2067:
637:
noted that skin color was unsuitable for distinguishing varieties. Although
Blumenbach did not propose any hierarchy among the five varieties, he placed the Caucasian form in the center of his description as being the most "primitive" or "primeval" one from which the other forms "degenerated". In the 18th century, however, these terms did not have the negative connotations they possess today. At the time, "primitive" or "primeval" described the ancestral form, while "degeneration" was understood to be the process of change leading to a variety adapted to a new environment by being exposed to a different climate and diet. Hence, he argued that physical characteristics like skin color, cranial profile, etc., depended on geography, diet, and mannerism. Further anatomical study led him to the conclusion that "individual Africans differ as much, or even more, from other Africans as from Europeans".
677:"Finally, I am of opinion that after all these numerous instances I have brought together of negroes of capacity, it would not be difficult to mention entire well-known provinces of Europe, from out of which you would not easily expect to obtain off-hand such good authors, poets, philosophers, and correspondents of the Paris Academy; and on the other hand, there is no so-called savage nation known under the sun which has so much distinguished itself by such examples of perfectibility and original capacity for scientific culture, and thereby attached itself so closely to the most civilized nations of the earth, as the Negro."
222:
954:
1797:"Über den Bildungstrieb (Nisus formativus) und seinen Einfluß auf die Generation und Reproduction" in: Göttingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Litteratur, vol. 1 (1780), pp. 247–266. Wolff's vital power, which dealt only with nutrition (sustenance), was "requisite to the Bildungstrieb but not by any means the Bildungstrieb itself", as the vital power existed even where there was little or no form, and also could be weak due to poor nourishment, whereas the Bildungstrieb remains undamaged. (Gigantes)
520:
42:
690:, who concluded from autopsies that Africans were an inferior race. Blumenbach wrote three other essays stating non-white peoples were capable of excelling in arts and sciences in reaction against racialists of his time. At his time, Blumenbach was perceived as anti-racist and he strongly opposed the practice of slavery and the belief of the inherent savagery of the coloured races.
869:, as distinct from chemical or physical forces, first appeared with Medicus's on the Lebenskraft (1774). Scientists were now forced to consider hidden and mysterious powers of and in living matter that resisted physical laws – warm-blooded animals maintaining a consistent temperature despite changing outside temperatures, for example.
922:
At the same time, befitting the central idea of the science and medicine of dynamic polarity, it was also the physiological functional identity of what theorists of society or mind called "aspiration". Blumenbach's
Bildungstrieb found quick passage into evolutionary theorizing of the decade following
1001:
The way in which the
Bildungstrieb differed, perhaps, from other such forces was in its comprehensive architectonic character: it directed the formation of anatomical structures and the operations of physiological processes of the organism so that various parts would come into existence and function
997:
Blumenbach had initially been an advocate of Haller's view, in contrast to those of Wolff, that the essential elements of the embryo were already in the egg, he later sided with Wolff. Blumenbach provided evidence for the actual existence of this formative force, to distinguish it from other, merely
842:
Enlightenment science and philosophy essentially held a static view of nature and man, but vital nature continued to interrupt this view, and the issue of life, the creation of life and its varieties, increasingly occupied attention and "starting in the 1740s the concept of vital power reentered the
914:
Blumenbach compared the uncertainty about the origin and ultimate nature of the formative drive to similar uncertainties about gravitational attraction: "just in the same way as we use the name of attraction or gravity to denote certain forces, the causes of which however still remain hid, as they
636:
Blumenbach assumed that all morphological differences between the varieties were induced by the climate and the way of living and he emphasized that the differences in morphology were so small, gradual and transiently connected that it was not possible to separate these varieties clearly. He also
434:
in 1827. This manual, though slighter than the subsequent works of Cuvier, Carus, and others, and not to be compared with such later expositions as that of
Gegenbaur, was long esteemed for the accuracy of the author's own observations, and his just appreciation of the labors of his predecessors.
910:
Blumenbach held that all living organisms "from man down to maggots, and from the cedar to common mould or mucor", possess an inherent "effort or tendency which, while life continues, is active and operative; in the first instance to attain the definite form of the species, then to preserve it
668:
were fair skinned compared to the other Asian stocks because they kept mostly in towns protected from environmental factors. He believed that the degeneration could be reversed in a proper environmental control and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to the original
Caucasian race.
1014:
both called him "one of the most profound biological theorists of the modern era." In the words of science historian Peter Watson, "roughly half the German biologists during the early nineteenth century studied under him or were inspired by him: Alexander von
Humboldt,
403:(1787), a condensed, well-arranged view of the animal functions, expounded without discussion of minute anatomical details. Between its first publication and 1821, it went through many editions in Germany, where it was the general textbook of the science of
546:(five principal varieties of humankind, but one species). In his view, humans could be divided into varieties (only in his later work he adopted the term "races", which had been introduced by others) but he was aware that a clear separation was difficult:
724:. This dissertation was printed and appeared in September 1775, but only for internal use in the University of Göttingen and not for providing a public record. The public print of his dissertation appeared in 1776. Blumenbach knew that
961:
Kant is said by several modern authors to have relied on
Blumenbach's biological concept of formative power in developing his idea of organic purpose. Kant wrote to Blumenbach in 1790 to praise his concept of the formative force
496:
in 1831. In celebration of his doctoral jubilee (1825), traveling scholarships were founded to assist talented young physicians and naturalists. He retired in 1835. Blumenbach died in 1840 in Göttingen, where he is buried in the
768:
and, since it was the oldest available name for the chimpanzee, be used for this species. However, the commission did not know that
Blumenbach had already mentioned this name in his dissertation. Following the rules of the
1398:
551:"All national differences in the form and colour of the human body run so insensibly, by so many shades and transitions one into the other, that it is impossible to separate them by any but very arbitrary limits."
