Movie projector - Knowledge

806:

12,000-foot (3,700 m) capacity or about 133 minutes at 24 frame/s. This large capacity alleviates the need for a changeover on an average-length feature; all of the reels are spliced together into one giant one. The tower is designed with four spools, two on each side, each with its own motor. This allows the whole spool to be immediately rewound after a showing; the extra two spools on the other side allow for a film to be shown while another is being rewound or even made up directly onto the tower. Each spool requires its own motor in order to set proper tensioning for the film, since it has to travel (relatively) much further between the projector film transport and the spools. As each spool gains or loses film, the tension must be periodically checked and adjusted so that the film can be transported on and off the spools without either sagging or snapping.

734:

appropriate point, manually stop the first projector, shutting off its light, and start the second projector, which the projectionist had ready and waiting. Later the switching was partially automated, although the projectionist still needed to rewind and mount the bulky, heavy film reels. (35mm reels as received by theaters came unrewound; rewinding was the task of the operator who received the reel.). The two-reel system, using two identical projectors, was used almost universally for movie theaters before the advent of the single-reel system. Projectors were built that could accommodate a much larger reel, containing an entire feature. Although one-reel long-play systems tend to be more popular with the newer multiplexes, the two-reel system is still in significant use to this day.

593:

still briefly while the shutter opens and closes. The gate is where the film is held still prior to the opening of the shutter. This is the case for both filming and projecting movies. A single image of the series of images comprising the movie is positioned and held flat within the gate. The gate also provides a slight amount of friction so that the film does not advance or retreat except when driven to advance the film to the next image. The intermittent mechanism advances the film within the gate to the next frame while the shutter is closed. Registration pins prevent the film from advancing while the shutter is open. In most cases the registration of the frame can be manually adjusted by the projectionist, and more sophisticated projectors can maintain registration automatically.

851:" cinema – a single site typically containing from 8 to 24 theaters with only a few projection and sound technicians, rather than a platoon of projectionists. The multiplex also offers a great amount of flexibility to a theater operator, enabling theaters to exhibit the same popular production in more than one auditorium with staggered starting times. It is also possible, with the proper equipment installed, to "interlock", i.e. thread a single length of film through multiple projectors. This is very useful when dealing with the mass crowds that an extremely popular film may generate in the first few days of showing, as it allows for a single print to serve more patrons. 1229:

magnetic soundtracks to serve as a back-up in case the digital sound was unreadable. Another disadvantage of not having an analog back-up track is that CDS required extra film prints be made for the theaters equipped to play CDS. The three formats that followed, Dolby Digital, DTS and SDDS, can co-exist with each other and the analog optical soundtrack on a single version of the film print. This means that a film print carrying all three of these formats (and the analog optical format, usually Dolby SR) can be played in whichever format the theater is equipped to handle. CDS did not achieve widespread use and ultimately failed. It premiered with the film

1340:

between the optical sound tracks and the actual picture, and is read by an optical LED ahead of the gate. The time code is actually the only sound system which is not offset within the film from the picture, but still needs to be physically set offset ahead of the gate in order to maintain continuous motion. Each disc can hold slightly over 90 minutes of sound, so longer films require a second disc. Three types of DTS sound exist: DTS-ES (Extended Surround), an 8 channel digital system; DTS-6, a 6 track digital system, and a now-obsolete 4 channel system. DTS-ES derives a back surround channel from the left surround and right surround channels using

966:

opposed to 8 mm film which has perforations along one edge, and most other film formats which have perforations on each side of the image. It became very popular in Europe over the next few decades and is still used by a small number of enthusiasts today. Over 300,000 projectors were produced and sold mainly in France and England, and many commercial features were available in the format. In the sixties the last projectors of this format were being produced. The gauge is still alive today. 16 mm projectors are converted to 9,5mm and it is still possible to buy film stock (from the French Color City company).

270: 38: 1007: 725:

length, enabling the theater to have multiple showings throughout the day and evening, each showing with a feature, commercials, and intermission to allow the audiences to change). In the "old days" (i.e., ca. 1930–1960), "going to the movies" meant seeing a short subject (a newsreel, short documentary, a "2-reeler," etc.), a cartoon, and the feature. Some theaters would have movie-based commercials for local businesses, and the state of New Jersey required showing a diagram of the theater showing all of the exits.

584:

or "changeover shutter"). Some projectors have a third, mechanically controlled douser that automatically closes when the projector slows down (called a "fire shutter" or "fire douser"), to protect the film if the projector stops while the first douser is still open. Dousers protect the film when the lamp is on but the film is not moving, preventing the film from melting from prolonged exposure to the direct heat of the lamp. It also prevents the lens from scarring or cracking from excessive heat.

639: 129: 243:. After investing much time, effort and means in a slow and troublesome development of a definitive system, Le Prince eventually seemed satisfied with the result and had a demonstration screening scheduled in New York in 1890. However, he went missing after boarding a train in France and was declared dead in 1897. His widow and son managed to draw attention to Le Prince's work and eventually he came to be regarded as the true inventor of film (a claim also made for many others). 951:, this film stock uses very small sprocket holes close to the edge that allow more of the film stock to be used for the images. This increases the quality of the image. The unexposed film is supplied in the 8 mm width, not split during processing as is the earlier 8 mm. Magnetic stripes could be added to carry encoded sound to be added after film development. Film could also be pre-striped for direct sound recording in suitably equipped cameras for later projection. 1453:

in the foreground. Owing to the great area covered by the picture it is not as bright as seen with flat screen projection, but the immersive qualities are quite convincing. While there are not many theaters capable of displaying this format there are regular productions in the fields of nature, travel, science, and history, and productions may be viewed in most large urban regions. These dome theaters are mostly located in large and prosperous science and technology museums.

1038: 795: 4044: 469:

rate produces a better looking picture, but costs more as film stock is consumed faster. When Warner Bros. and Western Electric were trying to find the ideal compromise projection speed for the new sound pictures, Western Electric went to the Warner Theater in Los Angeles, and noted the average speed at which films were projected there. They set that as the sound speed at which a satisfactory reproduction and amplification of sound could be conducted.

1303:

to analog; this can happen either in a separate Dolby Digital processor that feeds signals to the cinema sound processor, or digital decoding can be built into the cinema processor. One disadvantage of this system is if the digital printing is not entirely within the space between the sprocket holes; if the track was off a bit on either the top or the bottom, the sound track would be unplayable, and a replacement reel would have to be ordered.

4055: 527: 985:. The most popular home content were comedic shorts (typically less than 20 minutes in length in the original release) and bundles of cartoons previously seen in movie theaters. 16 mm enjoys widespread use today as a format for short films, independent features and music videos, being a relatively economical alternative to 35 mm. 16 mm film was a popular format used for the production of TV shows well into the HDTV era. 1529: 721:

below) in a showing. Certain countries also divide their film reels up differently; Russian films, for example, often come on 1,000-foot (300 m) reels, although it's likely that most projectionists working with changeovers would combine them into longer reels of at least 2,000 feet (610 metres), to minimize changeovers and also give sufficient time for threading and any possibly needed troubleshooting time.

1400: 284:, a flickerfree duplex construction, from 1 to 31 November 1895. They started to tour with their motion pictures, but after catching the second presentation of the Cinématographe Lumière in Paris on 28 December 1895, they seemed to choose not to compete. They still presented their motion pictures in several European cities until March 1897, but eventually the Bioscop had to be retired as a commercial failure. 219:. He demonstrated his photographic motion from March 1887 until at least January 1890 to circa 4 or 5 people at a time, in Berlin, other large German cities, Brussels (at the 1888 Exposition Universelle), Florence, Saint Petersburg, New York, Boston and Philadelphia. Between 1890 and 1894 he concentrated on the exploitation of an automatic coin-operated version that was an inspiration for Edison Company's 746:(3.2 m) of film is shown (seven seconds at 24 frames/sec), the changeover cue should appear, which signals the projectionist to actually make the changeover. When this second cue appears, the projectionist has one and a half feet (460 mm), or one second, to make the changeover. If it does not occur within one second, the film will end and blank white light will be projected on the screen. 826: 49: 496: 1196:

the oxide layer wore out faster than the film itself, and magnetic tracks were prone to damage and accidental erasure. Because of the high cost of installing magnetic sound reproduction equipment only a minority of movie theaters ever installed it and the magnetic soundheads needed considerable maintenance to keep their performance up to standard. As a consequence the use of the

834:

film can acquire diagonal scratches on it if proper care is not taken while threading film from platter to projector, and the film has more opportunity to collect dust and dirt as long lengths of film are exposed to the air. A clean projection booth kept at the proper humidity is of great importance, as are cleaning devices that can remove dirt from the film print as it plays.

1123:, where the electrical impulses are turned into air vibrations and thus, sound waves. In 16 mm, this optical soundtrack is a single mono track placed on the right side of the projected image, and the sound head is 26 frames after the gate. In 35 mm, this can be mono or stereo, on the left side of the projected image, with the sound head 21 frames after the gate. 391:. The exact neurological principles are not yet entirely clear, but the retina, nerves and/or brain create the impression of apparent movement when presented with a rapid sequence of near-identical still images and interruptions that go unnoticed (or are experienced as flicker). A critical part of understanding this 411:, and is dependent on the level of illumination and the condition of the eyes of the viewer. Generally, the frame rate of 16 frames per second (frame/s) is regarded as the lowest frequency at which continuous motion is perceived by humans. This threshold varies across different species; a higher proportion of 121: 223:. From 28 November 1894 to at least May 1895 he projected his recordings from two intermittently rotating discs, mostly in 300-seat halls, in several German cities. During circa 5 weeks of screenings at the old Berlin Reichstag in February and March 1895, circa 7.000 paying visitors came to see the show. 898:

moves while the shutter is blocking the lamp, so that the motion of the film cannot be seen. It also moves in a discrete amount at a time, equal to the number of perforations that make up a frame (4 for 35 mm, 5 for 70 mm). The intermittent movement in these projectors is usually provided by a

1478:, the images were projected onto an extremely wide, curved screen. Some seams were said to be visible between the images but the almost complete filling of the visual field made up for this. This showed some commercial success as a limited location (only in major cities) exhibition of the technology in 1452:

dome projection method (called "OMNIMAX") uses 70 mm film running sideways through the projector to maximize the image area and extreme wide angle lenses to obtain an almost hemispherical image. The field of view is tilted, as is the projection hemisphere, so one may view a portion of the ground

1408: 1373:

Usually there's a one-frame audio POP that plays 48 film frames (2 seconds at 24 frames per second) before the first frame of action (FFOA). The POP is used to line up and synchronize audio and picture/video during printing processes or postproduction. The POP is in editorial (level) synchronization

1156:

Magnetic sound is no longer used in commercial cinema, but between 1952 and the early 1990s (when optical digital movie sound rendered it obsolete) it provided the highest fidelity sound from film because of its wider frequency range and superior signal to noise ratio compared to optical sound. There

893:

can be constructed in different ways. For smaller gauge projectors (8 mm and 16 mm), a pawl mechanism engages the film's sprocket hole one side, or holes on each side. This pawl advances only when the film is to be moved to the next image. As the pawl retreats for the next cycle it is drawn

