1120:... there is an increasing desire amongst taxonomists to consider their problems from wider viewpoints, to investigate the possibilities of closer co-operation with their cytological, ecological and genetics colleagues and to acknowledge that some revision or expansion, perhaps of a drastic nature, of their aims and methods, may be desirable ... Turrill (1935) has suggested that while accepting the older invaluable taxonomy, based on structure, and conveniently designated "alpha", it is possible to glimpse a far-distant taxonomy built upon as wide a basis of morphological and physiological facts as possible, and one in which "place is found for all observational and experimental data relating, even if indirectly, to the constitution, subdivision, origin, and behaviour of species and other taxonomic groups". Ideals can, it may be said, never be completely realized. They have, however, a great value of acting as permanent stimulants, and if we have some, even vague, ideal of an "omega" taxonomy we may progress a little way down the Greek alphabet. Some of us please ourselves by thinking we are now groping in a "beta" taxonomy.
1812:
2288:
1288:
1525:
58:
6705:
848:
investigates their evolutionary histories, and (f) considers their environmental adaptations. This is a field with a long history that in recent years has experienced a notable renaissance, principally with respect to theoretical content. Part of the theoretical material has to do with evolutionary areas (topics e and f above), the rest relates especially to the problem of classification. Taxonomy is that part of
Systematics concerned with topics (a) to (d) above.
613:
1634:
6637:
6688:
6609:
6671:
6722:
2475:
1618:
600:
1561:, he revolutionized modern taxonomy. His works implemented a standardized binomial naming system for animal and plant species, which proved to be an elegant solution to a chaotic and disorganized taxonomic literature. He not only introduced the standard of class, order, genus, and species, but also made it possible to identify plants and animals from his book, by using the smaller parts of the flower (known as the
6654:
2161:
Partial classifications exist for many individual groups of organisms and are revised and replaced as new information becomes available; however, comprehensive, published treatments of most or all life are rarer; recent examples are that of Adl et al., 2012 and 2019, which covers eukaryotes only with
1177:
While some descriptions of taxonomic history attempt to date taxonomy to ancient civilizations, a truly scientific attempt to classify organisms did not occur until the 18th century, with the possible exception of
Aristotle, whose works hint at a taxonomy. Earlier works were primarily descriptive and
2488:
In phenetics, also known as taximetrics, or numerical taxonomy, organisms are classified based on overall similarity, regardless of their phylogeny or evolutionary relationships. It results in a measure of hypergeometric "distance" between taxa. Phenetic methods have become relatively rare in modern
1829:
Well before
Linnaeus, plants and animals were considered separate Kingdoms. Linnaeus used this as the top rank, dividing the physical world into the vegetable, animal and mineral kingdoms. As advances in microscopy made the classification of microorganisms possible, the number of kingdoms increased,
1141:
An understanding of the biological meaning of variation and of the evolutionary origin of groups of related species is even more important for the second stage of taxonomic activity, the sorting of species into groups of relatives ("taxa") and their arrangement in a hierarchy of higher categories.
875:
provided an early definition of systematics in 1830, although he wrote of "systematic botany" rather than using the term "systematics". Europeans tend to use the terms "systematics" and "biosystematics" for the study of biodiversity as a whole, whereas North
Americans tend to use "taxonomy" more
920:
or complete revision is a revision that is comprehensive for a taxon for the information given at a particular time, and for the entire world. Other (partial) revisions may be restricted in the sense that they may only use some of the available character sets or have a limited spatial scope. A
2236:
Biological classification is a critical component of the taxonomic process. As a result, it informs the user as to what the relatives of the taxon are hypothesized to be. Biological classification uses taxonomic ranks, including among others (in order from most inclusive to least inclusive):
847:
Systematic biology (hereafter called simply systematics) is the field that (a) provides scientific names for organisms, (b) describes them, (c) preserves collections of them, (d) provides classifications for the organisms, keys for their identification, and data on their distributions, (e)
1462:, categorizing organisms became more prevalent, and taxonomic works became ambitious enough to replace the ancient texts. This is sometimes credited to the development of sophisticated optical lenses, which allowed the morphology of organisms to be studied in much greater detail.
1568:
Plant and animal taxonomists regard
Linnaeus' work as the "starting point" for valid names (at 1753 and 1758 respectively). Names published before these dates are referred to as "pre-Linnaean", and not considered valid (with the exception of spiders published in
921:
revision results in a conformation of or new insights in the relationships between the subtaxa within the taxon under study, which may lead to a change in the classification of these subtaxa, the identification of new subtaxa, or the merger of previous subtaxa.
1128:
Later authors have used the term in a different sense, to mean the delimitation of species (not subspecies or taxa of other ranks), using whatever investigative techniques are available, and including sophisticated computational or laboratory techniques. Thus,
1265:
Naming and classifying human surroundings likely began with the onset of language. Distinguishing poisonous plants from edible plants is integral to the survival of human communities. Medicinal plant illustrations show up in
Egyptian wall paintings from
2403:
However, often much more information is included, like the geographic range of the taxon, ecological notes, chemistry, behavior, etc. How researchers arrive at their taxa varies: depending on the available data, and resources, methods vary from simple
786:
The exact definition of taxonomy varies from source to source, but the core of the discipline remains: the conception, naming, and classification of groups of organisms. As points of reference, recent definitions of taxonomy are presented below:
1124:
Turrill thus explicitly excludes from alpha taxonomy various areas of study that he includes within taxonomy as a whole, such as ecology, physiology, genetics, and cytology. He further excludes phylogenetic reconstruction from alpha taxonomy.
1799:, which is intended to coexist with the current, rank-based codes. While popularity of phylogenetic nomenclature has grown steadily in the last few decades, it remains to be seen whether a majority of systematists will eventually adopt the
2533:, which attempts to list every documented species. The catalogue listed 1.64 million species for all kingdoms as of April 2016, claiming coverage of more than three-quarters of the estimated species known to modern science.
2307:
The "definition" of a taxon is encapsulated by its description or its diagnosis or by both combined. There are no set rules governing the definition of taxa, but the naming and publication of new taxa is governed by sets of rules. In
880:, is more specifically the identification, description, and naming (i.e., nomenclature) of organisms, while "classification" focuses on placing organisms within hierarchical groups that show their relationships to other organisms.
1738:
of the early 1940s, an essentially modern understanding of the evolution of the major groups was in place. As evolutionary taxonomy is based on
Linnaean taxonomic ranks, the two terms are largely interchangeable in modern use.
827:
is considered a part of taxonomy (definitions 1 and 2), or a part of systematics outside taxonomy. For example, definition 6 is paired with the following definition of systematics that places nomenclature outside taxonomy:
835:: "The study of the identification, taxonomy, and nomenclature of organisms, including the classification of living things with regard to their natural relationships and the study of variation and the evolution of taxa".
822:
The varied definitions either place taxonomy as a sub-area of systematics (definition 2), invert that relationship (definition 6), or appear to consider the two terms synonymous. There is some disagreement as to whether
860:
have at times had overlapping meanings – sometimes the same, sometimes slightly different, but always related and intersecting. The broadest meaning of "taxonomy" is used here. The term itself was introduced in 1813 by
1660:
was published. The pattern of the "Natural System" did not entail a generating process, such as evolution, but may have implied it, inspiring early transmutationist thinkers. Among early works exploring the idea of a
1499:(1682), in which he published details of over 18,000 plant species. At the time, his classifications were perhaps the most complex yet produced by any taxonomist, as he based his taxa on many combined characters.
1762:, with the desideratum that all named taxa are monophyletic. A taxon is called monophyletic if it includes all the descendants of an ancestral form. Groups that have descendant groups removed from them are termed
1706:
representations became popular in scientific works, with known fossil groups incorporated. One of the first modern groups tied to fossil ancestors was birds. Using the then newly discovered fossils of
5014:
Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, Dennis P.; Orrell, Thomas M.; Bailly, Nicolas; Bourgoin, Thierry; Brusca, Richard C.; Cavalier-Smith, Thomas; Guiry, Michael D.; Kirk, Paul M.; Thuesen, Erik V. (2015).
3475:
774:
With advances in the theory, data and analytical technology of biological systematics, the
Linnaean system has transformed into a system of modern biological classification intended to reflect the
2166:
to the rank of Order, although both exclude fossil representatives. A separate compilation (Ruggiero, 2014) covers extant taxa to the rank of Family. Other, database-driven treatments include the
5506:"Morphology is not always useful for diagnosis, and that's ok: Species hypotheses should not be bound to a class of data. Reply to Brown and Gibbons (S Afr J Sci. 2022;118(9/10), Art. #12590)"
5504:
Lawley, Jonathan W.; Gamero-Mora, Edgar; Maronna, Maximiliano M.; Chiaverano, Luciano M.; Stampar, Sérgio N.; Hopcroft, Russell R.; Collins, Allen G.; Morandini, André C. (19 September 2022).
4584:
Dubois, Alain; Bauer, Aaron M.; CerĂaco, Luis M. P.; Dusoulier, François; FrĂ©tey, Thierry; Löbl, Ivan; Lorvelec, Olivier; Ohler, Annemarie; Stopiglia, Renata; Aescht, Erna (17 December 2019).
5307:
2434:
An "authority" may be placed after a scientific name. The authority is the name of the scientist or scientists who first validly published the name. For example, in 1758 Linnaeus gave the
5689:
1116:
introduced the term "alpha taxonomy" in a series of papers published in 1935 and 1937 in which he discussed the philosophy and possible future directions of the discipline of taxonomy.
1110:, particularly species. In earlier literature, the term had a different meaning, referring to morphological taxonomy, and the products of research through the end of the 19th century.
5414:
5400:
5622:
2348:
3203:
5285:
4256:
2902:
4586:"The Linz Zoocode project: A set of new proposals regarding the terminology, the Principles and Rules of zoological nomenclature. First report of activities (2014‒2019)"
2527:
technologies to search and catalogue classifications and their documentation. While there is no commonly used database, there are comprehensive databases such as the
4630:
1890:
as part of a subkingdom of the kingdom
Bacteria, i.e., he rejected the three-domain system entirely. Stefan Luketa in 2012 proposed a five "dominion" system, adding
1803:
or continue using the current systems of nomenclature that have been employed (and modified, but arguably not as much as some systematists wish) for over 250 years.
818:
to provide a pattern that can be translated into the classification and names of the more inclusive field of taxonomy" (listed as a desirable but unusual definition)
719:; groups of a given rank can be aggregated to form a more inclusive group of higher rank, thus creating a taxonomic hierarchy. The principal ranks in modern use are
2466:. However, it is standard that if the genus of a species has been changed since the original description, the original authority's name is placed in parentheses.
329:
4562:
791:
Theory and practice of grouping individuals into species, arranging species into larger groups, and giving those groups names, thus producing a classification.
3347:(9 February 1968). "The Role of Systematics in Biology: The study of all aspects of the diversity of life is one of the most important concerns in biology".
5334:
3459:
3002:
2665:
5575:
5478:
1648:
A pattern of groups nested within groups was specified by
Linnaeus' classifications of plants and animals, and these patterns began to be represented as
1181:
There are a number of stages in this scientific thinking. Early taxonomy was based on arbitrary criteria, the so-called "artificial systems", including
1161:. The scientific work of deciding how to define species has been called microtaxonomy. By extension, macrotaxonomy is the study of groups at the higher
6089:
4229:
2384:
It should include statements about appropriate attributes either to describe (define) the taxon or to differentiate it from other taxa (the diagnosis,
3631:
3131:
5734:
Wood, Dylan; King, Margaret; Landis, Drew; Courtney, William; Wang, Runtang; Kelly, Ross; Turner, Jessica A.; Calhoun, Vince D. (26 August 2014).
