Sustainable energy

1534: 2793: 1400: 2004: 1232: 2181: 1343: 1331: 1651: 1167: 1667: 1360: 1889: 1491: 74: 1596: 2393: 65: 45: 1065: 2720: 2103: 1053: 2023:°C will require a system-wide transformation of the way energy is produced, distributed, stored, and consumed. For a society to replace one form of energy with another, multiple technologies and behaviours in the energy system must change. For example, transitioning from oil to solar power as the energy source for cars requires the generation of solar electricity, modifications to the electrical grid to accommodate fluctuations in solar panel output or the introduction of variable battery chargers and higher overall demand, adoption of 13221: 2612:, polluting fuels such as wood or animal dung are often used for cooking. Cooking with these fuels is generally unsustainable, because they release harmful smoke and because harvesting wood can lead to forest degradation. The universal adoption of clean cooking facilities, which are already ubiquitous in rich countries, would dramatically improve health and have minimal negative effects on climate. Clean cooking facilities, e.g. cooking facilities that produce less indoor soot, typically use natural gas, 8003: 125: 54: 2597: 2544: 16089: 14496: 12976: 716: 16077: 16153: 730: 1519:. The noise and flickering light created by the turbines can cause annoyance and constrain construction near densely populated areas. Wind power, in contrast to nuclear and fossil fuel plants, does not consume water. Little energy is needed for wind turbine construction compared to the energy produced by the wind power plant itself. Turbine blades are not fully recyclable, and research into methods of manufacturing easier-to-recycle blades is ongoing. 2226: 13000: 16141: 16113: 16101: 14508: 12037: 2813:

100 billion per year from developed countries to poor countries, to do climate change mitigation and adaptation. This goal has not been met and measurement of progress has been hampered by unclear accounting rules. If energy-intensive businesses like chemicals, fertilizers, ceramics, steel, and non-ferrous metals invest significantly in R&D, its usage in industry might amount to between 5% and 20% of all energy used.

16165: 13012: 12988: 947:(GDP) would need to be invested in the energy system each year between 2016 and 2035 to limit global warming to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F). Governments can fund the research, development, and demonstration of new clean energy technologies. They can also build infrastructure for electrification and sustainable transport. Finally, governments can encourage clean energy deployment with policies such as 1533: 2805:

equivalent to 2.5% of world GDP, would be small compared to the economic and health benefits. Average annual investment in low-carbon energy technologies and energy efficiency would need to be six times more by 2050 compared to 2015. Underfunding is particularly acute in the least developed countries, which are not attractive to the private sector.

2320:, the main component of natural gas. Producing one tonne of hydrogen through this process emits 6.6–9.3 tonnes of carbon dioxide. While carbon capture and storage (CCS) could remove a large fraction of these emissions, the overall carbon footprint of hydrogen from natural gas is difficult to assess as of 2021, in part because of emissions (including 2671:"Bringing new energy technologies to market can often take several decades, but the imperative of reaching net‐zero emissions globally by 2050 means that progress has to be much faster. Experience has shown that the role of government is crucial in shortening the time needed to bring new technology to market and to diffuse it widely." 2632:. The share of renewable energy in industry was 14.5% in 2017—mostly low-temperature heat supplied by bioenergy and electricity. The most energy-intensive activities in industry have the lowest shares of renewable energy, as they face limitations in generating heat at temperatures over 200 °C (390 °F). 2765:

The scale and pace of policy reforms that have been initiated as of 2020 are far less than needed to fulfil the climate goals of the Paris Agreement. In addition to domestic policies, greater international cooperation is required to accelerate innovation and to assist poorer countries in establishing

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Climate change mitigation pathways envision extensive electrification—the use of electricity as a substitute for the direct burning of fossil fuels for heating buildings and for transport. Ambitious climate policy would see a doubling of energy share consumed as electricity by 2050, from 20% in 2020.

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Full decarbonisation of the global energy system is expected to take several decades and can mostly be achieved with existing technologies. In the IEA's proposal for achieving net zero emissions by 2050, about 35% of the reduction in emissions depends on technologies that are still in development as

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Hydropower ranks among the energy sources with the lowest levels of greenhouse gas emissions per unit of energy produced, but levels of emissions vary enormously between projects. The highest emissions tend to occur with large dams in tropical regions. These emissions are produced when the biological

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are a significant barrier to the energy transition. Direct global fossil fuel subsidies were $ 319 billion in 2017. This rises to $ 5.2 trillion when indirect costs are priced in, like the effects of air pollution. Ending these could lead to a 28% reduction in global carbon emissions and a

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Raising enough money for innovation and investment is a prerequisite for the energy transition. The IPCC estimates that to limit global warming to 1.5 °C, US$ 2.4 trillion would need to be invested in the energy system each year between 2016 and 2035. Most studies project that these costs,

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of natural gas are around 40 times the emissions of wind or nuclear energy but are much less than coal. Burning natural gas produces around half the emissions of coal when used to generate electricity and around two-thirds the emissions of coal when used to produce heat. Natural gas combustion also

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Renewable energy sources are essential to sustainable energy, as they generally strengthen energy security and emit far fewer greenhouse gases than fossil fuels. Renewable energy projects sometimes raise significant sustainability concerns, such as risks to biodiversity when areas of high ecological

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were constructed for non-intermittent energy sources such as coal-fired power plants. As larger amounts of solar and wind energy are integrated into the grid, changes have to be made to the energy system to ensure that the supply of electricity is matched to demand. In 2019, these sources generated

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is a major source of air pollution, which causes an estimated 7 million deaths each year, with the greatest attributable disease burden seen in low and middle-income countries. Fossil-fuel burning in power plants, vehicles, and factories is the main source of emissions that combine with oxygen

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estimates that climate financing totalled $ 681 billion in 2016. Most of this is private-sector investment in renewable energy deployment, public-sector investment in sustainable transport, and private-sector investment in energy efficiency. The Paris Agreement includes a pledge of an extra $

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for solar panels. Recycling can meet some of this demand if product lifecycles are well-designed, however achieving net zero emissions would still require major increases in mining for 17 types of metals and minerals. A small group of countries or companies sometimes dominate the markets for these

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Compared to the rest of the energy system, emissions can be reduced much faster in the electricity sector. As of 2019, 37% of global electricity is produced from low-carbon sources (renewables and nuclear energy). Fossil fuels, primarily coal, produce the rest of the electricity supply. One of the

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According to the International Energy Agency, renewable energy sources like wind and solar power are now a commonplace source of electricity, making up 70% of all new investments made in the world's power generation. The Agency expects renewables to become the primary energy source for electricity

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can reduce energy use in local transport and buildings while enhancing quality of life. Government-funded research, procurement, and incentive policies have historically been critical to the development and maturation of clean energy technologies, such as solar and lithium batteries. In the IEA's

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Global Warming of 1.5 °C. An IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change, sustainable development, and

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used to fuel nuclear fission plants is a non-renewable resource, enough exists to provide a supply for hundreds to thousands of years. However, uranium resources that can be accessed in an economically feasible manner, at the present state, are limited and uranium production could hardly keep up

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Energy can be conserved by increasing the technical efficiency of appliances, vehicles, industrial processes, and buildings. Another approach is to use fewer materials whose production requires a lot of energy, for example through better building design and recycling. Behavioural changes such as

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emissions) gives industries and consumers an incentive to reduce emissions while letting them choose how to do so. For example, they can shift to low-emission energy sources, improve energy efficiency, or reduce their use of energy-intensive products and services. Carbon pricing has encountered

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There are various ways to make the electricity system more flexible. In many places, wind and solar generation are complementary on a daily and a seasonal scale: there is more wind during the night and in winter when solar energy production is low. Linking different geographical regions through

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Approximately one-third of all wood used for traditional heating and cooking in tropical areas is harvested unsustainably. Bioenergy feedstocks typically require significant amounts of energy to harvest, dry, and transport; the energy usage for these processes may emit greenhouse gases. In some

