543:
20:
473:
635:. Natural resource management aims to fulfill the societal demand for a given resource without causing harm to the ecosystem, or jeopardizing the future of the resource. Due to its focus on natural resources, socioeconomic factors significantly affect this management approach. Natural resource managers initially measure the overall condition of an ecosystem, and if the ecosystem's resources are healthy, the ideal degree of resource extraction is determined, which leaves enough to allow the resource to replenish itself for subsequent harvests. The condition of each resource in an ecosystem is subject to change at different spatial and time scales, and ecosystem attributes, such as
284:
498:. The former group was concerned about sustaining their livelihoods, while the latter was concerned about the environmental impacts of livestock grazing. The groups found common ground around conserving and restoring rangeland, and diverse stakeholders, including ranchers, environmental groups, scientists, and government agencies, were engaged in management discussions. In 1994, the rancher-led Malpai Borderlands Group was created to collaboratively pursue the goals of ecosystem protection, management, and restoration.
756:
617:
95:
728:, possibly because ecosystem managers may not be equipped with the decision-making skills needed to undertake an adaptive management methodology. Additionally, economic, social, and political priorities can interfere with adaptive management decisions. For this reason, for adaptive management to be successful it must be a social and scientific process, focusing on institutional strategies while implementing experimental management techniques.
106:
412:
355:, which drove a decline in populations of fire-tolerant species and a buildup of fuel, leading to higher intensity fires. Additionally, these approaches to managing natural systems tended to (a) be site- and species-specific, rather than considering all components of an ecosystem collectively, (b) employ a “command and control” approach, and (c) exclude stakeholders from management decisions.
159:, ecosystem management remains both ambiguous and controversial, in part because some of its formulations rest on contested policy and scientific assertions. These assertions are important for understanding much of the conflict surrounding ecosystem management. For instance, some allege that professional natural resource managers, typically operating from within
662:. To achieve these goals, ecosystem managers can be appointed to balance natural resource extraction and conservation over a long-term timeframe. Partnerships between ecosystem managers, natural resource managers, and stakeholders should be encouraged in order to promote the sustainable use of limited natural resources.
152:, while Norman Christensen and coauthors emphasize that it is motivated by defined goals, employs adaptive practices, and accounts for the complexities of ecological systems. Peter Brussard and colleagues emphasize that ecosystem management balances preserving ecosystem health while sustaining human needs.
589:. Thus, by controlling ecosystems to limit natural variation and increase predictability, command and control management often leads to a decline the resilience of ecological, social, and economic systems, termed the “pathology of natural resource management”. In this “pathology”, an initially successful
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needs at a broader landscape scale when implementing conservation initiatives. By considering broad-scale, interconnected ecological systems, landscape-level conservation acknowledges the full scope of an environmental problem. Implementation of landscape-scale conservation is carried out in a number
712:
and management practices should have the ability to change based on new experience and insights. In an adaptive management strategy, a hypotheses about an ecosystem and its functioning is formed, and then management techniques to test these hypotheses are implemented. The implemented methods are then
740:
encourages the establishment of goals that will sustain an ecosystem while keeping socioeconomic and politically relevant policy drivers in mind. This approach differs from other types of ecosystem management because it emphasizes stakeholders' involvement, relying on their input to develop the best
560:
utilizes a linear problem solving approach, in which a perceived problem is resolved through controlling devices such as laws, threats, contracts, and/or agreements. This top-down approach is used across many disciplines, and it is best suited for addressing relatively simple, well-defined problems,
1240:
Christensen, Norman L.; Bartuska, Ann M.; Brown, James H.; Carpenter, Stephen; D'Antonio, Carla; Francis, Robert; Franklin, Jerry F.; MacMahon, James A.; Noss, Reed F.; Parsons, David J.; Peterson, Charles H.; Turner, Monica G.; Woodmansee, Robert G. (1996). "The Report of the
Ecological Society of
386:
are individuals or groups who are affected by or have an interest in ecosystem management decisions and actions. Stakeholders may also have power to influence the goals, policies, and outcomes of management. Ecosystem management stakeholders fall into the following groups based on their diverse
433:. Due to these complexities, effective ecosystem management is flexible and develops reciprocal trust around issues of common interest, with the objective of creating mutually beneficial partnerships. Key attributes of successful participatory ecosystem management efforts have been identified:
375:”. Thus, the outcome of natural resource management's "evolution" over the course of the 20th century is ecosystem management, which explicitly recognizes that technical and scientific knowledge, though necessary in all approaches to natural resource management, are insufficient in themselves.
175:
of the production of goods and services by ecosystems, as "intergenerational sustainability a precondition for management, not an afterthought." Ideally, there should be clear, publicly stated goals with respect to future trajectories and behaviors of the system being managed. Other important
370:
play in ecosystems. In sum, ecosystems were increasingly seen as complex systems shaped by non-linear and stochastic processes, and thus, they could not be managed to achieve single, fully predictable outcomes. As a result of these complexities and often unforeseeable feedback from management
803:
is assessed to identify the best strategies for protecting the ecosystem and the species. However, simultaneously addressing the habitat requirements of multiple species in an ecosystem can be difficult, and as a result, more comprehensive approaches have been considered in landscape-level
601:
becomes reliant on the system in its controlled state. Consequently, there has been a transition away from command and control management, and increased focus on more holistic adaptive management approaches and on arriving at management solutions through partnerships between stakeholders.
741:
management strategy for an ecosystem. Similar to other methods of ecosystem management, strategic management prioritizes evaluating and reviewing any impacts of management intervention on an ecosystem, and flexibility in adapting management protocols as a result of new information.
