Umayyad state of Córdoba

6065:"The rate of conversion is slow until the tenth century (less than one-quarter of the eventual total number of converts had been converted); the explosive period coincides closely with the reign of 'Abd al-Rahman III (912–961); the process is completed (eighty percent converted) by around 1100. The curve, moreover, makes possible a reasonable estimate of the religious distribution of the population. Assuming that there were seven million Hispano-Romans in the peninsula in 711 and that the numbers of this segment of the population remained level through the eleventh century (with population growth balancing out Christian migration to the north), then by 912 there would have been approximately 2.8 million indigenous Muslims (muwalladûn) plus Arabs and Berbers. At this point Christians still vastly outnumbered Muslims. By 1100, however, the number of indigenous Muslims would have risen to a majority of 5.6 million." 3627: 8786: 3242:, considered a very prized commodity. The latter were an integral part of Umayyad palace society and played an important role in courtly politics, including in the matter of dynastic succession, where they often allied with the women whose sons were potential candidates for the throne. All the mothers of Umayyad emirs and caliphs were also originally slaves. In the context of elite society, slave origins held no social stigma and women could become very powerful in the household and the court. Slave girls that were considered particularly prized or gifted were usually given an extensive education in arts and literature, as was also common in the court of the Abbasid caliphs. Black African slaves, known as 7021: 3904: 7013: 61: 3667: 3694: 3611: 3643: 3655: 2954:, indigenous converts to Islam, indigenous Christians, and Jews. The Andalusis of Arab origin were a minority but they had formed the ruling elites since the Muslim conquest in the early 8th century. Berbers, who had made up the majority of the conquering army, were a larger group, relatively powerful but less so than the Arab elites. The indigenous population were the majority, but the proportion of Christians among them decreased over time as many of them converted to Islam. The indigenous Muslim converts were known as 834: 966: 3038: 12369: 2564:, in 961. Al-Hakam II continued his father's policy toward Christian kings and North African rebels. Al-Hakam's relied on his advisers more than his father because the caliphate was less prosperous, and there was less money to go around. This style of rulership suited Al-Hakam II since he was more interested in his scholarly and intellectual pursuits than ruling the caliphate. The caliphate reached an intellectual and scholarly peak under Al-Hakam II. 3873: 2680:, chroniclers record Almanzor leading 12,000 African horsemen, five thousand al-Andalusi horsemen, and 40,000 infantry. Stories of Almanzor's last campaign record forty-six thousand horsemen, six hundred forces guarding the train, 26,000 infantry, two hundred scouts or 'police', and one hundred and thirty drummers. The garrison of Córdoba was recorded at 10,500 horsemen, while other forces kept the northern border in dispersed detachments. 3286:

promoted a higher standard of living, which in turn attracted more skilled labour to the country. Córdoba also drew revenues from tributes collected from the Christian kingdoms to the north, which provided silver and slaves. One historical source reports that the state's total revenues at the end of Abd al-Rahman III's reign amounted to six and a half million dinars – though it's unclear what this figure means precisely in terms of

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convert likely became stronger and the process became self-reinforcing. Indigenous elites had been among the first to convert as a way to preserve their status. As Christian institutions weakened and the Islamic presence became clearly more permanent, a steady drift towards Islam likely took place in the rest of the Christian population seeking improved social status and economic opportunities.

2969:, "Despite the withdrawal of substantial numbers during the drought and famine of the 750s, fresh Berber migration from North Africa was a constant feature of Andalusi history, increasing in tempo in the tenth century. Hispano-Romans who converted to Islam, numbering six or seven millions, comprised the majority of the population and also occupied the lowest rungs on the social ladder." 3145:'Arabized'). The term "Mozarab" has been used by historians in various ways since the 19th century and can refer to either the Christian population living under Muslim rule – who did not call themselves by this name – or to the Arabized Christians that emigrated from al-Andalus to the Christian kingdoms in northern Iberia. The term "Mozarabic" is also used to refer to the 3317:(a type of waterwheel) – meant that agricultural output was greater, more consistent, and took place during a longer part of the year. This ensured that the population was healthier and less vulnerable to famine, encouraging demographic growth, while farmers reaped higher incomes and were able to further diversify their production. Some crops, such as figs, were cultivated as 3263: 3182:

roughly 50% towards 950, and around 75% by 1000, after which conversion slowed. Half of the population in Córdoba is reported to have been Muslim by the 10th century, with an increase to 70 percent by the 11th century, though this was due less to local conversion than to Muslim immigration from the rest of the Iberian Peninsula and North Africa.

5396:, p. 125: "Normalmente participaban en sus aceifas doce mil hombres de a caballo, inscritos en la escalilla militar y a los que, además de la acostumbrada soldada, se les proporcionaban una caballería con sus arreos, armas, alojamiento, pagas y gratificaciones para diversos gastos, y forraje para las caballerías, según su categoría." 3228:

and especially at the royal court, but little is known of what role they may have played in industries such as agriculture and mining. Most slaves of this period were captured during Muslim raids on the Christian kingdoms in the northern Iberian Peninsula or were imported from other European markets. These European slaves were known as

3072:) were common, but the Umayyads themselves promoted the former. One reason for this might be that Hanafism was seen as too closely associated with the Abbasids, whom the Umayyads considered enemies. Maliki dominance solidified under the reign of Abd ar-Rahman II in the 9th century, though during the reign of his son, Muhammad I, the 2965:) and became very numerous in later generations. Some of them were descended from the former Visigothic and Hispano-Roman landholding elites that existed prior to the Muslim conquest and who had retained much of their status after the conquest. Jews were present in smaller numbers relative to the other groups. According to 3161:

Jewish communities in al-Andalus before the 10th century, though they must have been an important presence. Historical records attest that they were present in Córdoba in the 9th century. During the caliphal period, some Jews entered into the circles of the caliph's court, of whom the most influential was

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Ambrosio, Beatriz; Hernández, Candela; Novelletto, Andrea; Dugoujon, Jean M.; Rodríguez, Juan N.; Cuesta, Pedro; Fortes-Lima, César; Calderón, Rosario (December 2010). "Searching the peopling of the Iberian Peninsula from the perspective of two andalusian subpopulations: a study based on Y-chromosome

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The state also benefited greatly from trade with the rest of the Islamic world to the east. In addition to exporting crafted goods (primarily silk cloth), it provided raw materials to North Africa and the Middle East, regions that were poorer in natural resources than al-Andalus. This trade advantage

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Almanzor abolished the system of tribal units with their own commanders. This system had been in decline due to a lack of Arab recruits and the pseudo-feudalistic institutions on the frontiers. A new system of mixed units without clear loyalty under orders from Administration officials replaced it.

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Almanzor continued the military reforms by Al-Hakam and his predecessors. He professionalized the regular army, which guaranteed his military power in the capital and ensured the availability of forces for numerous campaigns. Professionalization de-emphasized levies and other non-professional troops,

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Some upper-class women also had the resources to receive education and participate in high culture in the domains of poetry and even religion. Examples include 'Aisha ibn Ahmad, who was born from a noble family and wrote poetry, copied the Qur'an, and founded libraries. Lubna, a slave in the service

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s were largely organized into family-based social structures, the Arabs and Berbers were organized into a more complex mix of family and tribe loyalties. "Arab" identity in general was largely tied to the assertion of Arab ancestry. This lineage was perceived as inherited through the father, meaning

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was a "major trendsetter of his time" creating trends in fashion, hairstyles, and hygiene. His students took these trends with them throughout Europe and North Africa. He also founded an academy for arts, music, and fashion which lasted for several generations. The legacy of Ziryab and figures like

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Some of the most prominent merchants of the caliphate were Jews. Jewish merchants had extensive networks of trade that stretched the length of the Mediterranean Sea. Since there was no international banking system at the time, payments relied on a high level of trust, and this level of trust could

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in the Western Mediterranean, particularly in the 10th century when the caliphate played a major role in international trade. Merchants of many backgrounds (Jewish, Muslim, and Christian) participated in this trade. Historical sources attest that slaves were commonly employed in wealthy households

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The Muslim proportion of al-Andalus's population grew during Umayyad rule as native Iberians converted to Islam. As in many other lands in the early Islamic era, conversion to Islam was likely motivated primarily by social and economic considerations. As the number of converts grew, the reasons to

2897:

Colmeiro estimated in a pre-industrial society, for every million inhabitants, ten thousand soldiers could be mustered. Even assuming the chronicles exaggerated tenfold the real numbers – these speak of eight hundred thousand soldiers – the caliphate could have had eight million inhabitants. Those

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Almanzor eliminated figures who could have opposed his reforms, such as killing Ghalib. Almanzor also replaced the governor of Zaragoza after he collaborated with his eldest son to replace him with a member of the same clan, the Banu Tujib. The admiral of the fleet was also poisoned in January 980

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While Christians saw their status decline from their rule under the Visigoths, the status of Jews improved. While Jews were persecuted under the Visigoths, Jewish communities benefited from Umayyad rule by obtaining more freedom, affluence and a higher social standing. Not much is known about the

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In the 10th century, the caliph's official workshops, such as those at Madinat al-Zahra, fabricated luxury products for use at court or as gifts for guests, allies, and diplomats, which stimulated artistic production. Many objects produced in the caliph's workshops later made their way into the

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has put forward a possible model of this process. It suggests that by the beginning of the 9th century only some 8% of the indigenous population had converted but that the curve of conversion increased in the second half of the 9th century, resulting in about 25% conversion around the year 900,

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in al-Andalus was partially integrated with the Umayyad regime and its leaders collaborated with the Arab-Muslim elites. Bishops often acted as administrators and political envoys and their appointment was overseen by the Umayyad state. While the Catholic Church retained its internal unity, the

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The title of caliph became symbolic, without power or influence. Almanzor's temporal power increased the importance of the military, both as a symbol of the power of Almanzor and an instrument to guarantee the payment of taxes. The chamberlain's court also rivaled that of the caliph. Almanzor's

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The present-day Albolafia's origin is uncertain and historians differ on the most likely date of its construction. While one hypothesis attributes it the 9th century around the time of Abd al-Rahman II, other hypotheses have attributed its origin to the 10th century, the 12th century under the