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Meeting existing and future energy demands in a sustainable way is a critical challenge for the global goal of limiting climate change while maintaining economic growth and enabling living standards to rise. Reliable and affordable energy, particularly electricity, is essential for health care,

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generally has less environmental impact. However, its ability to generate power depends on river flow, which can vary with daily and seasonal weather. Reservoirs provide water quantity controls that are used for flood control and flexible electricity output while also providing security during

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The climate impact of bioenergy varies considerably depending on where biomass feedstocks come from and how they are grown. For example, burning wood for energy releases carbon dioxide; those emissions can be significantly offset if the trees that were harvested are replaced by new trees in a

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estimates that efforts to limit global warming to 2 °C would result in net job creation in most sectors of the economy. It predicts that 24 million new jobs would be created by 2030 in areas such as renewable electricity generation, improving energy-efficiency in buildings, and the

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reactors, which would generate small amounts of waste and no risk of explosions. Although fusion power has taken steps forward in the lab, the multi-decade timescale needed to bring it to commercialization and then scale means it will not contribute to a 2050 net zero goal for climate change

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can power many vehicles that are designed to burn fossil fuels, however biofuels cannot be sustainably produced in the quantities needed and synthetic fuels are currently very expensive. For some applications, the most prominent alternative to electrification is to develop a system based on

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Wind has been an important driver of development over millennia, providing mechanical energy for industrial processes, water pumps, and sailing ships. Modern wind turbines are used to generate electricity and provided approximately 6% of global electricity in 2019. Electricity from onshore

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is responsible for nearly all indoor air pollution, which causes an estimated 1.6 to 3.8 million deaths annually, and also contributes significantly to outdoor air pollution. Health effects are concentrated among women, who are likely to be responsible for cooking, and young children.

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from the atmosphere. However, BECCS can also result in net positive emissions depending on how the biomass material is grown, harvested, and transported. Deployment of BECCS at scales described in some climate change mitigation pathways would require converting large amounts of cropland.

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Governments can accelerate energy system transformation by leading the development of infrastructure such as long-distance electrical transmission lines, smart grids, and hydrogen pipelines. In transport, appropriate infrastructure and incentives can make travel more efficient and less

1630:. On average, the greenhouse gas emissions of geothermal-based electricity are less than 5% that of coal-based electricity. Geothermal energy carries a risk of inducing earthquakes, needs effective protection to avoid water pollution, and releases toxic emissions which can be captured. 1009:. It defined sustainable development as meeting "the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs". This description of sustainable development has since been referenced in many definitions and explanations of sustainable energy. 1096:, the release of toxins into the environment, and water scarcity. As of 2019, 85% of the world's energy needs are met by burning fossil fuels. Energy production and consumption are responsible for 76% of annual human-caused greenhouse gas emissions as of 2018. The 2015 international 1610:

is produced by tapping into deep underground heat and harnessing it to generate electricity or to heat water and buildings. The use of geothermal energy is concentrated in regions where heat extraction is economical: a combination is needed of high temperatures, heat flow, and

2643:, which is derived from coal, both to create very high-temperature heat and as an ingredient in the steel itself. The production of plastic, cement, and fertilisers also requires significant amounts of energy, with limited possibilities available to decarbonise. A switch to a 2436:

is an important further step towards decarbonising transport and reducing air pollution. A large proportion of traffic-related air pollution consists of particulate matter from road dust and the wearing-down of tyres and brake pads. Substantially reducing pollution from these

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applies to energy on a global scale. Working definitions of sustainable energy encompass multiple dimensions of sustainability such as environmental, economic, and social dimensions. Historically, the concept of sustainable energy development has focused on emissions and on

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Hydrogen gas is widely discussed in the context of energy, as an energy carrier with potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. This requires hydrogen to be produced cleanly, in quantities to supply in sectors and applications where cheaper and more energy efficient

1040:. The economic dimension of sustainability covers economic development, efficient use of energy, and energy security to ensure that each country has constant access to sufficient energy. Social issues include access to affordable and reliable energy for all people, 1865:

Since coal plants using CCS are less efficient, they require more coal and thus increase the pollution associated with mining and transporting coal. The CCS process is expensive, with costs depending considerably on the location's proximity to suitable geology for

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for human health: The World Health Organization estimates that efforts to limit global warming to 1.5 °C could save millions of lives each year from reductions to air pollution alone. With good planning and management, pathways exist to provide universal

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Well-designed government policies that promote energy system transformation can lower greenhouse gas emissions and improve air quality simultaneously, and in many cases can also increase energy security and lessen the financial burden of using energy.

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Energy is the golden thread that connects economic growth, increased social equity, and an environment that allows the world to thrive. Development is not possible without energy, and sustainable development is not possible without sustainable energy."

1793:, which is earlier in its development. Two tidal barrage systems in France and in South Korea make up 90% of global production. While single marine energy devices pose little risk to the environment, the impacts of larger devices are less well known. 1290:) per US dollar of GDP. United Nations goals call for energy intensity to decrease by 2.6% each year between 2010 and 2030. In recent years this target has not been met. For instance, between 2017 and 2018, energy intensity decreased by only 1.1%. 9872: 1747:

which are produced from non-food plants or waste reduce competition with food production, but may have other negative effects including trade-offs with conservation areas and local air pollution. Relatively sustainable sources of biomass include

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from new solar farms is competitive with, or in many places, cheaper than electricity from existing coal plants. Various projections of future energy use identify solar PV as one of the main sources of energy generation in a sustainable mix.

9744: 6903: 1144:. Bioenergy production, coal mining and processing, and oil extraction also require large amounts of water. Excessive harvesting of wood and other combustible material for burning can cause serious local environmental damage, including 2367:. Hydrogen used to decarbonise transportation is likely to find its largest applications in shipping, aviation and to a lesser extent heavy goods vehicles. For light duty vehicles including passenger cars, hydrogen is far behind other 1507:

is often cheaper than existing coal plants and competitive with natural gas and nuclear. Wind turbines can also be placed offshore, where winds are steadier and stronger than on land but construction and maintenance costs are higher.

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by 2030 in ways that are consistent with climate goals. Historically, several countries have made rapid economic gains through coal usage. However, there remains a window of opportunity for many poor countries and regions to

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to produce electricity, or via combustion to generate heat. When hydrogen is consumed in fuel cells, the only emission at the point of use is water vapour. Combustion of hydrogen can lead to the thermal formation of harmful

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transition to electric vehicles. Six million jobs would be lost, in sectors such as mining and fossil fuels. Governments can make the transition to sustainable energy more politically and socially feasible by ensuring a

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Some energy-intensive technologies and processes are difficult to electrify, including aviation, shipping, and steelmaking. There are several options for reducing the emissions from these sectors: biofuels and synthetic

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such as solar-powered mini-grids is likely the cheapest method of providing it by 2030. United Nations targets for 2030 include substantially increasing the proportion of renewable energy in the world's energy supply.

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on climate change aims to limit global warming to well below 2 °C (3.6 °F) and preferably to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F); achieving this goal will require that emissions be reduced as soon as possible and reach

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systems based on renewable energy, such as small solar PV installations that generate and store enough electricity for a village, are important solutions. Wider access to reliable electricity would lead to less use of

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at sea harm marine life and may cause fires which release toxic emissions. Around 10% of global water use goes to energy production, mainly for cooling in thermal energy plants. In dry regions, this contributes to

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The greenhouse gas emissions of fossil fuel and biomass power plants can be significantly reduced through carbon capture and storage (CCS). Most studies use a working assumption that CCS can capture 85–90% of the

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in which consumers use the money they save to buy more energy-intensive goods and services. For example, recent technical efficiency improvements in transport and buildings have been largely offset by trends in

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Hydrogen fuel can produce the intense heat required for industrial production of steel, cement, glass, and chemicals, thus contributing to the decarbonisation of industry alongside other technologies, such as

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Disadvantages of hydrogen as an energy carrier include high costs of storage and distribution due to hydrogen's explosivity, its large volume compared to other fuels, and its tendency to make pipes brittle.