53:
have employed sustainable ecosystem management approaches implicitly for millennia, ecosystem management emerged explicitly as a formal concept in the 1990s from a growing appreciation of the complexity of ecosystems and of humans' reliance and influence on natural systems (e.g.,
312:. In TEK, cultures acquire knowledge of their environment over time and this information is passed on to future generations through cultural customs including folklore, religion, and taboos. Traditional management strategies vary by region; examples include the burning of the
713:
analyzed to evaluate if ecosystem health improved or declined, and further analysis allows for the modification of methods until they successfully meet the needs of the ecosystem. Thus, adaptive management is an iterative approach, encouraging “informed trial-and-error”.
415:
Stakeholders implementing sustainability by planting trees in an area of deforestation. This is important to the stakeholder label due to the fact that stakeholders are individuals or groups who are affected by or have an interest in ecosystem management decisions and
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350:
has typically assumed a view that each ecosystem has a single best equilibrium and that minimizing variation around this equilibrium results in more dependable, greater yields of natural resources. For example, this perspective informed the long-held belief in
137:. Robertson stated, “By ecosystem management, we mean an ecological approach… must blend the needs of people and environmental values in such a way that the National Forests and Grasslands represent diverse, healthy, productive and sustainable ecosystems.”
446:
is performed to ensure parties are appropriately represented. This involves determining the stakeholders involved in the management issue; categorizing stakeholders based on their interest in and influence on the issue; and evaluating relationships between
69:, ecosystem management integrates ecological, socioeconomic, and institutional knowledge and priorities through diverse stakeholder participation. In contrast to command and control approaches to natural resource management, which often lead to declines in
561:
which have a clear cause and effect, and for which there is broad societal agreement as to policy and management goals. In the context of natural systems, command and control management attempts to control nature in order to improve natural
514:, faced an imminent tipping point. In 1989, led by a municipal organization, a collaborative management strategy was adopted, involving diverse stakeholders concerned with the ecological, social, and economic facets of the ecosystem. The
176:
requirements include a sound ecological understanding of the system including ecological dynamics and the context in which the system is embedded. An understanding of the role of humans as components of the ecosystems and the use of
1832:
Reed, M.S.; Graves, A.; Dandy, N.; Posthumus, H.; Hubacek, K.; Morris, J.; Prell, C.; Quinn, C.H.; Stinger, L.C. (2009). "Who's in and why? A typology of stakeholder analysis methods for natural resource management".
584:
in the mid-1920s to reduce elk predation. Long-term studies of wolf, elk, and tree populations since wolf reintroduction in 1995 demonstrate that reintroduction has decreased elk populations, improving tree species
2395:
Ecosystem services and
Australian natural resource management (NRM) futures: Paper to the Natural Resource Policies and Programs Committee (NRPPC) and the Natural Resource Management Standing Committee
73:, ecosystem management is a holistic, adaptive method for evaluating and achieving resilience and sustainability. As such, implementation is context-dependent and may take a number of forms including
708:
is based on the concept that predicting future influences and disturbances to an ecosystem is limited and unclear. Therefore, an ecosystem should be managed to it maintain the greatest degree of
425:
The complexity of ecosystem management decisions, ranging from local to international scales, requires the participation of stakeholders with diverse understandings, perceptions, and values of
689:, future demand for natural resources is unpredictable. Although ecosystem changes may occur gradually, their cumulative impacts can have negative effects for both humans and wildlife.
2053:"Enhancing the Fit through Adaptive Co-management: Creating and Maintaining Bridging Functions for Matching Scales in the Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve, Sweden"
144:
emphasizes that ecosystem management is informed by ecological and social factors, is motivated by societal benefits, and is implemented over a specific timeframe and area.
163:
bureaucracies and professional organizations, mask debate over controversial assertions by depicting ecosystem management as an evolution of past management approaches.
1180:
Kaufmann, M. R.; Graham, R. T.; Boyce, D. A.; Moir, W. H.; Perry, L.; Reynolds, R. T.; Bassett, R. L.; Mehlhop, P.; Edminster, C. B.; Block, W. M.; Corn, P. S. (1994).
815:
methods targeted at individual species may need to be modified to include the maintenance of habitats through the consideration of both human and ecological factors.
654:
Informed by natural resource management, the ecosystem management concept is based on the relationship between sustainable ecosystem maintenance and human demand for
2393:
1186:(Technical report). Ft. Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-246.
456:
Social, economic, and ecological goals are equally weighed, and stakeholders are actively involved in decision making, which is arrived at by collective consensus.
2285:
Grimble, Robin; Wellard, K. (1997). "Stakeholder methodologies in natural resource management: a review of principles, contexts, experiences and opportunities".
807:
In human-dominated landscapes, weighing the habitat requirements of wild flora and fauna versus the needs of humans presents challenges. Globally, human-induced
526:
Several strategies to implementing the maintenance and restoration of natural and human-modified ecosystem exist. Command and control management and traditional
346:'s shift away from sustaining ecosystem health and toward maximizing timber production to support residential development following World War II. Furthermore,
352:
238:
Broad ecological research and data collection is needed to inform effective management (e.g., species diversity, habitat types, disturbance regimes, etc.).
1868:
Billgren, C.; Holmen, H. (2008). "Approaching reality: Comparing stakeholder analysis and cultural theory in the context of natural resource management".
450:
Stakeholders agree upon the aims of the participatory process from its beginning, and the means and extent of stakeholder participation are case-specific.