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was issued). The minaret, with a square floor plan, set another precedent that was followed in the architecture of other mosques in the region. Abd ar Rahman III's cultured successor, al-Hakam II, further expanded the mosque's prayer hall, starting in 962. He endowed it with some of its most

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was one of the most well-known Jewish figures of this time. In addition to serving in the caliph's court and being highly versed in Arabic culture, Hasdai was also a patron of Hebrew scholarship. He was determined to establish the Jewish community of al-Andalus as independent from the Jewish

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In the 10th century, Córdoba became one of the centers of culture and high society in the Islamic world. Al-Andalus's prosperity and the caliph's patronage attracted travelers, diplomats and scholars. Advances in science, history, geography, philosophy, and language also occurred during the

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argues the Almanzor's armies were between 35,000 and 70–75,000 soldiers. It is likely that the leader's armies may not have exceeded twenty thousand men. Until the eleventh century no Muslim army on campaign exceeded thirty thousand troops, while during the eighth century the trans-Pyrenean

2650:

The increase in military forces and their partial professionalization led to an increase in financial expenses, and incentivized campaigning so troops could be paid with loot and land. Lands handed over to the soldiers were subject to tribute and ceased to operate under a system of border

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The main weapon of the peninsular campaigns, which required speed and surprise, was the light cavalry. To try to counteract them, the Castilians created the role of "villain knights" by ennobling those free men who were willing to keep a horse to increase the mounted units through the

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Contemporary figures on the size of the army are contradictory. Some accounts claim that their armies numbered two hundred thousand horsemen and six hundred thousand foot soldiers, while others talk about twelve thousand horsemen, three thousand mounted Berbers and two thousand

3888:(also spelled and pronounced today as "Medina Azahara"), located just outside Córdoba. Construction began in 936–940 and continued in multiple phases throughout his reign and the reign of his son, Al-Hakam II (r. 961–976). The new city included ceremonial reception halls, a 2797:

Land transport routes were dotted with strongholds, and dignitaries controlled communications. Messengers were bought in and specially trained to handle Almanzor's messages and to transmit the official reports that his foreign ministries wrote about the annual campaigns.

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continued to be spoken in rural lower classes but Arabic had become the language of the middle and upper classes. By the end of the century, even the Christian population was so widely Arabized that their clergy were required to translate religious texts into Arabic.

2672:, African light infantry. Christian chroniclers record that "ordinarily the Saracen armies amount to 30, 40, 50 or 60,000 men, even when in serious occasions they reach 100, 160, 300 and even 600,000 fighters" in the time of Almanzor. In the campaign that swept 3477:. The Latin language was retained in liturgy. However, Andalusi Christians did journey to and from the Christian-controlled territories to the north and in the rest of Europe, contributing to the transmission of knowledge from al-Andalus to the rest of Europe. 7764: 3294:

only be cemented through personal or family bonds, such as marriage. Jews from al-Andalus, Cairo, and the Levant all intermarried across borders. Therefore, Jewish merchants in the caliphate had counterparts abroad that were willing to do business with them.

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The Bayt al-Ḥikmah ("House of Wisdom"), founded in AD 830 in Baghdad, contained a public library with a large collection of materials on a wide range of subjects, and the 10th-century library of Caliph al-Ḥakam in Cordova, Spain, boasted more than 400,000

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The Iberian Christian states comprised 160,000 square kilometers and 500,000 people. By comparison, at the time of the Muslim invasion, Iberia had an estimated four million inhabitants. Other historians estimate higher at around seven or eight million.

2664:, or "country of jihad". It attracted many zealous volunteers, who made up a small but important portion of the total army. Almanzor's personal guard was made up of Christian mercenaries who also participated in his campaigns in Christian territories. 3460:). These histories also provided information on the land and its people. Many ideas and myths concerning the history of al-Andalus – including stories about its initial Muslim conquest in the 8th century – began to appear in this period. 6183: 7724: 2807:

reforms also divided the population into two unequal groups: a large mass of civilian taxpayers and a small professional military caste, generally from outside the peninsula and not particularally loyal to the polity.

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In contrast to the role the navy played under Abd al-Rahman III, under Almanzor, it served as a means of transporting ground troops, such as between the Maghreb and the Iberian Peninsula. This was also seen with

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Other modern studies found the army was between 50,000 and 90,000 under Almanzor. Scholars have argued Almanzor's armies could muster 600,000 laborers and 200,000 horses "drawn from all provinces of the empire".

2550:. Abd al-Rahman III also brought the Christian kingdoms of the north under his direct influence through military force. The size of the Caliphal army under Abd al-Rahman III was between 30,000 and 50,000 troops. 3626: 3463:

Christians and Jews contributed to the intellectual and cultural spheres of al-Andalus, although this required that they publicly respect the higher status of the Arabic language and of the Islamic religion.

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mosques in Fes and the addition of their square-shafted minarets, carried out under the sponsorship of Abd al-Rahman III and following the example of the minaret he built for the Great Mosque of Córdoba.

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recognized the caliphate, but refused to allow them to occupy Tangier. The Umayyads besieged Tangier in 949 and defeated Abul-Aish, forcing him to retreat, and then occupied the rest of northern Morocco.

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In the 10th century much of northern Morocco also came directly within the sphere of influence of the Córdoban Caliphate, with competition from the Fatimid Caliphate further east. Early contributions to

2557:, higher than previous administrations. Wealth was budgeted into three parts: the payment of the salaries and maintenance of the army, the preservation of public buildings, and the needs of the caliph. 2890:

estimated that circa 1000 CE, Córdoba held around 450,000 people. Around the same year, the caliphate occupied four hundred thousand square kilometers and was populated by around three million people.

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The massive incorporation of North African horsemen relegated the infantry to sieges and fortress garrisons. This reform led to entire tribes, particularly Berber riders, being moved to the peninsula.

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had to recognise the Fatimids. The Umayyads sent their general, Ghalib, to invade Idrisid Morocco in 973. By 974, Al-Hassan II was taken to Córdoba, and the remaining Idrisids recognized Umayyad rule.

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Beyond the heartland of Cordoba, the makeup of the population varied depending on the region. The northern limit of Muslim settlement generally extended along a frontier that ran to the north of the

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that children of Arab men and non-Arab women were still considered Arabs, although the lineage of the mother, if she came from another noble or elite background, could still be seen as prestigious.

7397: 3860:), which preserves minor remains of the mosque. In Mérida, following a violent revolt, Abd al-Rahman II also built a fortress, now known as the Alcazaba of Mérida, which was later re-used by the 3024:

s. Among the latter were powerful families who dominated the area's politics throughout the Islamic period. The hills and mountains to the north were generally still inhabited by Christians.

2418:. Real control was always in question, particularly over the marches along the Christian border, where power depended on the competence of the individual emir. For example, the power of emir 3481:

of al-Hakam II, served as one of the caliph's scribes (or secretaries) and a librarian. Although religious domains were still dominated by men, Fatima bint Yahya al-Maghami was a well-known

7333: 6166:

Monferrer-Sala, Juan Pedro (2023). "The Arabicized Christians in Cordoba: Social Context and Literary Production". In Monferrer-Sala, Juan Pedro; Monterroso-Checa, Antonio (eds.).

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that occurred in al-Andalus following the arrival of the Arabs and Berbers was of major importance to both society and the economy. The combination of new crops – including rice,

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Military industry flourished in factories around Córdoba. The city was said to produce 1,000 bows and 20,000 arrows monthly, and 1,300 shields and 3,000 campaign stores annually.

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The nucleus of the new army was formed by Maghrebi Berber forces. Arabs, Berbers, and Slavs within the army were played off against one another by Almanzor to maintain his power.

3569:. While the production of ivory and silk objects largely stopped after the Caliphate's collapse, production in other mediums like leather and ceramic continued in later periods. 2312:. The Umayyads had previously conducted small raids on the southern tip of Iberia against the Visigoths, but full-scale conquest did not begin until April of 711. An army led by 3008:

s. The region along the central frontier, near Toledo, also known as the Middle March, was again only sparsely inhabited by Arabs. The city and local politics were dominated by

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progressed significantly in al-Andalus. In the long-term, these were to comprise the two major aspects of Andalusi identity and eventually characterized most of the population.

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tried to raise an army to help but several flotillas of Berber pirates threatened their coasts, forcing them to stay to defend their lands. In 997 the al-Andalusi fleet hit the

2836:. Córdoban forces were also joined in the civil war by contingents of Christian mercenaries. Beset by factionalism, the caliphate crumbled in 1031 into a number of independent 2280: 3642: 2821:. While Abd al-Rahman was leading a raid on the Christian north, a revolt tore through Córdoba and deposed him, and he was killed when he tried to restore himself to power. 3666: 3080:

schools were also introduced. Malikism eventually became another core characteristic of Andalusi identity and its spread contributed to the Islamization of the country.

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Marble was also carved for decorative elements in some buildings, such as wall paneling and window grilles. One of the most prolific types of marble craftsmanship were

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to the detriment of native officials. The fleet was reinforced with a network of ports and a new base in the Atlantic, in Alcácer do Sal, which protected the city of

2728:, recovered in the 980s. It served as start of a campaign against Santiago. On the Mediterranean shore, the naval defense was centered at the base of al-Mariya, now 2437: 5976: 5766: 12108: 2511:

and more legitimate than the Abbasids, even though the Caliphate of Córdoba's legitimacy was not accepted outside of al-Andalus and its North African affiliates.

12465: 11990: 4870: 3335:, a kind of etiquette common to al-Andalus and other Islamic societies at the time. Women, such as royal concubines, were sometimes sent abroad to be trained in 3200:). They were largely Arab, though they were also joined by individuals of non-Arab origin who climbed through the political ranks. Among the latter were various 2743:

Initially, the maritime defense of the Caliphate was led by Abd al-Rahman ibn Muhammad ibn Rumahis, a veteran admiral who had served Al-Hakam II and was Qadi of

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For the next century and a half, his descendants continued as emirs of Córdoba, with nominal control over the rest of al-Andalus and sometimes parts of western

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by the end of the 8th century, but it wasn't until the 10th century that both gold and silver coins were minted, thanks in large part to the flow of gold from

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Following Almanzor's death in 1002, the institutions he created stagnated under internal divisions from military and political factions competing for power.