4136:
3756:
6023:
5311:
2796:
2179:
5254:
644:
5645:
4011:
1322:, such as having live birth, having four legs, laying eggs, having blood, or being warm-bodied. He divided all living things into two groups:
1157:
How species should be defined in a particular group of organisms gives rise to practical and theoretical problems that are referred to as the
6120:
5835:
5681:
5600:
4164:
4090:
3939:
2326:
1192:
Later came systems based on a more complete consideration of the characteristics of taxa, referred to as "natural systems", such as those of
5422:
4811:
2924:
Michener, Charles D.; Corliss, John O.; Cowan, Richard S.; Raven, Peter H.; Sabrosky, Curtis W.; Squires, Donald S.; Wharton, G. W. (1970).
2399:
These first four requirements must be published in a work that is obtainable in numerous identical copies, as a permanent scientific record.
843:
defined "systematic biology" and "taxonomy" (terms that are often confused and used interchangeably) in relation to one another as follows:
5452:
5392:
3989:
3439:
1446:. Medieval thinkers used abstract philosophical and logical categorizations more suited to abstract philosophy than to pragmatic taxonomy.
252:
3526:
1815:
The basic scheme of modern classification. Many other levels can be used; domain, the highest level within life, is both new and disputed.
5614:
2563:
1687:
4182:
1423:, due to the lack of microscopes at the time, as his ideas were based on arranging the complete world in a single continuum, as per the
867:
4723:
1726:
in 1842. The resulting description, that of dinosaurs "giving rise to" or being "the ancestors of" birds, is the essential hallmark of
563:
33:
4315:
6586:
4421:
3195:
900:. This analysis may be executed on the basis of any combination of the various available kinds of characters, such as morphological,
17:
5470:
1510:, included more than 9000 species in 698 genera, which directly influenced Linnaeus, as it was the text he used as a young student.
4184:
Victorian Sensation: The Extraordinary Publication, Reception, and Secret Authorship of Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
3900:
2455:
2171:
371:
5277:
2392:, Article 38, which may or may not be based on morphology). Both codes deliberately separate defining the content of a taxon (its
1795:
has been proposed, which regulates the formal naming of clades. Linnaean ranks are optional and have no formal standing under the
5831:
4244:
2878:
1476:
came out in 1583, and described more than 1500 plant species. Two large plant families that he first recognized are in use: the
2850:
1692:
77:
4282:
6581:
5720:
3955:
International Edition Vegetables I: Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodicaceae, and Cucurbitaceae (Handbook of Plant Breeding)
558:
5952:
5919:
5879:
3409:
1698:
With Darwin's theory, a general acceptance quickly appeared that a classification should reflect the Darwinian principle of
6694:
6385:
505:
4622:
808:"The science of classification as applied to living organisms, including the study of means of formation of species, etc."
6625:
3727:
929:
Taxonomic characters are the taxonomic attributes that can be used to provide the evidence from which relationships (the
6757:
5667:
4644:
3469:
2558:
637:
366:
197:
5456:
3690:
6113:
6006:
5946:
5913:
5873:
5736:"Harnessing modern web application technology to create intuitive and efficient data visualization and sharing tools"
4340:
4196:
3962:
3784:
3403:
3051:
2985:
2896:
2771:
2711:
2636:
This ranking system, except for "Strain", can be remembered by the mnemonic "Do Kings Play Chess On Fine Glass Sets?"
1408:, with additions concerning the philosophical and existential order of creatures. This included concepts such as the
1366:
1165:
subgenus and above, or simply in clades that include more than one taxon considered a species, expressed in terms of
4438:
6752:
6660:
5543:
4749:
3837:
2543:
99:
1217:(1859) led to a new explanation for classifications, based on evolutionary relationships. This was the concept of
5685:
5375:
5176:
Ruggiero, Michael A.; Gordon, D. P.; Orrell, T. M.; Bailly, N.; Bourgoin, T.; Brusca, R. C.; et al. (2015).
3010:
2661:
1735:
1555:
1189:" ("the System of Nature"), implying that he, at least, believed that it was more than an "artificial system").
356:
324:
5801:
4488:
1844:
was not generally accepted until later. One main characteristic of the three-domain method is the separation of
6762:
4678:
3550:"Aristotle's scientific contributions to the classification, nomenclature and distribution of marine organisms"
578:
361:
5565:
1730:
thinking. As more and more fossil groups were found and recognized in the late 19th and early 20th centuries,
1282:
5073:
Adl, S. M.; Simpson, A. G. B.; Lane, C. E.; Lukeš, J.; Bass, D.; Bowser, S. S.; et al. (December 2015).
4503:
2573:
630:
617:
6086:
4221:
3548:
Voultsiadou, Eleni; Gerovasileiou, Vasilis; Vandepitte, Leen; Ganias, Kostas; Arvanitidis, Christos (2017).
2210:
are also frequently involved in the publication of new taxa. Because taxonomy aims to describe and organize
6106:
5615:"Carolus Linnaeus: Classification, Taxonomy & Contributions to Biology – Video & Lesson Transcript"
4830:
Systemae Naturae, sive regna tria naturae, systematics proposita per classes, ordines, genera & species
3461:
International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature (PhyloCode): A Phylogenetic Code of Biological Nomenclature
1945:
1938:
862:
548:
4066:
Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species
4030:
Systema naturae, sive regna tria naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species
6747:
4188:
1503:
604:
4695:
3988:] (in Latin). impensis Henrici Faithorne & Joannis Kersey, ad insigne Rofæ Coemeterio D. Pauli.
3642:
1734:
worked to understand the history of animals through the ages by linking together known groups. With the
1273:, indicating that the uses of different species were understood and that a basic taxonomy was in place.
6599:
5905:
4105:
3748:
2393:
1193:
1185:'s system of sexual classification for plants (Linnaeus's 1735 classification of animals was entitled "
763:
is regarded as the founder of the current system of taxonomy, as he developed a ranked system known as
704:
104:
5570:
1864:. A small number of scientists include a sixth kingdom, Archaea, but do not accept the domain method.
1575:). Even taxonomic names published by Linnaeus himself before these dates are considered pre-Linnaean.
2463:
2429:
1612:
1166:
470:
445:
425:
405:
82:
5238:
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2425:
1980:
1662:
1465:
One of the earliest authors to take advantage of this leap in technology was the Italian physician
1213:
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455:
430:
385:
351:
345:
334:
5823:
5592:
4154:
4082:
3931:
2687:
Judd, W. S.; Campbell, C. S.; Kellogg, E. A.; Stevens, P. F.; Donoghue, M. J. (2007). "Taxonomy".
1625:
at class level, width of spindles indicating number of families. Spindle diagrams are typical for
4796:
4252:
3979:
1778:
1364:(Greece, 370–285 BC) carried on this tradition, mentioning some 500 plants and their uses in his
1142:
This activity is what the term classification denotes; it is also referred to as "beta taxonomy".
1113:
824:
573:
480:
475:
420:
381:
182:
6129:
3431:
2454:
is commonly used. In botany, there is, in fact, a regulated list of standard abbreviations (see
1427:(the Natural Ladder). This, as well, was taken into consideration in the great chain of being.
6195:
4957:"Towards a natural system of organisms:proposal for the domains Archaea, Bacteria, and Eucarya"
2317:
2175:
1782:
1703:
1681:
685:
672:
666:
485:
440:
262:
157:
6711:
5122:
Adl, S. M.; Bass, D.; Lane, C. E.; Lukeš, J.; Schoch, C. L.; Smirnov, A.; et al. (2019).
6280:
6255:
6235:
5716:
4330:
4202:
3774:
2975:
2405:
2364:
2191:
1960:
1867:
1727:
1685:
of 1809. The idea was popularized in the Anglophone world by the speculative but widely read
1676:
1626:
1608:
1439:
1080:
768:
583:
465:
410:
376:
289:
6677:
5968:
Turrill, W. B. (1938). "The Expansion Of Taxonomy With Special Reference To Spermatophyta".
1777:
Cladistic classifications are compatible with traditional Linnean taxonomy and the Codes of
1495:, 1627–1705) wrote many important taxonomic works. Arguably his greatest accomplishment was
805:
The science of classification, in biology the arrangement of organisms into a classification
6500:
6310:
6260:
5349:
5189:
5027:
4968:
4921:
4307:
3356:
3302:
2616:
2505:, have persisted, as rapid estimators of relationships when more advanced methods (such as
2409:
2219:
2167:
1459:
1409:
1299:
1249:
1070:
945:
938:
435:
207:
92:
49:
4413:
2939:
Small, Ernest (1989). "Systematics of Biological Systematics (Or, Taxonomy of Taxonomy)".
1811:
8:
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1988:
1841:
1719:
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202:
127:
62:
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3119:
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6510:
6495:
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6315:
5985:
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5735:
5535:
5365:
5214:
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5099:
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5050:
5015:
4894:
4777:
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4357:
4128:
3821:
3770:
3638:
3326:
3235:
3218:
3084:
2956:
2858:
2822:
2791:
2787:
2548:
2518:
2506:
2296:
2206:, and is generally practiced by biologists known as "taxonomists", though enthusiastic
1852:, previously grouped into the single kingdom Bacteria (a kingdom also sometimes called
1245:
1197:
568:
500:
212:
177:
3293:
Steyskal, G. C. (1965). "Trend curves of the rate of species description in zoology".
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4192:
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3915:
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3571:
3518:
3465:
3399:
3372:
3318:
3248:
3240:
3123:
3047:
2981:
2892:
2827:
2809:
2767:
2727:
Kirk, P. M.; Cannon, P. F.; Minter, D. W.; Stalpers, J. A., eds. (2008). "Taxonomy".
2707:
2590:
2529:
2412:
comparisons of striking features, to elaborate computer analyses of large amounts of
2371:
2242:
2187:
2183:
1975:
1895:
1861:
1820:
1759:
1653:
1550:
1519:
1435:
1388:
1000:
764:
724:
696:
269:
147:
137:
132:
5989:
5370:
4898:
3330:
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5135:
5094:
5086:
5045:
5035:
4986:
4976:
4929:
4886:
4781:
4761:
4707:
4696:"The phagotrophic origin of eukaryotes and phylogenetic classification of Protozoa"
4597:
4538:
4484:
4379:
4369:
4288:
4120:
3872:
3561:
3510:
3364:
3310:
3230:
3115:
3076:
2948:
2884:
2817:
2801:
2553:
2502:
2287:
2270:
2258:
2238:
1833:
1824:
1571:
1466:
1287:
748:
720:
304:
5712:
1766:, while groups representing more than one branch from the tree of life are called
1524:
1106:" is primarily used to refer to the discipline of finding, describing, and naming
6525:
6490:
6093:
5936:
5899:
5863:
5204:
5040:
4933:
4178:
3391:
3368:
3314:
2928:. Washington, DC: Division of Biology and Agriculture, National Research Council.
2761:
2254:
2250:
2207:
2162:
an emphasis on protists, and Ruggiero et al., 2015, covering both eukaryotes and
1887:
1562:
1544:
1530:
1186:
1158:
1152:
1096:
811:"The analysis of an organism's characteristics for the purpose of classification"
744:
740:
257:
247:
109:
4542:
3877:
3860:
2363:
The taxon must be given a name based on the 26 letters of the Latin alphabet (a
917:
6613:
6380:
6190:
5895:
5522:
4961:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3802:"A Cladistic Analysis of Aristotle's Animal Groups in the "Historia animalium""
3039:
2584:
2435:
2291:
2231:
1883:
1771:
1699:
1672:
1588:
1584:
1443:
1376:
1241:
1236:
methodology in the 1970s led to classifications based on the sole criterion of
1222:
1208:
1162:
877:
716:
339:
242:
4711:
4602:
4585:
4526:
4475:
Schuh, Randall T. (2003). "The Linnaean system and its 250-year persistence".