511:
256:
As ecological boundaries often cross administrative boundaries, management often requires cooperation among a range of agencies and private stakeholders.
1961:
Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-264. Fort
Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 669 P
362:
and for the intrinsic link between natural resources and overall ecosystem health. Simultaneously, there was acknowledgment of society's reliance on
2247:
Kellert, Stephen R; Mehta, J. N.; Ebbin, S. A.; Lichtenfeld, L. L (2000). "Community
Natural Resource Management: Promise, Rhetoric, and Reality".
2608:
542:
534:, strategic management, and landscape-level conservation are different methodologies and processes involved in implementing ecosystem management:
673:
and consequently, have accommodated the needs of future generations. As human populations grow, introducing new stressors to ecosystems, such as
510:
ecosystem, including eutrophication, bird population declines, and deterioration of flooded meadows areas. There was concern that the Helge ĂĄ, a
462:
Multidisciplinary data are collected, reflecting multidisciplinary priorities, and decisions are informed by both local and scientific knowledge.
1993:"Social-Ecological Transformation for Ecosystem Management: the Development of Adaptive Co-management of a Wetland Landscape in Southern Sweden"
795:. These implementations can be found crossing over or under highways to reduce segmentation. In other instances, the habitat requirements of a
1705:
665:
Historically, some ecosystems have experienced limited resource extraction and have been able to subsist naturally. Other ecosystems, such as
398:
Stakeholders who are not directly impacted, but have an interest in the ecosystem or its ecosystem services (e.g., NGOs, recreational groups)
580:
However, due to the complexities of ecological systems, command and control management may result in unintended consequences. For example,
358:
The latter half of the 20th century saw a paradigm shift in how ecosystems were viewed, with a growing appreciation for the importance of
1955:
DeBano, Leonard H.; Ffolliott, Peter H.; Ortega-Rubio, Alfredo; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Hamre, Robert H.; Edminster, Carleton B. (1995).
515:
274:
Humans play a key role in guiding management goals, which reflect a stage in the continuing evolution of social values and priorities.
573:
to improve crop yields; the culling of predators to protect game bird species; and the safeguarding of timber supply, by suppressing
321:
292:
772:
118:(top) and 7 months after the hurricane (bottom). Although ecosystem management goals often differ on their specifics, achieving
1957:"Biodiversity and management of the Madrean Archipelago: The Sky Islands of southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico"
1295:
1782:"Personal Commentaries on "Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Health Synthesis—A Report of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment""
973:
Berkes, Fikret; Colding, Johan; Folke, Carl (2000). "Rediscovery of
Traditional Ecological Knowledge as Adaptive Management".
811:
is an increasing problem, which is why landscape-level approaches play an important role in ecosystem management. Traditional
19:
2930:"Climate change meets habitat fragmentation: linking landscape and biogeographical scale levels in research and conservation"
2544:
2431:
1503:
1462:
1217:
952:
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and co-authors emphasize that ecosystem management is guided by ecological science to ensure the long-term sustainability of
3029:
2404:
304:
Sustainable ecosystem management approaches have been used by societies throughout human history. Prior to colonization,
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250:
Management is an iterative process in which methods are continuously reevaluated as new scientific knowledge is gained.
2506:
2330:
1764:
472:
581:
557:
546:
309:
262:
Successful implementation of management requires shifts in the structure and operation of land management agencies.
244:
The impacts of management methods are tracked, allowing for their outcomes to be evaluated and modified, if needed.
2562:
United States
Department of Interior. Technical Guide: Chapter 1: What is Adaptive Management? Viewed 8 Sep. 2010.
2151:
1925:
Mushove, P.; Vogel, C. (2005). "Heads or tails? Stakeholder analysis as a tool for conservation area management".
1086:
2988:
2624:
986:
1666:
Holling, C. S.; Meffe, Gary K. (1996). "Command and control and the pathology of natural resource management".
690:
2805:"Predicting Which Species Will Benefit from Corridors in Fragmented Landscapes from Population Growth Models"
834:
631:
is frequently used in relation to a particular resource for human use, rather than the management of a whole
338:
In industrialized
Western society, ecosystems have been managed primarily to maximize yields of a particular
1721:
494:
In the early 1990s, there was ongoing conflict between the ranching and environmentalist communities in the
2563:
2423:
Principles of ecosystem stewardship : resilience-based natural resource management in a changing world
1520:"Huna Tlingit Traditional Environmental Knowledge, Conservation, and the Management of a "Wilderness" Park"
779:
760:
750:
343:
134:
78:
2929:
2719:
Shmelev, S.E; Powell, J.R (2006). "Ecological-economic modeling for strategic regional waste management".
791:, for example, provides a connection between otherwise isolated habitat patches, presenting a solution to
895:
Brussard Peter, F; Reed
Michael, J; Richard, Tracy C (1998). "Ecosystem Management: What is it really?".
839:
628:
611:
527:
347:
156:
66:
38:
2893:
Vos, CC; Verboom, J; Opdam, PFM; Ter Braak, CJF (2001). "Toward
Ecologically Scaled Landscape Indices".
2460:
Pahl-Wostl (2007). "Transitions towards adaptive management of water facing climate and global change".
2357:
Ascher, W (2001). "Coping with complexity and
Organizational Interests in Natural Resource Management".
824:
440:
Stakeholders are engaged early on, and their involvement continues beyond decision and into management.
2198:
1601:
863:"The emergence of ecosystem management as a tool for meeting people's needs and sustaining ecosystems"
808:
623:
allows for timber extraction, while maintaining ecosystem structure and allowing forest regeneration.