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education, and economic development. As of 2020, 790 million people in developing countries do not have access to electricity, and around 2.6 billion rely on burning polluting fuels for cooking.

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rather than business flights, or making urban trips by cycling, walking or public transport rather than by car, are another way to conserve energy. Government policies to improve efficiency can include

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sources cannot be achieved by electrification; it requires measures such as making vehicles lighter and driving them less. Light-duty cars in particular are a prime candidate for decarbonization using

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Since 1985, the proportion of electricity generated from low-carbon sources has increased only slightly. Advances in deploying renewables have been mostly offset by declining shares of nuclear power.

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provide a source of revenue that can be used to lower other taxes or help lower-income households afford higher energy costs. Some governments, such as the EU and the UK, are exploring the use of

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process is currently more expensive than creating hydrogen from methane without CCS and the efficiency of energy conversion is inherently low. Hydrogen can be produced when there is a surplus of

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and climate change can reduce energy generation from hydroelectric dams. Depending on location, large dams can displace residents and cause significant local environmental damage; potential

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scenario for a net zero-emission energy system by 2050, public funding is rapidly mobilised to bring a range of newer technologies to the demonstration phase and to encourage deployment.

10046: 2425:, which is more efficient, especially when electrified. Promoting non-motorised transport such as walking and cycling, particularly in cities, can make transport cleaner and healthier. 2188:

Energy storage helps overcome barriers to intermittent renewable energy and is an important aspect of a sustainable energy system. The most commonly used and available storage method is

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is captured from a coal-fired power plant, its uncaptured emissions are still many times greater than the emissions of nuclear, solar or wind energy per unit of electricity produced.

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Energy efficiency—using less energy to deliver the same goods or services, or delivering comparable services with less goods—is a cornerstone of many sustainable energy strategies. The

9424: 1433:(PV). Solar PV is expected to be the electricity source with the largest installed capacity worldwide by 2027. The panels are mounted on top of buildings or installed in utility-scale 1363:

Clean energy investment has benefited from post-pandemic economic recovery, a global energy crisis involving high fossil fuel prices, and growing policy support across various nations.

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Building overcapacity for wind and solar generation can help ensure that enough electricity is produced even during poor weather. In optimal weather, energy generation may have to be

11964: 2521:. Heat pumps provide both heat and air conditioning through a single appliance. The IEA estimates heat pumps could provide over 90% of space and water heating requirements globally. 2421:

typically emits fewer greenhouse gases per passenger than personal vehicles, since trains and buses can carry many more passengers at once. Short-distance flights can be replaced by

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The Sun is Earth's primary source of energy, a clean and abundantly available resource in many regions. In 2019, solar power provided around 3% of global electricity, mostly through

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and ecosystems, hazardous waste and toxic emissions, water consumption, and depletion of non-renewable resources. Energy sources with low environmental impact are sometimes called

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of 2023. Technologies that are relatively immature include batteries and processes to create carbon-neutral fuels. Developing new technologies requires research and development,

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convert the energy of moving water into electricity. In 2020, hydropower supplied 17% of the world's electricity, down from a high of nearly 20% in the mid-to-late 20th century.

6448: 3879: 3932: 11880: 1117:. Air pollution is the second-leading cause of death from non-infectious disease. An estimated 99% of the world's population lives with levels of air pollution that exceed the 9091: 1453:. It takes fewer than two years for a solar panel to produce as much energy as was used for its production. Less energy is needed if materials are recycled rather than mined. 2635:

For some industrial processes, commercialisation of technologies that have not yet been built or operated at full scale will be needed to eliminate greenhouse gas emissions.

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may be an option for larger vehicles such as lorries. Many of the techniques needed to lower emissions from shipping and aviation are still early in their development, with

2200:, are also deployed widely. Batteries typically store electricity for short periods; research is ongoing into technology with sufficient capacity to last through seasons. 6389: 3410: 1741:

captures only a small fraction of the energy in sunlight, producing a given amount of bioenergy requires a large amount of land compared to other renewable energy sources.

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Over one-third of energy use is in buildings and their construction. To heat buildings, alternatives to burning fossil fuels and biomass include electrification through

2274:, a politically unstable region where mining is often associated with human rights risks. More diverse geographical sourcing may ensure a more flexible and less brittle 11362: 9391: 1468:, as some of the heat is typically stored to enable electricity to be generated when needed. In addition to electricity production, solar energy is used more directly; 9914: 1382:

are the cheapest forms of new power generation capacity in most countries. For more than half of the 770 million people who currently lack access to electricity,

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of batteries makes them impractical for the very large energy storage needed to balance inter-seasonal variations in energy production. Pumped hydro storage and

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provide 85% of the world's energy consumption, and the energy system is responsible for 76% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Around 790 million people in

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Climate Change 2014: Mitigation of Climate Change: Working Group III contribution to the Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change

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may have several advantages over current large reactors: It should be possible to build them faster and their modularization would allow for cost reductions via

936:'s proposal for achieving net zero emissions by 2050, about 35% of the reduction in emissions depends on technologies that are still in development as of 2023. 10982: 4220: 2309:. The overall lifecycle emissions of hydrogen depend on how it is produced. Nearly all of the world's current supply of hydrogen is created from fossil fuels. 7569: 1250:(IEA) has estimated that increasing energy efficiency could achieve 40% of greenhouse gas emission reductions needed to fulfil the Paris Agreement's goals. 3493: 2233:. In contrast to oil and gas boilers, they use electricity and are highly efficient. As such, electrification of heating can significantly reduce emissions. 1694:

well-managed forest, as the new trees will absorb carbon dioxide from the air as they grow. However, the establishment and cultivation of bioenergy crops can

15830: 11919: 11795: 11600: 10067: 3274: 3270: 2809: 1815: 9538: 7552: 6344: 2936: 2616:(both of which consume oxygen and produce carbon-dioxide) or electricity as the energy source; biogas systems are a promising alternative in some contexts. 16210: 14474: 10635:"The 2019 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: ensuring that the health of a child born today is not defined by a changing climate" 3631: 11448: 11140: 7242: 7009: 6141: 3848: 15266: 15082: 10612: 8572: 4462: 4161: 10312: 6540: 15261: 14410: 13050: 3178:

Data sources: Markandya & Wilkinson (2007); UNSCEAR (2008; 2018); Sovacool et al. (2016); IPCC AR5 (2014); Pehl et al. (2017); Ember Energy (2021).

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during the expansion phase. Climate change mitigation pathways consistent with ambitious goals typically see an increase in power supply from nuclear.

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Biomass is renewable organic material that comes from plants and animals. It can either be burned to produce heat and electricity or be converted into

11496: 8618: 8040: 5469: 3742:"Sustainable Development Goal 7 on Reliable, Modern Energy 'Golden Thread' Linking All Other Targets, Deputy-Secretary-General Tells High-Level Panel" 15129: 9821: 9175: 8460: 7450: 7208: 5744: 5104: 4868: 3123: 3058: 2647:

would make industry more sustainable as it involves recycling more and thereby using less energy compared to investing energy to mine and refine new

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for steelmaking. For steelmaking, hydrogen can function as a clean energy carrier and simultaneously as a low-carbon catalyst replacing coal-derived

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easiest and fastest ways to reduce greenhouse gas emissions is to phase out coal-fired power plants and increase renewable electricity generation.

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electricity. Nuclear power plants in over 30 countries generate about 10% of global electricity. As of 2019, nuclear generated over a quarter of all

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Electricity can be used to split water molecules, producing sustainable hydrogen provided the electricity was generated sustainably. However, this

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electricity supply. They can be combined with wind and solar power to meet peaks in demand and to compensate when wind and sun are less available.