4358:"There shall be order. The legacy of Linnaeus in the age of molecular biology"
4153:
Carl, Clerck; Carl, Bergquist; Eric, Borg; L., Gottman; Lars, Salvius (1757).
3719:
3514:
2446:
Linnaeus, 1758". The names of authors are often abbreviated: the abbreviation
57:
6741:
6460:
6355:
6245:
6220:
6215:
5761:
5752:
5531:
4666:
4550:
4374:
4061:
4043:
4025:
3817:
3575:
3522:
3244:
3127:
2813:
2301:
1924:
1917:
1747:
1708:
1539:
1413:
1200:(1862–1863). These classifications described empirical patterns and were pre-
1182:
905:
857:
760:
490:
162:
6643:
5659:
5361:
5124:"Revisions to the classification, nomenclature, and diversity of eukaryotes"
4981:
4652:
3498:
2880:
The Advent of PhyloCode: The Continuing Evolution of Biological Nomenclature
6505:
6485:
6450:
6445:
6435:
6430:
6410:
6390:
6300:
6270:
6230:
6210:
6200:
6180:
6175:
6170:
6165:
5779:
5444:
5223:
5159:
5108:
5059:
4719:
4558:
4393:
3833:
3698:
3322:
3252:
3067:
Maxted, Nigel (1992). "Towards Defining a Taxonomic Revision Methodology".
2831:
2805:
2595:
2413:
2378:
2313:
2215:
1899:
1767:
1763:
1731:
1723:
1722:
pronounced that they had evolved from dinosaurs, a group formally named by
1481:
1361:
1338:
1295:
1226:
973:
909:
872:
799:
510:
495:
279:
274:
192:
5000:
4941:
4912:
Whittaker, R. H. (January 1969). "New concepts of kingdoms of organisms".
4773:
3376:
3028:(2nd ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates. p. 27.
2888:
6555:
6550:
6520:
6475:
6420:
6360:
6345:
6340:
6305:
6265:
6155:
6145:
6140:
6034:
4446:
2494:
2088:
1714:
1649:
1622:
1470:
1455:
1401:
853:
795:
520:
237:
187:
6728:
5505:
3825:
3801:
3547:
2702:
Simpson, Michael G. (2010). "Chapter 1 Plant Systematics: an Overview".
6540:
6535:
6480:
6465:
6405:
6370:
6365:
6335:
6295:
6275:
6205:
6185:
4464:(3rd ed.). Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. p. 13.
4132:
3861:"Phylogenetic signal in characters from Aristotle's History of Animals"
3659:
3566:
3549:
3396:
The Growth of Biological Thought: Diversity, Evolution, and Inheritance
3344:
3153:
3088:
2960:
2605:
2498:
2490:
2321:
2163:
2010:
1952:
1837:
1642:
1633:
1477:
1346:
1130:
987:
981:
964:
901:
294:
217:
172:
152:
66:
6098:
5140:
4414:"What do terms like monophyletic, paraphyletic and polyphyletic mean?"
3666:. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
2493:
analyses, as phenetic methods do not distinguish shared ancestral (or
690:
6455:
6440:
6425:
6375:
6350:
5793:
2600:
2568:
2483:
2335:
2080:
2065:
2050:
1879:
1857:
1787:
1743:
1638:
1431:
1307:
1244:. Since then, the evidentiary basis has been expanded with data from
1237:
1233:
1201:
1063:
969:
951:
930:
815:
775:
553:
167:
87:
6047:
5250:
4124:
3080:
2952:
2478:
A comparison of phylogenetic and phenetic (character-based) concepts
2359:
The initial description of a taxon involves five main requirements:
933:) between taxa are inferred. Kinds of taxonomic characters include:
6608:
6545:
6470:
6400:
6330:
6325:
6150:
5660:"Zoological nomenclature: a basic guide for non-taxonomist authors"
4890:
3920:. Florence: Apud Georgium Marescottum – via Internet Archive.
3044:
Dry Store Room No. 1: The Secret Life of the Natural History Museum
2610:
2524:
2339:
2071:
2055:
2030:
2025:
1849:
1770:. Monophyletic groups are recognized and diagnosed on the basis of
1667:
1542:(1707–1778) ushered in a new era of taxonomy. With his major works
1488:
1354:
1221:
systems, from 1883 onwards. This approach was typified by those of
1218:
1076:
1029:
913:
708:
543:
142:
5503:
4511:
2214:, the work conducted by taxonomists is essential for the study of
1785:, to a certain extent. An alternative system of nomenclature, the
1617:
6560:
6290:
6160:
5445:"International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants"
4862:. Réflexions sur la biologie et la phylogénie des protozoaires".
4700:
International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology
3932:"Andrea Cesalpino | Italian physician, philosopher, and botanist"
3893:"Andrea Cesalpino | Italian physician, philosopher, and botanist"
2458:). The system for assigning authorities differs slightly between
2309:
2266:
2203:
2060:
2042:
2037:
2005:
1875:
1871:
1845:
1656:
toward the end of the 18th century, well before Charles Darwin's
1596:
1492:
1043:
958:
756:
700:
658:
6038:
4332:
The Meaning of Fossils: Episodes in the History of Palaeontology
3453:
3451:
3449:
2474:
1178:
focused on plants that were useful in agriculture or medicine.
6225:
5393:"Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species"
2349:
International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants
2343:
2246:
2147:
2142:
2137:
2132:
2127:
2120:
2115:
2020:
2015:
1853:
1382:
1327:
1315:
1311:
728:
599:
5999:
Phylogenetics: Theory and Practice of Phylogenetic Systematics
4864:
Annales des Sciences Naturelles - Zoologie et Biologie Animale
4216:
4214:
4212:
3490:
2800:. 359: Taxonomy for the twenty-first century (1444): 571–583.
896:
is a novel analysis of the variation patterns in a particular
6619:
5938:
Plant Taxonomy: The Systematic Evaluation of Comparative Data
4004:"Joseph Pitton de Tournefort | French botanist and physician"
3446:
2262:
2108:
2103:
2098:
2093:
1903:
1891:
1469:(1519–1603), who has been called "the first taxonomist". His
1420:
1371:
1350:
1323:
1107:
897:
852:
A whole set of terms including taxonomy, systematic biology,
752:
712:
677:
5816:
1583:
Modern taxonomy is heavily influenced by technology such as
856:, scientific classification, biological classification, and
711:
based on shared characteristics. Organisms are grouped into
6051:
4583:
4489:
10.1663/0006-8101(2003)069[0059:TLSAIY]2.0.CO;2
4209:
3793:
2377:
The description must be based on at least one name-bearing
2211:
5175:
5013:
4645:"Carl Woese | Carl R. Woese Institute for Genomic Biology"
3274:
2686:
1758:. The salient feature is arranging taxa in a hierarchical
1318:. He classified beings by their parts, or in modern terms
5278:"A Few Bad Scientists Are Threatening to Topple Taxonomy"
4617:
4615:
4613:
2923:
6069:
6060:
6027:
4077:
4075:
3714:
3712:
3710:
3708:
3497:
Voultsiadou, Eleni; Vafidis, Dimitris (1 January 2007).
2726:
1882:, would have evolved from Bacteria, more precisely from
1754:. Later, in 1960, Cain and Harrison introduced the term
778:
relationships among organisms, both living and extinct.
5178:"A higher level classification of all living organisms"
5016:"A higher level classification of all living organisms"
3852:
3541:
3458:
Cantino, Philip D.; de Queiroz, Kevin (29 April 2020).
2156:
1836:
are a relatively new grouping. First proposed in 1977,
5733:
5171:
5169:
4610:
3499:"Marine invertebrate diversity in Aristotle's zoology"
3264:
3262:
3217:
RossellĂł-Mora, Ramon; Amann, Rudolf (1 January 2001).
1416:
tradition, again deriving ultimately from Aristotle.
6597:
5599:. American Journal Experts, Research Square Company.
4072:
3705:
3464:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. xl + 149.
2883:. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. pp. xv + 209.
2746:. W. R. Chambers Ltd. and Cambridge University Press.
2501:) traits. However, certain phenetic methods, such as
1870:, who published extensively on the classification of
1830:
five- and six-kingdom systems being the most common.
1137:" as the classification of ranks higher than species.
29:
Science of naming, defining and classifying organisms
5824:"About the Catalogue of Life: 2016 Annual Checklist"
4743:
4741:
4222:"taxonomy – Classification since Linnaeus | biology"
3190:
3188:
3186:
3184:
3182:
3180:
3178:
3176:
2872:
2870:
2868:
1035:
Courtship and other ethological isolating mechanisms
5479:
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature
5166:
5072:
4954:
4462:
Biological Systematics: Principles and Applications
3913:
3800:von Lieven, Alexander FĂĽrst; Humar, Marcel (2008).
3606:
3259:
2744:
The Wordsworth Dictionary of Science and Technology
1419:The Aristotelian system did not classify plants or
883:
6078:
4877:Copeland, H. (1938). "The kingdoms of organisms".
4577:
3496:
3392:"Chapter 6: Microtaxonomy, the science of species"
3216:
1602:
1146:
5381:on 24 December 2017 – via Semantic Scholar.
5335:"The role of taxonomy in conserving biodiversity"
4738:
4673:. Oxford University Press. pp. 45, 78, 555.
3594:
3582:
3457:
3173:
2865:
1878:, the clade that groups together the Archaea and
876:frequently. However, taxonomy, and in particular
6739:
5868:(4 ed.). New Delhi: New Age International.
5310:. London: Natural History Museum. Archived from
5121:
4665:
4527:"Naming taxa from cladograms: A cautionary tale"
4460:Brower, Andrew V. Z.; Schuh, Randall T. (2021).
1910:nucleic acid) to the traditional three domains.
1502:The next major taxonomic works were produced by
798:) that encompasses description, identification,
4287:. Vol. IV. pp. 46–138. Archived from
3914:Cesalpino, Andrea; Marescotti, Giorgio (1583).
3799:
2797:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society
2792:"Taxonomic triage and the poverty of phylogeny"
2691:(3rd ed.). Sunderland: Sinauer Associates.
2367:for new species, or uninomial for other ranks).
2180:Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera
1788:International Code of Phylogenetic Nomenclature
1449:
1248:that for the most part complements traditional
715:(singular: taxon) and these groups are given a
5997:Wiley, Edward O.; Lieberman, Bruce S. (2011).
5996:
5115:
5066:
4747:
4693:
4407:
4405:
4403:
4152:
1578:
6114:
6043:National Center for Biotechnology Information
5635:
4905:
4797:"New views on the megaclassification of life"
4501:
4293:Original text w/ figures. First published as
3398:. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.
3196:"Taxonomy: Meaning, Levels, Periods and Role"
2926:Systematics In Support of Biological Research
2857:. Utah State University. 2005. Archived from
2790:(2004). Godfray, H. C. J.; Knapp, S. (eds.).
2655:
2653:
2327:International Code of Zoological Nomenclature
1746:method has emerged since the 1960s. In 1958,
794:A field of science (and a major component of
638:
5566:"Taxonomy – Evaluating taxonomic characters"
5453:International Association for Plant Taxonomy
4955:Woese, C.; Kandler, O.; Wheelis, M. (1990).