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to shift their focus toward control, over time obscuring the ecosystem’s natural behavior, while the
506:
In the 1980s, local government agencies and environmental groups noted declines in the health of the
268:
Nature and people are intrinsically linked and humans shape, and are shaped by, ecological processes.
111:
26:
is a technique used in ecosystem management. This indirectly benefits society via the maintenance of
1255:
208:
in an ecosystem (e.g., only conserving a specific species or only preserving ecosystem functioning).
189:
1898:
Reed, M.S. (2008). "Stakeholder participation for environmental management: A literature review".
1745:"Valuing ecosystem services using benefit transfer: separating credible and incredible approaches"
565:, establish predictability, and reduce threats. Command and control strategies include the use of
518:
was established in 2005 to promote the preservation of the ecosystem's socio-ecological services.
2748:"Old concepts, new challenges: adapting landscape-scale conservation to the twenty-first century"
367:
313:
205:
133:
The term “ecosystem management” was formalized in 1992 by F. Dale Robertson, former Chief of the
553:
since wolf return demonstrate the potential cascading impacts of command and control management.
1250:
1209:
437:
Stakeholder involvement is inclusive, equitable, and focused on trust-building and empowerment.
401:
Stakeholders concerned with the decision-making processes (e.g., environmental advocacy groups)
2858:
Lambeck, Robert J (1997). "Focal species: a multi-species umbrella for nature conservation".
792:
686:
586:
550:
359:
229:
225:
123:
119:
70:
59:
55:
1201:
2609:"Deconstructing Adaptive Management: Criteria for Applications to Environmental Management"
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812:
737:
717:
709:
443:
288:
221:
145:
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Economic incentives are provided to parties responsible for implementing management plans.
8:
3024:
1518:
Hunn, Eugene S.; Johnson, Darryll R.; Russell, Priscilla N.; Thornton, Thomas F. (2003).
1495:
721:
705:
669:, which in many regions provide considerable timber resources, have undergone successful
648:
620:
531:
177:
74:
2970:
Velázquez, Alejandro; Bocco, Gerardo; Romero, Francisco J.; Vega, Azucena Pérez (2003).
1679:
1372:
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by Native Americans in what is today the southeastern United States, the ban of seabird
3001:
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2701:
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2226:
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2132:
2090:
2030:
1809:
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1629:
1600:
Kessler, Winifred B.; Salwasser, Hal; Cartwright, Charles W.; Caplan, James A. (1992).
1384:
1276:
1268:
1124:
1060:
800:
495:
477:
283:
149:
50:
2322:
Ecosystem management : applications for sustainable forest and wildlife resources
2298:
1314:
1166:
908:
878:
214:
Ecological boundaries are clearly and formally defined, and management is place-based.
3005:
2993:
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2824:
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This management approach has had mixed success in the field of ecosystem management,
659:
644:
430:
363:
46:
27:
2879:
2705:
2481:
2378:
2183:
1938:
1687:
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Management has a holistic perspective rather than focusing on a particular level of
2983:
2941:
2902:
2867:
2844:
2816:
2775:
2759:
2732:
2728:
2677:
2628:
2620:
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2256:
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2072:
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2012:
2004:
1968:
1934:
1907:
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1842:
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1717:
1675:
1613:
1572:
1531:
1491:
1425:
1415:
1368:
1337:
1328:
Lackey, Robert T (1999). "Radically contested assertions in ecosystem management".
1310:
1260:
1162:
1128:
1098:
1036:
982:
904:
874:
796:
682:
678:
655:
339:
141:
1846:
1486:
Leigh, G. J. (2004-09-09), "Nitrogen Fixation, Agriculture, and the Environment",
2945:
2214:
1911:
1744:
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115:
23:
1956:
1756:
468:
To ensure long-term stakeholder involvement, participation is institutionalized.
180:
is also important. While ecosystem management can be used as part of a plan for
140:
A variety of additional definitions of ecosystem management exist. For example,
2260:
1781:
694:
674:
636:
372:
172:
2763:
2681:
2473:
2370:
2199:"Trophic cascades in Yellowstone: The first 15years after wolf reintroduction"
2051:
Olsson, Per; Folke, Carl; Galaz, Victor; Hahn, Thomas; Schultz, Lisen (2007).
1797:
939:
Meffe, Gary; Nielsen, Larry; Knight, Richard; Schenborn, Dennis, eds. (2013).
616:
322:
sustainable harvest practices of glaucous-winged gull eggs by the Huna Tlingit
3018:
2997:
2953:
2828:
2771:
2689:
2642:
2441:
2222:
2175:
2128:
2086:
2026:
1805:
1729:
1625:
1586:
1545:
1472:
1439:
1380:
1112:
1048:
1016:
994:
670:
185:
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2516:
2340:
2068:
2008:
1420:
1403:
1040:
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can be used to monitor and evaluate natural resources and ecosystem health.
308:
often sustainably managed their natural resources through intergenerational
2836:
2789:
2697:
2650:
1854:
1641:
1120:
1056:
562:
480:
were determined through active participation of diverse stakeholder groups.
184:
conservation, it can also be used in intensively managed ecosystems (e.g.,
2421:
1341:
291:
eggs maintains the species' population size, while preserving traditional
2534:
2496:
2320:
640:
574:
507:
404:
Stakeholders funding management plans (e.g., taxpayers, funding agencies)
2564:
http://www.doi.gov/initiatives/AdaptiveManagement/TechGuide/Chapter1.pdf
2094:
2052:
2034:
1992:
1181:
2914:
2746:
Donaldson, Lynda; Wilson, Robert J.; Maclean, Ilya M. D. (2017-03-01).