781:

In the early years, with no automation, errors were far from unknown: these included starting a movie that had not been rewound, and getting reels confused, so they were projected in the wrong order. Correcting either of these, assuming that someone could tell that the reels were confused, required a

757:

During the initial operation of a changeover, the two projectors use an interconnected electrical control connected to the changeover button so that as soon as the button is pressed, the changeover douser on the outgoing projector is closed in sync with the changeover douser on the incoming projector

716:

The film being wound on the takeup reel is being wound "head in, tails out." This means that the beginning (or "head") of the reel is in the center, where it is inaccessible. As each reel is taken off of the projector, it must be re-wound onto another empty reel. In a theater setting there is often a

712:

In the two-reel system the projector has two reels–one is the feed reel, which holds the part of the film that has not been shown, the other is the takeup reel, which winds the film that has been shown. In a two-reel projector the feed reel has a slight drag to maintain tension on the film, while the

678:

uses special optics to squeeze a high aspect ratio image onto a standard Academy frame thus eliminating the need to change the costly precision moving parts of the intermittent mechanisms. A special anamorphic lens is used on the camera to compress the image, and a corresponding lens on the projector

669:

One way that aspect ratios are set is with the appropriate aperture plate, a piece of metal with a precisely cut rectangular hole in the middle of equivalent aspect ratio. The aperture plate is placed just behind the gate, and masks off any light from hitting the image outside of the area intended to

556:

Most lamp houses in a professional theatrical setting produce sufficient heat to burn the film should the film remain stationary for more than a fraction of a second. Because of this, absolute care must be taken in inspecting a film so that it should not break in the gate and be damaged, particularly

346:

digital projection reduced pixel visibility. The systems became more compact over time. By 2009, movie theatres started replacing film projectors with digital projectors. In 2013, it was estimated that 92% of movie theaters in the United States had converted to digital, with 8% still playing film. In

200:

in 1879 and gave many lectures with the machine from 1880 to 1894. It projected images from rotating glass disks. The images were initially painted onto the glass, as silhouettes. A second series of discs, made in 1892–94, used outline drawings printed onto the discs photographically, then colored by

1390:

Most motion picture lenses are of the spherical variety. Spherical lenses do not distort the image intentionally. Used alone for standard and cropped wide screen projection, and in conjunction with an anamorphic adapter for anamorphic wide screen projection, the spherical lens is the most common and

1339:

DTS actually stores the sound information on separate CD-ROMs supplied with the film. The CDs are fed into a special, modified computer which syncs up with the film through the use of DTS time code, decompresses the sound, and passes it through to a standard cinema processor. The time code is placed

1302:

located either above the projector or in the regular analog sound head below the film gate, a digital delay within the processor allowing correct lip-sync to be achieved regardless of the position of the reader relative to the picture gate. The information is then decoded, decompressed and converted

1200:

35 mm four-track magnetic sound format decreased significantly during the course of the 1960s and received stiff competition from the Dolby SVA optical encoding format. However, 70 mm film continued to be used for prestigious "roadshow" screenings until the introduction of digital sound on

1179:

Striped magnetic film is motion picture film in which 'stripes' of magnetic oxide are placed on the film between the sprocket holes and the edge of the film, and sometimes also between the sprocket holes and the image. Each of these stripes has one channel of the audio recorded on it. This technique

897:

In 35 mm and 70 mm projectors, there usually is a special sprocket immediately underneath the pressure plate, known as the intermittent sprocket. Unlike all the other sprockets in the projector, which run continuously, the intermittent sprocket operates in tandem with the shutter, and only

880:

A spring-loaded pressure plate functions to align the film in a consistent image plane, both flat and perpendicular to the optical axis. It also provides sufficient drag to prevent film motion during the frame display, while still allowing free motion under control of the intermittent mechanism. The

871:

As with motion picture cameras, the intermittent motion of the gate requires that there be loops above and below the gate in order to serve as a buffer between the constant speed enforced by the sprockets above and below the gate and the intermittent motion enforced at the gate. Some projectors also

846:

of the projection booth operations, given the proper auxiliary equipment. Since films are still transported in multiple reels they must be joined together when placed on the projector reel and taken apart when the film is to be returned to the distributor. It is the complete automation of projection

833:

The advantage of a platter is that the film need not be rewound after each show, which can save labor. Rewinding risks rubbing the film against itself, which can cause scratching of the film and smearing of the emulsion which carries the pictures. The disadvantages of the platter system are that the

817:

audio cartridge. Film is unwound from the center of the platter through a mechanism called a payout unit which controls the speed of the platter's rotation so that it matches the speed of the film as it is fed to the projector. The film winds through a series of rollers from the platter stack to the

769:

Once the changeover has been made, the projectionist unloads the full takeup reel from projector "A," moves the now-empty reel (that used to hold the film just unloaded) from the feed spindle to the takeup spindle, and loads reel #3 of the presentation on projector "A." When reel 2 on projector "B"

583:

A metal or asbestos blade which cuts off light before it can get to the film. The douser is usually part of the lamphouse, and may be manually or automatically operated. Some projectors have a second, electrically controlled douser that is used for changeovers (sometimes called a "changeover douser"

468:

created a need for a steady playback rate to prevent dialog and music from changing pitch and distracting the audience. Virtually all film projectors in commercial movie theaters project at a constant speed of 24 frame/s. This speed was chosen for both financial and technical reasons. A higher frame

1369:

SMPTE leader is placed at the head of film release prints or video masters containing information for the projectionist or video playback tech. The numbers count down in seconds from 8 to 2 at 24-frame intervals ending at the first frame of the "2" followed by 47 film frames of dark gray or black.

1260:

located in a unit above the projector reads the two SDDS tracks. The information is decoded and decompressed before being passed along to the cinema sound processor. By default, SDDS units use an onboard Sony Cinema Sound Processor, and when the system is set up in this manner, the theatre's entire

1083:

Regardless of the sound format, any sound represented on the film image itself will not be the sound for the particular frame it occupies. In the gate of the projector head, there is no space for a reader, and the film is not travelling smoothly at the gate position. Consequently, all optical sound

965:

Film format introduced by Pathé Frères in 1922 as part of the Pathé Baby amateur film system. It was conceived initially as an inexpensive format to provide copies of commercially made films to home users. The format uses a single, central perforation (sprocket hole) between each pair of frames, as

821:

This system makes it possible to project a film multiple times without needing to rewind it. As the projectionist threads the projector for each showing, the payout unit is transferred from the empty platter to the full platter and the film then plays back onto the platter it came from. In the case

809:

In a platter system the individual 20-minute reels of film are also spliced together as one large reel, but the film is then wound onto a horizontal rotating table called a platter. Three or more platters are stacked together to create a platter system. Most of the platters in a platter system will

720:

The size of the reels can vary based on the projectors, but generally films are divided and distributed in reels of up to 2,000 feet (610 metres), about 22 minutes at 24 frames/sec). Some projectors can even accommodate up to 6,000 feet (1,800 metres), which minimizes the number of changeovers (see

605:

or gated cylindrical shutter interrupts the emitted light during the time the film is advanced to the next frame. The viewer does not see the transition, thus tricking the brain into believing a moving image is on screen. Modern shutters are designed with a flicker-rate of two times (48 Hz) or

592:

If a roll of film is continuously passed between the light source and the lens of the projector, only a continuous blurred series of images sliding from one edge to the other would be visible on the screen. In order to see an apparently moving clear picture, the moving film must be stopped and held

246:

After years of development, Edison eventually introduced the coin-operated peep-box Kinetoscope movie viewer in 1893, mostly in dedicated parlours. He believed this was a commercially much more viable system than projection in theatres. Many other film pioneers found chances to study the technology

178:

The oldest known successful screenings of stroboscopic animation were performed by Ludwig Döbler in 1847 in Vienna and taken on a tour to several large European cities for over a year. His Phantaskop had a front with separate lenses for each of the 12 pictures on a disc and two separate lenses were

1255:

SDDS runs on the outside of 35 mm film, between the perforations and the edges, on both edges of the film. It was the first digital system that could handle up to eight channels of sound. The additional two tracks are for an extra pair of screen channels (Left Center and Right Center) located

1213:

Modern theatrical systems use optical representations of digitally encoded multi-channel sound. An advantage of digital systems is that the offset between the sound and picture heads can be varied and then set with the digital processors. Digital sound heads are usually above the gate. All digital

1195:

Although magnetic audio was of excellent quality it also had significant disadvantages. Magnetic sound prints were expensive, 35 mm magnetic prints cost roughly twice as much as optical sound prints, whilst 70 mm prints could cost up to 15 times as much as 35 mm prints. Furthermore,

1147:

In the 1970s and early 1980s, optical sound Super-8 mm copies were produced mainly for airline in-flight movies. Even though this technology was soon made obsolete by video equipment, the majority of small-gauge films used magnetic sound rather than optical sound for a higher frequency range.

733:

Because a single film reel does not contain enough film to show an entire feature, the film is distributed on multiple reels. To prevent having to interrupt the show when one reel ends and the next is mounted, two projectors are used in what is known as a "changeover system". A human would, at the

189:

and a magazine's suggestion that it could be combined with projection of stereoscopic photography, Donisthorpe stated that he could do even better and announce that he would present such images in motion. His original Kinesigraph camera gave unsatisfactory results. He had better results with a new

1465:

flat screen system uses large format film, a wide and deep screen, and close and quite steep "stadium" seating. The effect is to fill the visual field to a greater degree than is possible with conventional wide screen systems. Like the IMAX dome, this is found in major urban areas, but unlike the

1228:

Created by Kodak and ORC (Optical Radiation Corporation), Cinema Digital Sound was the first attempt to bring multi-channel digital sound to first-run theaters. CDS was available on both 35 mm and 70 mm films. Film prints equipped with CDS did not have the conventional analog optical or

932:

Long used for home movies before the video camera, this uses double sprocketed 16 mm film, which is run through the camera, exposing one side, then removed from the camera, the takeup and feed reels are switched, and the film run through a second time, exposing the other side. The 16 mm

1060:

High-end movie productions were often produced in this film gauge in the 1950s and 1960s and many very large screen theaters are still capable of projecting it in the 21st century. It is often referred to as 65/70, as the camera uses film 65 mm wide, but the projection prints are 70 mm

749:

Twelve feet before the "first frame of action," countdown leaders have a "START" frame. The projectionist positions the "START" in the gate of the projector. When the first cue is seen, the motor of the starting projector is started. Seven seconds later the end of the leader and start of program

693:

In most cases this is a reflective surface which may be either aluminized (for high contrast in moderate ambient light) or a white surface with small glass beads (for high brilliance under dark conditions). A switchable projection screen can be switched between opaque and clear by a safe voltage

673:

Using an aperture plate to accomplish a wider aspect ratio is inherently wasteful of film, as a portion of the standard frame is unused. One solution that presents itself at certain aspect ratios is the "2-perf" pulldown, where the film is advanced less than one full frame in order to reduce the

362:

Although usually more expensive than film projectors, high-resolution digital projectors offer many advantages over traditional film units. For example, digital projectors contain no moving parts except fans, can be operated remotely, are relatively compact and have no film to break, scratch or

1191:

70 mm, which had no optical sound, used the 5 millimeters gained between the 65 mm negative and the final release print to place three magnetic tracks outside of the perforations on each side of the film for a total of six tracks. Until the introduction of digital sound, it was fairly

1171:

In interlock, since the sound is on a separate reel, it does not need to be offset from the image. Today, this system is usually used only for very low-budget or student productions, or for screening rough cuts of films before the creation of a final married print. Sync between the two reels is

1022:

system presented widescreen movies in which the film moved horizontally, allowing much more film to be used for the image as this avoided the anamorphic reduction of the image to fit the frame width. As this required specific projectors it was largely unsuccessful as a presentation method while

773:

When the projectionist removes a finished reel from the projector it is "tails out," and needs to be rewound before the next show. The projectionist usually uses a separate rewind machine and a spare empty reel, and rewinds the film so it is "head out," ready to project again for the next show.