6992: 7052: 3000:. Ethnic Arabs were (at least during the early Emirate period) sparse here and the Muslim population consisted mostly of Berbers, probably semi-nomadic or 5796:

García Sanjuán, Alejandro (2017). "al- Andalus, political history". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.).

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and can be found in later buildings across the region built under the Almoravids and Almohads. Another notable example is a marble basin, now kept at the

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An Umayyad expedition helmed by ʿIṣām al-Ḫawlānī occupied the Balearic Islands (the 'Eastern Islands') and incorporated them to Cordobese rule under emir

11975: 7385: 7082: 3433: 2767:. In April 973, he transported the army of Ghalib from Algeciras to subdue the rebellious tribes of the Maghreb and end Fatimid ambitions in that area. 3549:

textiles, ceramics, and leatherwork. Metalwork objects were also produced, of which the most famous surviving piece is the so-called "Córdoba Stag", a

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collections of museums and Christian cathedrals in Europe. Among the most famous objects of this period are ivory boxes which are carved with vegetal,

2273: 3418:, who served as court poet for Abd al-Rahman III, Al-Hakam II, and Almanzor. Other poets, such as Yusuf al-Ramadi, composed works on nature and love. 2763:), in the west of al-Andalus in mid-971. When there was another invasion later that year, the admiral left Almería and defeated them off the coast of 3220:

in al-Andalus typically implied an elite status. Some powerful Berber leaders and scholars were also able to join the ranks of the political elites.

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advent of Islamic rule weakened its monopoly on religious authority over the Christian communities in al-Andalus, resulting in many deviations from

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in the city. He and his successors built and continuously developed the Alcázar into the official royal residence and seat of power in Al-Andalus.

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Historia de los vikingos en España: ataques e incursiones contra los reinos cristianos y musulmanes de la Península Ibérica en los siglos IX–XI

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in 836, who preserved the original design while extending its dimensions. The mosque was again embellished with new features by his successors

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The population of the capital city, Córdoba, most likely surpassed 100,000 in the 10th century, making it the largest city in Europe alongside

9747: 8058:. Ministerio de Asuntos Exteriores, Agencia Espyearla de Cooperación Internacional, Instituto de Cooperación con el Mundo Árabe. p. 654. 2705:

who obtained privileged military status by fighting against the Córdobans armed on horseback – after losing their capital in the fall of 985.

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and Berbers. He also created new units, outside the regular army of the Caliphate, that were loyal to him and served to control the capital.

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in 929, challenging the Fatimids in their claim to religious authority. Internally, the Spanish Umayyads considered themselves as closer to

12480: 12435: 12386: 7746: 3214:), or "clients" sponsored by powerful families. These were often Muslim converts and, unlike its connotations in the Middle East, the term 6725: 12005: 6456: 8993: 7112: 4798: 3282:. A new mint was established at Madinat al-Zahra circa 947 CE (336 AH), though it was moved back to Córdoba circa 975–976 CE (365 AH). 3800:), dates from the 9th century expansion and is often noted as an important prototype of later Moorish architectural forms and motifs. 3432:, grew more popular during this period. Writers also began to compose histories devoted to the Umayyad dynasty of Al-Andalus, such as 2613:. Almanzor then sent out a powerful reinforcement under his son Abd al-Malik, whose armies clashed near Tangier. The Umayyads entered 2368:

and became an independent emir of Córdoba. He had been on the run for six years after the Umayyads had lost the position of caliph in

2328:, the last king of the Visigoths, was killed, leaving an open path into Hispania. The Umayyads established the Iberian Peninsula as a 12425: 12079: 11995: 3407:

Caliphate. During the reign of al-Hakam II, the royal library possessed an estimated 400,000 to 500,000 volumes. For comparison, the

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The adoption of the Arabic language was a wide-reaching phenomenon of long-term importance. It was spearheaded by the promotion of

2503:. The Fatimid's claim of Caliph challenged the legitmacy of the Abbasids' religious authority. Abd al-Rahman III took the title of 2450:. After the revolt's suppression, the inhabitants were expelled. Some settled in Fez or Alexandria, while others ended forming the 2299: 6879: 3733:

earlier that century. After a failed plot against him in 784, Abd al-Rahman I moved his residence definitively to the site of the

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Tomo IV. Espasa-Calpe. Edición de Ramón Menéndez Pidal & Leopoldo Torres-Balbás. Traducción de Emilio García Gómez. p.

60: 12000: 10890: 8943: 8919: 4338: 4274: 3392: 3355:

him was continued into the 9th century by bringing in new styles of art, music, and literature from the eastern Islamic world.

3105:. Their religious practices were tolerated but conspicuous displays of faith, such as bells and processions, were discouraged. 2689:

expeditions totaled ten thousand men and those carried out against Christians in the north of the peninsula were even smaller.

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became fashionable, and his reign is considered a high point of culture and patronage during the Emirate period. The musician

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from Africa to migrate to al-Andalus to increase his base of support. While Hisham II was caliph, he was merely a figurehead.

504:. The polity then flourished for the best part of three centuries, before disintegrating in the early 11th century during the 12010: 11967: 10700: 10082: 8590: 8562: 8543: 8524: 8496: 8477: 8458: 8420: 8363: 8325: 8262: 8215: 8196: 8158: 8137: 8099: 7973: 7933: 7914: 7895: 7758: 7650: 6625: 6450: 6405: 6286: 6218: 6177: 6015: 5970: 5844: 4578: 3734: 3470: 8011: 7979: 7656: 7507: 6411: 6292: 6224: 6021: 3012:

s, while the rural highlands were generally the domain of Berber tribes. To the northeast, the Upper March, centered around

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Abd al-Rahman III increased diplomatic relations with the Berber tribes in North Africa, Christian kingdoms from the north,

17: 9208: 7396:. Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Departamento de Ciencias de la Antigüedad y Edad Media, Universidad de Córdoba: 149–190. 2587:

The death of Al-Hakam II in 976 marked the beginning of the end of Caliphal power. Al-Hakam was succeeded by his only son,

2336:) of their empire. The rulers of this province established their capital in Córdoba and received the administrative titles 12490: 10606: 7708: 12485: 12460: 3999:

carved in brick. Other monuments from the Caliphate period in al-Andalus include several of Toledo's old city gates, the

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basin and dedicated to 'Abd al-Malik, the son of al-Mansur, before being shipped to Morocco and re-used in new buildings.

2917:, all above 15,000. This contrasted sharply with the Christian north of the peninsula, which lacked large urban centers. 943: 793: 3375:. The emir Abd al-Rahman II sent emissaries to the Abbasid and Byzantine courts to bring back books on subjects such as 12455: 10752: 9752: 8665: 8401: 8382: 8344: 8306: 8281: 8243: 8177: 8118: 8063: 7952: 7876: 7857: 7718: 6767: 4707: 4653: 4533: 3157:, a fusion of Christian and Islamic artistic styles brought by Christian emigrants from al-Andalus to northern Iberia. 2625:

or Maghrebis – and freed Córdoban subjects from military service. Almanzor expanded recruitment of the

6167: 3946: 3928: 3776:

on the lower tier) composed of alternating red brick and light-colored stone. The mosque was subsequently expanded by

3761: 3702: 2992:

in the east. The region along the western frontier, known as the Lower March and including the modern-day province of

531:

The period was characterized by an expansion of trade and culture, including the construction of well-known pieces of

11862: 11816: 11476: 11470: 9396: 8005: 7623: 7501: 7327: 7259: 7137:

Rosser-Owen, Mariam (2014). "Andalusi Spolia in Medieval Morocco: "Architectural Politics, Political Architecture"".

6924: 6589: 6138: 5805: 5010: 3741:

was responsible for improving the water supply for both the city and the palace gardens. He may have also built the

11733: 11589: 11066: 10962: 8690: 5959:"The Social Structure of al-Andalus during the Muslim Occupation (711–55) and the Founding of the Umayyad Monarchy" 3853: 8785: 7165: 4568: 12227: 12033: 10378: 7044: 6976: 4508: 4284: 4264: 3511:

In the 9th century, Abd al-Rahman II established a workshop that produced official embroidered textiles known as

1232: 9540: 4474:

Not to be confused with the later Almohad Great Mosque (12th century) which was subsequently converted into the

2832:, with rivals claiming to be the new caliph, violence sweeping the caliphate, and intermittent invasions by the 2685: 2553:

The caliphate became very profitable during the reign of Abd al-Rahman III, with public revenue up to 6,245,000

12292: 11840: 11738: 8986: 8685: 8638: 8538:. Fundación Santa María La Real, Centro Estudios del Románico, Monasterio de Santa María la Real. p. 160. 8439: 8035: 7812: 7691: 7537: 7474: 7449: 6986: 4880: 4412: 3824: 3154: 3099:

or "protected non-Muslims". In exchange for the state's protection, they were required to pay a tax called the

2698: 2419: 1912: 786: 8208:

Más allá del legado pirata. Historia y leyenda de la piratería. La fabulosa aventura de los bandoleros del mar

6169:

A Companion to Late Antique and Medieval Islamic Cordoba: Capital of Roman Baetica and Caliphate of al-Andalus

3363:

Córdoba was the cultural and intellectual centre of al-Andalus, with translations of ancient Greek texts into

2602:, the mother and regent of Hisham II. Almanzor isolated Hisham in Córdoba, eradicated opposition, and allowed 11650: 11409: 11086: 10816: 7074: 3473:

in the region. By contrast, Latin culture within Al-Andalus declined as local Christians became increasingly

701: 3884:

Abd al-Rahman III marked his political ascendancy with the creation of a vast and lavish palace-city called

2609:

In 996, Almanzor sent an invasion force to Morocco. After three months of struggle, his forces retreated to

1477: 12212: 12189: 11799: 11655: 11645: 11551: 11204: 10811: 10695: 7317: 3588:

in Spanish) in a distinctive style associated with the caliphal period. These capitals later became prized