2136:
2112:
1973:
1633:
1388:
1356:
1293:
1272:
181:
160:
41:
that aims to ensure the long-term sustainability and persistence of an
2633:
2077:
2017:
1743:
Loomis, John; Richardson, Leslie; Kroeger, Timm; Casey, Frank (2014).
1430:
1199:
371:
strategies, DeFries and Nagendra deemed ecosystem management to be a “
2152:"The Effectiveness of Removing Predators to Protect Bird Populations"
1241:
America Committee on the Scientific Basis for Ecosystem Management".
632:
570:
566:
426:
94:
49:
while meeting socioeconomic, political, and cultural needs. Although
42:
2906:
1954:
1617:
1264:
1150:
862:
453:
Stakeholder participation is conducted through skilled facilitation.
2820:
2399:. Australian Department of Agriculture, Water and the Environment.
1577:
1560:
1536:
1519:
1455:
America's fires : a historical context for policy and practice
783:
2113:"Ecosystem Management: Agency Liberation from Command and Control"
407:
Stakeholders representing public interest (e.g., public officials)
1239:
894:
459:
Stakeholders continually monitor management plan’s effectiveness.
411:
2391:
1599:
105:
2420:
Folke, Carl; Kofinas, Gary P.; Chapin, F. Stuart, eds. (2009).
1602:"New Perspectives for Sustainable Natural Resources Management"
666:
502:
Helge ĂĄ River & Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve:
171:
A fundamental concern of ecosystem management is the long-term
1294:
Brussard, Peter F.; J. Michael Reed; C. Richard Tracy (1998).
1200:
Chapin, F. Stuart; Pamela A. Matson; Harold A. Mooney (2002).
326:
317:
220:
Management is focused on maintaining or reintroducing native
2246:
1742:
943:
Ecosystem Management: Adaptive, Community-Based Conservation
2989:
10.1659/0276-4741(2003)023[0240:ALPOBC]2.0.CO;2
2625:
10.1890/1051-0761(2006)016[2411:DAMCFA]2.0.CO;2
1087:"Achieving Integrative, Collaborative Ecosystem Management"
987:
10.1890/1051-0761(2000)010[1251:roteka]2.0.co;2
938:
1517:
420:
196:
Core principles and common themes of ecosystem management:
1706:"Be careful what you wish for: the legacy of Smokey Bear"
366:(beyond provisioning goods) and of the inextricable role
342:. This method for managing ecosystems can be seen in the
2969:
2892:
1831:
484:
395:
tied to the ecosystem (e.g., members of local community)
1722:
10.1890/1540-9295(2007)5[73:BCWYWF]2.0.CO;2
1457:(Rev. ed.). Durham, N.C.: Forest History Society.
1179:
651:, need to be considered individually and collectively.
2972:"A Landscape Perspective on Biodiversity Conservation"
2745:
1404:"An Immune System Perspective on Ecosystem Management"
2197:
Ripple, William J.; Beschta, Robert L. (2012-01-01).
582:
wolves were extirpated from Yellowstone National Park
521:
166:
2666:"Role of Adaptive Management for Watershed Councils"
2050:
1561:"The Maya milpa: fire and the legacy of living soil"
330:
intercropping approach (which is still used today).
320:
harvest during the breeding season by the Inca, the
2606:
2419:
2150:Côté, Isabelle M.; Sutherland, William J. (1997).
1235:
1233:
1231:
1229:
972:
940:
547:Wolf reintroduction into Yellowstone National Park
2803:Hudgens, Brian R.; Haddad, Nick M. (2003-05-01).
860:
780:Landscape-level (or landscape-scale) conservation
537:
3016:
2536:Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management
1452:
1991:Olsson, Per; Folke, Carl; Hahn, Thomas (2004).
1990:
1704:Donovan, Geoffrey H.; Brown, Thomas C. (2007).
1226:
1014:
744:
2284:
2149:
1867:
1015:DeFries, Ruth; Nagendra, Harini (2017-04-20).
861:Szaro, R.; Sexton, W.T.; Malone, C.R. (1998).
605:
2802:
2718:
2319:Boyce, Mark S.; Haney, Alan W., eds. (1997).
2196:
2927:
1924:
1703:
1665:
1287:
1183:An ecological basis for ecosystem management
1085:Keough, Heather L.; Blahna, Dale J. (2006).
1084:
890:
888:
530:are the precursors to ecosystem management.
353:forest fire suppression in the United States
2607:Gregory, R.; Ohlson, D.; Arvai, J. (2006).
2581:"Resilience Alliance - Adaptive Management"
2111:Knight, Richard L.; Meffe, Gary K. (1997).
2110:
1558:
1204:Principles of Terrestrial Ecosystem Ecology
1195:
1193:
2558:
2556:
2498:Adaptive management of renewable resources
2459:
2318:
1559:Nigh, Ronald; Diemont, Stewart AW (2013).
1296:"Ecosystem management: what is it really?"
1017:"Ecosystem management as a wicked problem"
516:Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve
512:Ramsar Wetland of International Importance
2987:
2928:Opdam, Paul; Wascher, Dirk (2004-05-01).
2779:
2632:
2392:Ecosystem Services Working Group (2007).