745:

The first cue appears twelve feet (3.7 metres) before the end of the program on the reel, equivalent to eight seconds at the standard speed of 24 frames per second. This cue signals the projectionist to start the motor of the projector containing the next reel. After another ten and a half feet

419:

It is possible to view the black space between frames and the passing of the shutter by rapidly blinking ones eyes at a certain rate. If done fast enough, the viewer will be able to randomly "trap" the darkness between frames, or the motion of the shutter. This will not work with (now obsolete)

1418:

filming uses only special lenses, and requires no other modifications to the camera, projector and intermediate gear. The intended wide screen image is compressed optically, using additional cylindrical elements within the lens so that when the compressed image strikes the film, it matches the

1365:

Academy leader is placed at the head of film release prints containing information for the projectionist and featuring numbers which are black on a clear background, counting from 11 to 3 at 16-frame intervals (16 frames in 35 mm film = 1 ft). At −12 feet there is a START frame. The

1135:

track, in which a clear, vertical waveform against black represents the sound, and the width of the waveform is equivalent to the amplitude. Variable area does have slightly less frequency response than variable density, but because of the grain and variable infrared absorption of various film

753:

On some projectors, the operator would be alerted to the time for a change by a bell that operated when the feed reel rotation exceeded a certain speed (the feed reel rotates faster as the film is exhausted), or based on the diameter of the remaining film (Premier Changeover Indicator Pat. No.

724:

Films are identified as "short subjects," taking one reel or less of film, "two-reelers," requiring two reels of film (such as some of the early Laurel & Hardy, 3 Stooges, and other comedies), and "features," which can take any number of reels (although most are limited to 1½ to 2 hours in

805:

The tower system largely resembles the two-reel system, except in that the tower itself is generally a separate piece of equipment used with a slightly modified standard projector. The feed and takeup reels are held vertically on the axis, except behind the projector, on oversized spools with

552:

was introduced in Germany in 1957 and in the US in 1963. After film platters became commonplace in the 1970s, Xenon lamps became the most common light source, as they could stay lit for extended periods of time, whereas a carbon rod used for a carbon arc could last for an hour at the most.

1126:

The first form of optical sound was represented by horizontal bands of clear (white) and solid (black) area. The space between solid points represented amplitude and was picked up by the photo-electric cell on the other side of a steady, thin beam of light being shined through it. This

1072:. Some productions intended for 35 mm anamorphic release were also released using 70 mm film stock. A 70 mm print made from a 35 mm negative is significantly better in appearance than an all-35 mm process, and allowed for a release with 6 track magnetic audio. 1143:

Optical stereo is recorded and read through a bilateral variable area track. Dolby MP matrix encoding is used to add extra channels beyond the stereo pair. Left, center, right and surround channels are matrix-encoded into the two optical tracks, and decoded using licensed equipment.

140:. In its most common setup it had a concave mirror behind a light source to help direct as much light as possible through a painted glass picture slide and a lens, out of the lantern onto a screen. Simple mechanics to have the painted images moving were probably implemented since 52: 51: 299:, a system that took, printed, and projected film. In late 1895 in Paris, father Antoine Lumière began exhibitions of projected films before the paying public, beginning the general conversion of the medium to projection. They quickly became Europe's main producers with their 56: 55: 50: 1370:

Each number is held on the screen for 24 frames while an animated sweep-arm moves clockwise behind the number. As the sweep arm moves across the background field, the color changes from light gray to dark gray. Unlike the other numbers, the "2" only appears for one frame.

363:

change reels of. They also allow for much easier, less expensive, and more reliable storage and distribution of content. All-electronic distribution eliminates all physical media shipments. There is also the ability to display live broadcasts in theaters equipped to do so.

57: 1466:

dome system it is practical to reformat existing movie releases to this method. Also, the geometry of the theater and screen are more amenable to inclusion within a newly constructed but otherwise conventional multiple theater complex than is the dome style theater.

1293:

noise reduction, thus these prints are known as Dolby SR-D prints. Dolby Digital produces 6 discrete channels. In a variant called SR-D EX, the left and right surround channels can be dematrixed into left, right, and back surround, using a matrix system similar to

1422:

Some anamorphic formats utilized a more squarish aspect ratio (1.18:1, vs. the Academy 1.375:1 ratio) on-film in order to accommodate more magnetic and/or optical tracks. Various anamorphic implementations have been marketed under several brand names, including

1204:

On certain stocks of Super 8 and 16 mm an iron-oxide sound recording strip was added for the direct synchronous recording of sound which could then be played by projectors with a magnetic sound head. It has since been discontinued by Kodak on both gauges.

58: 741:

at the upper-right corner of the picture. Usually these are dots or circles, although they can also be slashes. Some older films occasionally used squares or triangles, and sometimes positioned the cues in the middle of the right edge of the picture.

324:

In the 1910s a new consumer commodity was introduced aiming at familial activity, the silent home cinema. Hand-cranked tinplate toy movie projectors, also called vintage projectors, were used taking standard 35 mm 8 perforation silent cinema films.

674:

unexposed area between frames. This method requires a special intermittent mechanism in all film handling equipment throughout the production process, from the camera to the projector. This is costly, and prohibitively so for some theaters. The

54: 694:

under 36V AC and is viewable from both sides. In a commercial theater, the screen also has millions of very small, evenly spaced holes in order to allow the passage of sound from the speakers and subwoofer which often are directly behind it.

786:, and a delay of a minute or so while the projectionist corrected the error and restarted a projector. These highly visible gaffes, which embarrassed the theater operators, were eliminated with the single-reel and digital systems. 1084:

formats must be offset from the image because the sound reader is usually located above (for magnetic readers and most digital optical readers) or below (for analog optical readers and a few digital optical) the projector head.

872:

have a sensitive trip pin above the gate to guard against the upper loop becoming too big. If the loop hits the pin, it will close the dousers and stop the motor to prevent an excessively large loop from jamming the projector.

1374:

with the "2" frame on the SMPTE and EBU leader, and with the "3" frame on the Academy leader. On most theatrical release prints, the POP is removed by the laboratory to avoid any accidental playing of it during a screening.

438:

usually were not projected at constant speeds, but could vary throughout the show because projectors were hand-cranked at the discretion of the projectionist, often following some notes provided by the distributor. When the

777:

One advantage of this system (at least for the theatre management) was that if a programme was running a few minutes late for any reason, the projectionist would simply omit one (or more) reels of film to recover the time.

980:

This was a popular format for audio-visual use in schools and as a high-end home entertainment system before the advent of broadcast television. In broadcast television news, 16 mm film was used before the advent of

443:

supplanted hand cranking in both movie cameras and projectors, a more uniform frame rate became possible. Speeds ranged from about 18 frame/s on up – sometimes even faster than modern sound film speed (24 frame/s).

1023:

remaining attractive as filming, intermediate, and source for production printing and as an intermediate step in special effects to avoid film granularity, although the latter is now supplanted by digital methods.

337:

projectors were being tried out in some movie theaters. These early projectors played the movie stored on a computer, and sent to the projector electronically. Due to their relatively low resolution (usually only

403:

for the human eye or brain. Instead, the eye/brain system has a combination of motion detectors, detail detectors and pattern detectors, the outputs of all of which are combined to create the visual experience.

415:

in the retina will create a higher threshold level. Because the eye and brain have no fixed capture rate, this is an elastic limit, so different viewers can be more or less sensitive in perceiving frame rates.

1188:. Four tracks are present on the film: Left, Center, Right and Surround. This 35 mm four-track magnetic sound format was used from 1954 through 1982 for "roadshow" screenings of big-budget feature films. 1419:

standard frame size of the camera. At the projector a corresponding lens restores the wide aspect ratio to be seen on the screen. The anamorphic element can be an attachment to existing spherical lenses.

905:

IMAX projectors use what is known as the rolling loop method, in which each frame is sucked into the gate by a vacuum, and positioned by registration pins in the perforations corresponding to that frame.

1431:

and Superscope, with Technirama implementing a slightly different anamorphic technique using vertical expansion to the film rather than horizontal compression. Large format anamorphic processes included

1353:. Datasat Digital Entertainment, purchaser of DTS's cinema division in May 2008, now distributes Datasat Digital Sound to professional cinemas worldwide. A consumer version of DTS is available on some 802:

There are two largely used single-reel systems (also known as long-play systems) today: the tower system (vertical feed and takeup) and the platter system (non-rewinding; horizontal feed and takeup).

262:

family, was demonstrated for members of the press on 21 April 1895 and opened to the paying public on May 20, in a lower Broadway store with films of the Griffo-Barnett prize boxing fight, taken from

1261:

sound system can be equalized in the digital domain. The audio data in an SDDS track is compressed in the 20-bit ATRAC2 compression scheme at a ratio of about 4.5:1. SDDS premiered with the film

1689:

Alan D. Kattelle, The evolution of amateur motion picture equipment 1895-1965, in: Journal of Film and Video, Vol. 38, No. 3/4, Home Movies and Amateur Filmmaking (Summer-Fall 1986), pp. 47-57.

618: 1061:

wide. The extra five millimeters of film accommodated the soundtrack, usually a six track magnetic stripe. The most common theater installation would use dual gauge 35/70 mm projectors.

53: 1313:, often at higher data rates than the original film. A bit for bit version is used on Blu-ray Discs and HD DVDs called Dolby TrueHD. Dolby Digital officially premiered with the film 1214:

sound systems currently in use have the ability to instantly and gracefully fall back to the analog optical sound system should the digital data be corrupt or the whole system fail.

1049:(grey area between the sprocket holes labelled with the Dolby "Double-D" logo in the middle), analog optical sound (the two white lines to the right of the sprocket holes), and the 601:

It is the gate and shutter that gives the illusion of one full frame being replaced exactly on top of another full frame. The gate holds the film still while the shutter is open. A

863:

engage perforations punched into one or both edges of the film stock. These serve to set the pace of film movement through the projector and any associated sound playback system.

713:

takeup reel is constantly driven with a mechanism that has mechanical 'slip,' to allow the film to be wound under constant tension so the film is wound in a smooth manner.