4870:
4821:
4687:
3625:
3623:
3621:
3023:
1374:can be traced back to Theophrastus, such as
6074:Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities
4851:
4623:"Kingdom Classification of Living Organism"
4518:
4459:
4400:
4335:. University of Chicago Press. p. 24.
3858:
3806:History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences
3095:
3003:"What is systematics and what is taxonomy?"
2845:
2843:
2841:
2755:
2753:
2662:"What is systematics and what is taxonomy?"
2564:Consortium of European Taxonomic Facilities
2202:Biological taxonomy is a sub-discipline of
1688:Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation
6121:
6107:
5593:"Editing Tip: Scientific Names of Species"
5075:"The revised classification of eukaryotes"
4788:
4163:] (in Swedish). Literis Laur. Salvii.
4083:"taxonomy – The Linnaean system | biology"
3776:The Lagoon: How Aristotle Invented Science
3743:
3741:
3739:
3737:
3685:
3683:
3681:
3679:
3677:
3675:
3673:
2689:Plant Systematics: A Phylogenetic Approach
2650:
1090:
645:
631:
34:Scientific classification (disambiguation)
6587:Timeline of biology and organic chemistry
5769:
5751:
5521:
5369:
5213:
5203:
5193:
5149:
5139:
5098:
5049:
5039:
4990:
4980:
4948:
4911:
4601:
4383:
4373:
4355:
4308:"Thomas Henry Huxley | British biologist"
4068:(in Latin) (10th ed.). Leiden: Haak.
3876:
3629:
3618:
3565:
3234:
2977:Plant systematics: An integrated approach
2932:
2821:
2276:
1506:(France, 1656–1708). His work from 1700,
1283:Aristotle's biology § Classification
5710:
4876:
4827:
4106:"Typification and later starting-points"
4060:
4042:
4024:
3292:
2838:
2759:
2750:
2473:
2456:list of botanists by author abbreviation
2346:, the naming of taxa is governed by the
2286:
2225:
2172:Global Biodiversity Information Facility
1860:for all organisms whose cells contain a
1810:
1632:
1616:
1523:
1286:
735:is sometimes used in botany in place of
6128:
6065:Integrated Taxonomic Information System
6001:(2nd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
5967:
5934:
5832:Integrated Taxonomic Information System
5332:
4857:
4842:
4836:
4502:Queiroz, Philip D.; de Cantino, Kevin.
4433:
4431:
4328:
4245:"Thomas Henry Huxley and the Dinobirds"
3992:from the original on 29 September 2017.
3734:
3670:
3612:
3280:
3268:
2786:
2701:
2659:
2442:, so the name is sometimes written as "
1806:
1430:Advances were made by scholars such as
1333:Some of his groups of animals, such as
924:
707:) and classifying groups of biological
14:
6740:
5587:
5585:
5236:
4794:
4750:"A revised six-kingdom system of life"
4524:
4411:
4277:
4177:
3859:Laurin, Michel; Humar, Marcel (2022).
3101:
3066:
3038:
3032:
2876:
2741:
2695:
1886:. His 2004 classification treated the
1637:The same relationship, expressed as a
1337:(animals without blood, translated as
6582:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
6102:
5955:from the original on 13 November 2023
5894:
5882:from the original on 13 November 2023
5861:
5459:from the original on 11 January 2013.
5275:
5239:"Families of Living Organisms (FALO)"
4669:; Donaghue, Michael J., eds. (2004).
4565:from the original on 13 November 2023
4531:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution
4474:
4443:National Center for Science Education
4318:from the original on 6 February 2018.
4259:from the original on 10 November 2023
4242:
4167:from the original on 1 December 2017.
3952:
3840:from the original on 27 November 2022
3769:
3600:
3588:
3219:"The species concept for prokaryotes"
3160:. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. 159.
3134:from the original on 13 November 2023
3024:Brusca, R. C.; Brusca, G. J. (2003).
2973:
2938:
2905:from the original on 5 September 2023
2509:) are too computationally expensive.
1314:, 384–322 BC) during his stay on the
6626:
5922:from the original on 13 January 2023
5546:from the original on 20 October 2022
5288:from the original on 8 February 2019
5276:Jones, Benjamin (7 September 2017).
4845:Generelle Morphologie der Organismen
4428:
4103:
3977:
3658:
3478:from the original on 14 October 2023
3389:
3343:
3152:
2370:The name must be unique (i.e. not a
2157:Recent comprehensive classifications
1675:(Charles Darwin's grandfather), and
1260:
5670:from the original on 16 March 2017.
5582:
5578:from the original on 22 April 2019.
4424:from the original on 1 August 2010.
4356:Paterlini, Marta (September 2007).
3120:10.1146/annurev.en.10.010165.000525
3000:
2851:"Nomenclature, Names, and Taxonomy"
2680:
2668:from the original on 27 August 2016
1774:, shared derived character states.
1306:Organisms were first classified by
868:Théorie élémentaire de la botanique
24:
5982:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1938.tb00522.x
5723:from the original on 10 June 2007.
5692:from the original on 14 April 2017
5625:from the original on 9 April 2017.
5603:from the original on 9 April 2017.
5128:Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology
5079:Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology
4817:from the original on 2 April 2015.
4766:10.1111/j.1469-185X.1998.tb00030.x
4633:from the original on 5 April 2017.
4232:from the original on 5 April 2017.
4093:from the original on 5 April 2017.
4014:from the original on 5 April 2017.
3942:from the original on 5 April 2017.
3903:from the original on 5 April 2017.
3759:from the original on 28 June 2017.
3730:from the original on 5 April 2017.
3529:from the original on 25 April 2023
3442:from the original on 5 April 2017.
3236:10.1111/j.1574-6976.2001.tb00571.x
3206:from the original on 5 April 2017.
2980:. Science Publishers. p. 20.
2660:Wilkins, J. S. (5 February 2011).
2559:Consortium for the Barcode of Life
2419:
2316:for the more commonly used ranks (
25:
6774:
6017:
5901:Plant taxonomy and biosystematics
5804:from the original on 21 June 2017
5648:from the original on 14 May 2017.
5471:"How can I describe new species?"
5403:from the original on 6 June 2017.
5257:from the original on 2 March 2020
5237:Döring, Markus (13 August 2015).
4726:from the original on 29 July 2017
4694:Cavalier-Smith, T. (March 2002).
4525:Dubois, Alain (1 February 2007).
4281:(1876). "Lectures on Evolution".
4142:from the original on 18 May 2015.
2763:Henderson's Dictionary Of Biology
2497:) traits from shared derived (or
1345:(animals with blood, roughly the
1021:Restriction endonuclease analyses
6720:
6703:
6686:
6669:
6652:
6635:
6607:
5838:from the original on 15 May 2016
5786:
5727:
5704:
5510:South African Journal of Science
5091:10.1111/j.1550-7408.2012.00644.x
4243:Black, Riley (7 December 2010).
3779:. Bloomsbury. pp. 384–395.
3664:The Growth of Biological Thought
3412:from the original on 3 July 2023
3158:Principles of Systematic Zoology
2877:Laurin, Michel (3 August 2023).
2706:(2nd ed.). Academic Press.
2544:Automated species identification
1276:
1012:Amino acid sequences of proteins
884:Monograph and taxonomic revision
682: 'arrangement' and
612:
611:
598:
56:
5862:Datta, Subhash Chandra (1988).
5854:
5686:North Carolina State University
5674:
5652:
5629:
5607:
5558:
5497:
5463:
5437:
5407:
5385:
5342:Journal for Nature Conservation
5326:
5300:
5269:
5230:
5007:
4659:
4637:
4495:
4468:
4453:
4439:"Polyphyletic vs. Monophyletic"
4349:
4322:
4300:
4271:
4236:
4171:
4146:
4097:
4054:
4036:
4018:
3996:
3971:
3946:
3924:
3907:
3885:
3763:
3652:
3637:. Dept. of Systematic Biology,
3424:
3383:
3337:
3286:
3210:
3164:
3146:
3060:
3017:
2994:
2967:
2917:
2630:
1603:Modern system of classification
1513:
1255:
1240:, supported by the presence of
1196:(1789), de Candolle (1813) and
1147:Microtaxonomy and macrotaxonomy
767:for categorizing organisms and
605:Evolutionary biology portal
3102:Hennig, Willi (January 1965).
2780:
2742:Walker, P. M. B., ed. (1988).
2735:
2720:
2197:
1349:), as well as groups like the
564:Creation–evolution controversy
318:History of evolutionary theory
13:
1:
6029:Natural History Museum London
5941:. Columbia University Press.
5740:Frontiers in Neuroinformatics
5711:McDonald, David (Fall 2008).
4412:Taylor, Mike (17 July 2003).
4104:Donk, M. A. (December 1957).
2643:
2574:Glossary of scientific naming
2489:times, largely superseded by
1736:modern evolutionary synthesis
1267:
781:
5904:(2nd. ed.). Cambridge:
5333:McNeely, Jeffrey A. (2002).
5205:10.1371/journal.pone.0119248
5041:10.1371/journal.pone.0119248
4934:10.1126/science.163.3863.150
3554:Mediterranean Marine Science
3369:10.1126/science.159.3815.595
3315:10.1126/science.149.3686.880
3046:. London: Harper Perennial.
2512:
2469:
1874:, in 2002 proposed that the
1450:Renaissance and early modern
549:Evolution as fact and theory
7:
5713:"Molecular Marker Glossary"
5638:"Biological Classification"
4879:Quarterly Review of Biology
4748:Cavalier-Smith, T. (1998).
4671:Assembling the Tree of Life
4543:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.06.007
4189:University of Chicago Press
3878:10.5852/cr-palevol2022v21a1
3170:Mayr, Ernst (1991), p. 162.
3108:Annual Review of Entomology
2536:
2218:and the resulting field of
2194:is a resource for fossils.
1691:, published anonymously by
1579:The digital era of taxonomy
1508:Institutiones Rei Herbariae
1504:Joseph Pitton de Tournefort
1395:
1292:Description of rare animals
1083:relationship of populations
1024:Other molecular differences
1009:Electrophoretic differences
703:study of naming, defining (
10:
6779:
6087:Biological classification.
6056:Universal Protein Resource
5906:Cambridge University Press
4329:Rudwick, M. J. S. (1985).
3104:"Phylogenetic Systematics"
2516:
2481:
2423:
2280:
2229:
1818:
1606:
1517:
1280:
1172:
1150:
1094:
1071:biogeographic distribution
950:Special structures (e.g.,
584:Nature-nurture controversy
31:
6758:Biological classification
6569:
6136:
4712:10.1099/00207713-52-2-297
4603:10.11646/BIONOMINA.17.1.1
4032:(in Latin). Leiden: Haak.
3515:10.1163/18759866-07602004
3223:FEMS Microbiology Reviews
2990:– via Google Books.
2974:Singh, Gurcharan (2004).
2766:. Pearson/Prentice Hall.
2430:Author citation (zoology)
2396:) from defining its name.
2097:
2092:
2087:
2078:
2069:
2064:
2059:
2054:
2049:
2019:
2014:
2009:
2004:
1999:
1613:Phylogenetic nomenclature
1404:was largely based on the
1167:phylogenetic nomenclature
471:Evolutionary neuroscience
446:Evolutionary epistemology
426:Evolutionary anthropology
406:Applications of evolution
18:Biological classification
5935:Stuessy, Tod F. (2009).
