: 340: 335: 327: 325: 318: 316: 312: 311: 306: 304: 298: 294: 290: 286: 281: 280:Dharmaśāstras 271: 269: 265: 261: 260: 255: 251: 246: 241: 237: 236: 227: 226:Pulakeshin II 223: 218: 208: 198: 196: 192: 191:Bhagavad Gita 187: 184: 180: 176: 171: 160: 158: 152: 146: 144: 140: 138: 132: 131: 125: 123: 117: 115: 108: 107: 105: 98: 96: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 73: 71: 57: 54: 53: 47: 43: 39: 35: 31: 25: 21: 16: 1817: 1808: 1799: 1790: 1769: 1748: 1729: 1716: 1705: 1688: 1679: 1670: 1651: 1632: 1622:Nāradasmr̥ti 1618: 1600: 1591: 1582: 1573: 1564: 1555: 1546: 1537: 1528: 1519: 1510: 1501: 1492: 1483: 1475: 1470: 1461: 1452: 1444: 1439: 1426: 1421: 1413: 1409: 1401: 1396: 1384: 1379: 1366: 1358: 1353: 1345: 1340: 1328: 1324: 1314: 1309: 1295: 1285: 1280: 1267: 1262: 1250: 1246: 1241: 1233: 1228: 1220: 1216: 1211: 1199: 1194: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1162: 1154: 1150: 1145: 1136: 1127: 1118: 1105: 1100: 1087: 1086:7.28-31 and 1081: 1076: 1067: 1053: 1047: 1042: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1012: 1007: 999: 994: 986: 981: 972: 963: 954: 945: 936: 915: 906: 898: 893: 872: 864: 859: 852:Scharfe 1989 847: 819:Chakravartin 771:Gambling tax 768:Income taxes 750:Customs duty 739: 730: 721: 712: 709:Toll charges 703: 694: 691:Land revenue 685: 671: 662: 653: 645: 640: 636: 632: 628: 625: 620: 606: 604: 594: 585: 583:act as one. 574: 562: 520: 514: 507: 503: 489: 484: 480: 478: 467: 459: 455: 451: 447: 441: 431: 425: 419: 412: 401: 397: 392: 382: 374: 371: 355: 352:Vijñāneśvara 333: 331: 321: 308: 296: 292: 284: 277: 257: 253: 239: 233: 231: 188: 166: 156: 147: 142: 134: 128: 119: 100: 66: 63: 33: 28: 15: 1299:Nāradasmṛti 1289:Nāradasmṛti 1249:7.116-117; 1221:Arthaśāstra 1163:Yājñavalkya 1034:Yājñavalkya 901:p. 162; 186 745:Other taxes 509:Yājñavalkya 469:Yājñavalkya 444:Arthaśāstra 405:Nāradasmṛti 328:of the King 264:Dharmasūtra 130:Atharvaveda 42:Later Vedic 1847:Categories 1611:References 753:Excise tax 517:constables 448:rājadharma 438:Statecraft 348:Medhātithi 344:twice-born 205:See also: 1719:. Oxford. 1387:Bṛhaspati 1323:3.72-73; 1236:7.114-115 1189:. p. 162. 1052:8.27-29; 929:Prajāpati 884:2.2.7.2; 762:Trade tax 727:Labor tax 718:Sales tax 617:ablutions 559:Vyavahāra 427:Asvamedha 151:Brāhmaṇas 1331:Vasiṣṭha 1223:1.15.7-9 1015:Vasiṣṭha 989:. p. 208 880:, 1.14; 867:, p. 312 829:Maharaja 809:Monarchy 803:See also 756:Salt tax 736:Poll tax 650:Taxation 494:Kauṭilya 474:mantrins 421:Rajasuya 339:kṣatriya 303:kṣatriya 268:Brahmins 222:Chalukya 195:Ramayana 193:and the 52:Brāhmaṇa 46:Buddhist 30:Monarchy 1478:, p. 25 1447:, p. 55 1365:3.74; 1304:. p. 5. 1257:3.11-15 1179:mantrin 1153:7.58; 1031:18.31; 1027:7.2-4; 1021:Gautama 1000:Gautama 605:In the 183:samsara 137:Ṛg Veda 122:Ṛg Veda 104:Ṛg Veda 70:Ṛg Veda 1832: 1778: 1755: 1736: 1695: 1658: 1639: 1431:Mātṛkā 1427:Nārada 1414:Nārada 1371:Mātṛkā 1367:Nārada 1272:Mātṛkā 1268:Nārada 1219:7.67, 1183:amātya 1161:3.70; 1110:Mātṛkā 1106:Nārada 1092:Mātṛkā 1088:Nārada 1029:Nārada 1019:19.1; 1002:11.1-5 888:3.152. 886:J. Br. 882:T. Br. 878:A. Br. 668:Limits 641:Nārada 633:Nārada 599:Mātṛkā 595:Nārada 551:Orissa 500:envoys 485:amātya 481:amātya 386:varṇas 315:dharma 259:Nārada 250:Kubera 248:, and 245:Varuṇa 179:moksha 175:smriti 170:dharma 157:samiti 143:samiti 114:Savitṛ 95:Varuṇa 91:, and 1361:Viṣṇu 1318:Viṣṇu 1253:Viṣṇu 1202:Viṣṇu 1181:s an 1165:1.312 1157:Viṣṇu 1057:Viṣṇu 1037:1.323 840:Notes 590:Viṣṇu 581:Śudra 576:dvija 570:Viṣṇu 547:Oriya 530:Viṣṇu 523:Viṣṇu 462:vaṛṇa 416:moksa 359:varṇa 324:Varṇa 224:King 77:Indra 38:Vedic 1830:ISBN 1776:ISBN 1753:ISBN 1734:ISBN 1693:ISBN 1656:ISBN 1637:ISBN 1619:The 1434:1.30 1425:See 1404:8.25 1402:Manu 1400:See 1391:1.21 1383:See 1357:See 1348:8.20 1346:Manu 1344:See 1335:16.2 1325:Manu 1313:See 1296:The 1266:See 1247:Manu 1245:See 1234:Manu 1232:See 1217:Manu 1215:See 1206:3.16 1198:See 1175:Manu 1151:Manu 1149:See 1113:1.10 1104:See 1083:Manu 1061:3.65 1049:Manu 1025:Manu 824:Raja 682:Bali 637:Manu 629:Manu 621:Manu 504:dūta 456:Manu 452:Manu 393:Manu 334:Manu 310:Manu 297:Manu 293:Manu 285:Manu 254:Manu 240:Manu 207:Raja 89:Yama 85:Soma 81:Agni 40:and 22:and 1822:doi 1275:1.7 1849:: 1828:. 364:. 317:. 197:. 87:, 83:, 79:, 75:, 1838:. 1824:: 1784:. 1761:. 1742:. 1701:. 1664:. 1645:. 931:. 502:( 26:.

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