348:, University of Göttingen, which was first published in 1775, then re-issued with changes to the titlepage in 1776). It is considered one of the most influential works in the development of subsequent
477:
3204:
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could not be used. Blumenbach was one of the first scientists to understand the identities of the different species of primates, which were (excluding humans) orangutans and chimpanzees. (
911:
entire, and, when it is infringed upon, so far as this is possible, to restore it." This power of vitality is "not referable to any qualities merely physical, chemical, or mechanical."
826:
Blumenbach made many contributions to the scientific debates of the last half of the 18th century regarding evolution and creation. His central contribution was in the conception of a
2996:
966:). However, whereas Kant had a heuristic concept in mind, to explain mechanical causes, Blumenbach conceived of a cause fully resident in nature. From this he would argue that the
3184:
1582:
672:
Moreover, he concluded that
Africans were not inferior to the rest of mankind "concerning healthy faculties of understanding, excellent natural talents and mental capacities":
970:
was central to the creation of new species. Though
Blumenbach left no overt indications of sources for his theory of biological revolution, his ideas harmonize with those of
3124:
990:), whose undeniable existence and extensive effects are apparent throughout the whole of nature and revealed by experience'. He consolidated these in the second edition of
305:. Blumenbach's peers considered him one of the great theorists of his day, and he was a mentor or influence on many of the next generation of German biologists, including
321:. His father was Heinrich Blumenbach, a local school headmaster; his mother was Charlotte Eleonore Hedwig Buddeus. He was born into a well-connected family of academics.
850:, that revived interest in vital nature. Buffon held that there were certain penetrating powers which organised the organic particles that made up the living organism.
656:
were Caucasian inhabitants of Asia, and that other races came about by degeneration from environmental factors such as the sun and poor diet. Thus, he claimed, Negroid
3159:
2948:
876:, a German embryologist provided evidence for the ancient idea of epigenesis, that is preformed life, that is a chick out of unformed substance and his dispute with
3199:
2130:
1225:
888:) that allowed structure to be a result of power, "the very power through which, in the vegetable body, all those things which we describe as life are effected."
2964:
2028:
Klatt N. (2008). "Klytia und die "schöne Georgianerin" – Eine Anmerkung zu Blumenbachs Rassentypologie". Kleine Beiträge zur Blumenbach-Forschung 1: 70–101.
2064:, providing a complete bibliography of Blumenbach's works (with digitised versions) as well as biograpical information and sources on his life and career
753:
1680:
380:, of which he was editor from 1780 to 1794, with various contributions on medicine, physiology, and anatomy. In physiology, he was of the school of
1668:
Blumenbach, J. F. 1776. De generis hvmani varietate nativa liber. Cvm figvris aeri incisis. – pp. , 1–100, , Tab. I–II . Goettingae. (Vandenhoeck).
2061:
907:) responsible for biological "procreation, nourishment, and reproduction", as well as self-development and self-perfection on a cultural level.
464:
384:, and was in the habit of illustrating his theory by a careful comparison of the animal functions of man with those of other animals. Following
1347:
460:
1923:
854:
translated Buffon's idea of organic particles into "molecules with formative propensities" and in Germany Buffon's idea of an internal order,
3129:
2908:
426:"), which passed through numerous German editions from its appearance in 1805 to 1824. It was translated into English in 1809 by the surgeon
2123:
1755:
530:
Blumenbach explored the biodiversity of humans mainly by comparing skull anatomy and skin color. His work included a description of sixty
843:
scene of generation ... there must be some 'productive power' in nature that enabled unorganized material to generate new living forms."
2100:
2900:
1514:
Human Evolution: a guide to the debates, Brian Regal, page 72 also see The Institutions of physiology, 1817, Blumenbach, John Elliotson
699:"While we maintain the unity of the human species, we at the same time repel the depressing assumption of superior and inferior races."
3194:
3169:
3114:
3109:
2924:
1944:
McLaughlin P (1982). "Blumenbach und der Bildungstrieb. Zum Verhältnis von epigenetischer Embryologie und typologischem Artbegriff".
1586:
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2116:
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2516:
2343:
645:
899:
While Wolff was not concerned to name this vital organising, reproducing power, in 1780 Blumenbach posited a formative drive (
1535:
1209:
452:
978:(1744–1803), and it was Herder whose ideas were influenced by Blumenbach. Blumenbach continued to refine the concept in his
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880:
brought the issue of life to the forefront of natural science and philosophy. Wolff identified an "essential power" (
736:. In 1779, he discussed this Linnean name and concluded correctly that Linnaeus had been dealing with two species, a
468:
427:
1422:
373:
361:
2940:
577:
2078:
352:. It contained the germ of the craniological research to which so many of his subsequent inquiries were directed.