5794:"About – The Plant List"
5753:10.3389/fninf.2014.00071
5523:10.17159/sajs.2022/14495
4375:10.1038/sj.embor.7401061
3503:Contributions to Zoology
2623:
2579:Identification (biology)
2426:Author citation (botany)
1663:transmutation of species
1658:On the Origin of Species
1652:of the animal and plant
1214:On the Origin of Species
1095:Not to be confused with
461:Evolutionary linguistics
456:Evolutionary game theory
431:Evolutionary computation
6753:Biological nomenclature
5571:Encyclopædia Britannica
5362:10.1078/1617-1381-00015
4982:10.1073/pnas.87.12.4576
4312:Encyclopedia Britannica
4253:Smithsonian Institution
4226:Encyclopedia Britannica
4087:Encyclopedia Britannica
4008:Encyclopedia Britannica
3981:Methodus plantarum nova
3953:Jaime, Prohens (2010).
3936:Encyclopedia Britannica
3897:Encyclopedia Britannica
3724:Encyclopedia Britannica
3436:biological-concepts.com
2855:Intermountain Herbarium
2729:Dictionary of the Fungi
2324:), is regulated by the
1497:Methodus Plantarum Nova
1114:William Bertram Turrill
1091:Alpha and beta taxonomy
1038:Other behavior patterns
995:Genic sterility factors
825:biological nomenclature
759:. The Swedish botanist
574:Objections to evolution
481:Evolutionary psychology
476:Evolutionary physiology
421:Evolutionary aesthetics
400:Fields and applications
382:History of paleontology
6196:Biological engineering
6092:13 August 2020 at the
6082:free species directory
4050:(in Latin). Stockholm.
3865:Comptes Rendus Palevol
3630:Manktelow, M. (2010).
3432:"Result of Your Query"
2806:10.1098/rstb.2003.1452
2731:(10th ed.). CABI.
2479:
2304:
2277:Taxonomic descriptions
2176:NCBI taxonomy database
1816:
1783:Botanical nomenclature
1728:evolutionary taxonomic
1682:Philosophie zoologique
1645:
1630:
1535:
1303:
1144:
1122:
1006:Immunological distance
850:
771:for naming organisms.
506:Speciation experiments
486:Experimental evolution
441:Evolutionary economics
263:Recent human evolution
121:Processes and outcomes
6763:Neo-Latin terminology
6281:Developmental biology
6256:Computational biology
6236:Cellular microbiology
5717:University of Wyoming
4858:Chatton, É. (1925). "
4828:Linnaeus, C. (1735).
3691:"History of Taxonomy"
3632:"History of Taxonomy"
2889:10.1201/9781003092827
2760:Lawrence, E. (2005).
2523:Modern taxonomy uses
2477:
2290:
2226:Classifying organisms
2192:Paleobiology Database
1868:Thomas Cavalier-Smith
1814:
1677:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
1636:
1627:evolutionary taxonomy
1620:
1609:Evolutionary taxonomy
1548:1st Edition in 1735,
1538:The Swedish botanist
1527:
1440:Demetrios Pepagomenos
1357:, are commonly used.
1290:
1281:Further information:
1139:
1118:
1018:DNA and RNA sequences
957:Internal morphology (
845:
814:"Systematics studies
769:binomial nomenclature
466:Evolutionary medicine
411:Biosocial criminology
377:History of speciation
290:Evolutionary taxonomy
253:Timeline of evolution
6501:Reproductive biology
6386:Mathematical biology
6311:Evolutionary biology
6261:Conservation biology
4860:Pansporella perplexa
4843:Haeckel, E. (1866).
4649:www.igb.Illinois.edu
4477:The Botanical Review
4279:Huxley, Thomas Henry
4249:Smithsonian Magazine
3986:New Method of Plants
3917:De plantis libri XVI
3749:"Biology 101, Ch 20"
3720:"taxonomy | biology"
3390:Mayr, Ernst (1982).
3007:EvolvingThoughts.net
2861:on 23 November 2016.
2617:Virus classification
2438:the scientific name
2334:). In the fields of
2220:conservation biology
2168:Encyclopedia of Life
1807:Kingdoms and domains
1487:In the 17th century
1460:Age of Enlightenment
1410:great chain of being
925:Taxonomic characters
802:, and classification
436:Evolutionary ecology
50:Evolutionary biology
32:For other uses, see
6286:Ecological genetics
6130:Branches of biology
5636:Biocyclopedia.com.
5354:2002JNatC..10..145M
5308:"What is taxonomy?"
5195:2015PLoSO..1019248R
5032:2015PLoSO..1019248R
4973:1990PNAS...87.4576W
4926:1969Sci...163..150W
4795:Luketa, S. (2012).
4629:. 2 December 2014.
3771:Leroi, Armand Marie
3361:1968Sci...159..595M
3307:1965Sci...149..880S
3283:, pp. 365–366.
2788:Wheeler, Quentin D.
2283:Species description
1842:three-domain system
1720:Thomas Henry Huxley
1406:Aristotelian system
1207:The publication of
1058:Parasites and hosts
1055:Seasonal variations
538:Social implications
526:Universal Darwinism
516:Island biogeography
451:Evolutionary ethics
416:Ecological genetics
362:Molecular evolution
300:Transitional fossil
128:Population genetics
44:Part of a series on
6748:Taxonomy (biology)
6622:Taxonomy (biology)
6577:History of biology
6511:Structural biology
6496:Relational biology
6321:Generative biology
6316:Freshwater biology
5970:Biological Reviews
4754:Biological Reviews
4627:Biology Discussion
4251:. Washington, DC:
3978:John, Ray (1682).
3639:Uppsala University
3567:10.12681/mms.13874
3200:Biology Discussion
3013:on 27 August 2016.
2549:Bacterial taxonomy
2519:Taxonomic database
2507:Bayesian inference
2480:
2388:, Article 13.1.1,
2305:
2297:Nepenthes smilesii
1817:
1646:
1631:
1536:
1367:Historia Plantarum
1304:
1246:molecular genetics
1198:Bentham and Hooker
1049:Habit and habitats
890:taxonomic revision
839:In 1970, Michener
569:Theistic evolution
501:Selective breeding
213:Parallel evolution
178:Adaptive radiation
6595:
6594:
6516:Synthetic biology
6396:Molecular biology
6251:Cognitive biology
6024:What is taxonomy?
5865:Systematic Botany
5828:Catalogue of Life
5642:biocyclopedia.com
5425:on 3 October 2022
5314:on 1 October 2013
5141:10.1111/jeu.12691
4847:. Reimer, Berlin.
4706:(Pt 2): 297–354.
4655:on 28 April 2017.
4418:miketaylor.org.uk
4048:Species Plantarum
3755:. 23 March 1998.
3701:on 31 March 2017.
3355:(3815): 595–599.
3301:(3686): 880–882.
2704:Plant Systematics
2591:Open Tree of Life
2530:Catalogue of Life
2188:Catalogue of Life
2184:Open Tree of Life
2153:
2152:
1821:Kingdom (biology)
1760:evolutionary tree
1621:Evolution of the
1551:Species Plantarum
1520:Linnaean taxonomy
1436:Timotheus of Gaza
1261:Early taxonomists
1133:in 1968 defined "
1015:DNA hybridization
988:Metabolic factors
944:General external
765:Linnaean taxonomy
655:
654:
346:Origin of Species
148:Natural selection
16:(Redirected from
6770:
6733:
6725:
6724:
6723:
6716:
6715:from Wikiversity
6708:
6707:
6706:
6699:
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6690:
6689:
6682:
6674:
6673:
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6657:
6656:
6655:
6648:
6640:
6639:
6638:
6628:
6612:
6611:
6603:
6241:Chemical biology
6123:
6116:
6109:
6100:
6099:
6012:
5993:
5964:
5962:
5960:
5931:
5929:
5927:
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5889:
5887:
5848:
5847:
5845:
5843:
5820:
5814:
5813:
5811:
5809:
5798:theplantlist.org
5790:
5784:
5783:
5773:
5755:
5731:
5725:
5724:
5708:
5702:
5701:
5699:
5697:
5682:"Classification"
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5672:
5671:
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5627:
5626:
5611:
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5589:
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5492:
5490:
5481:. Archived from
5467:
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5435:
5434:
5432:
5430:
5421:. Archived from
5411:
5405:
5404:
5389:
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5382:
5380:
5374:. Archived from
5373:
5339:
5330:
5324:
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5319:
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4684:
4663:
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4641:
4635:
4634:
4619:
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4605:
4581:
4575:
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4572:
4570:
4522:
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4499:
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4492:
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4457:
4451:
4450:
4449:on 5 April 2017.
4445:. Archived from
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4397:
4387:
4377:
4353:
4347:
4346:
4326:
4320:
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4295:New York Tribune
4292:
4291:on 28 June 2011.
4284:Collected Essays
4275:
4269:
4268:
4266:
4264:
4240:
4234:
4233:
4218:
4207:
4206:
4201:. Archived from
4179:Secord, James A.
4175:
4169:
4168:
4156:Svenska spindlar
4150:
4144:
4143:
4141:
4110:
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3791:
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3767:
3761:
3760:
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3716:
3703:
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3697:. Archived from
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3667:
3656:
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3649:
3647:
3641:. Archived from
3636:
3627:
3616:
3610:
3604:
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3592:
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3580:
3579:
3569:
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3539:
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3278:
3272:
3266:
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3141:
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3099:
3093:
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3064:
3058:
3057:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3021:
3015:
3014:
3009:. Archived from
2998:
2992:
2991:
2971:
2965:
2964:
2936:
2930:
2929:
2921:
2915:
2914:
2912:
2910:
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2699:
2693:
2692:
2684:
2678:
2677:
2675:
2673:
2657:
2637:
2634:
2554:Cluster analysis
2503:neighbor joining
1914:
1913:
1825:Domain (biology)
1732:palaeontologists
1572:Svenska Spindlar
1467:Andrea Cesalpino
1400:Taxonomy in the
1370:. Several plant
1316:Island of Lesbos
1272:
1269:
894:taxonomic review
647:
640:
633:
620:
615:
614:
607:
603:
602:
579:Level of support
372:Current research
357:Modern synthesis
352:Before synthesis
305:Extinction event
63:Darwin's finches
60:
41:
40:
21:
6778:
6777:
6773:
6772:
6771:
6769:
6768:
6767:
6738:
6737:
6736:
6726:
6721:
6719:
6709:
6704:
6702:
6698:from Wikisource
6692:
6687:
6685:
6675:
6670:
6668:
6658:
6653:
6651:
6647:from Wiktionary
6641:
6636:
6634:
6631:
6627:sister projects
6624:at Knowledge's
6618:
6606:
6598:
6596:
6591:
6565:
6526:Systems biology
6491:Quantum biology
6132:
6127:
6094:Wayback Machine
6020:
6015:
6009:
5958:
5956:
5949:
5925:
5923:
5916:
5896:Stace, Clive A.
5885:
5883:
5876:
5857:
5852:
5851:
5841:
5839:
5822:
5821:
5817:
5807:
5805:
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5591:
5590:
5583:
5564:
5563:
5559:
5549:
5547:
5502:
5498:
5488:
5486:
5485:on 6 March 2012
5469:
5468:
5464:
5443:
5442:
5438:
5428:
5426:
5413:
5412:
5408:
5397:Mnemonic Device
5391:
5390:
5386:
5378:
5337:
5331:
5327:
5317:
5315:
5306:
5305:
5301:
5291:
5289:
5274:
5270:
5260:
5258:
5251:10.15468/tfp6yv
5235:
5231:
5188:(4): e0119248.
5174:
5167:
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5071:
5067:
5026:(4): e0119248.
5012:
5008:
4953:
4949:
4910:
4906:
4875:
4871:
4866:. 10-VII: 1–84.