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on imports from countries with less stringent climate policies, to ensure that industries subject to internal carbon prices remain competitive.

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Technical assessment of nuclear energy with respect to the 'do no significant harm' criteria of Regulation (EU) 2020/852 ('Taxonomy Regulation')

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in some jurisdictions, whereas energy-specific policies tend to be politically safer. Most studies indicate that to limit global warming to 1.5

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that burn biomass more efficiently than traditional stoves are an interim solution where transitioning to clean cooking systems is difficult.

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Onshore wind farms, often built in wild or rural areas, have a visual impact on the landscape. While collisions with wind turbines kill both

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use (areas of rectangles in chart) greatly exceed those resulting from production of sustainable energy (rectangles barely visible in chart).

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Long-distance freight transport and aviation are difficult sectors to electrify with current technologies, mostly because of the weight of

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Most components of solar panels can be easily recycled, but this is not always done in the absence of regulation. Panels typically contain

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Defying supply chain disruptions and macroeconomic headwinds, 2022 energy transition investment jumped 31% to draw level with fossil fuels

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Accelerating SDG 7 Achievement Policy Brief 02: Achieving Universal Access to Clean and Modern Cooking Fuels, Technologies and Services

8114:"Industrial decarbonization via hydrogen: A critical and systematic review of developments, socio-technical systems and policy options" 6438: 4626: 3871: 1077: 5858: 4040: 4038: 4025: 4023: 3924: 3814: 2459:

needed for long-distance travel, battery recharging times, and limited battery lifespans. Where available, freight transport by ship

1286:(GDP)) is a rough indicator of the energy efficiency of economic production. In 2010, global energy intensity was 5.6 megajoules (1.6 16030: 15146: 14721: 11861: 11751: 8773: 7183: 6775: 3208: 1957:

and timescales long. Various new forms of nuclear energy are in development, hoping to address the drawbacks of conventional plants.

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is highly unequal. High income countries such as the United States and Canada use 100 times as much energy per capita as some of the

940: 11823: 2110:, Germany, produce more energy than they consume. They incorporate rooftop solar panels and are built for maximum energy efficiency. 1846:, where new fossil infrastructure either commits to decades of carbon emissions, or has to be written off before it makes a profit. 1622:

Geothermal energy is a renewable resource because thermal energy is constantly replenished from neighbouring hotter regions and the

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of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge, UK and New York, NY, USA: Cambridge University Press. pp. 91–92.

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pathways have been proposed to limit global warming to 2 °C (3.6 °F). These include phasing out coal-fired power plants,

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Over one-third of energy use is by industry. Most of that energy is deployed in thermal processes: generating heat, drying, and

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requires large amounts of electricity and is not always affordable for poorer households. Some air conditioning units still use

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Transport accounts for 14% of global greenhouse gas emissions, but there are multiple ways to make transport more sustainable.

2339:, then stored and used to generate heat or to re-generate electricity. It can be further transformed into liquid fuels such as 256: 11355: 7504: 7278: 6481: 1973:(rather than uranium) may be able to provide higher energy security for countries that do not have a large supply of uranium. 1946:

and pollution-related deaths than fossil fuels, and the historic fatality rate of nuclear is comparable to renewable sources.

1870:. Deployment of this technology is still very limited, with only 21 large-scale CCS plants in operation worldwide as of 2020. 1460:, solar rays are concentrated by a field of mirrors, heating a fluid. Electricity is produced from the resulting steam with a 16025: 15163: 14463: 12753: 12428: 11989: 11958: 11905: 11874: 11840: 11774: 11725: 11694: 11663: 11620: 11571: 11537: 11490: 11442: 11395: 11332: 11308: 11281: 11244: 11195: 11153: 11111: 11008: 10976: 10878: 10824: 10793: 10040: 9383: 8832: 8781: 6571: 4981: 4770: 11911: 11287: 9896: 3455: 3358: 16047: 14993: 14988: 11891: 11857: 11791: 11759: 11743: 11634: 9551: 9547: 9387: 7337:"Power-to-heat for renewable energy integration: A review of technologies, modeling approaches, and flexibility potentials" 6075: 5854: 5570: 4146: 3354: 2699:. Governments can require that new cars produce zero emissions, or new buildings are heated by electricity instead of gas. 1918:

produced, compared to the major renewables. Additionally, Nuclear power does not create local air pollution. Although the

1710:, cultivation, and processing can result in higher overall carbon emissions for bioenergy compared to using fossil fuels. 1553:

In conventional hydropower, a reservoir is created behind a dam. Conventional hydropower plants provide a highly flexible,

10523:"Opinion: As pivotal climate summit approaches, Canada at centre of efforts to repair broken trust among poorer countries" 5574: 15528: 15306: 15124: 15046: 15036: 15019: 14926: 14733: 12895: 11790: 10710: 10406: 8169: 8121: 7473: 7179:"Blueprint for sustainability?: What lessons can we learn from Freiburg's inclusive approach to sustainable development?" 6049: 4436: 4403: 2778:

for workers and regions that depend on the fossil fuel industry, to ensure they have alternative economic opportunities.

1264: 15051: 11034: 7733: 6892: 5200: 4618: 16190: 15957: 15818: 15775: 15271: 14446: 14324: 14244: 14084: 14059: 13356: 10924: 10281: 6607: 5965: 2703:

in several countries require utilities to increase the percentage of electricity they generate from renewable sources.

2691:

have been used since the 1970s to promote more sustainable use of energy. Some governments have committed to dates for

1699: 1485: 6071: 5915:"Towards sustainable palm oil production: The positive and negative impacts on ecosystem services and human wellbeing" 2245:

One of the challenges in providing universal access to electricity is distributing power to rural areas. Off-grid and

87: 15884: 15760: 15577: 14770: 13993: 13265: 13036: 11979: 11084: 10962: 10915: 10468: 10430: 10285: 9037: 9036:

Mortensen, Anders Winther; Mathiesen, Brian Vad; Hansen, Anders Bavnhøj; Pedersen, Sigurd Lauge; et al. (2020).

8346: 7978:"Optimising air quality co-benefits in a hydrogen economy: a case for hydrogen-specific standards for NO x emissions" 6660:

Muellner, Nikolaus; Arnold, Nikolaus; Gufler, Klaus; Kromp, Wolfgang; Renneberg, Wolfgang; Liebert, Wolfgang (2021).

4216: 4044: 4029: 2770: 2211:(converting electricity to gas and back) with capacity for multi-month usage has been implemented in some locations. 2028: 1954: 1561: 583: 403: 124: 11947:

Burning Opportunity: Clean Household Energy for Health, Sustainable Development, and Wellbeing of Women and Children

9247: 7559: 16215: 16117: 15755: 15735: 15682: 15634: 14686: 14372: 14329: 13569: 12836: 5653: 5520: 2003: 1947: 754: 191: 9014: 8239: 3266: 15874: 15825: 15251: 15213: 15158: 14618: 14367: 14049: 13978: 13917: 13710: 13602: 13346: 13270: 13243: 13123: 13093: 6334: 3414: 2518: 2189: 2107: 1782: 1721:, which requires a significant proportion of the harvest. In Malaysia and Indonesia, clearing forests to produce 1194: 447: 11059: 11022: 3619: 2475:

may be one of the better uses of bioenergy if emissions are captured and stored during manufacture of the fuel.

1342: 1330: 16195: 15942: 15226: 14973: 14289: 14187: 13722: 12846: 11429: 9942: 8165:"Using hydrogen and ammonia for renewable energy storage: A geographically comprehensive techno-economic study" 7250: 7089:"Air quality co-benefits for human health and agriculture counterbalance costs to meet Paris Agreement pledges" 6514: 6131: 5035: 3836: 2429: 2010:

reported that in 2022, global energy transition investment equaled fossil fuels investment for the first time.