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618:
603:
1702:
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arose because of the result of the heat of the tropical sun, while the cold wind caused the tawny colour of the
3144:
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2796:
2746:
2731:
2369:
2169:
2084:
456:
197:
189:
295:
3174:
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2174:
1020:
607:
2094:
1289:
3139:
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2521:
408:
336:. He was recognized as a prodigy by the age sixteen in 1768. He graduated from the latter in 1775 with his
2571:
2536:
1677:
982:('On the Formative Drive and the Operation of Generation', 1787) and in the second edition (1788) of the
934:, undertook to study in detail how this generative, reproductive and creative power, which he termed the
581:
561:
524:
510:
271:
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325:
17:
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of living power of the organism, could be negatively affected by inimical agents to engender disease.
333:
114:
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2388:
792:
by J. C. Dieterich in 1779/1780. He was also one of the first scientists to study the anatomy of the
204:
175:
259:
as comparative, scientific disciplines. He has been called the "founder of racial classifications".
3038:
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2631:
2319:
2199:
2139:
1016:
514:
349:
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1028:
1024:
975:
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179:
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1774:
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in 1808. This was changed to associated member in 1827. He was then appointed secretary to the
306:
221:
1570:
1557:
Jack Hitt, "Mighty White of You: Racial Preferences Color America's Oldest Skulls and Bones,"
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2042:
1525:
1325:
1201:
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1148:
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Blumenbach was regarded as a leading light of German science by his contemporaries. Kant and
302:
2621:
834:, an inborn force within an organism that led it to create, maintain, and repair its shape.
492:
in 1816, made a knight-commander of the Guelphic Order in 1821, and elected a member of the
435:
Although the greatest part of Blumenbach's life was passed at Göttingen, in 1789 he visited
3094:
3089:
3033:
2751:
2716:
2531:
1093:
Ilse Jahn, Rolf Löther, Konrad Senglaub (Pub.): Geschichte der Biologie. Jena 1985, p. 637.
99:
69:
1988:"The beautiful skull and Blumenbach's errors: the birth of the scientific concept of race"
1468:"The beautiful skull and Blumenbach's errors: The birth of the scientific concept of race"
8:
2696:
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2591:
2471:
2207:
2077:
1011:
919:
darkness, the formative force (nisus formativus) can explain the generation of animals."
877:
649:
381:
267:
193:
124:
2741:
2476:
1288:
1082:
The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 38
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2506:
2282:
2012:
1987:
1492:
1467:
953:
924:
337:
329:
110:
95:
1867:
773:
the scientific name of one of the most well-known African animals, currently known as
538:(Göttingen, 1790–1828). This was a founding work for other scientists in the field of
3004:
2892:
2851:
2776:
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2661:
2561:
2430:
2403:
2376:
2277:
2148:
2017:
1974:
1953:
1932:
1916:. translated by John Elliotson (4th ed.). Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green.
1911:
1814:
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1205:
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1049:
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592:
226:
128:
73:
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2029:
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2826:
2801:
2781:
2546:
2257:
2093:
2071:
2007:
1999:
1863:
1487:
1479:
1119:
1108:"American Indian Identity and Blood Quantum in the 21st Century: A Critical Review"
931:
682:
He did not consider his "degenerative hypothesis" as racist and sharply criticized
657:
162:
2057:
1835:
The Strategy of Life: Teleology and Mechanics in Nineteenth-Century German Biology
1583:"Über die natürlichen Verschiedenheiten im Menschengeschlechte, 1798, pp. 204–224"
1336:. Vol. 3 (9th ed.). New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 840–841.
858:
arising out of the action of the penetrating powers was translated into German as
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2003:
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He was one of the first to explore the study of the human being as an aspect of
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2601:
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2423:
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1032:
971:
851:
756:(ICZN) decided in 1985 that Blumenbach's view should be followed, and that his
569:
498:
412:
389:
385:
275:
248:
542:. He established a five-part naming system in 1795 to describe what he called
3083:
3043:
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2786:
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2736:
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2526:
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2262:
2242:
2232:
1319:
1282:
1160:
1133:
725:
1690:. p. 303. London. (The International Commission of Zoological Nomenclature).
704:
However, selected parts of his views were later used by others to encourage
519:
3023:
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2511:
2297:
2252:
2247:
2189:
2164:
2021:
1957:
1501:
761:
653:
318:
256:
65:
2435:
1978:
1936:
1124:
1107:
846:
Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon wrote an influential work in 1749,
789:
369:
155:
91:
3063:
3053:
2656:
2466:
2413:
2287:
2227:
2222:
1852:"Kant and Blumenbach on the Bildungstrieb: A Historical Misunderstanding"
1044:
812:
had already been shown to be used for the scientific name for a genus of
665:
539:
436:
27:
18th- and 19th-century German physiologist and anthropologist (1752-1840)
3058:
3048:
2766:
2671:
2501:
2491:
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2272:
2237:
2179:
1851:
1081:
916:
721:
641:
599:
404:
283:
244:
145:
744:, neither of which was a chimpanzee, and that by consequence the name
2309:
1699:
770:
741:
588:
489:
279:
236:
2047:
1527:
The rise of anthropological theory: a history of theories of culture
3028:
2408:
793:
2998:
An Investigation of Global Policy with the Yamato Race as Nucleus
2331:
2326:
2292:
2267:
2184:
1454:
Johann Friedrich Blumenbach - Race and Natural History, 1750–1850
749:
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625:
614:
557:
472:
444:
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in 1778. His contributions soon began to enrich the pages of the
291:
287:
252:
752:
were not known to Europeans at this time). In Opinion 1368, the
41:
2398:
2212:
788:; 12 editions and some translations. It was published first in
661:
439:, and gave a curious medical topography of that country in the
544:
generis humani varietates quinae principes, species vero unica
3155:
Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
1318:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
1281:
This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
737:
572:
or white race. Blumenbach was the first to use this term for
531:
3150:
Honorary members of the Saint Petersburg Academy of Sciences
1226:"Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002"
777:, must carry Blumenbach's name combined with the date 1776.