4856:
4852:
4841:
4837:
4826:
4822:
4814:
4799:
4793:
4789:
4746:
4739:
4729:
4727:
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4688:
4681:
4664:
4660:
4643:
4642:
4638:
4621:
4620:
4611:
4582:
4578:
4568:
4566:
4523:
4519:
4514:on 10 May 2016.
4504:"The PhyloCode"
4500:
4496:
4473:
4469:
4458:
4454:
4437:
4436:
4429:
4410:
4401:
4354:
4350:
4343:
4327:
4323:
4306:
4305:
4301:
4297:, Extra no. 36.
4276:
4272:
4262:
4260:
4241:
4237:
4220:
4219:
4210:
4205:on 16 May 2008.
4199:
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4172:
4161:Swedish Spiders
4151:
4147:
4139:
4125:10.2307/1217493
4108:
4102:
4098:
4081:
4080:
4073:
4059:
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4041:
4037:
4023:
4019:
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3972:
3965:
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3947:
3930:
3929:
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3908:
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3798:
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3787:
3768:
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3747:
3746:
3735:
3718:
3717:
3706:
3689:
3688:
3671:
3657:
3653:
3648:on 29 May 2015.
3645:
3634:
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3611:
3607:
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3583:
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3479:
3472:
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3447:
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3429:
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3406:
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3338:
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3279:
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3211:
3202:. 27 May 2016.
3194:
3193:
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3135:
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3081:10.2307/1222391
3065:
3061:
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3040:Fortey, Richard
3037:
3033:
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3001:Wilkins, J. S.
2999:
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2953:10.2307/1222265
2937:
2933:
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2626:
2621:
2539:
2521:
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2444:Elephas maximus
2440:Elephas maximus
2432:
2424:Main articles:
2422:
2420:Author citation
2394:circumscription
2285:
2279:
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2228:
2200:
2159:
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1994:
1963:
1956:
1948:
1941:
1934:
1927:
1920:
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1888:archaeobacteria
1827:
1819:Main articles:
1809:
1693:Robert Chambers
1615:
1607:Main articles:
1605:
1581:
1563:Linnaean system
1557:Systema Naturae
1545:Systema Naturae
1531:Systema Naturae
1522:
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1452:
1412:in the Western
1398:
1285:
1279:
1270:
1263:
1258:
1187:Systema Naturae
1175:
1163:taxonomic ranks
1159:species problem
1155:
1153:Species problem
1149:
1100:
1097:Alpha diversity
1093:
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992:Body secretions
927:
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589:
588:
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530:
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392:
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258:Human evolution
248:History of life
232:
231:Natural history
224:
223:
222:
122:
114:
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6776:
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6683:
6681:from Wikiquote
6666:
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6433:
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6398:
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6381:Marine biology
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6333:
6328:
6323:
6318:
6313:
6308:
6303:
6298:
6293:
6288:
6283:
6278:
6273:
6268:
6263:
6258:
6253:
6248:
6243:
6238:
6233:
6228:
6223:
6218:
6213:
6208:
6203:
6198:
6193:
6191:Bioinformatics
6188:
6183:
6178:
6173:
6168:
6163:
6158:
6153:
6148:
6143:
6137:
6134:
6133:
6126:
6125:
6118:
6111:
6103:
6097:
6096:
6084:
6076:
6067:
6058:
6045:
6032:
6019:
6018:External links
6016:
6014:
6013:
6007:
5994:
5976:(4): 342–373.
5965:
5947:
5932:
5914:
5892:
5874:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5850:
5849:
5815:
5785:
5726:
5703:
5673:
5651:
5628:
5606:
5581:
5557:
5496:
5462:
5449:IAPT-Taxon.org
5436:
5406:
5384:
5348:(3): 145–153.
5325:
5299:
5268:
5229:
5165:
5114:
5085:(5): 429–493.
5065:
5006:
4967:(12): 4576–9.
4947:
4904:
4891:10.1086/394568
4885:(4): 383–420.
4869:
4850:
4835:
4820:
4810:(4): 218–237.
4787:
4737:
4686:
4679:
4667:Cracraft, Joel
4658:
4636:
4609:
4576:
4537:(2): 317–330.
4517:
4494:
4467:
4452:
4427:
4399:
4368:(9): 814–816.
4348:
4341:
4321:
4299:
4270:
4235:
4208:
4197:
4170:
4145:
4119:(9): 245–256.
4096:
4071:
4062:Linnaeus, Carl
4053:
4044:Linnaeus, Carl
4035:
4026:Linnaeus, Carl
4017:
3995:
3970:
3963:
3945:
3923:
3906:
3884:
3851:
3812:(2): 227–262.
3792:
3785:
3762:
3733:
3704:
3669:
3651:
3617:
3605:
3593:
3581:
3560:(3): 468–478.
3540:
3509:(2): 103–120.
3489:
3471:978-0429821356
3470:
3445:
3423:
3404:
3382:
3336:
3285:
3273:
3258:
3209:
3172:
3163:
3145:
3094:
3075:(4): 653–660.
3059:
3052:
3031:
3016:
2993:
2986:
2966:
2947:(3): 335–356.
2931:
2916:
2897:
2864:
2837:
2779:
2772:
2749:
2734:
2719:
2712:
2694:
2679:
2648:
2647:
2645:
2642:
2639:
2638:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2622:
2620:
2619:
2614:
2608:
2603:
2598:
2593:
2588:
2585:Incertae sedis
2581:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2561:
2556:
2551:
2546:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2517:Main article:
2514:
2511:
2482:Main article:
2471:
2468:
2436:Asian elephant
2421:
2418:
2401:
2400:
2397:
2382:
2375:
2368:
2278:
2275:
2232:Taxonomic rank
2230:Main article:
2227:
2224:
2199:
2196:
2158:
2155:
2151:
2150:
2145:
2140:
2135:
2130:
2124:
2123:
2118:
2112:
2111:
2106:
2101:
2096:
2091:
2085:
2084:
2076:
2075:
2068:
2063:
2058:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2040:
2034:
2033:
2028:
2023:
2018:
2013:
2008:
2003:
1997:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1983:
1978:
1973:
1970:
1966:
1965:
1961:Cavalier-Smith
1958:
1950:
1943:
1936:
1929:
1922:
1912:
1884:Actinomycetota
1808:
1805:
1772:synapomorphies
1750:used the term
1700:common descent
1673:Erasmus Darwin
1604:
1601:
1589:bioinformatics
1585:DNA sequencing
1580:
1577:
1534:, Leiden, 1735
1528:Title page of
1518:Main article:
1515:
1512:
1451:
1448:
1444:Thomas Aquinas
1397:
1394:
1278:
1275:
1271: 1500 BC
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1242:synapomorphies
1232:The advent of
1229:(1886–1892).
1209:Charles Darwin
1204:in thinking.
1174:
1171:
1151:Main article:
1148:
1145:
1104:alpha taxonomy
1092:
1089:
1087:
1086:
1085:
1084:
1074:
1061:
1060:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1041:
1040:
1039:
1036:
1027:
1026:
1025:
1022:
1019:
1016:
1013:
1010:
1007:
998:
997:
996:
993:
990:
979:
978:
977:
967:
962:
955:
948:
935:
926:
923:
885:
882:
878:alpha taxonomy
837:
836:
820:
819:
812:
809:
806:
803:
792:
783:
780:
717:taxonomic rank
705:circumscribing
653:
652:
650:
649:
642:
635:
627:
624:
623:
622:
621:
608:
591:
590:
587:
586:
581:
576:
571:
566:
561:
559:Social effects
556:
551:
546:
540:
537:
536:
533:
532:
529:
528:
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
498:
493:
488:
483:
478:
473:
468:
463:
458:
453:
448:
443:
438:
433:
428:
423:
418:
413:
408:
402:
399:
398:
395:
394:
390:
389:
379:
374:
369:
364:
359:
354:
349:
342:
337:
332:
327:
321:
320:
317:
316:
313:
312:
308:
307:
302:
297:
292:
287:
285:Classification
282:
277:
272:
267:
266:
265:
255:
250:
245:
243:Common descent
240:
238:Origin of life
234:
233:
230:
229:
226:
225:
221:
220:
215:
210:
205:
200:
195:
190:
185:
180:
175:
170:
165:
160:
155:
150:
145:
140:
135:
130:
124:
123:
120:
119:
116:
115:
113:
112:
107:
102:
96:
95:
90:
85:
80:
74:
71:
70:
61:
53:
52:
46:
45:
28:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
6775:
6764:
6761:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6751:
6749:
6746:
6745:
6743:
6732:from Wikidata
6731:
6730:
6718:
6714:
6713:
6701:
6697:
6696:
6684:
6680:
6679:
6667:
6663:
6662:
6650:
6646:
6645:
6633:
6632:
6629:
6623:
6615:
6610:
6605:
6604:
6601:
6588:
6585:
6583:
6580:
6578:
6575:
6574:
6572:
6568:
6562:
6559:
6557:
6554:
6552:
6549:
6547:
6544:
6542:
6539:
6537:
6534:
6532:
6529:
6527:
6524:
6522:
6519:
6517:
6514:
6512:
6509:
6507:
6504:
6502:
6499:
6497:
6494:
6492:
6489:
6487:
6484:
6482:
6479:
6477:
6474:
6472:
6469:
6467:
6464:
6462:
6461:Phylogenetics
6459:
6457:
6454:
6452:
6449:
6447:
6444:
6442:
6439:
6437:
6434:
6432:
6429:
6427:
6424:
6422:
6419:
6417:
6414:
6412:
6409:
6407:
6404:
6402:
6399:
6397:
6394:
6392:
6389:
6387:
6384:
6382:
6379:
6377:
6374:
6372:
6369:
6367:
6364:
6362:
6359:
6357:
6356:Human biology
6354:
6352:
6349:
6347:
6344:
6342:
6339:
6337:
6334:
6332:
6329:
6327:
6324:
6322:
6319:
6317:
6314:
6312:
6309:
6307:
6304:
6302:
6299:
6297:
6294:
6292:
6289:
6287:
6284:
6282:
6279:
6277:
6274:
6272:
6269:
6267:
6264:
6262:
6259:
6257:
6254:
6252:
6249:
6247:
6246:Chronobiology
6244:
6242:
6239:
6237:
6234:
6232:
6229:
6227:
6224:
6222:
6221:Biotechnology
6219:
6217:
6216:Biostatistics
6214:
6212:
6209:
6207:
6204:
6202:
6199:
6197:
6194:
6192:
6189:
6187:
6184:
6182:
6179:
6177:
6174:
6172:
6169:
6167:
6164:
6162:
6159:
6157:
6154:
6152:
6149:
6147:
6144:
6142:
6139:
6138:
6135:
6131:
6124:
6119:
6117:
6112:
6110:
6105:
6104:
6101:
6095:
6091:
6088:
6085:
6083:
6080:
6077:
6075:
6071:
6068:
6066:
6062:
6059:
6057:
6053:
6049:
6046:
6044:
6040:
6036:
6033:
6031:
6030:
6025:
6022:
6021:
6010:
6008:9780470905968
6004:
6000:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5971:
5966:
5954:
5950:
5948:9780231147125
5944:
5940:
5939:
5933:
5921:
5917:
5915:9780521427852
5911:
5907:
5903:
5902:
5897:
5893:
5881:
5877:
5875:9788122400137
5871:
5867:
5866:
5860:
5859:
5837:
5833:
5829:
5825:
5819:
5803:
5799:
5795:
5789:
5781:
5777:
5772:
5767:
5763:
5759:
5754:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5737:
5730:
5722:
5718:
5714:
5707:
5691:
5687:
5683:
5677:
5669:
5665:
5661:
5655:
5647:
5643:
5639:
5632:
5624:
5620:
5616:
5610:
5602:
5598:
5594:
5588:
5586:
5577:
5573:
5572:
5567:
5561:
5545:
5541:
5537:
5533:
5529:
5524:
5519:
5515:
5511:
5507:
5500:
5484:
5480:
5476:
5472:
5466:
5458:
5454:
5450:
5446:
5440:
5424:
5420:
5416:
5410:
5402:
5398:
5394:
5388:
5377:
5372:
5367:
5363:
5359:
5355:
5351:
5347:
5343:
5336:
5329:
5313:
5309:
5303:
5287:
5283:
5279:
5272:
5256:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5240:
5233:
5225:
5221:
5216:
5211:
5206:
5201:
5196:
5191:
5187:
5183:
5179:
5172:
5170:
5161:
5157:
5152:
5147:
5142:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5118:
5110:
5106:
5101:
5096:
5092:
5088:
5084:
5080:
5076:
5069:
5061:
5057:
5052:
5047:
5042:
5037:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5021:
5017:
5010:
5002:
4998:
4993:
4988:
4983:
4978:
4974:
4970:
4966:
4962:
4958:
4951:
4943:
4939:
4935:
4931:
4927:
4923:
4919:
4915:
4908:
4900:
4896:
4892:
4888:
4884:
4880:
4873:
4865:
4861:
4854:
4846:
4839:
4831:
4824:
4813:
4809:
4805:
4798:
4791:
4783:
4779:
4775:
4771:
4767:
4763:
4760:(3): 203–66.