2076:
2016:
1972:
1576:
1535:
1429:
1419:
1254:
1102:
885:
333:
1710:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
1565:Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment
1354:
1190:
773:Grand Canyon-Parashant National Monument
754:
615:
541:
471:
410:
299:
282:
18:
2857:
2553:
2532:
2494:
1401:
1151:"Seven pillars of ecosystem management"
736:As it relates to ecosystem management,
731:
549:in January 1995. Observed increases in
476:Ecosystem management decisions for the
421:Strategies to stakeholder participation
3017:
2965:
2963:
2663:
2602:
2600:
2575:
2573:
2571:
2528:
2526:
2455:
2453:
2451:
2356:
2314:
2312:
2310:
2308:
2280:
2278:
2046:
2044:
1986:
1984:
1950:
1948:
1893:
1891:
1827:
1825:
1823:
1779:
1327:
1148:
700:
310:traditional ecological knowledge (TEK)
30:and the reduction of severe wildfires.
2352:
2350:
2242:
2240:
2106:
2104:
1699:
1697:
1661:
1659:
1657:
1655:
1653:
1651:
1485:
1080:
1078:
1076:
1074:
830:Ecosystem Management Decision Support
485:Examples of stakeholder participation
228:and other key processes that sustain
2426:(1st ed.). New York: Springer.
2325:. New Haven: Yale University Press.
1897:
1144:
1142:
1140:
1138:
1010:
1008:
1006:
1004:
968:
966:
964:
934:
932:
930:
928:
926:
924:
922:
920:
918:
856:
854:
2960:
2597:
2568:
2523:
2448:
2413:
2305:
2275:
2041:
1981:
1945:
1888:
1835:Journal of Environmental Management
1820:
1680:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10020328.x
1373:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1994.08010027.x
691:Geographic information system (GIS)
13:
2347:
2237:
2101:
1694:
1648:
1496:10.1093/oso/9780195165821.003.0005
1071:
769:Lake Mead National Recreation Area
522:Strategies to ecosystem management
167:Principles of ecosystem management
14:
3041:
2976:Mountain Research and Development
1135:
1001:
961:
915:
851:
2872:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.96319.x
2168:10.1046/j.1523-1739.1997.95410.x
1882:10.1016/j.landusepol.2007.11.004
1104:10.1111/j.1523-1739.2006.00445.x
104:
93:
2921:
2886:
2851:
2796:
2739:
2712:
2664:Habron, Geoffrey (2003-01-01).
2657:
2488:
2385:
2190:
2143:
1939:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2004.12.008
1918:
1861:
1773:
1736:
1593:
1552:
1511:
1479:
1446:
1395:
1357:"What Is Ecosystem Management?"
1348:
1330:Journal of Sustainable Forestry
1321:
1208:. New York: Springer. pp.
378:
84:
2733:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2005.09.030
1173:
558:Command and control management
538:Command and control management
368:human-environment interactions
1:
2752:Biodiversity and Conservation
2299:10.1016/s0308-521x(97)00006-1
2249:Society and Natural Resources
1847:10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.01.001
1780:Parkes, Margot (2006-08-15).
1315:10.1016/S0169-2046(97)00094-7
1167:10.1016/S0169-2046(97)00095-9
909:10.1016/s0169-2046(97)00094-7
879:10.1016/s0169-2046(97)00093-5
845:
835:Sustainable forest management
490:Malpai Borderland management:
391:Stakeholders whose lives are
2946:10.1016/j.biocon.2003.12.008
2215:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.11.005
1912:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.07.014
1355:Grumbine, R. Edward (1994).
1303:Landscape and Urban Planning
1155:Landscape and Urban Planning
897:Landscape and Urban Planning
867:Landscape and Urban Planning
761:Gold Butte National Monument
751:Landscape-scale conservation
745:Landscape-level conservation
79:landscape-scale conservation
77:, strategic management, and
7:
3030:Natural resource management
1927:Global Environmental Change
1757:10.4337/9781781955161.00014
1490:, Oxford University Press,
840:Sustainable land management
818:
782:is a method that considers
629:natural resource management
612:Natural resource management
606:Natural resource management
528:natural resource management
348:natural resource management
157:natural resource management
67:natural resource management
39:natural resource management
16:Natural resource management
10:
3046:
2462:Water Resources Management
2261:10.1080/089419200750035575
1749:Valuing Ecosystem Services
1402:Janssen, Marco A. (2001).
825:Ecosystem-based management
748:
609:
278:
224:and on preserving natural
65:Building upon traditional
2764:10.1007/s10531-016-1257-9
2682:10.1007/s00267-002-2763-y
2539:. John Wiley & Sons.
2495:Walters, Carl J. (1986).
2474:10.1007/s11269-006-9040-4
2371:10.1007/s10021-001-0043-y
2117:Wildlife Society Bulletin
1798:10.1007/s10393-006-0038-4
1453:Pyne, Stephen J. (2009).
809:environmental degradation
593:practice drives relevant
112:El Yunque National Forest
2670:Environmental Management
1488:The World's Greatest Fix
254:Interagency cooperation:
190:close to nature forestry
2934:Biological Conservation
2895:The American Naturalist
2809:The American Naturalist
2613:Ecological Applications
2533:Holling, C. S. (1978).
2501:. New York: Macmillan.
2203:Biological Conservation
2069:10.5751/ES-01976-120128
2009:10.5751/ES-00683-090402
1900:Biological Conservation
1606:Ecological Applications
1421:10.5751/es-00242-050113
1243:Ecological Applications
1041:10.1126/science.aal1950
975:Ecological Applications
314:longleaf pine ecosystem
287:Sustainable harvest of
776:
763:in 2016 established a
624:
554:
481:
417:
360:ecological disturbance
334:Post-industrialization
296:
260:Organizational change:
212:Ecological boundaries:
51:indigenous communities
31:
1342:10.1300/J091v09n01_02
1149:Lackey, R.T. (1998).