686:, an early practitioner of scientific racialism, as well as
3205:
Members of the Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities
2884:
An Essay upon the Causes of the Different Colours of People
1572:
Anthropological Treatises of Blumenbach and Hunter, pg. 312
399:
His reputation was much extended by the publication of his
1517:
1688:
Official lists and indexes of names and works in zoology
1259:
Biographical details are in Charles Coulston Gillispie,
816:
so Blumenbach's scientific name for the genus was used.
301:
He is considered a pivotal figure in the development of
945:
451:
of London in 1793 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the
3185:
People involved in race and intelligence controversies
2966:
The Rising Tide of Color Against White World-Supremacy
294:. He was a member of what modern historians call the
3125:
Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1920:
1837:. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989. p. 44.
1452:
Rupke, Nicolaas and Lauer, Gerhard (Editors) (2019)
1200:. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. p.
471:
in 1813, appointed physician to the royal family in
455:
in 1794. In 1798, he was elected as a member to the
754:
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature
716:In his dissertation, Blumenbach mentioned the name
459:. He became a correspondent, living abroad, of the
418:He was perhaps still more extensively known by his
2138:
1193:
1002:interactively to achieve the ends of the species.
923:its formulation and in the thinking of the German
1187:
1185:
1183:
1084:(Jan. - Jun., 1908), Table III, opposite page 23.
865:The German term for vital power or living power,
430:, and again, with improvements and additions, by
3160:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
3081:
1425:. Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences
760:as published by Blumenbach in 1779 shall be the
556:Blumenbach's classification of the single human
780:Blumenbach shortly afterward wrote a manual of
720:in connection with a short description for the
534:(skulls) published originally in fascicules as
407:. It was translated into English in America by
1180:
1080:Cunningham, D. J.: "Anniversary Address." In:
1005:
974:and especially with those of his contemporary
3200:Academic staff of the University of Göttingen
2910:An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races
2124:
2068:Works by or about Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
1833:See also Watson, p. 83, and Lenoir, Timothy.
1523:
1448:
1446:
1444:
1442:
1440:
891:
652:" of racial origins. Blumenbach claimed that
235:(11 May 1752 – 22 January 1840) was a German
2062:Göttingen Academy of Sciences and Humanities
1943:
1652:, p. 57, Princeton University Press (2002),
1277:
1275:
1273:
328:in Gotha before studying medicine, first at
1964:
1845:
1843:
1749:
1747:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1739:
1737:
364:of medicine and inspector of the museum of
317:Blumenbach was born at his family house in
312:
251:. He is considered to be a main founder of
2902:Occasional Discourse on the Negro Question
2131:
2117:
1909:
1437:
225:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach, engraving by
40:
2926:The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century
2011:
1856:Stud. Hist. Phil. Biol. & Biomed. Sci
1630:. 2nd ed, Karl Pressler, Munchen, p132/3.
1491:
1423:"Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752–1840)"
1270:
1140:
1123:
980:De nisu formativo et generationis negotio
467:in 1812, elected a foreign member of the
1985:
1849:
1840:
1753:
1734:
952:
711:
518:
220:
1921:Schmidt-Wiederkehr P (March 1973). "".
1806:
1800:
1456:Routledge, London, UK and New York, USA
1379:. American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1374:"Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B"
1191:
1105:
388:'s identification, Blumenbach gave the
274:, of which he claimed there were five,
14:
3082:
2517:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
2052:Göttingen State and University Library
1465:
1323:
1314:
1312:
1310:
1308:
1306:
694:wrote on his and Blumenbach's views:
646:Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon
511:Biological anthropology § History
504:
411:(Philadelphia 1798), and in London by
2112:
1910:Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich (1828).
1286:
1146:
453:American Academy of Arts and Sciences
3130:Foreign members of the Royal Society
2095:"Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich"
2079:"Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich"
2058:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach – Online
1608:Race and the enlightenment: a reader
1366:
1327:"Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich"
1290:"Blumenbach, Johann Friedrich"
1147:Gould, Stephen Jay (November 1994).