758:

opening. If done properly, a changeover should be virtually unnoticeable to an audience. In older theaters, there may be manually operated, sliding covers in front of the

1298:. The audio data in a Dolby Digital track is compressed in the 16-bit AC-3 compression scheme at a ratio of about 12:1. The images between each perforation are read by a 1357:, and was used to broadcast stereo TV prior to DTV. A bit for bit version of the DTS soundtrack is on Blu-ray Discs and HD DVDs called DTS-HD MA (DTS-HD Master Audio). 1306:

In 2006, Dolby discontinued the sale of their external SR-D processor (the DA20), but included Dolby Digital decoding in their CP500 and later CP650 cinema processors.

1131:

form of sound was eventually phased out because of its incompatibility with color stocks. The alternative and ultimately the successor of variable density has been the

717:

separate machine for rewinding reels. For the 16 mm projectors that were often used in schools and churches, the projector could be re-configured to rewind films.

1176:. If the two reels are synced, there should be one frame of "beep" sound exactly on the "2" frame of the countdown – 2 seconds or 48 frames before the picture start. 1267:. SDDS was the least commercially successful of the three competing digital sound systems for 35 mm film. Sony ceased the sale of SDDS processors in 2001–2002. 230:

applied for a US patent for a 16-lens device that combined a motion picture camera with a projector. In 1888, he used an updated version of his camera to film the

1281:

Dolby Digital data is printed in the spaces between the perforations on the soundtrack side of the film, 26 frames before the picture. Release prints with

1192:

common for 35 mm films to be blown up to 70 mm often just to take advantage of the greater number of sound tracks and the fidelity of the audio.

1168:, holding six tracks of stereophonic sound. Stereophonic releases throughout 1953 also used an interlocked full-coat for three-channel stereophonic sound. 4012: 2122: 1075:

The advent of 35 mm prints with digital soundtracks in the 1990s largely supplanted the widespread release of the more expensive 70 mm prints.

810:

be occupied by film prints; whichever platter happens to be empty serves as the "take-up reel" to receive the film that is playing from another platter.

818:

projector, through the projector, through another series of rollers back to the platter stack, and then onto the platter serving as the take-up reel.

3954: 2415: 1736: 171:

thought of lantern projection when they independently introduced stroboscopic animation in 1833 with a stroboscopic disc (which became known as the

152:

were usually adopted soon after their introduction. Magic lantern presentations may often have had relatively small audiences, but the very popular

670:

be shown. All films, even those in the standard Academy ratio, have extra image on the frame that is meant to be masked off in the projection.

933:

film is then split lengthwise into two 8 mm pieces that are spliced to make a single projectable film with sprockets holes on one side.

783: 215:

images were attached to the edge of a large rotating wheel and thrown on a small opal-glass screen by very short synchronized flashes from a

822:

of a double feature, each film plays from a full platter onto an empty platter, swapping positions on the platter stack throughout the day.

1858: 1347:

Of the three digital formats currently in use, DTS is the only one that has been used with 70 mm presentations. DTS was premiered on

4002: 3949: 2069: 1474:

One wide screen development during the 1950s used non-anamorphic projection, but used three side by side synchronised projectors. Called

3729: 1003:, was designed to use this film stock and was originally intended to be used for test shots by movie directors and cinematographers. 1501:

survives as implemented by the documentary production, limited release locations, and long running exhibitions of IMAX dome movies.

1718: 1440:

in the early 60s). Anamorphic is sometimes called "scope" in theater projection parlance, presumably in reference to CinemaScope.

999:

The most common film size for theatrical productions during the 20th century. In fact, the common 35 mm camera, developed by

2599: 770:

is finished, the changeover switches the live show from projector "B" back to projector "A," and so on for the rest of the show.

1321: 1164:

playing a 35 mm reel of a full-coat, or film completely coated with magnetic iron-oxide. This was introduced in 1952 with

1107:

based on the amount of light that is projected through a soundtrack area on a film using an illuminating light or laser and a

606:

even sometimes three times (72 Hz) the frame rate of the film, so as to reduce the perception of screen flickering. (See

307: 2705: 2457: 2042: 185:

patented ideas for a cinematographic film camera and a film presentation system in 1876. In reply to the introduction of the

1700: 4007: 2341: 2116: 432:

light projectors, because they refresh the image instantly with no blackout intervals as with traditional film projectors.

342:) compared to later digital cinema systems, the images at the time had visible pixels. By 2006, the advent of much higher 2057: 1377:

EBU leader (European Broadcast Union) is very similar to the SMPTE leader but with some superficial graphics differences.

2190: 4080: 3944: 3491: 2389: 487:

Each frame of regular 24 fps movies are shown twice or more in a process called "double-shuttering" to reduce flicker.

447:

16 frame/s – though sometimes used as a camera shooting speed – was inadvisable for projection, due to the risk of the

614:.) Higher rate shutters are less light efficient, requiring more powerful light sources for the same light on screen. 144:

introduced the apparatus around 1659. Initially candles and oil lamps were used, but other light sources, such as the

3700: 2104: 2063: 1658: 3667: 2426: 2109: 1851: 1403:

Simulated wide screen image with 1.96 to 1 ratio as it would be seen in a camera viewfinder or on a theater screen

3986: 3964: 3453: 1160:

The first form of magnetic sound was the double-head system, in which the movie projector was interlocked with a

20: 624:

Outer sprockets rotate continuously while the frame advance sprockets are controlled by the mechanism shown – a

3632: 3120: 2907: 2128: 2098: 1925: 160:

shows were usually performed in proper theatres, large tents or especially converted spaces with plenty seats.

3541: 3473: 3226: 2753: 2399: 2394: 2384: 2272: 658:

with multiple optical elements directs the image of the film to a viewing screen. Projector lenses differ in

93:. Most of the optical and mechanical elements, except for the illumination and sound devices, are present in 1812: 1201:

35 mm film in the early 1990s removed one of the major justifications for using this expensive format.

1115:. As the photocell picks up the light in varying intensities, the electricity produced is intensified by an 3974: 3969: 2001: 1790: 1344:. The audio data in a DTS track is compressed in the 20-bit APTX-100 compression scheme at a ratio of 4:1. 292: 273:

1910s 35mm hand-cranked tinplate toy movie projector manufactured by Leonhard Müller in Nuremberg, Germany

3979: 3251: 2758: 1844: 1744: 1486: 3705: 3393: 3296: 2594: 2184: 1914: 1908: 1552: 1250: 1042: 1041:

A photo of a 35 mm film print featuring all four audio formats (or "quad track") – from left to right:

750:

material on the new reel should just reach the gate of the projector when the changeover cue is seen.

3672: 3622: 3582: 3435: 3321: 3271: 2968: 2912: 2768: 2525: 2450: 2320: 2031: 982: 894:

back and does not engage the film. This is similar to the claw mechanism in a motion picture camera.

1613: 881:

plate also has spring-loaded runners to help hold film while in place and advance it during motion.

4090: 3878: 3468: 3201: 2993: 2222: 2025: 1018:

35 mm film is typically run vertically through the camera and projector. In the mid-1950s the

611: 429: 408: 541:

were the first light sources used in film projection. In the early 1900s up until the late 1960s,

269: 3838: 3642: 3546: 3410: 3261: 3098: 3003: 2646: 2535: 2228: 1627: 484:

was shot at 48 frames/sec and projected at the higher frame rate at specially equipped theaters.

359:. The decision ensured that Kodak's 35 mm film production would continue for several years. 313: 4059: 3898: 3873: 3677: 3662: 3597: 3577: 3483: 3405: 3236: 3160: 3155: 3130: 3058: 3048: 2998: 2988: 2922: 2885: 2813: 2788: 2325: 2075: 1990: 1563: 1334: 1050: 890: 255: 182: 565:

A curved reflector redirects light that would otherwise be wasted toward the condensing lens.

3959: 3749: 3657: 3652: 3637: 3627: 3602: 3587: 3448: 3381: 3351: 3311: 3221: 3211: 3053: 2932: 2895: 2818: 2212: 2206: 2169: 1875: 1827: 1648: 1600: 1299: 1257: 1137: 1068:

projection system. In IMAX the film is transported horizontally in the film gate, similar to

534: 376: 263: 235: 3506: 4048: 3647: 3617: 3612: 3607: 3592: 3246: 3170: 3140: 3093: 3038: 3028: 2953: 2778: 2725: 2443: 2217: 2091: 1547: 1411:

Simulated anamorphed image with 1.33 to 1 ratio (4:3) as it would appear on a frame of film

1349: 1223: 461:(1988), a fictional film which partly revolves around a projectionist and his apprentice. 452: 1509:

For techniques used to display pictures with a three-dimensional appearance (3D), see the

8: 4085: 3744: 3717: 3687: 3341: 3256: 3165: 3043: 3023: 3013: 3008: 2978: 2870: 2783: 2611: 2606: 2363: 2267: 2174: 2018: 1945: 1437: 1433: 1157:

are two forms of magnetic sound in conjunction with projection: double-head and striped.

602: 372: 37: 451:-base prints catching fire in the projector. Nitrate film stock began to be replaced by 204: 3893: 3551: 3501: 3326: 3186: 3145: 3125: 3063: 3018: 2983: 2958: 2520: 2485: 2405: 2279: 2201: 2196: 2159: 655: 388: 193: 141: 355:—lobbied large studios to commit to purchase a minimum amount of 35 mm film from 3858: 3794: 3781: 3712: 3376: 3301: 3291: 3281: 3266: 3135: 3103: 2963: 2798: 2569: 2358: 2154: 2086: 1654: 814: 763: 688: 675: 392: 352: 348: 212: 208: 448: 296: 247:

of the kinetoscope and further developed it for their own movie projection systems.

112:

and not all movie projectors are film projectors since the use of film is required.

3918: 3863: 3821: 3806: 3789: 3759: 3754: 3398: 3356: 3306: 3073: 3033: 2973: 2828: 2410: 2149: 1951: 1897: 1480: 1263: 1181: 1090: 994: 759: 499: 421: 277: 259: 157: 41: 4019: 480:) which project at higher rates—60 frames/sec for Showscan and 48 for Maxivision. 3923: 3826: 3443: 3196: 3078: 2773: 2720: 2683: 2668: 2626: 2315: 2252: 2013: 1341: 1295: 942: 515: 457: 227: 190:

camera in 1889 but never seems to have been successful in projecting his movies.

172: 98: 27: 1006: 666:

to suit different needs. Different lenses are used for different aspect ratios.

3695: 3521: 3463: 3231: 2917: 2823: 2808: 2803: 2698: 2510: 2500: 2490: 1919: 1867: 1568: 1498: 1315: 1161: 617: 549: 440: 384: 334: 301: 231: 168: 164: 153: 102: 31: 505:

FP30ST movie projector, with parts labeled. (Click thumbnail for larger text.)

4074: 3848: 3816: 3801: 3766: 3526: 3371: 3336: 2927: 2900: 2880: 2848: 2793: 1558: 1282: 1276: 1046: 848: 569: 557:

necessary in the era when flammable cellulose nitrate film stock was in use.