1202: 1198: 891: 9447: 4534: 4450: 1569:

matter that becomes submerged in the reservoir's flooding decomposes and releases carbon dioxide and methane.

16052: 15587: 15119: 14533: 14512: 14480: 14357: 14284: 5919: 5345: 5321: 2559: 1671: 1612: 1438: 1190: 276: 3782: 2792: 1399: 16200: 16035: 15707: 15236: 15231: 15136: 15003: 14560: 14269: 13537: 13016: 12376: 11477: 11346: 11068: 10362: 10199:"Taxing imports of heavy carbon emitters is gaining momentum – and it could hurt Canadian industry: Report" 8610: 8022: 7662:"To batteries and beyond: With seasonal storage potential, hydrogen offers 'a different ballgame entirely'" 5477: 4484: 2700: 1437:. Costs of solar photovoltaic cells have dropped rapidly, driving strong growth in worldwide capacity. The 952: 939:

Wind and solar market share grew to 8.5% of worldwide electricity in 2019, and costs continue to fall. The

31: 17: 9813: 8342:"Cycling for transport and public health: a systematic review of the effect of the environment on cycling" 5074: 4822: 3577: 3093: 3020: 2985:

Hammond, Geoffrey P.; Jones, Craig I. "Sustainability criteria for energy resources and technologies". In

2528:, in which heat is generated in a centralised location and then distributed to multiple buildings through 2203:

Costs of utility-scale batteries in the US have fallen by around 70% since 2015, however the cost and low

2180: 1650: 16185: 15246: 15089: 14377: 14309: 13685: 13128: 12935: 12194: 12082: 11174: 10916: 10892: 10864: 10842: 10334:"Global Clean Energy Investment Jumps 17%, Hits $ 1.8 Trillion in 2023, According to BloombergNEF Report" 9783: 9543: 9243: 9010: 8980: 8976: 8905: 7246: 6812: 6416: 6271: 6045: 4985: 4458: 4432: 4115: 3928: 3905: 3875: 3627: 2797: 2676: 2158:

if excess electricity cannot be used or stored. The final demand-supply mismatch may be covered by using

2128: 1970: 1515:

and to a lesser extent birds, these impacts are lower than from other infrastructure such as windows and

1247: 933: 920:

depending on when the wind blows and the sun shines. Switching to renewable energy can therefore require

747: 8383: 8265: 7050: 4892:"Life cycle energy use and environmental implications of high-performance perovskite tandem solar cells" 2750:

As of 2019, the price of carbon in most regions is too low to achieve the goals of the Paris Agreement.

16131: 16105: 15869: 15672: 15629: 15402: 15324: 15178: 14079: 13700: 13579: 13486: 13425: 11236: 11000: 10968: 9559: 9092:"Simulating the deep decarbonisation of residential heating for limiting global warming to 1.5 °C" 8901: 6010: 5156: 3298:"The 2020 report of The Lancet Countdown on health and climate change: responding to converging crises" 2740: 2660: 2591: 2502: 1966: 1755: 1744: 1434: 1404: 1205:

calls for "access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all", including universal

1161: 1124: 1073: 879: 853: 617: 8414: 7505:"A review at the role of storage in energy systems with a focus on Power to Gas and long-term storage" 7412: 7279:"A review at the role of storage in energy systems with a focus on Power to Gas and long-term storage" 7178: 6622: 5706: 5648: 5151: 4561:"Renewable Energy and Electricity | Sustainable Energy | Renewable Energy - World Nuclear Association" 2865:"A systematic bibliometric review of clean energy transition: Implications for low-carbon development" 2257:

Infrastructure for generating and storing renewable electricity requires minerals and metals, such as

1819:

produces less air pollution than coal. However, natural gas is a potent greenhouse gas in itself, and

16205: 15974: 15649: 15624: 15597: 15559: 15476: 15294: 15141: 15094: 14844: 14613: 14608: 14603: 14279: 14074: 13912: 13564: 13481: 13466: 13199: 13083: 12841: 12699: 12361: 12306: 12286: 12281: 12061: 11975: 11941: 10932: 10407:

United Nations Development Programme & United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2019

9539: 9198: 9145: 7010:"Reaching net zero emissions demands faster innovation, but we've already come a long way – Analysis" 6544: 4141:

Bond, Kingsmill; Butler-Sloss, Sam; Lovins, Amory; Speelman, Laurens; Topping, Nigel (13 June 2023).

3974: 3459: 3384: 3240: 2817: 2755: 2688: 2533: 2372: 2336: 2294: 2155: 2115: 1942:

that can be used for weapons. For each unit of energy produced, nuclear energy has caused far fewer

1831: 1616: 1359: 1239: 1186: 1118: 917: 897: 720: 296: 15489: 11799: 10436: 10157: 8483: 4322: 4260:

Santangeli, Andrea; Toivonen, Tuuli; Pouzols, Federico Montesino; Pogson, Mark; et al. (2016).

3667:"Winners and losers of energy sustainability—Global assessment of the Sustainable Development Goals" 2143:, energy produced in excess can be released when needed. Further flexibility could be provided from 2034:

Many climate change mitigation pathways envision three main aspects of a low-carbon energy system:

15984: 15979: 15969: 15910: 15750: 15256: 15221: 15104: 15031: 14872: 14701: 14637: 14598: 14212: 14089: 14054: 13803: 13793: 13767: 13471: 13415: 13184: 13169: 13143: 13059: 12770: 12114: 11655: 10448: 9665: 9513: 8767: 8272: 7802: 5881: 4059:"Energy efficiency and economy-wide rebound effects: A review of the evidence and its implications" 3923:

Fernandez Pales, Araceli; Bouckaert, Stéphanie; Abergel, Thibaut; Goodson, Timothy (10 June 2021).

2821:

46% reduction in air pollution deaths. Funding for clean energy has been largely unaffected by the

2456: 2368: 2132: 2066: 1938:. Radioactive nuclear waste must be managed for thousands of years and nuclear power plants create 1457: 1235: 1021:. Since the early 1990s, the concept has broadened to encompass wider social and economic issues. 790: 789:

usually look at its effects on the environment, the economy, and society. These impacts range from

669: 607: 281: 236: 226: 156: 83: 11748:

Delivering Sustainable Energy in a Changing Climate: Strategy Note on Sustainable Energy 2017–2021

8932: 8707:

Bogdanov, Dmitrii; Farfan, Javier; Sadovskaia, Kristina; Aghahosseini, Arman; et al. (2019).

6165:"The systemic impact of a transition fuel: Does natural gas help or hinder the energy transition?" 2007: 1758:

technology can be used to capture emissions from bioenergy power plants. This process is known as

894:

can have major benefits to the climate, human health, and the economies of developing countries.

16157: 16093: 16015: 15925: 15667: 15639: 15319: 14968: 14946: 14553: 14500: 14274: 14117: 13927: 13899: 13622: 13612: 13530: 13194: 13179: 13164: 12992: 12930: 12915: 12311: 12291: 10785: 9308: 9090:

Knobloch, Florian; Pollitt, Hector; Chewpreecha, Unnada; Daioglou, Vassilis; et al. (2019).

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alternatives are limited. These applications include heavy industry and long-distance transport.

2159: 1554: 1465: 1000: 734: 612: 602: 306: 241: 8812:

Non-exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Transport: An Ignored Environmental Policy Challenge

5705:

Correa, Diego F.; Beyer, Hawthorne L.; Fargione, Joseph E.; Hill, Jason D.; et al. (2019).

1374:

is the largest source of renewable electricity while solar and wind energy are growing rapidly.

1336:

In 2023, electricity generation from wind and solar sources was projected to exceed 30% by 2030.

825:

can cause environmental damage but are generally far more sustainable than fossil fuel sources.