1101:
1099:
930:One of Blumenbach's contemporaries,
420:Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie
3069:Pre-modern conceptions of whiteness
2043:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach Details
1303:
560:into five varieties (later called "
449:Foreign Member of the Royal Society
447:in 1788 and 1792. He was elected a
24:
1757:Life: Organic Form and Romanticism
1261:Dictionary of Scientific Biography
461:Royal Institute of the Netherlands
342:De generis humani varietate nativa
25:
3216:
2974:The Myth of the Twentieth Century
2894:The Outline of History of Mankind
2035:
1965:Wiesemann C (November 1990). "".
1626:Carter J. & Muir P. H. 1983.
1530:. Rowman Altamira. pp. 84–.
1287:Rines, George Edwin, ed. (1920).
1096:
469:Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences
346:On the Natural Variety of Mankind
3170:People from Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg
3115:19th-century German male writers
3110:18th-century German male writers
2942:Heredity in Relation to Eugenics
1810:Romantic Medicine and John Keats
1177:. New York: Harper, 2010. p. 81.
819:
796:, assigning the scientific name
396:(first-born elephant), in 1799.
3100:18th-century German naturalists
1890:
1881:
1827:
1791:
1725:
1712:
1693:
1671:
1662:
1642:
1633:
1620:
1600:
1575:
1564:
1551:
1508:
1459:
1415:
1391:
1350:. Royal Society. Archived from
1340:
1267:"Johann Friederich Blumenbach".
1106:Schmidt, Ryan W. (2012-01-15).
728:had already established a name
424:Handbook of comparative anatomy
324:Blumenbach was educated at the
3195:University of Göttingen alumni
2934:Race Life of the Aryan Peoples
2140:Historical definitions of race
2085:New International Encyclopedia
1253:
1218:
1167:
1087:
1074:
1062:
804:had already given it the name
591:or yellow race, including all
457:American Philosophical Society
198:Karl Theodor Ernst von Siebold
190:Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link
13:
1:
3180:Proto-evolutionary biologists
2958:The Passing of the Great Race
1903:
1868:10.1016/S1369-8486(99)00042-4
1021:Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus
837:
800:to the animal, being unaware
617:or black race, including all
272:classification of human races
205:Author abbrev. (zoology)
2857:Otmar Freiherr von Verschuer
1850:Richards, Robert J. (2000).
1639:Humboldt , reprint from 1997
1628:Printing and the Mind of Man
1466:Bhopal, Raj (Dec 22, 2007).
1235:. p. 94. Archived from
984:Handbuch der Naturgeschichte
786:Handbuch der Naturgeschichte
688:Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring
172:Other academic advisors
7:
3120:19th-century German writers
3105:18th-century German writers
2572:Egon Freiherr von Eickstedt
2537:Houston Stewart Chamberlain
2487:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
2030:urn:nbn:de:101:1-2008112813
2004:10.1136/bmj.39413.463958.80
1946:Medizinhistorisches Journal
1813:. Oxford University Press.
1484:10.1136/bmj.39413.463958.80
1324:Baynes, T. S., ed. (1878).
1196:The History of White People
1070:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
1038:
1006:Influence on German biology
628:or red race, including all
401:Institutiones Physiologicae
392:its first scientific name,
296:Göttingen school of history
233:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
46:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
34:Johann Friedrich Blumenbach
10:
3221:
1986:Bhopal R (December 2007).
1924:Medizinische Monatsschrift
1913:The Elements of Physiology
1233:Royal Society of Edinburgh
648:, Blumenbach held to the "
508:
494:French Academy of Sciences
3190:University of Jena alumni
3016:
2875:
2667:Georges Vacher de Lapouge
2444:
2342:
2198:
2155:
2146:
1807:Almeida, Hermion (1991).
1763:. Yale University Press.
1754:Gigantes, Denise (2000).
1610:, Blackwell (1997) p. 79
986:: 'it is a proper force (
798:Ornithorhynchus paradoxus
602:or brown race, including
465:Royal Society of Sciences
360:Blumenbach was appointed
355:
215:
203:
185:
176:Ernst Gottfried Baldinger
171:
167:Christian Wilhelm BĂĽttner
161:
151:
141:
134:
120:
106:
80:
51:
39:
32:
3165:People from Gotha (town)
3039:History of anthropometry
2807:Charles Gabriel Seligman
2632:Frederick Ludwig Hoffman
2320:Sinodonty and Sundadonty
1055:
1031:, Johannes Illiger, and
1017:Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer
515:Historical race concepts
313:Early life and education
2497:Daniel Garrison Brinton
2101:Encyclopædia Britannica
1650:Racism: A Short History
1648:Fredrickson, George M.
1333:Encyclopædia Britannica
1112:Journal of Anthropology
1068:Chemistry Tree profile
1029:Johann Friedrich Meckel
1025:Heinrich Friedrich Link
976:Johann Gottfried Herder
946:Blumenbach and Kant on
650:degenerative hypothesis
576:, and he also included
378:Medicinische Bibliothek
362:extraordinary professor
180:Christian Gottlob Heyne
115:University of Göttingen
3135:German anthropologists
2842:Thomas Griffith Taylor
2597:Reginald Ruggles Gates
2104:(11th ed.). 1911.
1606:Emmanuel Chukwudi Eze
1561:, July 2005, pp. 39–55
1524:Marvin Harris (2001).
1296:Encyclopedia Americana
1192:Painter, Nell (2010).