793:habitat fragmentation
758:
687:habitat fragmentation
619:
551:ecological resilience
545:
475:
414:
300:Pre-industrialization
286:
218:Ecological integrity:
71:ecological resilience
60:ecological resilience
22:
2860:Conservation Biology
2721:Ecological Economics
2287:Agricultural Systems
2156:Conservation Biology
1668:Conservation Biology
1524:Current Anthropology
1408:Conservation Ecology
1361:Conservation Biology
1091:Conservation Biology
738:strategic management
732:Strategic management
718:fisheries management
710:ecological integrity
563:resource extractions
444:Stakeholder analysis
289:glaucous-winged gull
248:Adaptive management:
222:biological diversity
206:biological hierarchy
35:Ecosystem management
2585:www.resalliance.org
2057:Ecology and Society
1997:Ecology and Society
1033:2017Sci...356..265D
759:The designation of
722:wildlife management
706:Adaptive management
701:Adaptive management
621:Shelterwood cutting
591:command and control
532:Adaptive management
344:U.S. Forest Service
306:indigenous cultures
226:disturbance regimes
178:adaptive management
135:U.S. Forest Service
75:adaptive management
1974:10.2737/RM-GTR-264
801:vulnerable species
777:
660:ecosystem services
625:
555:
496:Malpai Borderlands
482:
478:Malpai Borderlands
431:ecosystem services
418:
364:ecosystem services
297:
266:Humans and nature:
150:ecosystem services
37:is an approach to
32:
28:ecosystem services
24:Prescribed burning
2546:978-1-932846-07-2
2433:978-0-387-73033-2
1906:(10): 2417–2431.
1505:978-0-19-516582-1
1464:978-0-89030-073-2
1219:978-0-387-95443-1
1027:(6335): 265–270.
954:978-1-55963-824-1
789:wildlife corridor
765:wildlife corridor
726:forest management
693:applications and
656:natural resources
645:species diversity
202:Systems thinking:
3037:
3010:
3009:
2991:
2967:
2958:
2957:
2925:
2919:
2918:
2890:
2884:
2883:
2855:
2849:
2848:
2800:
2794:
2793:
2783:
2743:
2737:
2736:
2716:
2710:
2709:
2661:
2655:
2654:
2636:
2619:(6): 2411–2425.
2604:
2595:
2594:
2592:
2591:
2577:
2566:
2560:
2551:
2550:
2530:
2521:
2520:
2492:
2486:
2485:
2457:
2446:
2445:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2389:
2383:
2382:
2354:
2345:
2344:
2316:
2303:
2302:
2282:
2273:
2272:
2244:
2235:
2234:
2194:
2188:
2187:
2147:
2141:
2140:
2108:
2099:
2098:
2080:
2048:
2039:
2038:
2020:
1988:
1979:
1978:
1976:
1952:
1943:
1942:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1895:
1886:
1885:
1865:
1859:
1858:
1841:(5): 1933–1949.
1829:
1818:
1817:
1777:
1771:
1770:
1740:
1734:
1733:
1701:
1692:
1691:
1663:
1646:
1645:
1597:
1591:
1590:
1580:
1556:
1550:
1549:
1539:
1530:(S5): S79–S103.
1515:
1509:
1508:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1450:
1444:
1443:
1433:
1423:
1399:
1393:
1392:
1352:
1346:
1345:
1325:
1319:
1318:
1300:
1291:
1285:
1284:
1258:
1237:
1224:
1223:
1207:
1197:
1188:
1187:
1177:
1171:
1170:
1146:
1133:
1132:
1106:
1097:(5): 1373–1382.
1082:
1069:
1068:
1012:
999:
998:
981:(5): 1251–1262.
970:
959:
958:
947:. Island Press.
946:
936:
913:
912:
892:
883:
882:
858:
679:invasive species
340:natural resource
236:Data collection:
155:As a concept of
146:F. Stuart Chapin
142:Robert T. Lackey
126:is a common aim.
108:
97:
45:'s function and
3045:
3044:
3040:
3039:
3038:
3036:
3035:
3034:
3015:
3014:
3013:
2968:
2961:
2926:
2922:
2907:10.2307/3079086
2891:
2887:
2856:
2852:
2801:
2797:
2744:
2740:
2717:
2713:
2662:
2658:
2605:
2598:
2589:
2587:
2579:
2578:
2569:
2561:
2554:
2547:
2531:
2524:
2509:
2493:
2489:
2458:
2449:
2434:
2418:
2414:
2407:
2406:9780-64255-3874
2390:
2386:
2355:
2348:
2333:
2317:
2306:
2283:
2276:
2245:
2238:
2195:
2191:
2148:
2144:
2109:
2102:
2049:
2042:
1989:
1982:
1953:
1946:
1923:
1919:
1896:
1889:
1870:Land Use Policy
1866:
1862:
1830:
1821:
1778:
1774:
1767:
1741:
1737:
1702:
1695:
1664:
1649:
1618:10.2307/1941856
1598:
1594:
1571:(s1): e45–e54.