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Roberts, J. Timmons; Weikmans, Romain; Robinson, Stacy-ann; Ciplet, David; et al. (2021).

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allows for further cancelling out of variability. Energy demand can be shifted in time through

1974: 1926:

There is controversy over whether nuclear power is sustainable, in part due to concerns around

1830:

Switching from coal to natural gas reduces emissions in the short term and thus contributes to

1820: 1763: 1383: 1283: 944: 698: 507: 492: 440: 301: 221: 7593:"Global resource potential of seasonal pumped hydropower storage for energy and water storage" 1953:

Reducing the time and the cost of building new nuclear plants have been goals for decades but

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Almeida, Rafael M.; Shi, Qinru; Gomes-Selman, Jonathan M.; Wu, Xiaojian; et al. (2019).

4330: 2537: 2510: 2412: 2348: 2082: 1931: 1915: 1206: 996: 956: 875: 841: 542: 487: 477: 316: 231: 10704:

Kuzemko, Caroline; Bradshaw, Michael; Bridge, Gavin; Goldthau, Andreas; et al. (2020).

10313:"Global Low-Carbon Energy Technology Investment Surges Past $ 1 Trillion for the First Time" 8112:

Griffiths, Steve; Sovacool, Benjamin K.; Kim, Jinsoo; Bazilian, Morgan; et al. (2021).

5768:"The EPA Declared That Burning Wood Is Carbon Neutral. It's Actually a Lot More Complicated" 5251:

Moran, Emilio F.; Lopez, Maria Claudia; Moore, Nathan; Müller, Norbert; et al. (2018).

3970: 15920: 15798: 15459: 15024: 14951: 14382: 14352: 14304: 14299: 14222: 14127: 14023: 13846: 13705: 13690: 13665: 13650: 13607: 13511: 13441: 13431: 13368: 13304: 13118: 13088: 12831: 12804: 12782: 12689: 12622: 12371: 12301: 12246: 12057: 10485: 9951: 9674: 9455: 9271:"5th generation district heating and cooling systems: A review of existing cases in Europe" 9054: 8722: 8655: 8500: 8428: 7877: 7811: 7606: 7350: 7102: 6509: 5850: 5772: 5376: 5266: 4905: 4836: 4339: 4275: 3804: 3678: 2878: 2492: 2360: 2053: 1962: 1879: 1867: 1469: 1226: 676: 571: 415: 321: 181: 11747: 10431:

IEA, IRENA, United Nations Statistics Division, World Bank, World Health Organization 2021

8007: 8002: 4321:

Rehbein, Jose A.; Watson, James E.M.; Lane, Joe L.; Sonter, Laura J.; et al. (2020).

4045:

IEA, IRENA, United Nations Statistics Division, World Bank, World Health Organization 2021

4030:

IEA, IRENA, United Nations Statistics Division, World Bank, World Health Organization 2021

1910:

Nuclear power's lifecycle greenhouse gas emissions—including the mining and processing of

1166: 8: 15937: 15712: 14936: 14931: 14314: 14197: 14192: 13937: 13856: 13675: 13655: 13645: 13496: 13491: 13446: 13405: 13335: 12910: 12853: 12775: 12748: 12433: 12296: 12271: 11372: 9787: 9765: 9763: 9734: 9732: 9730: 9448:"Improving the SDG energy poverty targets: Residential cooling needs in the Global South" 8642:"Net emission reductions from electric cars and heat pumps in 59 world regions over time" 8614: 7148: 7146: 7144: 7142: 6016: 5886: 5473: 4057:

Brockway, Paul; Sorrell, Steve; Semieniuk, Gregor; Heun, Matthew K.; et al. (2021).

3844: 2940: 2747:°C, carbon pricing would need to be complemented by stringent energy-specific policies. 2617: 2352: 2270:

commodities, raising geopolitical concerns. Most of the world's cobalt, for instance, is

2197: 2175: 2140: 1883: 1645: 1516: 1420: 1375: 1349: 1222: 1175: 901: 497: 363: 346: 291: 146: 134: 11033:(2018). Masson-Delmotte, V.; Zhai, P.; Pörtner, H.-O.; Roberts, D.; et al. (eds.). 10993:(2014). Edenhofer, O.; Pichs-Madruga, R.; Sokona, Y.; Farahani, E.; et al. (eds.). 10868: 10554: 10489: 9955: 9678: 9058: 8726: 8659: 8640:

Knobloch, Florian; Hanssen, Steef V.; Lam, Aileen; Pollitt, Hector; et al. (2020).

8504: 8432: 8415:"Comparison of marginal and average emission factors for passenger transportation modes" 8074:

Bonheure, Mike; Vandewalle, Laurien A.; Marin, Guy B.; Van Geem, Kevin M. (March 2021).

8006: This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the 7881: 7815: 7610: 7354: 7106: 6862: 6831: 5380: 5270: 4909: 4840: 4343: 4279: 3682: 3381:"New WHO Global Air Quality Guidelines aim to save millions of lives from air pollution" 2882: 2723:

Several countries and the European Union have committed to dates for all new cars to be

1472:

systems are used for hot water production, heating buildings, drying, and desalination.

64: 15765: 15697: 15614: 15464: 15386: 15381: 15376: 14941: 14259: 14254: 13851: 13808: 13727: 13314: 13285: 13249: 13204: 13174: 12868: 12858: 12694: 11764:

Human Development Report 2020 The Next Frontier: Human Development and the Anthropocene

11686: 11529: 11507: 11459: 11409: 11318: 11212: 10961:(2011). Edenhofer, O.; Pichs-Madruga, R.; Sokona, Y.; Seyboth, K.; et al. (eds.). 10740: 10705: 10667: 10527: 10162: 9977: 9901: 9269:

Buffa, Simone; Cozzini, Marco; D'Antoni, Matteo; Baratieri, Marco; et al. (2019).

9203: 9126: 8838: 8743: 8709:"Radical transformation pathway towards sustainable electricity via evolutionary steps" 8708: 8684: 8641: 8524: 8452: 8322: 8027: 7903: 7637: 7592: 7591:

Hunt, Julian D.; Byers, Edward; Wada, Yoshihide; Parkinson, Simon; et al. (2020).

7442: 7378: 7123: 7088: 7068: 6683: 6206: 6136: 5970: 5946: 5736: 5439: 5405: 5364: 5297: 5252: 4947: 4934: 4891: 4803: 4765: 4371: 4093: 4009: 3722: 3050: 2901: 2864: 2506: 1914:—are similar to the emissions from renewable energy sources. Nuclear power uses little 1835: 1590: 1490: 1430: 1299: 1171: 1102: 871: 782: 378: 206: 11763: 10655: 9760: 9727: 9703: 8183: 8164: 7196: 7139: 6301: 4764:

Goetz, Katelyn P.; Taylor, Alexander D.; Hofstetter, Yvonne J.; Vaynzof, Yana (2020).