1149:"The Geometer of Race"
992:Ăśber den Bildungstrieb
958:
874:Caspar Friedrich Wolff
702:
692:Alexander von Humboldt
680:
554:
527:
485:
307:Alexander von Humboldt
229:
3145:History of psychiatry
2982:Annihilation of Caste
2886:in Different Climates
2837:William Graham Sumner
2817:Samuel Stanhope Smith
2762:James Cowles Prichard
2394:Racial discrimination
956:
712:Other natural studies
696:
674:
584:in the same category.
548:
522:
509:Further information:
326:Illustrious Gymnasium
303:physical anthropology
224:
3175:German physiologists
3034:Great chain of being
2752:Ludwig Hermann Plate
2717:Samuel George Morton
2532:Samuel A. Cartwright
2382:in the United States
1700:ICZN Code Art. 8.1.1
1403:search.amphilsoc.org
1399:"APS Member History"
925:natural philosophers
619:sub-Saharan Africans
270:were applied to his
100:German Confederation
70:Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg
3140:German ethnologists
2990:The Races of Europe
2918:The Races of Europe
2697:Dominick McCausland
2647:Thomas Henry Huxley
2592:Stanley Marion Garn
2472:Robert Bennett Bean
2200:Historical concepts
1478:(7633): 1308–1309.
1125:10.1155/2011/549521
1012:Friedrich Schelling
878:Albrecht von Haller
505:Racial anthropology
394:Elephas primigenius
382:Albrecht von Haller
350:human race concepts
268:comparative anatomy
266:. His teachings in
194:Friedrich Stromeyer
125:Comparative anatomy
2862:Alexander Winchell
2792:Henric Sanielevici
2652:Calvin Ira Kephart
2622:Hans F. K. GĂĽnther
2607:Arthur de Gobineau
2507:Alice Mossie Brues
2404:Racial stereotypes
1887:Lenoir, pp. 17–18.
1705:2009-05-24 at the
1683:2010-06-25 at the
1155:. pp. 65–69.
959:
732:for a badly known
528:
523:Blumenbach's five
374:ordinary professor
230:
111:University of Jena
96:Kingdom of Hanover
3077:
3076:
3006:The Race Question
2852:John H. Van Evrie
2777:William Z. Ripley
2747:Charles Pickering
2692:Felix von Luschan
2662:Robert E. Kuttner
2562:Charles Davenport
2431:Whiteness studies
2157:Color terminology
2149:Scientific racism
2060:, project of the
1537:978-0-7591-0133-3
1211:978-0-393-04934-3
1175:The German Genius
1050:Scientific racism
988:eigentliche Kraft
882:essentliche Kraft
806:Platypus anatinus
758:Simia troglodytes
718:Simia troglodytes
706:scientific racism
684:Christoph Meiners
608:Pacific Islanders
578:Middle Easterners
227:Ludwig Emil Grimm
219:
218:
186:Doctoral students
136:Scientific career
129:scientific racism
16:(Redirected from
3212:
2885:
2832:Lothrop Stoddard
2827:Morris Steggerda
2802:Ilse Schwidetzky
2797:Heinrich Schmidt
2782:Alfred Rosenberg
2742:Isaac La Peyrère
2547:Carleton S. Coon
2522:Charles Caldwell
2477:François Bernier
2360:in Latin America
2133:
2126:
2119:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2097:
2089:
2081:
2072:Internet Archive
2041:Chemistry Tree:
2025:
2015:
1998:(7633): 1308–9.
1982:
1961:
1940:
1917:
1897:
1894:
1888:
1885:
1879:
1878:
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1847:
1838:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1804:
1798:
1795:
1789:
1788:
1786:
1785:
1779:
1773:. Archived from
1762:
1751:
1732:
1729:
1723:
1716:
1710:
1697:
1691:
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1666:
1660:
1646:
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1604:
1598:
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1595:
1594:
1585:. Archived from
1579:
1573:
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1562:
1555:
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1359:
1348:"Fellow details"
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1164:
1144:
1138:
1137:
1127:
1103:
1094:
1091:
1085:
1078:
1072:
1066:
932:Samuel Hahnemann
901:nisus formativus
814:Ambrosia beetles
746:Homo troglodytes
730:Homo troglodytes
630:Native Americans
604:Southeast Asians
564:") (1793/1795):
486:Obermedizinalrat
480:
428:William Lawrence
409:Charles Caldwell
163:Doctoral advisor
87:
61:
59:
44:
30:
29:
21:
3220:
3219:
3215:
3214:
3213:
3211:
3210:
3209:
3080:
3079:
3078:
3073:
3012:
2950:Castes in India
2871:
2867:Ludwig Woltmann
2822:Herbert Spencer
2712:Lewis H. Morgan
2682:Cesare Lombroso
2557:Jan Czekanowski
2542:Sonia Mary Cole
2482:Renato Biasutti
2440:
2419:Nazism and race
2338:
2315:Proto-Mongoloid
2194:
2151:
2142:
2137:
2092:
2076:
2054:Digitised works
2038:
1906:
1901:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1886:
1882:
1872:
1870:
1848:
1841:
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1796:
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1752:
1735:
1730:
1726:
1717:
1713:
1707:Wayback Machine
1698:
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1685:Wayback Machine
1676:
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1228:
1224:
1223:
1219:
1212:
1190:
1181:
1173:Watson, Peter.