380: 343: 339: 216: 197: 137: 3286: 1817: 1770:

Kodak Film Notes Issue # H-50-03: Projection practices and techniques – see

638: 128: 4024: 3913: 3908: 3903: 3853: 3739: 3734: 3388: 3113: 3083: 2865: 2860: 2843: 2688: 2515: 2505: 2495: 1286: 1000: 915: 899: 813:

The way the film is fed from the platter to the projector is not unlike an

663: 647: 625: 435: 94: 90: 62: 1256:

between the 3 regular screen channels (Left, Center and Right). A pair of

798:

Christie AW3 platter, BIG SKY Industries console, and Century SA projector

4029: 3888: 3883: 3811: 3724: 3561: 3536: 3366: 3361: 3346: 3206: 3088: 3068: 2937: 2838: 2730: 2693: 2663: 2616: 2584: 2579: 2545: 2466: 2284: 2247: 1968: 1791:

Collection of restored cinema projectors and lighting by Regal Group, UK.

1680:

1542: 1534: 1514: 1491: 1484:, but the only memorable story-telling film made for this technology was 1424: 1197: 1185: 1173: 1120: 1069: 1019: 1011: 960: 251: 220: 145: 1037: 794: 737:

As the reel being shown approaches its end, the projectionist looks for

3531: 3511: 3425: 3415: 3276: 3241: 3216: 3150: 2890: 2875: 2855: 2737: 2673: 2589: 2540: 2262: 2257: 2239: 2179: 1428: 1415: 1112: 1032: 975: 843: 754:

411992), although many projectors do not have such an auditory system.

607: 481: 477: 465: 455:

in 1948. A nitrate film fire and its devastating effect is featured in

400: 186: 120: 109: 1399: 530:

The 15 kW xenon short-arc lamp used in the IMAX projection system

3928: 3868: 3496: 3458: 3420: 3316: 2678: 2641: 2636: 2621: 2574: 2562: 2379: 2353: 2310: 2300: 2006: 1903: 1836: 1407: 1116: 1108: 1104: 1053: 927: 860: 762:

windows. A changeover with this system is often clearly visible as a

538: 412: 318: 149: 82: 526: 3516: 3331: 2833: 2763: 2631: 2557: 2552: 2081: 2052: 1892: 1800: 1719:"Tarantino, Nolan, Apatow, Abrams Join Together to Save 35 mm Film" 1510: 1475: 1290: 1165: 738: 659: 542: 473: 175:), but neither of them intended to work on projection themselves. 1628:"Motion Picture Pioneer: Eadweard Muybridge and the Zoopraxiscope" 1592: 572:

concentrates the reflected and direct light toward the film gate.

3556: 2710: 2656: 2346: 1996: 1961: 914:

Projectors are classified by the size of the film used, i.e. the

502: 281: 240: 1737:"DOUBLE-BLADED SHUTTER, CRITICAL FLICKER FREQUENCY/FIGURE_01_08" 1093:

article for more information on both digital and analog methods.

622:

Mechanical sequence when image is shown twice and then advanced.

321:, a modified Jenkins' Phantoscope, within less than six months. 3108: 2530: 2480: 1980: 407:

The frequency at which flicker becomes invisible is called the

78: 2435: 1807: 545:

were the source of light in almost all theaters in the world.

3771: 3191: 2651: 1956: 948: 356: 1795: 1775: 825: 424:

displays, due to the persistence of the phosphors, nor with

1974: 1822: 1462: 1449: 1065: 837: 495: 288: 239:

and other scenes. The pictures were privately exhibited in

86: 1828:

https://books.google.com/books?id=OSQDAAAAMBAJ&pg=RA1-

266:'s roof on 4 May. It was the first commercial projection. 1366:

numbers appear as a single frame in opaque black leader.

1354: 1310: 1309:

A consumer version of Dolby Digital is also used on most

425: 1497:

While neither a technical nor a commercial success, the

1064:

70 mm film is also used in both the flat and domed

1103:

Optical sound constitutes the recording and reading of

782:

complete stop of both projectors, often turning on the

679:

to expand the image back to the intended aspect ratio.

179:

cranked around to direct light through the pictures.

1761:, pp. 446–449. Oxford University Press: Oxford, 1996. 19:"Film projector" redirects here. For other uses, see 1650:

Fight Pictures: A History of Boxing and Early Cinema

1524: 1244: 317:(both 1895). Even Edison, joined the trend with the 2123:

Thick-film dielectric electroluminescent technology

1469: 1319:, but it was earlier tested at some screenings of 842:The single reel system can allow for the complete 633: 136:The main precursor to the movie projector was the 2416:Comparison of CRT, LCD, plasma, and OLED displays 132:An early projector and seats from a movie theater 4072: 1328: 854: 1593:"The Exhibition of Moving Pictures before 1896" 1233:and was used with several other films, such as 1045:(blue area to the left of the sprocket holes), 560: 375:that has been traditionally been attributed to 371:The illusion of motion in projected films is a 1653:. University of California Press. p. 46. 1380: 587: 211:in 1886. For each scene, 24 glass plates with 97:. Modern movie projectors are specially built 2451: 1852: 1808:The story of the DP70 – The Todd-AO Projector 1217: 902:, also known as the Maltese Cross mechanism. 108:Many projectors are specific to a particular 1586: 1584: 1456: 1174:SMPTE leader, also known as countdown leader 347:2014, numerous popular filmmakers—including 4003:Conservation and restoration of photographs 2070:Surface-conduction electron-emitter display 1180:was first introduced in September, 1953 by 875: 379:and later often to (misinterpretations of) 3730:Comparison of digital and film photography 2458: 2444: 1981:Active-Matrix Organic light-emitting diode 1859: 1845: 1701:"Digital cinema is the future … or is it?" 859:Smooth wheels with triangular pins called 697: 646:of an Askania 35 mm movie projector ( 490: 3955:Photographs considered the most important 1818:List of 3000 movie projectors and cameras 1674: 1581: 884: 702: 1698: 1646: 1406: 1398: 1036: 1005: 838:Automation and the rise of the multiplex 824: 793: 637: 616: 525: 494: 472:There are some specialist formats (e.g. 268: 127: 119: 47: 36: 1513:article for some movie history and the 4073: 1866: 1322:Star Trek VI: The Undiscovered Country 518:there are essential optical elements: 509: 124:Simulation of a spinning zoopraxiscope 16:Device for showing motion picture film 2439: 1840: 1443: 1136:stocks, variable density has a lower 789: 728: 328: 280:projected motion pictures with their 2117:Ferroelectric liquid crystal display 1751: 1504: 65:explains how a film projector works. 3950:Museums devoted to one photographer 2191:Light-emitting electrochemical cell 1590: 1517:article for technical information. 1056:(the dashed line to the far right.) 308:Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory 13: 3492:Timeline of photography technology 2390:Large-screen television technology 1759:The Oxford History of World Cinema 1555:for a directory of projector types 1434:Ultra Panavision and MGM Camera 65 829:nonrewind in Royal – Malmö, Sweden 707: 26:For digital movie projectors, see 14: 4102: 2064:Organic light-emitting transistor 1784: 1245:Sony Dynamic Digital Sound (SDDS) 682: 4053: 4043: 4042: 2427:Comparison of display technology 1527: 1391:versatile projection lens type. 1270: 4054: 2465: 2058:Electroluminescent Quantum Dots 1764: 1699:McCarthy, Todd (25 June 1999). 1470:Multiple cameras and projectors 634:Imaging lens and aperture plate 521: 115: 21:Film projector (disambiguation) 2129:Laser-powered phosphor display 1729: 1711: 1692: 1683: 1640: 1620: 1: 3542:Painted photography backdrops 3474:Golden triangle (composition) 2754:35 mm equivalent focal length 2395:Optimum HDTV viewing distance 2385:History of display technology 2273:Computer-generated holography 1757:Nowell-Smith, Geoffrey (ed.) 1574: 1394: 1329:Digital Theater Systems (DTS) 855:Feed and extraction sprockets 847:that has enabled the modern " 366: 1975:Organic light-emitting diode 1969:Light-emitting diode display 1647:Streible, Dan (2008-04-11). 1385: 866: 561:Reflector and condenser lens 44:movie projector in operation 7: 3252:Intentional camera movement 1801:American Wide Screen Museum 1520: 1381:Types of lenses and screens 1151: 588:Film gate and frame advance 395:phenomenon is that the eye 10: 4107: 3945:Most expensive photographs 3297:Multi-exposure HDR capture 2185:Vacuum fluorescent display 1909:Electroluminescent display 1553:Projector (disambiguation) 1490:, widely seen only in its 1360: 1332: 1274: 1251:Sony Dynamic Digital Sound 1248: 1239:Terminator 2: Judgment Day 1221: 1218:Cinema Digital Sound (CDS) 1208: 1098: 1030: 992: 973: 958: 940: 936: 925: 686: 596: 25: 18: 4081:Film and video technology 4038: 3995: 3937: 3837: 3780: 3686: 3570: 3482: 3434: 3179: 2946: 2746: 2473: 2424: 2372: 2334: 2293: 2238: 2142: 2041: 2032:Liquid crystal on silicon 1936: 1883: 1874: 1776:http://www.film-tech.com/ 1741:cinemathequefroncaise.com 1457:Wide and deep flat screen 1285:always include an analog 1119:, which in turn powers a 983:electronic news-gathering 954: 575: 311:and comic vignettes like 293:Louis and Auguste Lumière 278:Max and Emil Skladanowsky 3879:Digital image processing 2223:Fourteen-segment display 2026:Digital Light Processing 1078: 1026: 988: 969: 909: 876:Film gate pressure plate 612:Flicker fusion threshold 409:flicker fusion threshold 89:by projecting it onto a 3987:Photography periodicals 3547:Photography and the law 2229:Sixteen-segment display 1915:Rear-projection display 921: 698:Film transport elements 580:(Also spelled dowser.) 491:Principles of operation 314:The Sprinkler Sprinkled 3899:Gelatin silver process 2923:Science of photography 2908:Photographic processes 2886:Perspective distortion 2076:Field-emission display 1991:Liquid-crystal display 1608:Cite journal requires 1564:Movietone sound system 1412: 1404: 1335:Digital Theater System 1057: 1015: 918:. Typical film sizes: 891:intermittent mechanism 885:Intermittent mechanism 830: 799: 703:Film supply and takeup 651: 630: 531: 506: 274: 256:Eugene Augustin Lauste 183:Wordsworth Donisthorpe 133: 125: 85:device for displaying 66: 45: 3352:Schlieren photography 2896:Photographic printing 2819:Exposure compensation 2213:Eight-segment display 2207:Seven-segment display 1410: 1402: 1138:signal-to-noise ratio 1040: 1009: 828: 797: 641: 620: 568:A positive curvature 535:Incandescent lighting 529: 498: 377:persistence of vision 272: 264:Madison Square Garden 236:Roundhay Garden Scene 131: 123: 61: 40: 3141:Straight photography 2779:Chromatic aberration 2335:Display capabilities 2218:Nine-segment display 1920:Plasma display panel 1548:List of film formats 1487:How the West Was Won 1224:Cinema Digital Sound 453:cellulose triacetate 399:, i.e.: there is no 207:developed his first 4013:photographic plates 3688:Digital photography 2871:Hyperfocal distance 2784:Circle of confusion 2364:See-through display 2268:Holographic display 1946:Quantum dot display 1438:Ultra Panavision 70 1436:(which was renamed 510:Projection elements 373:stroboscopic effect 87:motion picture film 3507:Autochrome Lumière 3502:Analog photography 3327:Pigeon photography 3121:Social documentary 2600:discontinued films 2406:Color Light Output 2400:High Dynamic Range 2202:Dot-matrix display 2197:Lightguide display 1868:Display technology 1444:Fish eye with dome 1413: 1405: 1058: 1016: 831: 800: 790:Single-reel system 760:projection booth's 729:Changeover systems 652: 631: 532: 507: 389:Gestalt psychology 329:Digital projectors 275: 213:chronophotographic 194:Eadweard Muybridge 142:Christiaan Huygens 134: 126: 67: 46: 4068: 4067: 3859:Collodion process 3795:Chromogenic print 3782:Color photography 3292:Multiple exposure 3267:Lo-fi photography 2799:Color temperature 2433: 2432: 2359:Always-on display 2150:Electromechanical 2138: 2137: 1505:Three-dimensional 1010:A diagram of the 689:Projection screen 676:anamorphic format 393:visual perception 353:Christopher Nolan 349:Quentin Tarantino 209:Electrotachyscope 59: 4098: 4057: 4056: 4046: 4045: 3919:Print permanence 3864:Cross processing 3822:CMYK color model 3807:Color management 3760:Foveon X3 sensor 3755:Three-CCD camera 3399:Miniature faking 3357:Sabattier effect 2974:Astrophotography 2829:Zebra patterning 2460: 2453: 2446: 2437: 2436: 2411:Flexible display 2373:Related articles 2253:Autostereoscopic 1952:Electronic paper 1898:Cathode-ray tube 1881: 1880: 1861: 1854: 1847: 1838: 1837: 1778: 1768: 1762: 1755: 1749: 1748: 1743:. Archived from 1733: 1727: 1726: 1723:firstshowing.net 1715: 1709: 1708: 1696: 1690: 1687: 1681: 1678: 1672: 1671: 1669: 1667: 1644: 1638: 1637: 1635: 1634: 1624: 1618: 1617: 1611: 1606: 1604: 1596: 1588: 1537: 1532: 1531: 1530: 1481:This is Cinerama 1289:soundtrack with 1264:Last Action Hero 1182:Hazard E. Reeves 1129:variable density 995:35 mm movie film 543:carbon arc lamps 422:cathode ray tube 205:Ottomar Anschütz 158:dissolving views 99:video projectors 60: 4106: 4105: 4101: 4100: 4099: 4097: 4096: 4095: 4091:Display devices 4071: 4070: 4069: 4064: 4034: 3991: 3933: 3924:Push processing 3840: 3833: 3827:RGB color model 3776: 3682: 3566: 3478: 3444:Diagonal method 3430: 3175: 3079:Photojournalism 2942: 2774:Black-and-white 2742: 2721:Slide projector 2716:Movie projector 2595:available films 2469: 2464: 2434: 2429: 2420: 2368: 2330: 2316:Slide projector 2306:Movie projector 2289: 2234: 2134: 2044: 2037: 1938: 1932: 1885: 1870: 1865: 1813:A Cinerama site 1787: 1782: 1781: 1769: 1765: 1756: 1752: 1735: 1734: 1730: 1725:. 30 July 2014. 1717: 1716: 1712: 1697: 1693: 1688: 1684: 1679: 1675: 1665: 1663: 1661: 1645: 1641: 1632: 1630: 1626: 1625: 1621: 1609: 1607: 1598: 1597: 1591:Rossell, Deac. 1589: 1582: 1577: 1533: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1507: 1472: 1459: 1446: 1397: 1388: 1383: 1363: 1342:Dolby Pro Logic 1337: 1331: 1296:Dolby Pro Logic 1279: 1273: 1253: 1247: 1235:Days of Thunder 1226: 1220: 1211: 1154: 1101: 1091:35 mm film 1081: 1035: 1029: 997: 991: 978: 972: 963: 957: 945: 943:Super 8 mm film 939: 930: 924: 912: 887: 878: 869: 857: 840: 792: 766:on the screen. 