3775:"Goal 7: Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all" 3319: 3165: 1170:

World map showing where people without access to electricity lived in 2016⁠—mainly in

16169: 15999: 15662: 15407: 15173: 14956: 14919: 14706: 14660: 14468: 14451: 14422: 14217: 14101: 13907: 13660: 13597: 13361: 13238: 12999: 12792: 12617: 12478: 12438: 12408: 12393: 12366: 12276: 12179: 12119: 12109: 11985: 11954: 11918: 11901: 11870: 11836: 11770: 11731: 11721: 11700: 11690: 11669: 11659: 11626: 11616: 11577: 11567: 11543: 11533: 11486: 11438: 11413: 11401: 11391: 11338: 11328: 11304: 11277: 11250: 11240: 11191: 11149: 11107: 11080: 11014: 11004: 10972: 10874: 10830: 10820: 10799: 10789: 10745: 10727: 10671: 10659: 10503: 10454: 10442: 10389: 10167: 10036: 9981: 9969: 9906: 9692: 9474: 9208: 9167: 9118: 9072: 8842: 8828: 8787: 8777: 8748: 8689: 8671: 8591: 8528: 8516: 8456: 8444: 8365: 8326: 8314: 8294: 8196: 8188: 8138: 8032: 7907: 7895: 7829: 7728: 7642: 7624: 7565: 7531: 7446: 7434: 7382: 7305: 7200: 7128: 6687: 6602: 6476: 6306: 6268:"Zero-emission carbon capture and storage in power plants using higher capture rates" 6249: 6210: 6198: 5975: 5950: 5938: 5740: 5728: 5670: 5629: 5621: 5515: 5410: 5392: 5302: 5284: 5173: 5096: 4951: 4939: 4921: 4860: 4852: 4807: 4795: 4787: 4734: 4726: 4398: 4375: 4363: 4355: 4303: 4111: 4097: 4085: 4001: 3901: 3809: 3741: 3726: 3714: 3706: 3498: 3332: 3324: 3296:

Watts, Nick; Amann, Markus; Arnell, Nigel; Ayeb-Karlsson, Sonja; et al. (2021).

3186: 3184: 3115: 3054: 3042: 2906: 2822: 2601: 2563: 2464: 2251: 1998: 1978: 1623: 1607: 1255: 1093: 1052: 1005: 887: 837: 822: 452: 368: 73: 10223: 9130: 8535: 8295:"Hydrogen technology is unlikely to play a major role in sustainable road transport" 5365:"Reducing greenhouse gas emissions of Amazon hydropower with strategic dam planning" 4013: 3691: 3666: 2392: 1814:

has advantages in terms of sustainability. For a given unit of energy produced, the

1666: 1231: 16042: 15609: 15592: 15533: 15424: 15188: 14902: 14775: 14711: 14392: 14264: 14239: 14132: 13958: 13932: 13884: 13879: 13861: 13798: 13749: 13670: 13640: 13635: 13592: 13456: 13410: 13377: 13351: 13325: 13275: 13259: 13113: 13108: 13078: 12951: 12925: 12920: 12900: 12885: 12726: 12716: 12496: 12423: 12159: 11608: 11383: 11072: 10735: 10719: 10685: 10651: 10493: 10384: 10379: 10026: 10018: 9959: 9682: 9640: 9464: 9322: 9313: 9284: 9159: 9150: 9108: 9067: 9062: 8820: 8738: 8730: 8679: 8663: 8581: 8508: 8440: 8436: 8355: 8306: 8178: 8130: 7989: 7885: 7819: 7772: 7632: 7614: 7521: 7426: 7368: 7363: 7358: 7336: 7295: 7223: 7192: 7118: 7110: 6673: 6471: 6239: 6188: 6178: 5966:"Palm Oil Was Supposed to Help Save the Planet. Instead It Unleashed a Catastrophe" 5928: 5720: 5666: 5662: 5611: 5602: 5400: 5384: 5292: 5274: 5165: 5088: 4929: 4913: 4896: 4844: 4779: 4716: 4347: 4323:"Renewable energy development threatens many globally important biodiversity areas" 4293: 4283: 4075: 3991: 3696: 3686: 3600: 3314: 3107: 3098: 3034: 2896: 2886: 2644: 2579: 2571: 2567: 2525: 2472: 2442: 2433: 2418: 2287: 2118:

sources such as wind and solar, electrical power systems require flexibility. Most

2070: 1939: 1935: 1904: 1586: 1547: 1528: 1320: 1279: 848:. Switching from coal to natural gas has environmental benefits, including a lower 833: 814: 806: 559: 554: 388: 373: 334: 286: 261: 201: 95: 13220: 11612: 11591:"Chapter 7 Household Air Pollution from Solid Cookfuels and Its Effects on Health" 11058:(2022). Shukla, P.R.; Skea, J.; Slade, R.; Al Khourdajie, A.; et al. (eds.). 9812: 9687: 9660: 9469: 8586: 8567: 5933: 5914: 5649:"Biofuels sources, biofuel policy, biofuel economy and global biofuel projections" 4262:"Global change synergies and trade-offs between renewable energy and biodiversity" 3181: 15994: 15915: 15879: 15808: 15782: 15770: 15687: 15619: 15494: 15351: 14963: 14914: 14892: 14227: 14137: 14122: 13988: 13953: 13762: 13476: 13451: 13319: 13309: 12980: 12961: 12875: 12642: 12557: 12413: 12403: 12388: 12346: 12251: 12201: 12152: 11895: 11354:

Morris, Ellen; Mensah-Kutin, Rose; Greene, Jennye; Diam-valla, Catherine (2015).

11267: 9326: 9163: 8937: 7847:

Mudd, Gavin M. "Metals and Elements Needed to Support Future Energy Systems". In

6443: 5169: 4848: 4707: 3350: 3111: 2891: 2787: 2775: 2547: 2422: 2396: 2220: 2193: 2192:, which requires locations with large differences in height and access to water. 2144: 2119: 2041: 1888: 1843: 1145: 1097: 1018: 960: 921: 913: 883: 878:, and 2.6 billion rely on polluting fuels such as wood or charcoal to cook. 828:

The role of non-renewable energy sources in sustainable energy is controversial.

311: 266: 196: 11594: 11590: 10606:"Fossil Fuel to Clean Energy Subsidy Swaps: How to pay for an energy revolution" 9446:

Mastrucci, Alessio; Byers, Edward; Pachauri, Shonali; Rao, Narasimha D. (2019).

6678: 6661: 4721: 4702: 4142: 2917: 1088:

The current energy system contributes to many environmental problems, including

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2018 Biennial Assessment and Overview of Climate Finance Flows Technical Report

11832: 10816: 10723: 10498: 10203: 10099: 9964: 9937: 9661:"Global climate policy and deep decarbonization of energy-intensive industries" 9566: 9289: 9270: 9045: 8734: 8484:"A holistic analysis of passenger travel energy and greenhouse gas intensities" 8419: 8310: 8134: 7890: 7863: 7824: 7797: 7619: 7526: 7341: 7300: 7114: 6632: 6183: 6164: 5724: 5566: 5502: 5388: 5092: 4389: 4225:

Global energy investment in clean energy and in fossil fuels, 2015-2023 (chart)

4080: 3745: 3523: 3521: 3485: 3157: 3038: 3018: 2826: 2796:

Electrified transport and renewable energy are key areas of investment for the

2731: 2708: 2692: 2609: 2529: 2488: 2484: 2446: 2344: 2204: 2171: 2044:– that is increased use of electricity instead of directly burning fossil fuels 1851: 1839: 1738: 1294: 1260: 1189:

and making energy cleaner are key to achieving most of the United Nations 2030

1157: 1141: 1089: 1064: 1041: 1025: 1013: 929: 925: 864:) emissions, but this technology is expensive and has rarely been implemented. 857: 849: 798: 778: 681: 654: 627: 595: 578: 457: 246: 216: 11673: 11254: 10022: 9113: 8791: 8667: 8512: 7430: 6244: 6225: 6041: 5152:"Life cycle assessment and net energy analysis of offshore wind power systems" 4821:

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2719: 2147:, that is coupling the electricity sector to the heat and mobility sector via 1823:

can negate the advantages of switching away from coal. The technology to curb

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Negative Emissions Technologies and Reliable Sequestration: A Research Agenda

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The Citizen's Guide to Climate Success: Overcoming Myths that Hinder Progress

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IPCC Special Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation

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Bridle, Richard; Sharma, Shruti; Mostafa, Mostafa; Geddes, Anna (June 2019).