4759:
4755:
4751:
4744:
4742:
4725:
4721:
4717:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4701:
4697:
4690:
4682:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4662:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4640:
4632:
4628:
4624:
4618:
4616:
4614:
4604:
4599:
4595:
4591:
4587:
4580:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4552:
4548:
4544:
4540:
4536:
4532:
4528:
4521:
4513:
4509:
4505:
4498:
4490:
4486:
4482:
4478:
4471:
4463:
4456:
4448:
4444:
4440:
4434:
4432:
4423:
4419:
4415:
4408:
4406:
4404:
4395:
4391:
4386:
4381:
4376:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4352:
4344:
4342:9780226731032
4338:
4334:
4333:
4325:
4317:
4313:
4309:
4303:
4296:
4290:
4286:
4285:
4280:
4274:
4258:
4254:
4250:
4246:
4239:
4231:
4227:
4223:
4217:
4215:
4213:
4204:
4200:
4198:9780226744100
4194:
4190:
4186:
4185:
4180:
4174:
4166:
4162:
4158:
4157:
4149:
4138:
4134:
4130:
4126:
4122:
4118:
4114:
4107:
4100:
4092:
4088:
4084:
4078:
4076:
4067:
4063:
4057:
4049:
4045:
4039:
4031:
4027:
4021:
4013:
4009:
4005:
3999:
3991:
3987:
3983:
3982:
3974:
3966:
3964:9781441924742
3960:
3956:
3949:
3941:
3937:
3933:
3927:
3919:
3918:
3910:
3902:
3898:
3894:
3888:
3879:
3874:
3870:
3867:(in French).
3866:
3862:
3855:
3839:
3835:
3831:
3827:
3823:
3819:
3815:
3811:
3807:
3803:
3796:
3788:
3786:9781408836224
3782:
3778:
3777:
3772:
3766:
3758:
3754:
3750:
3744:
3742:
3740:
3738:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3715:
3713:
3711:
3709:
3700:
3696:
3692:
3686:
3684:
3682:
3680:
3678:
3676:
3674:
3665:
3661:
3655:
3644:
3640:
3633:
3626:
3624:
3622:
3614:
3609:
3602:
3597:
3590:
3585:
3577:
3573:
3568:
3563:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3544:
3528:
3524:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3508:
3504:
3500:
3493:
3477:
3473:
3467:
3463:
3462:
3454:
3452:
3450:
3441:
3437:
3433:
3427:
3411:
3407:
3405:9780674364462
3401:
3397:
3393:
3386:
3378:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3340:
3332:
3328:
3324:
3320:
3316:
3312:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3289:
3282:
3277:
3270:
3265:
3263:
3254:
3250:
3246:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3228:
3224:
3220:
3213:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3191:
3189:
3187:
3185:
3183:
3181:
3179:
3177:
3167:
3159:
3155:
3149:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3121:
3117:
3114:(1): 97–116.
3113:
3109:
3105:
3098:
3090:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3063:
3055:
3053:9780007209897
3049:
3045:
3041:
3035:
3027:
3026:Invertebrates
3020:
3012:
3008:
3004:
2997:
2989:
2987:9781578083510
2983:
2979:
2978:
2970:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2935:
2927:
2920:
2904:
2900:
2898:9781003092827
2894:
2890:
2886:
2882:
2881:
2873:
2871:
2869:
2860:
2856:
2852:
2846:
2844:
2842:
2833:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2807:
2803:
2799:
2798:
2793:
2789:
2783:
2775:
2773:9780131273849
2769:
2765:
2764:
2756:
2754:
2745:
2738:
2730:
2723:
2715:
2713:9780123743800
2709:
2705:
2698:
2690:
2683:
2667:
2663:
2656:
2654:
2649:
2633:
2629:
2618:
2615:
2612:
2609:
2607:
2604:
2602:
2599:
2597:
2594:
2592:
2589:
2587:
2586:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2550:
2547:
2545:
2542:
2541:
2534:
2532:
2531:
2526:
2520:
2510:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2495:plesiomorphic
2492:
2485:
2476:
2467:
2465:
2461:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2437:
2431:
2427:
2417:
2415:
2411:
2407:
2398:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2380:
2379:type specimen
2376:
2373:
2369:
2366:
2362:
2361:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2351:
2350:
2345:
2341:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2328:
2323:
2319:
2315:
2311:
2303:
2302:pitcher plant
2300:, a tropical
2299:
2298:
2294:specimen for
2293:
2289:
2284:
2274:
2272:
2268:
2264:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2248:
2244:
2240:
2233:
2223:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2205:
2195:
2193:
2189:
2185:
2181:
2177:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2139:
2136:
2134:
2131:
2129:
2126:
2125:
2122:
2119:
2117:
2114:
2113:
2110:
2107:
2105:
2102:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2086:
2082:
2077:
2073:
2067:
2062:
2057:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2035:
2032:
2029:
2027:
2024:
2022:
2017:
2012:
2007:
2002:
2001:(not treated)
1998:
1995:6/7 kingdoms
1992:
1990:
1987:
1984:
1982:
1979:
1977:
1974:
1971:
1968:
1967:
1962:
1959:
1954:
1951:
1947:
1944:
1940:
1937:
1933:
1930:
1926:
1923:
1919:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1909:
1905:
1901:
1897:
1893:
1889:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
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1859:
1855:
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1822:
1813:
1804:
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1798:
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1790:
1789:
1784:
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1775:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1748:Julian Huxley
1745:
1740:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1716:
1711:
1710:
1709:Archaeopteryx
1705:
1701:
1696:
1694:
1690:
1689:
1684:
1683:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1644:
1640:
1635:
1628:
1624:
1619:
1614:
1610:
1600:
1598:
1594:
1590:
1586:
1576:
1574:
1573:
1566:
1564:
1560:
1558:
1554:in 1753, and
1553:
1552:
1547:
1546:
1541:
1540:Carl Linnaeus
1533:
1532:
1526:
1521:
1511:
1509:
1505:
1500:
1498:
1494:
1490:
1485:
1483:
1479:
1475:
1472:
1468:
1463:
1461:
1457:
1447:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1433:
1428:
1426:
1425:scala naturae
1422:
1417:
1415:
1411:
1407:
1403:
1393:
1391:
1390:
1385:
1384:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1369:
1368:
1363:
1358:
1356:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1339:invertebrates
1336:
1331:
1329:
1325:
1321:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1301:
1297:
1293:
1289:
1284:
1277:Ancient times
1274:
1253:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1230:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1216:
1215:
1210:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1190:
1188:
1184:
1179:
1170:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1154:
1143:
1138:
1136:
1135:beta taxonomy
1132:
1126:
1121:
1117:
1115:
1111:
1109:
1105:
1098:
1082:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1068:
1067:
1065:
1062:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1047:
1045:
1042:
1037:
1034:
1033:
1031:
1028:
1023:
1020:
1017:
1014:
1011:
1008:
1005:
1004:
1002:
999:
994:
991:
989:
986:
985:
983:
982:Physiological
980:
975:
971:
968:
966:
963:
960:
956:
953:
949:
947:
943:
942:
940:
939:Morphological
937:
936:
934:
932:
922:
919:
915:
911:
907:
906:palynological
903:
899:
895:
891:
881:
879:
874:
870:
869:
864:
859:
858:phylogenetics
855:
849:
844:
842:
834:
831:
830:
829:
826:
817:
813:
810:
807:
804:
801:
797:
793:
790:
789:
788:
779:
777:
772:
770:
766:
762:
761:Carl Linnaeus
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
722:
718:
714:
710:
706:
702:
698:
694:
692:
687:
684:
681:
679:
674:
671:
668:
667:Ancient Greek
664:
660:
648:
643:
641:
636:
634:
629:
628:
626:
625:
619:
609:
606:
601:
595:
594:
593:
592:
585:
582:
580:
577:
575:
572:
570:
567:
565:
562:
560:
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
545:
542:
541:
535:
534:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
491:Phylogenetics
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
403:
397:
396:
387:
383:
380:
378:
375:
373:
370:
368:
365:
363:
360:
358:
355:
353:
350:
348:
347:
343:
341:
338:
336:
335:Before Darwin
333:
331:
328:
326:
323:
322:
315:
314:
306:
303:
301:
298:
296:
293:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
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268:
264:
261:
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196:
194:
191:
189:
186:
184:
181:
179:
176:
174:
171:
169:
166:
164:
163:Genetic drift
161:
159:
156:
154:
151:
149:
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
129:
126:
125:
118:
117:
111:
108:
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98:
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89:
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84:
81:
79:
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73:
72:
68:
64:
59:
55:
54:
51:
48:
47:
43:
42:
39:
35:
27:
19:
6727:
6710:
6693:
6676:
6664:from Commons
6659:
6642:
6621:
6530:
6506:Sociobiology
6486:Protistology
6451:Photobiology
6446:Pharmacology
6436:Parasitology
6431:Paleontology
6411:Neuroscience
6391:Microbiology
6301:Epidemiology
6271:Cytogenetics
6231:Cell biology
6211:Biosemiotics
6201:Biomechanics
6181:Biogeography
6176:Biochemistry
6171:Bacteriology
6166:Astrobiology
6081:
6073:
6064:
6055:
6042:
6028:
5998:
5973:
5969:
5957:. Retrieved
5937:
5924:. Retrieved
5900:
5884:. Retrieved
5864:
5855:Bibliography
5840:. Retrieved
5827:
5818:
5806:. Retrieved
5797:
5788:
5743:
5739:
5729:
5706:
5694:. Retrieved
5676:
5664:Annelida.net
5663:
5654:
5641:
5631:
5618:
5609:
5596:
5569:
5560:
5548:. Retrieved
5513:
5509:
5499:
5487:. Retrieved
5483:the original
5474:
5465:
5448:
5439:
5427:. Retrieved
5423:the original
5418:
5409:
5396:
5387:
5376:the original
5345:
5341:
5328:
5316:. Retrieved
5312:the original
5302:
5290:. Retrieved
5281:
5271:
5259:. Retrieved
5242:
5232:
5185:
5181:
5134:(1): 4–119.