1557:
1553:
1516:
1512:
1506:
1484:
1480:
1465:
1451:
1447:
1400:
1396:
1353:
1349:
1326:
1322:
1298:
1292:
1288:
1265:10.2307/2269460
1256:10.1.1.404.4909
1238:
1227:
1220:
1198:
1191:
1178:
1174:
1147:
1136:
1083:
1072:
1013:
1002:
971:
962:
955:
937:
916:
893:
886:
859:
852:
848:
821:
753:
747:
734:
703:
683:land-use change
614:
608:
540:
524:
487:
423:
381:
336:
324:, and the Maya
302:
281:
169:
131:
130:
129:
128:
127:
116:Hurricane Maria
109:
100:
99:
98:
87:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3043:
3033:
3032:
3027:
3012:
3011:
2982:(3): 240–246.
2959:
2940:(3): 285–297.
2920:
2885:
2850:
2821:10.1086/374343
2815:(5): 808–820.
2795:
2758:(3): 527–552.
2738:
2727:(1): 115–130.
2711:
2656:
2596:
2567:
2552:
2545:
2522:
2507:
2487:
2447:
2432:
2412:
2405:
2384:
2365:(8): 742–757.
2346:
2331:
2304:
2293:(2): 173–193.
2274:
2255:(8): 705–715.
2236:
2209:(1): 205–213.
2189:
2162:(2): 395–405.
2142:
2123:(3): 676–678.
2100:
2040:
1980:
1944:
1933:(3): 184–198.
1917:
1887:
1876:(4): 550–562.
1860:
1819:
1792:(3): 136–140.
1772:
1765:
1735:
1693:
1647:
1612:(3): 221–225.
1592:
1578:10.1890/120344
1551:
1537:10.1086/377666
1510:
1504:
1478:
1463:
1445:
1394:
1347:
1336:(1–2): 21–34.
1320:
1286:
1249:(3): 665–691.
1225:
1218:
1189:
1172:
1161:(1–3): 21–30.
1134:
1070:
1000:
960:
953:
914:
884:
849:
847:
844:
843:
842:
837:
832:
827:
820:
817:
804:conservation.
749:Main article:
746:
743:
733:
730:
702:
699:
695:remote sensing
675:climate change
610:Main article:
607:
604:
539:
536:
523:
520:
486:
483:
470:
469:
466:
463:
460:
457:
454:
451:
448:
441:
438:
422:
419:
409:
408:
405:
402:
399:
396:
380:
377:
373:wicked problem
335:
332:
301:
298:
280:
277:
276:
275:
269:
263:
257:
251:
245:
239:
233:
215:
209:
186:agroecosystems
173:sustainability
168:
165:
110:
103:
102:
101:
92:
91:
90:
89:
88:
86:
83:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
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3028:
3026:
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3020:
3007:
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2995:
2990:
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2981:
2977:
2973:
2966:
2964:
2955:
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2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2924:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2889:
2881:
2877:
2873:
2869:
2866:(4): 849–56.
2865:
2861:
2854:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2826:
2822:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2806:
2799:
2791:
2787:
2782:
2777:
2773:
2769:
2765:
2761:
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2648:
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2640:
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2603:
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2559:
2557:
2548:
2542:
2538:
2537:
2529:
2527:
2518:
2514:
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2508:0-02-947970-3
2504:
2500:
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2491:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2456:
2454:
2452:
2443:
2439:
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2429:
2425:
2424:
2416:
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2372:
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2332:0-300-06902-2
2328:
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2118:
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2054:
2047:
2045:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2019:
2014:
2010:
2006:
2002:
1998:
1994:
1987:
1985:
1975:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1951:
1949:
1940:
1936:
1932:
1928:
1921:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1901:
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1864:
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1815:
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1807:
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1799:
1795:
1791:
1787:
1783:
1776:
1768:
1766:9781781955161
1762:
1758:
1754:
1750:
1746:
1739:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1719:
1715:
1711:
1707:
1700:
1698:
1689:
1685:
1681:
1677:
1674:(2): 328–37.
1673:
1669:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1656:
1654:
1652:
1643:
1639:
1635:
1631:
1627:
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2853:
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2720:
2714:
2676:(1): 29–41.
2673:
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2000:
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1964:
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1834:
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806:
778:
735:
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595:institutions
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590:
579:
575:forest fires
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525:
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379:Stakeholders
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293:Huna Tlingit
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787:of ways. A
641:soil health
587:recruitment
242:Monitoring:
124:disturbance
56:disturbance
3025:Ecosystems
3019:Categories
2634:1794/22080
2590:2021-04-07
2359:Ecosystems
2078:10535/3208
2018:10535/2865
1431:10535/2615
846:References
658:and other
571:pesticides
567:herbicides
427:ecosystems
387:concerns:
230:resilience
182:wilderness
161:government
120:resilience
3006:134441393
2998:0276-4741
2954:0006-3207
2829:0003-0147
2772:1572-9710
2690:0364-152X
2643:1939-5582
2468:: 49–62.
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2269:219696057
2223:0006-3207
2176:1523-1739
2129:0091-7648
2087:1708-3087
2027:1708-3087
1806:1612-9202
1786:EcoHealth
1751:: 78–89.
1730:1540-9309
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1587:1540-9309
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1381:0888-8892
1251:CiteSeerX
1113:1523-1739
1049:0036-8075
995:1051-0761
649:abundance
637:watershed
633:ecosystem
627:The term
43:ecosystem
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2837:12858286
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2706:19511546
2698:12447573
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797:keystone
784:wildlife
767:linking
416:actions.
393:directly
295:customs.
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2915:3079086
2845:6299857
2781:7115020
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2137:3783518
1814:5844434
1634:1941856
1389:2386718
1273:2269460
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279:History
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