3298: 553: 3495:) who taught both men and women. Under al-Hakam II, some female slaves could also receive an education in 12475: 12470: 12440: 12314: 12179: 11985: 11753: 11546: 10923: 10821: 9858: 9348: 4032: 3566: 3342:

Al-Andalus was subject to eastern cultural influences, with Abd al-Rahman I likely having an interest in

2338: 2720:

in 997. As in the army Almanzor recruited Berbers faithful to him. In its administration he favored the

12064: 11947: 11464: 10883: 9358: 9353: 9328: 9313: 3988: 2469:, a palatine guard of 3,000 riders and 2,000 infantry was created made up of Slavic slaves. Under Emir 659: 8937: 7584: 4314: 3903: 2465:

for a permanent army of 40,000 to end the conflicts that had plagued the emirate. In the time of Emir

12445: 12157: 12144: 11845: 11674: 11370: 11092: 11055: 10779: 9927: 9491: 9333: 9318: 9223: 8979: 8740: 7554: 4036: 4000: 3149:

that was spoken by Christians in al-Andalus, to the Mozarabic liturgy that was a continuation of the

8874: 7888:

Al-Mansur y la dawla 'amiriya: una dinámica de poder y legitimidad en el occidente musulmán medieval

7354: 4194: 3190:

The elite political and social circles that formed around the Umayyads in Córdoba were known as the

573: 12309: 12028: 11852: 11625: 11105: 10737: 10712: 10562: 10221: 10216: 9343: 9002: 6275:

Wasserstein, David J. (2020). "Christians, Jews, and the Dhimma Status". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.).

3995:, which features a variety of ribbed domes resting on horseshoe arches and an exterior façade with 3177:

Historical sources provide little data on which to estimate the rate of conversion, but a study by

2814: 2156: 578: 8949: 8829: 8824: 4358: 4126: 3785: 3781: 2470: 522:. In 1031, after years of infighting, the caliphate fractured into a number of independent Muslim 241: 12167: 10978: 10804: 10685: 10226: 10179: 10122: 9821: 9765: 9513: 9363: 8905: 8755: 8730: 4567:

Albarrán, Javier (2018). "Al-Andalus". In Fitz, Francisco García; Monteiro, João Gouveia (eds.).

4254: 3088:

As elsewhere in the historic Islamic world, Jews and Christians were considered by Muslims to be

2825: 2818: 2638: 2592: 2442: 2317: 1902: 936: 622: 519: 11132: 9105: 8849: 8298: 8292: 7014:"Cervatillo de Madinat al-Zahra – Obras Singulares – Museo arqueológico y etnológico de Córdoba" 5521: 3403:

of this period who brought back technical and scientific knowledge back with him from the east.

2946:

The early population of al-Andalus at the outset of Umayyad rule had several main constituents:

881: 12324: 12253: 12222: 12152: 11076: 11071: 10989: 10826: 10727: 10722: 10410: 10358: 10278: 10211: 10115: 10100: 9993: 9760: 9714: 9555: 9442: 9308: 8658: 6717: 4422: 3573: 3450: 3415: 3313:, oranges, and more – and new and more widespread irrigation techniques – including the use of 3224: 2929:

as an administrative and literary language, followed by the development of a native vernacular

2717: 2007: 1952: 8834: 8809: 6438: 3789: 2477: 12270: 12248: 10999: 10876: 10757: 10717: 10530: 10405: 9469: 9459: 9418: 9389: 9252: 8926: 8912: 8889: 8879: 8294:

Historia de España: España musulmana hasta la caída del califato de Córdoba: 711–1031 de J.C.

7965:

Infidel Kings and Unholy Warriors: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusade and Jihad

7848:

Allen, William Edward David; ʻAbd al-Raḥmān ʻAlī Ḥajjī (2002). Mariano González Campo (ed.).

5958: 5761: 4224: 4204: 4136: 4116: 4028: 3889: 1997: 1967: 532: 10645: 9100: 8794: 7104: 4775: 4417: 4020: 4012: 2779: 2411:" until the mid-10th century and recognized the religious authority of the Abbasid Caliphs. 11927: 11834: 11779: 10850: 10680: 10650: 10525: 10456: 10427: 10346: 9680: 9518: 9508: 9045: 8770: 8745: 6864: 4387: 3765: 3683: 3020:

valley, contained more cities and a more diverse population, including Arabs, Berbers, and

2783: 2547: 2141: 2022: 743: 10630: 9123: 6004:

Coope, Jessica A. (2020). "Arabs, Berbers, and Local Converts". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.).

5763:

Infidel Kings and Unholy Wars: Faith, Power, and Violence in the Age of Crusades and Jihad

3807:) which was raised over the street between them, allowing the caliph direct access to the 2473:, the army reached 35,000 to 40,000 combatants, half of them Syrian military contingents. 2376:

of the area who had defied Umayyad and Abbasid rule. Abd al-Rahman I united various local

673: 8: 12162: 12038: 11932: 11748: 11187: 10984: 10542: 10422: 10388: 10290: 10110: 10105: 9917: 9636: 9572: 9447: 9432: 9298: 9279: 9228: 9219: 9173: 9135: 9111: 8073:

De Bordejé Morencos, Federico Fernando (1992). "El Islam, la España musulmana y la mar".

7465:

Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (1992). "The Great Mosque of Córdoba". In Dodds, Jerrilynn D. (ed.).

4397: 3845:, also known as the Ibn Addabas Mosque, was either built or enlarged by Abd al-Rahman II 3617: 3561:. Two other bronze examples of similar craftsmanship, shaped like deers, are kept at the 3531: 3527: 3408: 3279: 2829: 2744: 2621:

which were replaced with taxes to support the professional troops – often

2576: 2321: 2231: 1242: 901: 710: 631: 568: 505: 10258: 10248: 7830:

Fès avant le protectorat: étude économique et sociale d'une ville de l'occident musulman

7751:

Revisiting al-Andalus: perspectives on the material culture of Islamic Iberia and beyond

3262: 2843: 1547: 12329: 12243: 12174: 12084: 12020: 11828: 11804: 11481: 11459: 11419: 11261: 11164: 11115: 11081: 10972: 10655: 10635: 10618: 10569: 10434: 10243: 10194: 10127: 10045: 9986: 9981: 9976: 9932: 9902: 9794: 9692: 9560: 9535: 9323: 9274: 9237: 9232: 9194: 9182: 9141: 9057: 9033: 7298: 7293: 7276: 7232: 6493: 4525: 4402: 4392: 4004: 3693: 3465: 3429: 3248:, were also purchased and imported to al-Andalus, but they were less numerous than the 3162: 3089: 2361: 2305: 1937: 1702: 1587: 1447: 1172: 1107: 929: 848: 723: 664: 501: 11327: 9177: 5834: 3223:

Slavery was also a regular feature of Andalusi society and al-Andalus was a center of

1527: 12304: 12299: 12204: 12194: 12184: 11857: 11743: 11695: 11538: 11449: 11152: 11142: 11137: 11127: 11122: 10955: 10764: 10660: 10596: 10591: 10520: 10417: 10132: 10060: 10055: 9897: 9826: 9809: 9804: 9799: 9599: 9550: 9265: 9242: 9187: 9129: 9117: 9095: 9062: 9016: 8859: 8839: 8700: 8651: 8634: 8618: 8586: 8558: 8539: 8520: 8492: 8473: 8454: 8435: 8416: 8397: 8378: 8359: 8340: 8321: 8302: 8277: 8258: 8239: 8211: 8192: 8173: 8154: 8133: 8114: 8095: 8078: 8059: 8031: 8001: 7969: 7948: 7929: 7910: 7891: 7872: 7853: 7808: 7754: 7714: 7687: 7646: 7619: 7533: 7497: 7470: 7445: 7323: 7302: 7255: 7236: 6982: 6920: 6763: 6621: 6585: 6446: 6401: 6282: 6214: 6173: 6134: 6011: 5966: 5840: 5801: 5517: 5006: 4876: 4790: 4713: 4703: 4659: 4649: 4574: 4475: 4458: 4164: 4146: 3981: 3861: 3073: 2934: 2851: 2568: 2492: 2488: 2365: 2309: 2047: 1892: 1497: 1137: 1127: 1117: 1002: 891: 886: 863: 858: 853: 764: 686: 644: 617: 482: 462: 228: 191: 8508:

Almería musulmana: hasta la conquista de Almería por Alfonso VII (711–1147 de J. C.)

5472: 5470: 3803:

The palaces and the Great Mosque in Cordoba were linked via a high covered passage (

2713: 2403:

Despite the realm's independence from Baghdad, the emirate's rulers used the title "

474: 74: 12334: 12319: 12069: 11774: 11496: 11434: 11424: 11414: 11399: 11147: 11050: 11022: 10910: 10613: 10400: 10395: 10351: 10338: 10268: 10236: 10231: 10095: 10090: 10072: 10033: 9966: 9949: 9890: 9880: 9875: 9816: 9772: 9742: 9702: 9685: 9668: 9631: 9382: 9261: 9215: 9198: 8961: 8899: 8819: 7288: 7224: 7146: 4517: 4462: 4407: 4382: 4325: 4245: 4234: 4106: 4008: 3987:

A much smaller but historically notable work from the late caliphate period is the

3977: 3885: 3777: 3738: 3648:

The "Stag of Córdoba", a bronze fountain spout from Madinat al-Zahra (10th century)

3577: 3396: 3376: 3287: 3146: 2926: 2887: 2847: 2833: 2572: 2451: 2201: 2197: 2186: 2167: 1832: 1812: 1792: 1712: 1507: 1387: 1312: 1302: 1252: 1182: 1082: 1032: 896: 470: 97: 92: 7493:

Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800

2997: 12260: 11957: 11902: 11702: 11388: 11348: 11237: 11193: 10967: 10831: 10799: 10672: 10640: 10623: 10579: 10574: 10552: 10547: 10505: 10498: 10473: 10333: 10328: 10169: 10050: 9944: 9939: 9907: 9732: 9722: 9616: 9609: 9604: 9589: 9545: 9427: 9413: 9303: 9269: 8932: 8804: 8674: 8148: 7995: 7963: 7640: 7491: 6395: 6276: 6208: 6005: 5770: 5467: 4432: 4349: 4304: 4295: 4076: 4059: 3996: 3958:

significant architectural flourishes and innovations, which included interlacing

3918: 3893: 3730: 3729:

chieftain named Razin al-Burnusi who accompanied the original Muslim invasion by

3698: 3535: 3441: 3425: 3372: 3178: 3150: 3109: 2985: 2966: 2930: 2787: 2531: 2527: 2458: 2372:

in 750 to the Abbasids. Intent on regaining a position of power, he defeated the

2357: 2313: 2137: 2107: 1872: 1862: 1772: 1752: 1642: 1577: 1537: 1517: 1427: 1352: 1342: 1332: 1292: 1262: 1202: 1192: 1072: 1022: 612: 583: 497: 493: 458: 390: 267: 178: 106: 87: 10253: 5563: 3772:

hall composed of rows of columns connected by double tiers of arches (including

833: 12372: 12089: 11942: 11784: 11486: 10774: 10769: 10732: 10707: 10690: 10601: 10586: 10557: 10515: 10363: 10323: 10318: 10273: 10199: 10159: 10149: 10139: 9954: 9833: 9727: 9594: 9476: 9338: 8720: 4499: 4016: 3959: 3877: 3773: 3672:

Marble basin crafted for 'Abd al-Malik (son of al-Mansur) between 1002 and 1007

3523: 3380: 3343: 2883: 2673: 2599: 2595:, pronounced the 10-year-old boy caliph and swore an oath of obedience to him. 2212: 2122: 2066: 1842: 1732: 1662: 1362: 738: 403: 8510:. Tomo II. Almería: Monte de Piedad y Caja de Ahorros de Almería. p. 512. 8453:. Tomo II. Madrid: Espasa-Calpe. Edición de José María Blázquez. p. 630. 7150: 2677: 12419: 12401: 12388: 12275: 12102: 11952: 11491: 11454: 11429: 11266: 10855: 10742: 10537: 10510: 10483: 10461: 10439: 10206: 10189: 10174: 10018: 9971: 9959: 9885: 9777: 9651: 9646: 9621: 9503: 8894: 8710: 8082: 4794: 4717: 4663: 3992: 3892:, administrative and government offices, aristocratic residences, gardens, a 3600:, which was crafted at Madinat al-Zahra between 1002 and 1007 to serve as an 3384: 3077: 3062: 3058: 3057:(judges) played the most important social role. In the 9th century, both the 2902: 2603: 2385: 2092: 1597: 1457: 145: 10283: 10263: 6863:

Sidik, Roziah; Sidek, Mat; Suryani Arshad, Izziah; Abu Bakar, Kaseh (2013).

4521: 4503: 965: 12362: 12287: 11937: 11789: 11667: 11383: 11232: 11217: 10931: 10747: 10488: 10478: 10444: 10373: 10368: 10295: 10085: 10067: 10028: 10023: 10003: 9998: 9870: 9863: 9853: 9848: 9843: 9737: 9675: 9656: 9641: 9577: 8971: 8622: 5894: 5892: 3754: 3633: 3539: 3331: 3275: 3124:

The Arabized Christians of the Iberian Peninsula were later referred to as

3118: 3001: 2871: 2614: 2543: 2539: 2096: 1567: 1322: 919: 8631:

Al-Andalus: Estructura antropológica de una sociedad islámica en Occidente

8583:

El Poema de mio Cid: el patriarca Rodrigo Díaz de Vivar trasmite sus genes

4783:

Bolletí de la Societat Arqueològica Lul·liana: Revista d'Estudis Històrics

4504:"Expansion and Contraction Patterns of Large Polities: Context for Russia" 3709:

Upon rising to power, Abd al-Rahman I initially resided in several palace-

11914: 11404: 11312: 11212: 11099: 10466: 10451: 10300: 10013: 9922: 9912: 9838: 9486: 9481: 9161: 8864: 8760: 6525:

Peace Be Upon You: The Story of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish Coexistence

6250:

Peace Be Upon You: The Story of Muslim, Christian, and Jewish Coexistence

4427: 4329: 4174: 3932: 3835: 3750: 3722: 3593: 3496: 3474: 3414:

Poets sought the patronage of the caliph's court, as with the example of

2993: 2981: 2867: 2561: 1956: 1722: 1632: 1417: 1272: 1222: 774: 769: 748: 7945:

Geoestrategia en la España musulmana: las campañas militares de Almanzor

6497: 5889: 500:

prince who fled the defeat and persecution of the Umayyad clan amid the

12217: 11299: 11256: 11227: 10493: 10310: 10184: 10144: 10077: 9082: 8814: 8735: 7850:

Al-Ghazal y la embajada hispano-musulmana a los vikingos en el siglo IX

7228: 7215:

Forcada, Miquel (2019). "The garden in Umayyad society in al-Andalus".

4529: 4096: 3469:

academies of Baghdad and the Middle East, which helped bring about the

3420: 3310: 3302: 3017: 2855: 2775: 2496: 2466: 2447: 2320:. After the crossing, Tariq's troops defeated Visigothic forces at the 2242: 1882: 1852: 1682: 1487: 1052: 546: 466: 7355:"Albolafia (2 o 2) - Alcazar of the Christian Monarchs | Virtual Tour" 6865:"The Role And Contribution Of Women In Andalusian Muslim Civilization" 6210:

Mozarabs in Medieval and Early Modern Spain: Identities and Influences

5005:(in Spanish). Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Valencia: Anubar Ediciones. 2729: 2308:

had ruled Iberia for over two centuries when it was overthrown by the

11922: 11353: 11295: 11242: 11110: 10383: 10154: 10038: 10008: 9789: 9663: 9454: 9028: 8884: 8869: 8775: 8765: 8172:. Nerea. Traducido por Javier Sánchez García-Gutiérrez. p. 248. 6394:

Marín, Manuela (2020). "Women and slaves". In Fierro, Maribel (ed.).

5457: 5455: 4214: 4184: 3872: 3769: 3742: 3597: 3581: 3500: 3388: 3318: 3114: 2898:

who use more bullish criteria estimate between seven and 10 million.

2588: 2397: 2227: 2182: 2152: 2077: 2062: 1467: 1437: 1282: 1042: 982: 816: 509: 486: 428: 7713:. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 152–153. 7386:"La noria fluvial en la provincia de Córdoba. Historia y tecnología" 5640: 5638: 5233: 5231: 5229: 5216: 5214: 5177: 5175: 5061: 5059: 5057: 5055: 4702:. Barnsley, South Yorkshire: Pen & Sword Maritime. p. 111. 3037: 2955: 2914: 12265: 11761: 11619: 11571: 11365: 11271: 11222: 10950: 9784: 9567: 9525: 9464: 8750: 8725: 8607: 8056:

El islam de Al-Ándalus: historia y estructura de su realidad social

7616:

Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History

5377: 5375: 5373: 5371: 4086: 3923: 3809: 3725:

or a Roman-Visigothic estate which was taken over and adapted by a

3400: 3229: 3125: 3013: 2989: 2910: 2771: 2733: 2622: 2508: 2393: 2389: 2369: 2011: 1782: 1742: 1692: 1652: 1557: 1212: 1162: 1062: 437: 8643: 8353: 6443:

Occident and Orient: A Tribute to the Memory of Alexander Scheiber

6439:"The 'abid under the Umayyads of Cordova and the muluk al-tawa'if" 5569: 5476: 5452: 5440: 5162: 5160: 5158: 5091: 5089: 4776:"Documentación feudal y arqueología andalusí: el caso de Mallorca" 3483: 2436:

in 806. In 818, the inhabitants of the al-Rabad suburb of Córdoba

12280: 11876: 11564: 11444: 11322: 11317: 11304: 11288: 11281: 11276: 11008: 9697: 9626: 9582: 9437: 8715: 6862: 5701: 5635: 5226: 5211: 5199: 5172: 5052: 3950: 3842: 3726: 3347: 3066: 2951: 2906: 2764: 2760: 2748: 2737: 2725: 2610: 2523: 2515: 2433: 2415: 2381: 2373: 2329: 2325: 2171: 2081: 2051: 1986: 1822: 1802: 1762: 1672: 1607: 1397: 1012: 588: 478: 433: 376: 9498: 8354:

Martínez Enamorado, Virgilio; Torremocha Silva, Antonio (2001).

8236:

España estratégica: guerra y diplomacia en la historia de España

5623: 5368: 5356: 4757: 4755: 4753: 4751: 11794: 11768: 11727: 11688: 11605: 11518: 11439: 11341: 11251: 11182: 11177: 10944: 10868: 9530: 9405: 9052: 8356:

Almanzor y su época: al-Ándalus en la segunda mitad del siglo X

6144: 5836:

Four thousand years of urban growth : an historical census

5650: 5428: 5309: 5155: 5086: 5003:

Annotated Spanish translation: A. Huici Miranda, Rawd el-Qirtas

4548: 3968: 3913: 3908: 3897: 3660:

Example of a marble capital from Madinat al-Zahra, 10th century

3589: 3550: 3488: 3364: 3351: 3306: 3239: 3093: 3053: 2632: 2514:

Fatimid invasions were thwarted when Abd al-Rahman III secured

2504: 2408: 2246: 2126: 1982: 992: 342: 102: 7250:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Córdoba".

6915:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Córdoba".

6758:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Córdoba".