731: 710: 708:Two-reel system 705: 700: 691: 685: 636: 629: 623: 599: 590: 578: 563: 524: 516:slide projector 512: 493: 458:Cinema Paradiso 397:is not a camera 369: 331: 228:Louis Le Prince 173:phenakistiscope 118: 71:movie projector 48: 35: 28:video projector 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 4104: 4094: 4093: 4088: 4083: 4066: 4065: 4063: 4062: 4051: 4039: 4036: 4035: 4033: 4032: 4027: 4022: 4017: 4016: 4015: 4010: 3999: 3997: 3993: 3992: 3990: 3989: 3984: 3983: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3967: 3957: 3952: 3947: 3941: 3939: 3935: 3934: 3932: 3931: 3926: 3921: 3916: 3911: 3906: 3901: 3896: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3866: 3861: 3856: 3851: 3845: 3843: 3835: 3834: 3832: 3831: 3830: 3829: 3824: 3819: 3814: 3804: 3799: 3798: 3797: 3786: 3784: 3778: 3777: 3775: 3774: 3769: 3764: 3763: 3762: 3757: 3752: 3747: 3737: 3732: 3727: 3722: 3721: 3720: 3715: 3710: 3709: 3708: 3696:Digital camera 3692: 3690: 3684: 3683: 3681: 3680: 3675: 3670: 3665: 3660: 3655: 3650: 3645: 3640: 3635: 3630: 3625: 3620: 3615: 3610: 3605: 3600: 3595: 3590: 3585: 3580: 3574: 3572: 3568: 3567: 3565: 3564: 3559: 3554: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3529: 3524: 3522:Camera obscura 3519: 3514: 3509: 3504: 3499: 3494: 3488: 3486: 3480: 3479: 3477: 3476: 3471: 3466: 3464:Rule of thirds 3461: 3456: 3451: 3446: 3440: 3438: 3432: 3431: 3429: 3428: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3408: 3403: 3402: 3401: 3391: 3386: 3385: 3384: 3374: 3369: 3364: 3359: 3354: 3349: 3344: 3339: 3334: 3329: 3324: 3319: 3314: 3309: 3304: 3299: 3294: 3289: 3284: 3279: 3274: 3269: 3264: 3259: 3254: 3249: 3244: 3239: 3234: 3232:Harris shutter 3229: 3227:Hand-colouring 3224: 3219: 3214: 3209: 3204: 3199: 3194: 3189: 3183: 3181: 3177: 3176: 3174: 3173: 3168: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3143: 3138: 3133: 3128: 3123: 3118: 3117: 3116: 3106: 3101: 3096: 3091: 3086: 3081: 3076: 3071: 3066: 3061: 3056: 3051: 3046: 3041: 3036: 3031: 3026: 3021: 3016: 3011: 3006: 3001: 2996: 2991: 2986: 2981: 2976: 2971: 2966: 2961: 2956: 2950: 2948: 2944: 2943: 2941: 2940: 2935: 2930: 2925: 2920: 2918:Red-eye effect 2915: 2910: 2905: 2904: 2903: 2893: 2888: 2883: 2878: 2873: 2868: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2852: 2851: 2846: 2836: 2831: 2826: 2824:Exposure value 2821: 2816: 2811: 2809:Depth of focus 2806: 2804:Depth of field 2801: 2796: 2791: 2786: 2781: 2776: 2771: 2766: 2761: 2756: 2750: 2748: 2744: 2743: 2741: 2740: 2735: 2734: 2733: 2723: 2718: 2713: 2708: 2703: 2702: 2701: 2696: 2691: 2686: 2681: 2676: 2671: 2661: 2660: 2659: 2654: 2649: 2644: 2639: 2634: 2629: 2624: 2619: 2609: 2604: 2603: 2602: 2597: 2592: 2587: 2582: 2577: 2567: 2566: 2565: 2560: 2550: 2549: 2548: 2543: 2538: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2518: 2513: 2508: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2488: 2477: 2475: 2471: 2470: 2463: 2462: 2455: 2448: 2440: 2431: 2430: 2425: 2422: 2421: 2419: 2418: 2413: 2408: 2403: 2397: 2392: 2387: 2382: 2376: 2374: 2370: 2369: 2367: 2366: 2361: 2356: 2351: 2350: 2349: 2338: 2336: 2332: 2331: 2329: 2328: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2308: 2303: 2297: 2295: 2291: 2290: 2288: 2287: 2282: 2277: 2276: 2275: 2270: 2260: 2255: 2250: 2244: 2242: 2236: 2235: 2233: 2232: 2226: 2220: 2215: 2210: 2204: 2199: 2194: 2188: 2182: 2177: 2172: 2167: 2166: 2165: 2162: 2157: 2146: 2144: 2140: 2139: 2136: 2135: 2133: 2132: 2126: 2120: 2114: 2113: 2112: 2107: 2096: 2095: 2094: 2092:Liquid crystal 2089: 2079: 2073: 2067: 2061: 2055: 2049: 2047: 2039: 2038: 2036: 2035: 2029: 2023: 2022: 2021: 2016: 2011: 2010: 2009: 2004: 1988: 1987: 1986: 1985: 1984: 1966: 1965: 1964: 1959: 1949: 1942: 1940: 1934: 1933: 1931: 1930: 1929: 1928: 1917: 1912: 1906: 1901: 1895: 1889: 1887: 1878: 1876:Video displays 1872: 1871: 1864: 1863: 1856: 1849: 1841: 1835: 1834: 1832: 1830: 1824: 1820: 1815: 1810: 1805: 1803: 1798: 1793: 1786: 1785:External links 1783: 1780: 1779: 1763: 1750: 1747:on 2020-11-06. 1728: 1710: 1691: 1682: 1673: 1659: 1639: 1619: 1610:|journal= 1579: 1578: 1576: 1573: 1572: 1571: 1569:Sound follower 1566: 1561: 1556: 1550: 1545: 1539: 1538: 1522: 1519: 1506: 1503: 1499:business model 1471: 1468: 1458: 1455: 1445: 1442: 1396: 1393: 1387: 1384: 1382: 1379: 1362: 1359: 1333:Main article: 1330: 1327: 1316:Batman Returns 1275:Main article: 1272: 1269: 1249:Main article: 1246: 1243: 1222:Main article: 1219: 1216: 1210: 1207: 1153: 1150: 1100: 1097: 1096: 1095: 1080: 1077: 1031:Main article: 1028: 1025: 993:Main article: 990: 987: 974:Main article: 971: 968: 959:Main article: 956: 953: 941:Main article: 938: 935: 926:Main article: 923: 920: 911: 908: 886: 883: 877: 874: 868: 865: 856: 853: 839: 836: 791: 788: 730: 727: 709: 706: 704: 701: 699: 696: 687:Main article: 684: 683:Viewing screen 681: 650:: 400 mm) 635: 632: 621: 603:rotating petal 598: 595: 589: 586: 577: 574: 562: 559: 550:Xenon arc lamp 523: 520: 511: 508: 492: 489: 441:electric motor 385:phi phenomenon 368: 365: 335:digital cinema 330: 327: 297:Cinématographe 295:perfected the 232:motion picture 196:developed his 169:Simon Stampfer 165:Joseph Plateau 154:phantasmagoria 117: 114: 103:digital cinema 75:film projector 32:digital cinema 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4103: 4092: 4089: 4087: 4084: 4082: 4079: 4078: 4076: 4061: 4052: 4050: 4041: 4040: 4037: 4031: 4028: 4026: 4023: 4021: 4018: 4014: 4011: 4009: 4006: 4005: 4004: 4001: 4000: 3998: 3994: 3988: 3985: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3966: 3963: 3962: 3961: 3960:Photographers 3958: 3956: 3953: 3951: 3948: 3946: 3943: 3942: 3940: 3936: 3930: 3927: 3925: 3922: 3920: 3917: 3915: 3912: 3910: 3907: 3905: 3902: 3900: 3897: 3895: 3892: 3890: 3887: 3885: 3882: 3880: 3877: 3875: 3872: 3870: 3867: 3865: 3862: 3860: 3857: 3855: 3852: 3850: 3849:Bleach bypass 3847: 3846: 3844: 3842: 3836: 3828: 3825: 3823: 3820: 3818: 3817:primary color 3815: 3813: 3810: 3809: 3808: 3805: 3803: 3802:Reversal film 3800: 3796: 3793: 3792: 3791: 3788: 3787: 3785: 3783: 3779: 3773: 3770: 3768: 3767:Image sharing 3765: 3761: 3758: 3756: 3753: 3751: 3748: 3746: 3743: 3742: 3741: 3738: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3728: 3726: 3723: 3719: 3716: 3714: 3711: 3707: 3704: 3703: 3702: 3699: 3698: 3697: 3694: 3693: 3691: 3689: 3685: 3679: 3676: 3674: 3671: 3669: 3668:United States 3666: 3664: 3661: 3659: 3656: 3654: 3651: 3649: 3646: 3644: 3641: 3639: 3636: 3634: 3631: 3629: 3626: 3624: 3621: 3619: 3616: 3614: 3611: 3609: 3606: 3604: 3601: 3599: 3596: 3594: 3591: 3589: 3586: 3584: 3581: 3579: 3576: 3575: 3573: 3569: 3563: 3560: 3558: 3555: 3553: 3550: 3548: 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3533: 3530: 3528: 3527:Daguerreotype 3525: 3523: 3520: 3518: 3515: 3513: 3510: 3508: 3505: 3503: 3500: 3498: 3495: 3493: 3490: 3489: 3487: 3485: 3481: 3475: 3472: 3470: 3467: 3465: 3462: 3460: 3457: 3455: 3452: 3450: 3447: 3445: 3442: 3441: 3439: 3437: 3433: 3427: 3424: 3422: 3419: 3417: 3414: 3412: 3409: 3407: 3404: 3400: 3397: 3396: 3395: 3392: 3390: 3387: 3383: 3380: 3379: 3378: 3375: 3373: 3372:Stopping down 3370: 3368: 3365: 3363: 3360: 3358: 3355: 3353: 3350: 3348: 3345: 3343: 3340: 3338: 3337:Rephotography 3335: 3333: 3330: 3328: 3325: 3323: 3320: 3318: 3315: 3313: 3310: 3308: 3305: 3303: 3300: 3298: 3295: 3293: 3290: 3288: 3285: 3283: 3280: 3278: 3275: 3273: 3272:Long-exposure 3270: 3268: 3265: 3263: 3260: 3258: 3255: 3253: 3250: 3248: 3245: 3243: 3240: 3238: 3235: 3233: 3230: 3228: 3225: 3223: 3220: 3218: 3215: 3213: 3210: 3208: 3205: 3203: 3200: 3198: 3195: 3193: 3190: 3188: 3185: 3184: 3182: 3178: 3172: 3169: 3167: 3164: 3162: 3159: 3157: 3154: 3152: 3149: 3147: 3144: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3132: 3129: 3127: 3124: 3122: 3119: 3115: 3112: 3111: 3110: 3107: 3105: 3102: 3100: 3097: 3095: 3092: 3090: 3087: 3085: 3082: 3080: 3077: 3075: 3072: 3070: 3067: 3065: 3062: 3060: 3057: 3055: 3052: 3050: 3047: 3045: 3042: 3040: 3037: 3035: 3032: 3030: 3027: 3025: 3022: 3020: 3017: 3015: 3012: 3010: 3007: 3005: 3002: 3000: 2997: 2995: 2992: 2990: 2987: 2985: 2982: 2980: 2977: 2975: 2972: 2970: 2969:Architectural 2967: 2965: 2962: 2960: 2957: 2955: 2952: 2951: 2949: 2945: 2939: 2936: 2934: 2931: 2929: 2928:Shutter speed 2926: 2924: 2921: 2919: 2916: 2914: 2911: 2909: 2906: 2902: 2899: 2898: 2897: 2894: 2892: 2889: 2887: 2884: 2882: 2881:Metering mode 2879: 2877: 2874: 2872: 2869: 2867: 2864: 2862: 2859: 2857: 2854: 2850: 2847: 2845: 2842: 2841: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2827: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2817: 2815: 2812: 2810: 2807: 2805: 2802: 2800: 2797: 2795: 2794:Color balance 2792: 2790: 2787: 2785: 2782: 2780: 2777: 2775: 2772: 2770: 2767: 2765: 2762: 2760: 2759:Angle of view 2757: 2755: 2752: 2751: 2749: 2745: 2739: 2736: 2732: 2729: 2728: 2727: 2724: 2722: 2719: 2717: 2714: 2712: 2709: 2707: 2706:Manufacturers 2704: 2700: 2697: 2695: 2692: 2690: 2687: 2685: 2682: 2680: 2677: 2675: 2672: 2670: 2667: 2666: 2665: 2662: 2658: 2655: 2653: 2650: 2648: 2645: 2643: 2640: 2638: 2635: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2614: 2613: 2610: 2608: 2605: 2601: 2598: 2596: 2593: 2591: 2588: 2586: 2583: 2581: 2578: 2576: 2573: 2572: 2571: 2568: 2564: 2561: 2559: 2556: 2555: 2554: 2551: 2547: 2544: 2542: 2539: 2537: 2534: 2532: 2529: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2519: 2517: 2514: 2512: 2509: 2507: 2504: 2502: 2499: 2497: 2494: 2492: 2489: 2487: 2484: 2483: 2482: 2479: 2478: 2476: 2472: 2468: 2461: 2456: 2454: 2449: 2447: 2442: 2441: 2438: 2428: 2423: 2417: 2414: 2412: 2409: 2407: 2404: 2401: 2398: 2396: 2393: 2391: 2388: 2386: 2383: 2381: 2378: 2377: 2375: 2371: 2365: 2362: 2360: 2357: 2355: 2352: 2348: 2345: 2344: 2343: 2340: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2327: 2324: 2322: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2299: 2298: 2296: 2292: 2286: 2283: 2281: 2278: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2265: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2249: 2246: 2245: 2243: 2241: 2237: 2230: 2227: 2224: 2221: 2219: 2216: 2214: 2211: 2208: 2205: 2203: 2200: 2198: 2195: 2192: 2189: 2186: 2183: 2181: 2178: 2176: 2173: 2171: 2168: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2152: 2151: 2148: 2147: 2145: 2141: 2130: 2127: 2124: 2121: 2118: 2115: 