1172:
1168:
1145:
1141:
1104:
1097:
1092:
1088:
1079:
1075:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1041:
1008:
998:nominal terms.
951:
936:Erzeugungskraft
897:
886:vis essentialis
856:moule interieur
848:Natural History
840:
824:
782:natural history
775:Pan troglodytes
714:
536:Decas craniorum
517:
507:
499:Albani cemetery
476:
432:William Coulson
366:natural history
358:
315:
264:natural history
196:
192:
178:
113:
107:Alma mater
102:
89:
85:
84:22 January 1840
76:
63:
57:
55:
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35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3218:
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3020:
3018:
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3010:
3002:
2994:
2986:
2978:
2970:
2962:
2954:
2946:
2938:
2930:
2922:
2920:(Ripley, 1899)
2914:
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2898:
2890:
2879:
2877:
2873:
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2870:
2869:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2849:
2844:
2839:
2834:
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2824:
2819:
2814:
2812:Giuseppe Sergi
2809:
2804:
2799:
2794:
2789:
2784:
2779:
2774:
2772:Gustaf Retzius
2769:
2764:
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2722:Josiah C. Nott
2719:
2714:
2709:
2707:Ashley Montagu
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2687:Bertil Lundman
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2654:
2649:
2644:
2639:
2637:Earnest Hooton
2634:
2629:
2624:
2619:
2614:
2609:
2604:
2602:George Gliddon
2599:
2594:
2589:
2587:Francis Galton
2584:
2579:
2577:Anténor Firmin
2574:
2569:
2567:Joseph Deniker
2564:
2559:
2554:
2552:Georges Cuvier
2549:
2544:
2539:
2534:
2529:
2524:
2519:
2514:
2509:
2504:
2499:
2494:
2489:
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2448:
2446:
2442:
2441:
2439:
2438:
2433:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2424:Racial hygiene
2421:
2416:
2411:
2406:
2401:
2391:
2386:
2385:
2384:
2379:
2374:
2373:
2372:
2367:
2357:
2348:
2346:
2340:
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2337:
2336:
2335:
2334:
2324:
2323:
2322:
2317:
2307:
2302:
2301:
2300:
2295:
2290:
2285:
2280:
2275:
2270:
2265:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2245:
2240:
2235:
2230:
2225:
2215:
2210:
2204:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2192:
2187:
2182:
2177:
2172:
2167:
2161:
2159:
2153:
2152:
2147:
2144:
2143:
2136:
2135:
2128:
2121:
2113:
2107:
2106:
2090:
2074:
2065:
2055:
2048:Blumenbachiana
2045:
2037:
2036:External links
2034:
2033:
2032:
2026:
1983:
1962:
1941:
1918:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1898:
1896:Watson, p. 81.
1889:
1880:
1839:
1826:
1819:
1799:
1790:
1769:
1733:
1731:Watson, p. 82.
1724:
1711:
1692:
1670:
1661:
1641:
1632:
1619:
1599:
1574:
1563:
1550:
1536:
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1507:
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1390:
1365:
1354:on 8 July 2019
1339:
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1210:
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1139:
1095:
1086:
1073:
1060:
1059:
1057:
1054:
1053:
1052:
1047:
1040:
1037:
1033:Rudolph Wagner
1007:
1004:
972:Charles Bonnet
950:
944:
896:
890:
852:Erasmus Darwin
839:
836:
823:
818:
713:
710:
634:
633:
622:
611:
596:
585:
506:
503:
413:John Elliotson
390:woolly mammoth
386:Georges Cuvier
357:
354:
314:
311:
249:anthropologist
217:
216:
213:
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207:
201:
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169:
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121:Known for
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90:
88:(aged 87)
82:
78:
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64:
53:
49:
48:
45:
37:
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33:
26:
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6:
4:
3:
2:
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3044:Miscegenation
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2847:Paul Topinard
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2833:
2830:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2818:
2815:
2813:
2810:
2808:
2805:
2803:
2800:
2798:
2795:
2793:
2790:
2788:
2787:Benjamin Rush
2785:
2783:
2780:
2778:
2775:
2773:
2770:
2768:
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2757:Alfred Ploetz
2755:
2753:
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2737:Oscar Peschel
2735:
2733:
2732:Roger Pearson
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2702:John Mitchell
2700:
2698:
2695:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2678:
2677:Carl Linnaeus
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2653:
2650:
2648:
2645:
2643:
2642:Julian Huxley
2640:
2638:
2635:
2633:
2630:
2628:
2627:Ernst Haeckel
2625:
2623:
2620:
2618:
2615:
2613:
2612:Madison Grant
2610:
2608:
2605:
2603:
2600:
2598:
2595:
2593:
2590:
2588:
2585:
2583:
2582:Eugen Fischer
2580:
2578:
2575:
2573:
2570:
2568:
2565:
2563:
2560:
2558:
2555:
2553:
2550:
2548:
2545:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2527:Petrus Camper
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2453:
2452:Louis Agassiz
2450:
2449:
2447:
2443:
2437:
2434:
2432:
2429:
2425:
2422:
2420:
2417:
2415:
2412:
2410:
2407:
2405:
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1927:(in German).