6580:

M. Bloom, Jonathan; S. Blair, Sheila, eds. (2009). "Córdoba".

5916: 5575: 2813:

The power of the chamberlain was retained by Almanzor's sons,

12043: 11868: 11822: 11810: 11612: 11598: 11557: 11334: 11172: 11029: 11015: 10936: 10899: 10164: 9040: 6536: 6534: 6084: 5662: 5527: 5387: 4748: 3973: 3954: 3815: 3746: 3710: 3632:

Vegetal motifs and figurative imagery carved in ivory on the

3620:, a carved ivory casket made at Madinat al-Zahra dated to 968 3513: 3368: 3346:

culture. During the reign of Abd al-Rahman II the culture of

3314: 3267: 3201: 3101: 3047: 2947: 2838: 2554: 2519: 2500: 2216: 1971: 1941: 524: 514: 441: 287: 8576:. Barcelona: Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona. p. 508. 8337:

Sociedad, política y protesta popular en la España musulmana

8274:

Muslim Spain and Portugal: a political history of al-Andalus

7469:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 11–26. 6618:

1001 inventions & awesome facts from Muslim civilization

5674: 5587: 5551: 5272: 5270: 2642:. The chamberlain carried out wide-ranging military reforms. 11709: 11681: 11631: 11578: 11523: 11036: 8470:

Introducción a la cultura hispánica: Historia, arte, música

6620:. Washington, D.C.: National Geographic. 2012. p. 18. 6484:

Hébert, Raymond J. (1991). "The Coinage of Islamic Spain".

5877: 5482: 4603: 4601: 3963: 3941: 3601: 3554: 3545:

The caliphal workshops also produced fine silks, including

3492: 3329:

In high society, both men and women were expected to learn

2901:

Under Almanzor, the realm also had other large cities like

2404: 2377: 2344: 2111: 272: 9374: 8373:

Matés Baco, Juan Manuel; Agustín González, Enciso (2006).

8372: 8049:. Tomo I. Madrid: Imprenta de Cipriano López. p. 508. 7832:. Casablanca: Société Marocaine de Librairie et d'Édition. 7319:

Water Architecture in the Lands of Syria: The Water-wheels

6945: 6841: 6788: 6531: 6366: 6318: 6306: 6072: 5898: 5516:. No. 2. Saint Léger-Vauban: Zodiaque, p. 55. En francés. 5076: 5074: 3238:) and were highly valued. Some were castrated and sold as 2617:

on 13 October 998 once the gates of the city were opened.

8092:

Historia de los musulmanes de España. Las guerras civiles

6807: 6805: 6803: 6651: 6649: 5691: 5689: 5406: 5404: 5402: 5334: 5332: 5330: 5328: 5326: 5324: 5267: 5121: 5119: 5106: 5104: 5042: 5040: 5038: 5036: 5034: 4936: 4934: 4932: 4930: 4917: 4915: 2571:

invasion of Morocco occurred in 958, led by the general,

8557:. Madrid: Mapfre. Edición de Elena Romero. p. 351. 7045:"Fountain spout – Discover Islamic Art – Virtual Museum" 6685: 6661: 6598: 6558: 6111: 6101: 6099: 5963:

The Formation of al-Andalus, Part 1: History and Society

5933: 5931: 5611: 5494: 5287: 5285: 4598: 3557:

which was made at Madinat al-Zahra and preserved by the

2740:

in 944. The fleet also maintained a significant budget.

2560:

Abd al-Rahman III was succeeded by his 46-year-old son,

2316:

crossed into Southern Hispania from North Africa across

6546: 6504: 6342: 5737: 5725: 5131: 5071: 5019: 4970: 4946: 3991:(later known as the Church of San Cristo de la Luz) in 7749:. In Anderson, Glaire D.; Rosser-Owen, Mariam (eds.). 7422:. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques. pp. 134–182. 7252:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

7204:. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques. pp. 153–154. 6917:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

6896: 6829: 6817: 6800: 6776: 6760:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

6646: 6582:

The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture

6256: 6035: 5865: 5853: 5814: 5713: 5686: 5399: 5344: 5321: 5243: 5187: 5143: 5116: 5101: 5031: 4927: 4912: 4613: 2996:, was largely rural with the exception of the city of 461:

from 756 to 1031. Its territory comprised most of the

8491:. Vol. I. Madrid: Ediciones Rialp. p. 729. 7747:"Madinat Al-Zahra; Transformation of a Caliphal City" 7075:"Qantara – Spout of a fountain in the form of a stag" 6933: 6697: 6673: 6634: 6354: 6330: 6096: 5928: 5904: 5282: 3713:

on the outskirts of Cordoba, most notably one called

3576:, which continued the general configuration of Roman 3121:

which co-existed alongside official church doctrine.

8519:. Barcelona; Buenos Aires: Parkstone International. 8227:

Islamic and Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages

7869:

Historia de España. España Musulmana: siglos VIII–XV

6047: 5539: 5416: 4982: 4958: 4900: 4827: 4815: 4648:. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 108. 3455: 3249: 3243: 3215: 3209: 3202: 3191: 3129: 8072: 7383: 5599: 5461: 5446: 5297: 4736: 4724: 4679: 4625: 3792:. One of the western gates of the mosque, known as 8108: 8030:. Minneapolis: The University of Minnesota Press. 7642:Baroque Seville: Sacred Art in a Century of Crisis 7435: 7433: 7431: 7429: 5707: 5644: 5237: 5220: 5205: 5181: 5065: 3876:The excavated and partly reconstructed remains of 2697:of 974. For similar reasons, the Barcelonan count 2432:Raids increased the emirate's size such as one to 8574:Estudios sobre la historia de la ciencia medieval 8394:La España medieval: sociedades, estados, culturas 8255:Los nuestros: cien vidas en la historia de España 8044: 7997:Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain 7942: 6575: 6573: 5839:(2nd ed.). Edwen Mellen Press. p. 129. 5629: 5434: 5381: 5362: 5166: 5095: 4646:Muslim identities : an introduction to Islam 3834:) for security reasons and was later replaced by 3424:, a form of Andalusi vernacular poetry combining 473:, and parts of North Africa, with its capital in 12417: 8486: 8252: 8233: 7681: 7527: 7521: 7439: 7249: 7195: 7193: 7191: 6914: 6872:Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences 6757: 6610: 6579: 5656: 5581: 5315: 5255: 5000: 4853:. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. p. 119. 3411:in Switzerland contained just over 100 volumes. 3254:and mostly trained to serve as military troops. 508:, a civil war between the descendants of caliph 8391: 7577: 7426: 7277:"Early Arab Water Technology in Southern Spain" 7049:Discover Islamic Art – Museum With No Frontiers 6908: 5922: 5512:Crespi, Gabriele (1982). "L'Europe Musulmane". 4848: 4773: 3530:motifs. Notable surviving examples include the 3117:practice and the emergence of both old and new 2988:in the center, and before the foothills of the 12466:States and territories established in the 750s 8552: 8410: 8290: 8053: 7890:. Edicions Universitat Barcelona. p. 27. 7805:A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period 7744: 7411: 7268: 7243: 7170:Discover Islamic Art, Museum With No Frontiers 7163: 6570: 6165: 5795: 5773:. New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux. p. 30. 5668: 5593: 5570:Martínez Enamorado & Torremocha Silva 2001 5533: 5477:Martínez Enamorado & Torremocha Silva 2001 5393: 4872:A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period 4761: 2909:, which were all around 30,000; and Zaragoza, 2384:. The campaigns to unify al-Andalus went into 286:• Disintegrated into several independent 12451:States and territories disestablished in 1031 10884: 9390: 8987: 8659: 8505: 8472:. Barcelona: Publisher Crítica. p. 361. 8468:Russell, Peter Edward; Carr, Raymond (1982). 7188: 5557: 3896:, workshops, barracks, service quarters, and 3813:area of the mosque via a corridor behind the 3764:, one of the most important monuments of the 3358: 2491:ascended to the throne in 912, and faced the 2400:and took over twenty-five years to complete. 2274: 937: 794: 12431:11th-century disestablishments in al-Andalus 10847:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 9001: 8571: 8415:. Madrid: Miraguano Ediciones. p. 238. 8377:. Barcelona: publisher Ariel. p. 1020. 8334: 7852:. Madrid: Miraguano ediciones. p. 238. 7682:Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992). 7632: 7607: 7528:Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992). 7440:Barrucand, Marianne; Bednorz, Achim (1992). 6981:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art. 5883: 5488: 4339:Yaḥya ibn ʿAli ibn Ḥammud al-Muʿtali bi-llāh 4275:Yaḥya ibn ʿAli ibn Ḥammud al-Muʿtali bi-llāh 2364:, refused to recognize the authority of the 820: 9159: 8467: 7827: 7483: 7458: 7136: 6274: 5276: 4492: 4031:from this period include expansions to the 3140: 2972:While the indigenous Jews, Christians, and 10891: 10877: 9397: 9383: 8994: 8980: 8666: 8652: 8339:. Universidad de Costa Rica. p. 611. 8094:. Madrid: Biblioteca Turner. p. 464. 8047:Historia de la economía política en España 7377: 7347: 2281: 2267: 944: 930: 801: 787: 59: 9080: 8533: 8451:Historia de España: Edad Media (711–1500) 8434:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 8358:. Málaga: publisher Sarriá. p. 197. 7885: 7807:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 7802: 7496:. Yale University Press. pp. 17–21. 7292: 7274: 6206: 5956: 5791: 5789: 5787: 5785: 5783: 5781: 5779: 5680: 5617: 5500: 5137: 5080: 5025: 4875:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 4868: 4498: 3766:architecture of the western Islamic world 2636:Almanzor's troops, as represented in the 2582: 457:, was an Arab Islamic state ruled by the 311:600,000 km (230,000 sq mi) 8315: 8238:. Madrid: Sílex ediciones. p. 501. 8186: 8167: 8146: 8127: 6753: 6751: 6749: 6747: 6715: 6552: 6540: 6527:. New York: Albert A. Knopf. p. 70. 6522: 6510: 6372: 6348: 6324: 6252:. New York: Albert A. Knopf. p. 70. 6247: 6202: 6200: 6041: 5871: 5859: 5832: 5695: 5338: 5125: 4940: 4921: 4864: 4862: 4860: 4566: 4165:ʿAbd al-Rahmān III al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh 4147:ʿAbd al-Rahmān III al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh 3902: 3871: 3692: 3517:, a custom that also existed in the east 3261: 3036: 2631: 2429:) did not extend beyond Córdoba itself. 2300:Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula 10671: 8448: 8271: 7904: 7787: 7783: 7781: 7706: 7677: 7675: 7673: 7417: 7322:. L'Erma di Bretschneider. p. 55. 7315: 7214: 7199: 6970: 6968: 6966: 6964: 6962: 6960: 6436: 6397:The Routledge Handbook of Muslim Iberia 6389: 6387: 6385: 6383: 6381: 6278:The Routledge Handbook of Muslim Iberia 6243: 6241: 6161: 6159: 6117: 6105: 6090: 6007:The Routledge Handbook of Muslim Iberia 5910: 5820: 5719: 5410: 5350: 5291: 5249: 5193: 5149: 5110: 5046: 4697: 4607: 3880:, outside Córdoba, Spain (10th century) 3563:National Archeological Museum in Madrid 3553:fountain spout carved in the form of a 3503:, medicine, or various other sciences. 2877: 14: 12418: 8585:. Kassel: Reichenberger. p. 172. 8580: 8429: 8025: 7993: 7961: 7947:. Ministerio de Defensa. p. 199. 7923: 7638: 7613: 7552: 7359:alcazardelosreyescristianos.cordoba.es 7132: 7130: 6951: 6939: 6902: 6858: 6856: 6847: 6835: 6823: 6811: 6794: 6782: 6728:from the original on 25 September 2024 6703: 6691: 6679: 6667: 6655: 6640: 6604: 6564: 6483: 6479: 6477: 6475: 6473: 6432: 6430: 6428: 6360: 6336: 6312: 6262: 6150: 6078: 5999: 5997: 5995: 5993: 5952: 5950: 5948: 5946: 5937: 5899:Matés Baco & Agustín González 2006 5776: 5743: 5731: 5422: 5001:Abi Zar, Ibn; al-Qirtas, Rawd (1964). 4988: 4976: 4964: 4952: 4906: 4833: 4821: 4685: 4643: 4631: 4619: 4570:War in the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1600 4554: 3854:Collegiate Church of the Divine Savior 3768:. The mosque was notable for its vast 3270:of Hisham II, dated 396 AH (1006–7 AD) 3083: 12129: 11897: 11513: 10872: 9378: 9014: 8975: 8647: 8224: 8205: 8028:Muslim Spain: Its History and Culture 7847: 7796: 7489: 7464: 7384:Córdoba de la Llave, Ricardo (1997). 7365:from the original on 15 November 2021 7115:from the original on 16 November 2021 7055:from the original on 26 November 2020 7024:from the original on 16 November 2021 6974: 6744: 6393: 6197: 6066: 6053: 6003: 5756: 5754: 5752: 5605: 5545: 4857: 4844: 4842: 4305:ʿAbd al-Rahmān V al-Mustaẓhir bi-llāh 4255:ʿAli ibn Ḥammud al-Nāṣir li-Dīn Allāh 3838:when the latter expanded the mosque. 3399:was among the most notable poets and 2941: 2660:At that time al-Andalus was known as 27:State in Islamic Iberia (756–1031 CE) 11898: 11514: 8514: 8089: 7909:. Editorial Nerea, S.A. p. 28. 7866: 7821: 7792:. Paris: Arts et métiers graphiques. 7778: 7670: 7595:from the original on 11 October 2020 7467:Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain 7042: 6978:Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain 6957: 6716:Slamecka, Vladimir (9 August 2018). 6378: 6238: 6156: 5303: 5261: 4742: 4730: 4235:ʿAbd al-Raḥmān IV al-Murtaḍā bi-llāh 3760:In 785, Abd al-Rahman I founded the 3045:In matters of Islamic religion, the 2828:in 1009 marked the beginning of the 959:Historical Arab states and dynasties 538: 12481:Former countries in Spanish history 12436:Former Islamic monarchies in Europe 8673: 8536:Almanzor y los terrores del milenio 8534:Fernández, Fernando Valdés (1999). 8489:Historia de España: Antigua y Media 8257:. Barcelona: Planeta. p. 437. 8253:Jiménez Losantos, Federico (1999). 7790:L'architecture musulmane d'Occident 7565:from the original on 8 October 2020 7420:L'architecture musulmane d'Occident 7202:L'architecture musulmane d'Occident 7176:from the original on 31 August 2021 7127: 6853: 6516: 6470: 6425: 5990: 5943: 4536:from the original on 17 August 2018 4461:, or to the 14th century under the 3445: 3438:History of the Rulers of al-Andalus 3274:The economy of al-Andalus had been 3235: 3197: 3135: 2962: 821: 203: 153: 24: 9053:(Eastern) Roman Province of Spania 8601: 8506:Tapia Garrido, José Ángel (1976). 8316:Aizpurúa, Juan Pablo Fusi (2012). 8210:. Barcelona: Ediciones Robinbook. 8153:. University of California Press. 8045:Colmeiro y Penido, Manuel (1863). 7294:10.1111/j.1747-6593.2004.tb00519.x 7085:from the original on 19 April 2021 5749: 4839: 3867: 3721:Ruṣāfa may have originally been a 2598:Almanzor had great influence over 65:Caliphate of Córdoba circa 1000 AD 25: 12502: 9096:Province of the Umayyad Caliphate 8291:Lévi Provençal, Évariste (1957). 7684:Moorish architecture in Andalusia 7645:. Penn State Press. p. 127. 7530:Moorish architecture in Andalusia 7442:Moorish architecture in Andalusia 6975:Dodds, Jerrilynn D., ed. (1992). 4043: 3688: 2716:'s ships in the campaign against 12426:1031 disestablishments in Europe 12368: 12367: 12356: 11877:Schools of islamic jurisprudence 11067:Timeline of the history of Islam 10898: 8784: 8553:Vallvé Bermejo, Joaquín (1992). 8411:Morales Romero, Eduardo (2004). 8392:Mitre Fernández, Emilio (1979). 8191:. Editorial NEREA. p. 213. 8113:. Silex Ediciones. p. 272. 8111:Almanzor: un califa en la sombra 8109:Echevarría Arsuaga, Ana (2011). 7943:Castellanos Gómez, Juan (2002). 7871:. Tomo III. Labor. p. 558. 7745:Vallejo Triano, Antonio (2007). 7738: 7700: 7546: 7309: 7208: 7157: 7097: 7067: 7036: 7006: 6724:. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 6709: 6268: 6213:. Routledge. pp. ix–xviii. 6123: 4468: 4450: 4315:Muhammad III al-Mustakfi bi-llāh 4175:Al-Ḥakam II al-Mustanṣir bi-llāh 3939:He also expanded the courtyard ( 3665: 3653: 3641: 3625: 3609: 3185: 1380:Western dynasties and caliphates 964: 913: 832: 408: 383: 369: 12228:List of ex-Muslim organisations 9324:Monarchs of Barcelona/Catalonia 8487:Suárez Fernández, Luis (1976). 8396:. Ediciones Akal. p. 392. 8234:González Batista, Juan (2007). 8054:Cruz Hernández, Miguel (1992). 