2111: 2108: 2106: 2103: 2102: 2100: 2097: 2093: 2090: 2088: 2085: 2084: 2083: 2080: 2077: 2074: 2071: 2068: 2065: 2062: 2060:(ELQD/QD-LED) 2059: 2056: 2054: 2051: 2050: 2048: 2046: 2040: 2033: 2030: 2027: 2024: 2020: 2017: 2015: 2012: 2008: 2005: 2003: 2000: 1999: 1998: 1995: 1994: 1992: 1989: 1982: 1979: 1978: 1976: 1973: 1972: 1970: 1967: 1963: 1960: 1958: 1955: 1954: 1953: 1950: 1947: 1944: 1943: 1941: 1935: 1927: 1924: 1923: 1921: 1918: 1916: 1913: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1902: 1899: 1896: 1894: 1891: 1890: 1888: 1882: 1879: 1877: 1873: 1869: 1862: 1857: 1855: 1850: 1848: 1843: 1842: 1839: 1833: 1831: 1829: 1825: 1823: 1821: 1819: 1816: 1814: 1811: 1809: 1806: 1804: 1802: 1799: 1797: 1794: 1792: 1789: 1788: 1777: 1773: 1767: 1760: 1754: 1746: 1742: 1738: 1732: 1724: 1720: 1714: 1706: 1702: 1695: 1686: 1677: 1662: 1660:9780520940581 1656: 1652: 1651: 1643: 1629: 1623: 1615: 1602: 1594: 1587: 1585: 1580: 1570: 1567: 1565: 1562: 1560: 1559:Projectionist 1557: 1554: 1551: 1549: 1546: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1536: 1525: 1518: 1516: 1512: 1502: 1500: 1495: 1493: 1489: 1488: 1483: 1482: 1477: 1467: 1464: 1454: 1451: 1441: 1439: 1435: 1430: 1426: 1420: 1417: 1409: 1401: 1392: 1378: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1358: 1356: 1352: 1351: 1350:Jurassic Park 1345: 1343: 1336: 1326: 1324: 1323: 1318: 1317: 1312: 1307: 1304: 1301: 1297: 1292: 1288: 1284: 1283:Dolby Digital 1278: 1277:Dolby Digital 1271:Dolby Digital 1268: 1266: 1265: 1259: 1252: 1242: 1240: 1236: 1232: 1225: 1215: 1206: 1202: 1199: 1193: 1189: 1187: 1183: 1177: 1175: 1172:checked with 1169: 1167: 1163: 1158: 1149: 1145: 1141: 1139: 1134: 1133:variable area 1130: 1124: 1122: 1118: 1114: 1110: 1106: 1094: 1092: 1087: 1086: 1085: 1076: 1073: 1071: 1067: 1062: 1055: 1052: 1048: 1047:Dolby Digital 1044: 1039: 1034: 1024: 1021: 1013: 1008: 1004: 1002: 996: 986: 984: 977: 967: 962: 952: 950: 947:Developed by 944: 934: 929: 919: 917: 907: 903: 901: 895: 892: 882: 873: 864: 862: 852: 850: 845: 835: 827: 823: 819: 816: 811: 807: 803: 796: 787: 785: 779: 775: 771: 767: 765: 761: 755: 751: 747: 743: 740: 735: 726: 722: 718: 714: 695: 690: 680: 677: 671: 667: 665: 661: 657: 654:A projection 649: 645: 642:Imaging lens 640: 627: 619: 615: 613: 609: 604: 594: 585: 581: 573: 571: 566: 558: 554: 551: 546: 544: 540: 536: 528: 519: 517: 504: 501: 497: 488: 485: 483: 479: 475: 470: 467: 464:The birth of 462: 460: 459: 454: 450: 445: 442: 437: 433: 431: 427: 423: 417: 414: 410: 405: 402: 398: 394: 390: 386: 382: 381:beta movement 378: 374: 364: 360: 358: 354: 350: 345: 344:4K resolution 341: 336: 326: 322: 320: 316: 315: 310: 309: 304: 303: 298: 294: 290: 285: 283: 279: 271: 267: 265: 261: 257: 254:, devised by 253: 248: 244: 242: 238: 237: 233: 229: 224: 222: 218: 217:Geissler tube 214: 210: 206: 202: 199: 198:Zoopraxiscope 195: 191: 188: 184: 180: 176: 174: 170: 166: 161: 159: 155: 151: 147: 143: 139: 138:magic lantern 130: 122: 113: 111: 106: 104: 100: 96: 95:movie cameras 92: 88: 84: 80: 76: 72: 64: 43: 39: 33: 29: 22: 4025:Polaroid art 3914:K-14 process 3909:Instant film 3904:Gum printing 3854:C-41 process 3839:Photographic 3740:Image sensor 3735:Film scanner 3389:Sun printing 3322:Print toning 3114:space selfie 3084:Pictorialism 3014:Ethnographic 2994:Conservation 2866:Guide number 2861:Focal length 2715: 2321:Transparency 2305: 2294:Static media 2248:Stereoscopic 1771: 1766: 1758: 1753: 1745:the original 1740: 1731: 1722: 1713: 1704: 1694: 1685: 1676: 1664:. Retrieved 1649: 1642: 1631:. Retrieved 1622: 1601:cite journal 1508: 1496: 1494:re-release. 1485: 1479: 1473: 1460: 1447: 1421: 1414: 1389: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1348: 1346: 1338: 1320: 1314: 1308: 1305: 1287:Dolby Stereo 1280: 1262: 1254: 1238: 1234: 1230: 1227: 1212: 1203: 1194: 1190: 1178: 1170: 1159: 1155: 1146: 1142: 1132: 1128: 1125: 1102: 1088: 1082: 1074: 1063: 1059: 1017: 998: 979: 964: 946: 931: 913: 904: 900:Geneva drive 896: 888: 879: 870: 858: 841: 832: 820: 812: 808: 804: 801: 784:house lights 780: 776: 772: 768: 756: 752: 748: 744: 736: 732: 723: 719: 715: 711: 692: 672: 668: 664:focal length 653: 648:focal length 643: 626:Geneva drive 600: 591: 582: 579: 567: 564: 555: 547: 533: 522:Light source 513: 486: 471: 463: 456: 446: 436:Silent films 434: 418: 406: 396: 370: 361: 332: 323: 312: 306: 300: 286: 276: 249: 245: 234: 225: 203: 192: 181: 177: 162: 135: 116:Predecessors 107: 74: 70: 68: 63:Bill Hammack 4030:Stereoscopy 3889:E-6 process 3884:Dye coupler 3812:color space 3725:Digiscoping 3718:camera back 3633:Philippines 3562:Visual arts 3552:Glass plate 3537:Heliography 3436:Composition 3411:Ultraviolet 3367:Stereoscopy 3362:Slow motion 3347:Scanography 3262:Kite aerial 3207:Contre-jour 3099:Post-mortem 3089:Pornography 3069:Neues Sehen 3004:Documentary 2938:Zone System 2913:Reciprocity 2839:Film format 2769:Backscatter 2747:Terminology 2617:beauty dish 2521:rangefinder 2486:light-field 2467:Photography 2285:Fog display 2258:Multiscopic 2175:Fiber-optic 2087:Quantum dot 1705:variety.com 1543:Film format 1535:Film portal 1515:stereoscopy 1492:Cinemascope 1425:CinemaScope 1198:Cinemascope 1186:Cinemascope 1121:loudspeaker 1070:VistaVision 1020:VistaVision 1012:VistaVision 961:9.5 mm film 916:film format 815:eight-track 387:known from 383:and/or the 252:Eidoloscope 221:Kinetoscope 146:argand lamp 4086:Projectors 4075:Categories 4020:Lomography 3841:processing 3790:Print film 3706:comparison 3673:Uzbekistan 3623:Luxembourg 3583:Bangladesh 3532:Dufaycolor 3512:Box camera 3469:Simplicity 3426:Zoom burst 3421:Xerography 3416:Vignetting 3406:Time-lapse 3394:Tilt–shift 3287:Mordançage 3277:Luminogram 3242:Holography 3237:High-speed 3217:Fill flash 3202:Burst mode 3180:Techniques 3161:Vernacular 3156:Underwater 3151:Toy camera 3131:Still life 3059:Monochrome 3049:High-speed 2999:Cloudscape 2989:Conceptual 2891:Photograph 2876:Lens flare 2856:Film speed 2738:Zone plate 2684:wide-angle 2669:long-focus 2326:Laser beam 2280:Volumetric 2240:3D display 2180:Nixie tube 2160:Split-flap 2045:generation 2019:Blue Phase 1939:generation 1886:generation 1633:2012-12-17 1575:References 1429:Panavision 1416:Anamorphic 1395:Anamorphic 1231:Dick Tracy 1113:photodiode 1033:70 mm film 976:16 mm film 844:automation 608:Frame rate 500:35 mm 482:The Hobbit 478:Maxivision 466:sound film 401:frame rate 367:Physiology 302:actualités 187:phonograph 110:film gauge 101:(see also 83:mechanical 42:35 mm 3965:Norwegian 3929:Stop bath 3874:Developer 3869:Cyanotype 3497:Ambrotype 3459:Lead room 3382:Slit-scan 3317:Photogram 3312:Panoramic 3222:Fireworks 3054:Landscape 2699:telephoto 2647:reflector 2642:monolight 2637:lens hood 2622:cucoloris 2563:safelight 2474:Equipment 2380:Scan line 2354:DisplayID 2311:Neon sign 2301:Monoscope 2143:Non-video 1904:Jumbotron 1796:Film-Tech 1386:Spherical 1117:amplifier 1109:photocell 1105:amplitude 1054:time code 928:8 mm film 867:Film loop 861:sprockets 849:multiplex 739:cue marks 656:objective 539:limelight 537:and even 413:rod cells 333:In 1999, 319:Vitascope 150:limelight 4049:Category 3745:CMOS APS 3643:Slovenia 3571:Regional 3517:Calotype 3454:Headroom 3332:Redscale 3247:Infrared 3197:Brenizer 3171:Wildlife 3094:Portrait 3039:Forensic 3029:Fine-art 2964:Aircraft 2954:Abstract 2834:F-number 2814:Exposure 2789:Clipping 2764:Aperture 2632:hot shoe 2558:enlarger 2553:Darkroom 2263:Hologram 2170:Eggcrate 2155:Flip-dot 2101:display 2082:Laser TV 2053:microLED 1983:(AMOLED) 1937:Current 1893:Eidophor 1521:See also 1511:3-D film 1476:Cinerama 1291:Dolby SR 1166:Cinerama 1152:Magnetic 1089:See the 660:aperture 514:As in a 474:Showscan 258:for the 226:In 1886 77:) is an 4060:Outline 3996:Related 3678:Vietnam 3663:Ukraine 3598:Denmark 3578:Albania 3557:Tintype 3484:History 3449:Framing 3342:Rollout 3307:Panning 3257:Kirlian 3166:Wedding 3044:Glamour 3024:Fashion 3009:Eclipse 2979:Banquet 2901:Albumen 2711:Monopod 2689:fisheye 2657:softbox 2511:pinhole 2501:instant 2491:digital 2347:CEA-861 1977:(OLED) 1962:Gyricon 1772:Manuals 1361:Leaders 1209:Digital 1099:Optical 1051:Datasat 937:Super 8 644:Diastar 597:Shutter 503:Kinoton 449:nitrate 282:Bioscop 241:Hunslet 4058: 4047: 3975:street 3970:Polish 3658:Turkey 3653:Taiwan 3638:Serbia 3628:Norway 3603:Greece 3588:Canada 3187:Afocal 3146:Street 3126:Sports 3109:Selfie 3064:Nature 3019:Erotic 2984:Candid 2959:Aerial 2947:Genres 2849:medium 2726:Tripod 2694:swivel 2607:Filter 2585:holder 2580:format 2481:Camera 2231:(SISD) 2125:(TDEL) 2119:(FLCD) 2066:(OLET) 2034:(LCoS) 1993:(LCD) 1971:(LED) 1948:(QLED) 1922:(PDP) 1666:16 May 1657: 1162:dubber 1014:format 955:9.5 mm 576:Douser 260:Latham 201:hand. 91:screen 3980:women 3938:Lists 3894:Fixer 3772:Pixel 3701:D-SLR 3648:Sudan 3618:Korea 3613:Japan 3608:India 3593:China 3377:Strip 3302:Night 3282:Macro 3192:Bokeh 3136:Stock 3104:Ruins 2844:large 2674:prime 2652:snoot 2612:Flash 2590:stock 2531:still 2516:press 2506:phone 2496:field 2402:(HDR) 2225:(FSD) 2209:(SSD) 2193:(LEC) 2187:(VFD) 2131:(LPD) 2078:(FED) 2072:(SED) 2043:Next 2028:(DLP) 1957:E Ink 1911:(ELD) 1900:(CRT) 1079:Sound 1027:70 mm 1001:Leica 989:35 mm 970:16 mm 949:Kodak 910:Types 357:Kodak 305:like 163:Both 4008:film 3713:MILC 3212:ETTR 3074:Nude 3034:Fire 2933:Sync 2731:head 2679:zoom 2664:Lens 2627:gobo 2575:base 2570:Film 2546:view 2342:EDID 2164:Vane 2110:TMOS 2105:IMoD 2099:MEMS 1926:ALiS 1884:Past 1668:2016 1655:ISBN 1614:help 1463:IMAX 1461:The 1450:IMAX 1448:The 1355:DVDs 1311:DVDs 1258:CCDs 1237:and 1184:for 1066:IMAX 1043:SDDS 922:8 mm 889:The 764:wipe 662:and 610:and 570:lens 548:The 476:and 351:and 289:Lyon 250:The 167:and 156:and 148:and 79:opto 73:(or 30:and 3750:CCD 2541:toy 2536:TLR 2526:SLR 2014:LED 2007:IPS 1997:TFT 1774:at 1300:CCD 1111:or 430:DLP 428:or 426:LCD 287:In 105:). 4077:: 2002:TN 1739:. 1721:. 1703:. 1605:: 1603:}} 1599:{{ 1583:^ 1427:, 1325:. 1241:. 1140:. 340:2K 291:, 69:A 2459:e 2452:t 2445:v 1860:e 1853:t 1846:v 1826:[ 1707:. 1670:. 1636:. 1616:) 1612:( 1595:. 628:. 81:- 34:. 23:.

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index