5131:
5127:
5117:
5082:
5078:
5068:
5023:
5019:
5009:
4964:
4960:
4950:
4917:
4913:
4907:
4882:
4878:
4872:
4863:
4859:
4853:
4844:
4838:
4829:
4823:
4807:
4804:Protistology
4803:
4790:
4757:
4753:
4728:. Retrieved
4703:
4699:
4689:
4670:
4661:
4653:the original
4648:
4639:
4626:
4596:(1): 1–111.
4593:
4589:
4579:
4567:. Retrieved
4534:
4530:
4520:
4512:the original
4507:
4497:
4480:
4476:
4470:
4461:
4455:
4447:the original
4442:
4417:
4365:
4362:EMBO Reports
4361:
4351:
4331:
4324:
4311:
4302:
4294:
4289:the original
4283:
4273:
4261:. Retrieved
4248:
4238:
4225:
4203:the original
4183:
4173:
4160:
4155:
4148:
4116:
4112:
4099:
4086:
4065:
4056:
4047:
4038:
4029:
4020:
4007:
3998:
3985:
3980:
3973:
3957:. Springer.
3954:
3948:
3935:
3926:
3916:
3909:
3896:
3887:
3868:
3864:
3854:
3844:19 September
3842:. Retrieved
3809:
3805:
3795:
3775:
3765:
3752:
3723:
3699:the original
3694:
3663:
3654:
3643:the original
3613:Stuessy 2009
3608:
3596:
3584:
3557:
3553:
3543:
3533:19 September
3531:. Retrieved
3506:
3502:
3492:
3482:19 September
3480:. Retrieved
3460:
3435:
3426:
3416:15 September
3414:. Retrieved
3395:
3385:
3352:
3348:
3339:
3298:
3294:
3288:
3281:Turrill 1938
3276:
3269:Turrill 1938
3229:(1): 39–67.
3226:
3222:
3212:
3199:
3166:
3157:
3148:
3138:19 September
3136:. Retrieved
3111:
3107:
3097:
3072:
3068:
3062:
3043:
3034:
3025:
3019:
3011:the original
3006:
2996:
2976:
2969:
2944:
2940:
2934:
2925:
2919:
2909:19 September
2907:. Retrieved
2879:
2859:the original
2854:
2795:
2782:
2762:
2743:
2737:
2728:
2722:
2703:
2697:
2688:
2682:
2670:. Retrieved
2632:
2596:Parataxonomy
2583:
2528:
2522:
2487:
2451:
2447:
2443:
2439:
2433:
2414:DNA sequence
2406:quantitative
2402:
2389:
2385:
2358:
2353:
2347:
2331:
2325:
2314:nomenclature
2306:
2295:
2235:
2216:biodiversity
2201:
2160:
2000:
1907:
1900:nucleic acid
1898:and without
1866:
1856:), with the
1832:
1828:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1786:
1776:
1768:polyphyletic
1764:paraphyletic
1755:
1751:
1741:
1724:Richard Owen
1713:
1707:
1704:Tree of life
1697:
1686:
1680:
1666:
1657:
1647:
1641:typical for
1582:
1570:
1567:
1559:10th Edition
1556:
1549:
1543:
1537:
1529:
1514:Linnaean era
1507:
1501:
1496:
1486:
1482:Brassicaceae
1473:
1464:
1453:
1429:
1424:
1418:
1399:
1387:
1381:
1375:
1365:
1362:Theophrastus
1360:His student
1359:
1342:
1334:
1332:
1319:
1305:
1296:Song dynasty
1294:(写生珍禽图), by
1291:
1264:
1256:Pre-Linnaean
1231:
1212:
1206:
1202:evolutionary
1191:
1180:
1176:
1156:
1140:
1134:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1112:
1103:
1101:
928:
893:
889:
887:
873:John Lindley
866:
851:
846:
840:
838:
832:
821:
800:nomenclature
785:
776:evolutionary
773:
736:
732:
688:
683:
675:
670:
662:
656:
511:Sociobiology
496:Paleontology
344:
284:
280:Biogeography
275:Biodiversity
193:Coextinction
183:Co-operation
158:Polymorphism
83:Introduction
38:
26:
6644:Definitions
6556:Xenobiology
6551:Virophysics
6521:Systematics
6476:Primatology
6421:Ornithology
6361:Ichthyology
6346:Herpetology
6341:Gerontology
6306:Epigenetics
6266:Cryobiology
6156:Agrostology
6146:Aerobiology
6141:Abiogenesis
6079:Wikispecies
5415:"ICZN Code"
5318:23 December
5292:24 February
5282:Smithsonian
4730:21 November
4263:10 November
3871:(1): 1–16.
3660:Mayr, Ernst
3345:Mayr, Ernst
3154:Mayr, Ernst
2410:qualitative
2318:superfamily
2208:naturalists
2198:Application
2164:prokaryotes
2089:Vegetabilia
2056:Protoctista
1985:5 kingdoms
1972:3 kingdoms
1969:2 kingdoms
1964:1998, 2015
1904:Virusobiota
1892:Prionobiota
1715:Hesperornis
1671:in 1796 by
1650:dendrograms
1623:vertebrates
1471:magnum opus
1456:Renaissance
1454:During the
1402:Middle Ages
1347:vertebrates
1225:(1883) and
1066:characters
1046:characters
1032:characters
1003:characters
984:characters
974:cytological
941:characters
910:biochemical
863:de Candolle
854:systematics
833:Systematics
796:systematics
521:Systematics
330:Renaissance
208:Convergence
198:Contingency
188:Coevolution
6742:Categories
6678:Quotations
6541:Toxicology
6536:Teratology
6481:Proteomics
6466:Physiology
6406:Neontology
6371:Lipidology
6366:Immunology
6336:Geobiology
6296:Embryology
6276:Dendrology
6206:Biophysics
6186:Biogeology
5959:6 February
5886:25 January
5550:20 October
5419:AnimalBase
4680:0195172345
4569:21 October
3753:cbs.dtu.dk
3601:Stace 1989
3589:Datta 1988
2644:References
2606:Set theory
2499:apomorphic
2322:subspecies
2281:See also:
2186:, and the
2011:Prokaryota
1993:2 empires,
1981:4 kingdoms
1838:Carl Woese
1779:Zoological
1643:cladistics
1478:Asteraceae
1474:De Plantis
1414:scholastic
1320:attributes
1300:Huang Quan
1250:morphology
1194:de Jussieu
1131:Ernst Mayr
1102:The term "
1081:allopatric
1064:Geographic
1044:Ecological
1030:Behavioral
972:and other
965:Embryology
946:morphology
902:anatomical
782:Definition
701:scientific
699:') is the
665:(from
295:Cladistics
218:Extinction
203:Divergence
173:Speciation
153:Adaptation
67:John Gould
6712:Resources
6456:Phycology
6441:Pathology
6426:Osteology
6416:Nutrition
6376:Mammalogy
6351:Histology
5898:(1989) .
5762:1662-5196
5619:Study.com
5540:252562185
5532:1996-7489
4590:Bionomina
4551:1055-7903
4483:(1): 59.
3818:0391-9714
3576:1791-6763
3523:1875-9866
3245:1574-6976
3128:0066-4170
2814:0962-8436
2672:21 August
2613:(general)
2601:Phenogram
2569:Genetypes
2513:Databases
2491:cladistic
2484:Phenetics
2470:Phenetics
2452:Linnaeus,
2386:ICZN Code
2336:phycology
2332:ICZN Code
2081:Chromista
2051:Eukaryota
1989:3 domains
1976:2 empires
1946:Whittaker
1896:acellular
1858:Eukaryota
1801:PhyloCode
1797:PhyloCode
1793:PhyloCode
1756:cladistic
1744:cladistic
1695:in 1844.
1639:cladogram
1593:databases
1432:Procopius
1389:Narcissus
1355:cetaceans
1308:Aristotle
1302:(903–965)
1238:monophyly
1234:cladistic
1077:Sympatric
1001:Molecular
970:Karyology
952:genitalia
931:phylogeny
918:monograph
865:, in his
816:phylogeny
709:organisms
554:Dysgenics
270:Phylogeny
168:Gene flow
138:Diversity
133:Variation
6570:See also
6546:Virology
6531:Taxonomy
6471:Pomology
6401:Mycology
6331:Genomics
6326:Genetics
6151:Agronomy
6090:Archived
6048:Taxonomy
6035:Taxonomy
5990:84905335
5953:Archived
5926:19 April
5920:Archived
5880:Archived
5836:Archived
5834:(ITIS).
5802:Archived
5780:25206330
5721:Archived
5696:27 April
5690:Archived
5668:Archived
5646:Archived
5623:Archived
5601:Archived
5576:Archived
5544:Archived
5516:(9/10).
5475:ICZN.org
5457:Archived
5401:Archived
5371:16953722
5286:Archived
5261:11 March
5255:Archived
5224:25923521
5182:PLOS ONE
5160:30257078
5109:23020233
5060:25923521
5020:PLOS ONE
4899:84634277
4812:Archived
4724:Archived
4720:11931142
4631:Archived
4563:Archived
4559:16949307
4508:Ohio.edu
4422:Archived
4394:17767191
4316:Archived
4257:Archived
4230:Archived
4181:(2000).
4165:Archived
4137:Archived
4091:Archived
4064:(1758).
4046:(1753).
4028:(1735).
4012:Archived
3990:Archived
3940:Archived
3901:Archived
3838:Archived
3834:19203017
3826:23334371
3773:(2014).
3757:Archived
3728:Archived
3662:(1982).
3527:Archived
3476:Archived
3440:Archived
3410:Archived
3331:36277653
3323:17737388
3253:11152940
3204:Archived
3156:(1991).
3132:Archived
3042:(2008).
2903:Archived
2832:15253345
2666:Archived
2611:Taxonomy
2537:See also
2525:database
2365:binomial
2340:mycology
2148:Animalia
2143:Animalia
2138:Animalia
2133:Animalia
2128:Animalia
2072:Protozoa
2061:Protista
2031:Bacteria
2026:Bacteria
2006:Protista
1939:Copeland
1918:Linnaeus
1872:protists
1850:Bacteria
1668:Zoonomia
1654:kingdoms
1489:John Ray
1458:and the
1396:Medieval
1298:painter
1219:phyletic
1183:Linnaeus
1073:patterns
1069:General
733:division
663:taxonomy
618:Category
544:Eugenics
386:timeline
367:Evo-devo
325:Overview
143:Mutation
105:Evidence
100:Glossary
6614:Biology
6561:Zoology
6291:Ecology
6161:Anatomy
6052:UniProt
6026:at the
5808:8 April
5771:4144441
5597:AJE.com
5429:8 April
5350:Bibcode
5215:4418965
5190:Bibcode
5151:6492006
5100:3483872
5051:4418965
5028:Bibcode
5001:2112744
4969:Bibcode
4942:5762760
4922:Bibcode
4914:Science
4782:6557779
4774:9809012
4385:1973966
4133:1217493
3695:Palaeos
3377:4886900
3357:Bibcode
3349:Science
3303:Bibcode
3295:Science
3089:1222391
2961:1222265
2823:1693342
2464:zoology
2372:homonym
2310:zoology
2267:Species
2243:Kingdom
2204:biology
2109:Plantae
2104:Plantae
2099:Plantae
2094:Plantae
2066:Eucarya
2045:(2015)
2043:Archaea
2038:Archaea
1932:Chatton
1925:Haeckel
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