10507: 10393: 10171: 10130: 9973: 9910: 9696: 9478: 9212: 9171: 9122: 9076: 8675: 8595: 8520: 8448: 8318: 8192: 8142: 8036: 7899: 7833: 7723: 7628: 7553:"Climate change and batteries: the search for future power storage solutions" 7535: 7438: 7309: 7204: 6335:"Solar, wind and nuclear have 'amazingly low' carbon footprints, study finds" 6253: 6202: 5979: 5942: 5732: 5674: 5625: 5396: 5288: 5192: 5177: 5100: 4925: 4856: 4791: 4730: 4359: 4307: 4266: 4089: 4005: 3710: 3328: 3119: 3046: 2664: 2648: 2629: 2340: 2148: 2086: 2058: 2024: 1927: 1896: 1824: 1776: 1714: 1570: 1287: 1210: 1081: 829: 794: 774: 693: 659: 566: 549: 430: 420: 271: 99: 8360: 8341: 6597: 5279: 3518: 3021:"Sustainable energy development: History of the concept and emerging themes" 2825:, and pandemic-related economic stimulus packages offer possibilities for a 2254:

and diesel generators, which are currently common in the developing world.

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was created from a revision of this article dated 10 January 2022

11630: 11405: 11226: 10749: 10663: 10346:

Start years differ by sector but all sectors are present from 2020 onwards.

10158:"Europe Is Proposing a Border Carbon Tax. What Is It and How Will It Work?" 8752: 8693: 8369: 7944: 7646: 7132: 7087:

Vandyck, T.; Keramidas, K.; Kitous, A.; Spadaro, J.V.; et al. (2018).

6966: 6741: 6384: 6339: 5633: 5414: 5306: 4943: 4917: 4864: 4799: 4783: 4698: 4367: 3718: 3336: 2910: 2712: 2532:. Traditionally, most district heating systems have used fossil fuels, but 2332: 2316:, in which hydrogen is produced from a chemical reaction between steam and 2275: 2208: 2102: 2091: 1985: 1958: 1730: 1718: 1675: 1446: 1426: 1268: 1029: 948: 882:

plus fossil fuel pollution causes an estimated 7 million deaths each year.

818: 632: 517: 186: 151: 11076: 3438: 3436: 1717:. In the United States, around 10% of motor gasoline has been replaced by 781:

if it "meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of

15932: 15449: 15441: 14691: 14013: 14008: 13973: 13836: 13436: 12765: 12731: 12605: 12595: 12538: 12521: 12506: 12453: 12351: 11555: 11521: 10633:

Watts, N.; Amann, M.; Arnell, N.; Ayeb-Karlsson, S.; et al. (2019).

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Non-exhaust traffic related emissions – Brake and tyre wear PM. EUR 26648

7940:"In-depth Q&A: Does the world need hydrogen to solve climate change?" 6962:"In-depth Q&A: Does the world need hydrogen to solve climate change?" 6412: 6132:"As Coal Fades in the U.S., Natural Gas Becomes the Climate Battleground" 3701: 2640: 2636: 2575: 2551: 2364: 2321: 2136: 1965:

and therefore can significantly reduce the amount of waste that requires

1919: 1811: 1786: 1574: 1461: 1416: 1272: 1057: 983: 909: 905: 867: 802: 637: 512: 462: 425: 408: 393: 211: 91: 9604: 9580: 9492: 9490: 9488: 8824: 7413:"A review of energy storage types, applications and recent developments" 7373: 5510: 3925:"Net zero by 2050 hinges on a global push to increase energy efficiency" 2639:, for instance, is difficult to electrify because it traditionally uses 2554:

towers in Iran, bring cool air into buildings without any use of energy.

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Zhang, Wei; Li, Binshuai; Xue, Rui; Wang, Chengcheng; Cao, Wei (2021).

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Marine energy has the smallest share of the energy market. It includes

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Energy that responsibly meets social, economic, and environmental needs

11356:

Situation Analysis of Energy and Gender Issues in ECOWAS Member States

10994: 10363:"Financing renewable energy: Who is financing what and why it matters" 8200: 8076:"Dream or Reality? Electrification of the Chemical Process Industries" 6796:

Gill, Matthew; Livens, Francis; Peakman, Aiden. "Nuclear Fission". In

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Gill, Matthew; Livens, Francis; Peakman, Aiden. "Nuclear Fission". In

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Gill, Matthew; Livens, Francis; Peakman, Aiden. "Nuclear Fission". In

6380:"Wind and solar are 30–50% cheaper than thought, admits UK government" 5707:"Towards the implementation of sustainable biofuel production systems" 4958: 4738: 4645: 4351: 3922: 3872:"Energy efficiency is the first fuel, and demand for it needs to grow" 2846: 2844: 2842: 2139:, matching the times when variable energy production is highest. With 1271:, and the development of energy-efficient infrastructure to encourage 1012:

There is no universally accepted interpretation of how the concept of

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Future Energy: Improved, Sustainable and Clean Options for our Planet

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is a renewable energy source that can be burned for cooking or light.

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value are converted to bioenergy production or wind or solar farms.

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Ayompe, Lacour M.; Schaafsma, M.; Egoh, Benis N. (1 January 2021).

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Kumar, A.; Schei, T.; Ahenkorah, A.; Caceres Rodriguez, R. et al. "

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that are greenhouse gases, as some countries have not ratified the

2543: 1722: 1683: 1537: 1495: 1450: 1135:

Environmental impacts extend beyond the by-products of combustion.

1128: 642: 527: 522: 176: 171: 141: 44: 11353: 9089: 3733: 3606: 2471:(produced from hydrogen) a promising candidate for shipping fuel. 1752:, waste, and crops grown on soil unsuitable for food production. 16140: 14887: 14545: 14207: 13522: 13330: 12679: 12221: 11322: 10779: 10127:"EAC launches new inquiry weighing up carbon border tax measures" 9268: 9199:"Are 'Heat Pumps' the Answer to Heat Waves? Some Cities Think So" 7921: 7919: 7917: 6106:"Methane Leaks Erase Some of the Climate Benefits of Natural Gas" 4143:"Report / 2023 / X-Change: Electricity / On track for disruption" 3774: 2986: 2468: 2317: 2262: 2019:

The emissions reductions necessary to keep global warming below 2

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of the global economy (the amount of energy consumed per unit of

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The transition to a zero-carbon energy system will bring strong

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often makes nuclear plants politically difficult to implement.

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could make large-scale production of hydrogen from electricity

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methane) created in the production of the natural gas itself.

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8.5% of worldwide electricity, a share that has grown rapidly.

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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine 2019

5346:

Annex III: Technology-specific cost and performance parameters

5343: 4977: 4140: 2959: 2452:

emissions still originate from the transportation sector.

2014: 1391:

generation globally in the next three years, overtaking coal.

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Cooperative Mechanisms under Article 6 of the Paris Agreement

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Schlömer, S.; Bruckner, T.; Fulton, L.; Hertwich, E. et al. "

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The use of low-emission energy sources to produce electricity

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systems that cool multiple buildings with piped cold water.

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systems are designed to use high shares of renewable energy.

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Wind Power in Europe : Politics, Business and Society

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United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2018

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Illustrative model of greenhouse effect on climate change

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National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

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Golus̆in, Mirjana; Popov, Stevan; Dodić, Sinis̆a (2013).

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Net Zero by 2050: A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector

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are one of the most energy-efficient and safest options.

2558:

Cooling of buildings can be made more efficient through

1907:, making it the second largest source after hydropower. 1899:

has been used since the 1950s as a low-carbon source of

904:, producing more electricity from clean sources such as 14412:

UN Conference on the Human Environment (Stockholm 1972)

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The Heat is On: Taking Stock of Global Climate Ambition

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Energy for Sustainable Society: From Resources to Users

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is generally more sustainable than by air and by road.

1801: 1024:

The environmental dimension of sustainability includes

916:

for transport and heating buildings. Power output from

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Huang, Yu-Fong; Gan, Xing-Jia; Chiueh, Pei-Te (2017).

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In developing countries where populations suffer from

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