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1320:public domain
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1283:public domain
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892:Blumenbach's
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832:Bildungstrieb
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764:of the genus
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726:Carl Linnaeus
723:
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2992:(Coon, 1939)
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2876:Publications
2727:Karl Pearson
2617:John Grattan
2512:Halfdan Bryn
2486:
2377:in Singapore
2344:Sociological
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2083:
1995:
1991:
1973:(6): 362–3.
1970:
1966:
1949:
1945:
1931:(3): 122–6.
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1862:(1): 11–32.
1859:
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1775:the original
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1526:
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1342:
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1237:the original
1220:
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797:
785:
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765:
762:type species
757:
745:
729:
717:
715:
703:
698:
697:
681:
676:
675:
671:
658:pigmentation
654:Adam and Eve
639:
635:
582:South Asians
555:
550:
549:
543:
535:
532:human crania
529:
443:. He was in
440:
419:
417:
400:
398:
393:
377:
372:in 1776 and
359:
345:
341:
332:and then at
323:
316:
300:
261:
257:anthropology
245:physiologist
232:
231:
209:
152:Institutions
135:
86:(1840-01-22)
3095:1840 deaths
3090:1752 births
3064:Pre-Adamite
3054:Multiracial
2657:Robert Knox
2467:John Beddoe
2414:Master race
2370:in Colombia
2258:East Baltic
1118:: e549521.
1045:Craniometry
940:Lebenskraft
867:Lebenskraft
808:. However,
802:George Shaw
642:monogenists
640:Like other
593:East Asians
540:craniometry
437:Switzerland
62:11 May 1752
3084:Categories
3059:Polygenism
3049:Monogenism
2767:Otto Reche
2672:Fritz Lenz
2502:Paul Broca
2492:Franz Boas
2462:Erwin Baur
2457:John Baker
2351:By region
2208:Australoid
1904:References
1784:2013-09-25
1718:Ann Moyal
1709:. iczn.org
1678:ICZN 1987.
1593:2011-05-28
1408:2021-03-31
1246:2015-04-22
957:Gravestone
838:Background
722:chimpanzee
664:, and the
441:Bibliothek
405:physiology
241:naturalist
210:Blumenbach
146:Physiology
58:1752-05-11
18:Blumenbach
2436:NĂ©gritude
2365:in Brazil
2310:Mongoloid
2218:Caucasoid
1722:, pp. 8–9
1161:0274-7529
1134:2090-4045
917:Cimmerian
872:In 1759,
862:(power).
790:Göttingen
784:entitled
771:ICZN Code
742:orangutan
615:Ethiopian
589:Mongolian
574:Europeans
570:Caucasian
488:) by the
478:‹See Tfd›
370:Göttingen
334:Göttingen
288:Ethiopian
280:Mongolian
276:Caucasian
237:physician
156:Göttingen
92:Göttingen
3029:Eugenics
2409:Colorism
2355:in India
2263:Ethiopid
2243:Atlantid
2233:Armenoid
2022:18156242
1958:11620622
1720:Platypus
1703:Archived
1681:Archived
1559:Harper's
1502:18156242
1153:Discover
1039:See also
915:say, in
810:Platypus
794:platypus
750:Gorillas
644:such as
626:American
415:(1807).
292:American
3017:Related
2445:Writers
2389:Passing
2332:Negrito
2327:Negroid
2298:Turanid
2293:Semites
2268:Hamites
2253:Dinaric
2248:Caspian
2088:. 1905.
2070:at the
2013:2151154
1979:2290797
1937:4579732
1873:29 July
1543:5 April
1493:2151154
1383:28 July
1322::
1285::
938:of the
740:and an
734:primate
666:Chinese
662:Eskimos
600:Malayan
558:species
473:Hanover
445:England
340:thesis
284:Malayan
253:zoology
3008:(1950)
3000:(1943)
2984:(1936)
2976:(1930)
2968:(1920)
2960:(1916)
2952:(1916)
2944:(1911)
2936:(1907)
2928:(1899)
2912:(1855)
2904:(1849)
2896:(1785)
2888:(1744)
2399:Racism
2288:Nordic
2278:Iranid
2228:Arabid
2223:Alpine
2213:Capoid
2170:Bronze
2020:
2010:
1977:
1956:
1935:
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1767:
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1500:
1490:
1429:22 May
1358:20 May
1208:
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482:German
356:Career
290:, and
142:Fields
2305:Malay
2273:Indid
2238:Aryan
2190:White
2180:Olive
2175:Brown
2165:Black
1778:(PDF)
1761:(PDF)
1377:(PDF)
1240:(PDF)
1229:(PDF)
1056:Notes
884:, or
860:Kraft
738:human
562:races
525:races
319:Gotha
66:Gotha
2018:PMID
1975:PMID
1954:PMID
1933:PMID
1875:2012
1815:ISBN
1765:ISBN
1654:ISBN
1612:ISBN
1545:2012
1532:ISBN
1498:PMID
1431:2016
1385:2014
1360:2016
1265:s.v.
1206:ISBN
1157:ISSN
1130:ISSN
1116:2011
624:the
613:the
606:and
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587:the
580:and
568:the
338:M.D.
330:Jena
255:and
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52:Born
2185:Red
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2000:doi
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1992:BMJ
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