8014:from the original on 2024-09-25 7982:from the original on 2023-10-21 7840: 7767:from the original on 2024-09-25 7727:from the original on 2024-09-25 7659:from the original on 2023-06-02 7510:from the original on 2024-06-08 7400:from the original on 2023-12-14 7336:from the original on 2024-09-25 6995:from the original on 2024-07-29 6885:from the original on 2021-12-07 6459:from the original on 2024-07-29 6414:from the original on 2024-07-29 6400:. Routledge. pp. 228–248. 6295:from the original on 2024-07-29 6281:. Routledge. pp. 208–228. 6227:from the original on 2024-07-29 6186:from the original on 2024-09-25 6059: 6024:from the original on 2024-07-29 6010:. Routledge. pp. 189–207. 5979:from the original on 2024-09-25 5957:Hernandez, Miguel Cruz (2016). 5826: 5506: 4994: 4889:from the original on 2023-10-21 4804:from the original on 2024-08-17 4767: 4691: 4587:from the original on 2023-11-01 4509:International Studies Quarterly 4019:of Córdoba, and, possibly, the 3829: 3677: 3559:Archeological Museum of Córdoba 2854:. The last Córdoban Caliph was 2774:. During the Catalan campaign, 2736:of the fleet had been built in 882:Umayyad Caliphate in al-Andalus 8633:. Barcelona: Barral Editores. 8335:Marín Guzmán, Roberto (2006). 7968:. Farrar, Strauss and Giroux. 7710:Islamic Gardens and Landscapes 7707:Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2008). 6131:A History of the Islamic World 4670: 4637: 4560: 4413:List of Sunni Muslim dynasties 3823:was built by the Umayyad emir 3155:Mozarabic art and architecture 2770:In 985, the fleet ravaged the 2420:Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi 477:. From 756 it was ruled as an 13: 1: 8927:Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud 8913:Al-Qasim al-Ma'mun ibn Hammud 8168:Fletcher, Richard A. (1999). 8147:Fletcher, Richard A. (1992). 7281:Water and Environment Journal 7043:Llorente, Margarita Sánchez. 5965:. Routledge. pp. 54–55. 5798:Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three 4438: 4352:Caliphs of Córdoba (Restored) 4298:Caliphs of Córdoba (Restored) 4285:Al-Ma'mun al-Qāsim ibn Ḥammud 4265:Al-Ma'mun al-Qāsim ibn Ḥammud 4215:Hishām II al-Muʾayyad bi-llāh 4185:Hishām II al-Muʾayyad bi-llāh 3858:Iglesia Colegial del Salvador 3846: 3841:The original Great Mosque of 3701:in the oldest section of the 3377:Islamic religious scholarship 3168: 3051:(religious scholars) and the 2423: 2293: 702:Battle of Las Navas de Tolosa 12213:Apostasy in Islam by country 12080:Liberalism and progressivism 8375:Historia económica de España 7316:Miranda, Adriana de (2007). 4774:Rosselló Bordoy, G. (2007). 4698:Stanton, Charles D. (2015). 4485: 4359:Hisham III al-Muʿtad bi-llāh 4225:Sulaymān al-Mustaʿin bi'llāh 4205:Sulaymān al-Mustaʿin bi'llāh 4195:Muhammad II al-Mahdī bi'llāh 3931:, in the extension added by 3864:and remains standing today. 3852:. It is now occupied by the 3580:but were deeply carved with 3471:Golden Age of Jewish culture 3339:and other forms of culture. 3041:Exterior of the Great Mosque 2483: 2362:deposed Umayyad royal family 7: 9404: 8572:Vernet Ginés, Juan (1979). 8430:Reilly, Bernard F. (1993). 8132:. Oxford University Press. 7828:Le Tourneau, Roger (1949). 7618:. Oxford University Press. 7490:Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). 7444:. Taschen. pp. 39–49. 7254:. Oxford University Press. 7164:El Khatib-Boujibar, Naima. 6919:. Oxford University Press. 6762:. Oxford University Press. 6584:. Oxford University Press. 6445:. Brill. pp. 229–238. 6207:Hitchcock, Richard (2016). 6172:. Brill. pp. 353–377. 5961:. In Marin, Manuela (ed.). 4851:A History of Medieval Spain 4849:O'Callaghan, J. F. (1983). 4376: 3456: 3430:vernacular Romance language 3250: 3244: 3216: 3210: 3203: 3192: 3147:Andalusi dialect of Romance 3130: 3027: 2920: 2801: 1100:Arab empires and caliphates 10: 12507: 12486:11th century in al-Andalus 12461:10th century in al-Andalus 12130: 8225:Glick, Thomas F. (2005) . 8187:Fletcher, Richard (2000). 8128:Fletcher, Richard (1991). 8090:Dozy, Reinhart P. (2010). 7886:Ballestín, Xavier (2004). 6523:Karabell, Zachary (2007). 6248:Karabell, Zachary (2007). 5833:Chandler, Tertius (1987). 4557:, pp. 36 (and after). 3966:, and a richly-ornamented 3681: 3567:Islamic Art Museum in Doha 3359:Literature and scholarship 3324: 3257: 3092:who took on the status of 3065:legal schools of thought ( 2861: 2701:created the figure of the 2591:. Al-Hakam's top advisor, 2351: 2297: 512:and the successors of his 12456:9th century in al-Andalus 12351: 12236: 12203: 12143: 12139: 12125: 12052: 12019: 11991:Geography and cartography 11966: 11913: 11909: 11893: 11719: 11641: 11588: 11537: 11533: 11509: 11379: 11203: 11163: 11046: 10998: 10922: 10918: 10907: 10840: 10792: 10309: 9713: 9412: 9294: 9224:Principality of Catalonia 9169: 9158: 9154: 9091: 9079: 9075: 9024: 9013: 9009: 8958: 8848: 8793: 8782: 8699: 8681: 8318:Historia mínima de España 8229:. The Netherlands: Brill. 8075:Revista de historia naval 8026:Chejne, Anwar G. (1974). 8000:. New York: Basic Books. 7994:Catlos, Brian A. (2018). 7962:Catlos, Brian A. (2014). 7803:Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). 7788:Marçais, Georges (1954). 7555:"El sabat de la Mezquita" 7553:Fatima (7 October 2014). 7418:Marçais, Georges (1954). 7275:Headworth, H. G. (2004). 7200:Marçais, Georges (1954). 7151:10.1163/15700674-12342164 5760:Catlos, Brain A. (2014). 4869:Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). 4700:Medieval maritime warfare 4644:Hughes, Aaron W. (2013). 4367: 4347: 4323: 4293: 4243: 4057: 4050: 4003:(and later monastery) of 3949:and built its first true 2461:had used Berbers and the 822: 492:The state was founded by 424: 348: 338: 334: 324: 320: 315: 307: 302: 298: 284: 264: 260: 252: 248: 235: 222: 218: 202: 198: 185: 172: 168: 152: 141: 116: 80: 70: 58: 53: 32: 12491:Ummayad state of Córdoba 12310:Islamic view of miracles 9003:Spain in the Middle Ages 8944:Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali 8920:Yahya ibn Ali al-Mu'tali 8611:Collegium Antropologicum 8449:Ríu Ríu, Manuel (1988). 8276:. Longman. p. 342. 7018:www.museosdeandalucia.es 6718:"Information processing" 6441:. In Dán, Robert (ed.). 6437:Handler, Andrew (2023). 6153:, pp. 107–108, 157. 5462:De Bordejé Morencos 1992 5447:De Bordejé Morencos 1992 4443: 3953:(a tower from which the 3705:in Spain, founded in 785 3032: 2984:in the west, around the 2817:, who died in 1008, and 2815:Abd al-Malik al-Muzaffar 2499:Islamic empire based in 2495:, a rival North African 1408:Umayyad state of Córdoba 598:Umayyad state of Córdoba 12065:Creationism (evolution) 9162:Feudal Christian realms 8906:Ali ibn Hammud al-Nasir 8320:. Turner. p. 304. 8206:Frers, Ernesto (2008). 7905:Bariani, Laura (2003). 7639:Wunder, Amanda (2017). 7561:(in European Spanish). 7532:. Taschen. p. 70. 5708:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 5645:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 5277:Russell & Carr 1982 5238:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 5221:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 5206:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 5182:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 5066:Echevarría Arsuaga 2011 4522:10.1111/0020-8833.00053 3972:(niche symbolizing the 3929:Great Mosque of Cordoba 3762:Great Mosque of Cordoba 3703:Great Mosque of Cordoba 3506: 3457:Akhbār mulūk al-Andalus 3299:agricultural revolution 2826:Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo 2819:Abd al-Rahman Sanchuelo 2751:. He repulsed raids by 2686:Évariste Lévi-Provençal 2639:Cantigas de Santa Maria 2318:the Strait of Gibraltar 623:Al-Mansur Ibn Abi Aamir 12325:Persecution of Muslims 12223:List of former Muslims 11072:Succession to Muhammad 9309:Monarchs of al-Andalus 8609:haplogroups J and E". 8555:El Califato de Córdoba 8272:Kennedy, Hugh (1996). 7928:. Palgrave Macmillan. 7924:Barton, Simon (2004). 7614:Arnold, Felix (2017). 7585:"The andalusi Alcazar" 6093:, pp. 54–58, 126. 5630:Castellanos Gómez 2002 5435:Castellanos Gómez 2002 5382:Colmeiro y Penido 1863 5363:Colmeiro y Penido 1863 5167:Castellanos Gómez 2002 5096:Castellanos Gómez 2002 4423:Timeline of Septimania 3936: 3881: 3706: 3582:Islamic vegetal motifs 3395:, and other sciences. 3271: 3042: 2933:. In the 9th century, 2718:Santiago de Compostela 2643: 2583:Reforms under Almanzor 2374:existing Muslim rulers 12109:Conversion to mosques 11976:Alchemy and chemistry 10817:Medieval great powers 8629:Guichard, P. (1976). 8581:Weiner, Jack (2001). 8515:Vara, Carlos (2012). 7867:Arié, Rachel (1984). 7217:Early Medieval Europe 6129:Fred J. Hill et al., 5657:Suárez Fernández 1976 5582:Jiménez Losantos 1999 5514:Les Formes de la nuit 5316:González Batista 2007 4137:Abdallah ibn Muhammad 4029:Moroccan architecture 3906: 3890:congregational mosque 3875: 3798:Puerta de San Esteban 3696: 3682:Further information: 3416:Ibn Darraj al-Qastali 3265: 3040: 2759:('men of the north', 2635: 1998:Sultanate of Zanzibar 1913:Mutawakkilite Kingdom 547:History of Al-Andalus 533:Andalusi architecture 485:adopted the title of 465:(known to Muslims as 132:Christianity, Judaism 81:Common languages 11835:Ma malakat aymanukum 11410:Association football 11309:Moderate Kharijites 10827:European colonialism 10812:Ancient great powers 9359:Monarchs of Valencia 9319:Monarchs of Asturias 9106:Caliphate of Córdoba 9046:Kingdom of the Suebi 8895:Abd Allah al-Mu'ayti 8130:The Quest for El Cid 7753:. Brill. p. 3. 6081:, pp. 190, 192. 5923:Mitre Fernández 1979 4388:History of Gibraltar 4369:End of the Caliphate 4328:Caliphs of Córdoba ( 4015:(near Seville), the 3989:Bab al-Mardum Mosque 3962:, decorative ribbed 3684:Moorish architecture 3108:The local Christian 2878:Population estimates 2866:Under Umayyad rule, 2695:Fuero de Castrojeriz 2548:the Byzantine Empire 2526:in 951. In 948, the 2380:into an independent 744:Battle of the Strait 455:Caliphate of Córdoba 42:Caliphate of Córdoba 12398: / 10822:Modern great powers 9354:Monarchs of Navarre 9349:Monarchs of Majorca 9339:Monarchs of Granada 9334:Monarchs of Galicia 9329:Monarchs of Castile 9299:Visigothic monarchs 9280:Kingdom of Valencia 9248:Kingdom of Artajona 9229:Kingdom of Pamplona 9220:County of Barcelona 9174:Kingdom of Asturias 8701:Caliphs of Damascus 8517:Las Navas de Tolosa 8432:The Medieval Spains 7139:Medieval Encounters 6954:, pp. 139–141. 6850:, pp. 166–167. 6797:, pp. 165–166. 6315:, pp. 151–157. 5683:, pp. 153–154. 5669:Lévi Provençal 1957 5594:Lévi Provençal 1957 5534:Morales Romero 2004 5394:Vallvé Bermejo 1992 4762:Cruz Hernández 1992 4398:History of Portugal 3997:Arabic inscriptions 3974:direction of prayer 3862:Knights of Santiago 3636:, made in 1004–1005 3618:Pyxis of al-Mughira 3578:Corinthian capitals 3532:Pyxis of al-Mughira 3409:Abbey of Saint Gall 3280:trans-Saharan trade 3084:Christians and Jews 2830:Fitna of al-Andalus 2322:Battle of Guadalete 975:Ancient Arab states 902:Sharifian Caliphate 876:Parallel caliphates 674:Second Taifa period 569:Battle of Guadalete 506:Fitna of al-Andalus 12476:929 establishments 12471:756 establishments 12441:Former Arab states 12330:Quran and miracles 12244:Criticism of Islam 11948:Geometric patterns 11800:Gender segregation 11371:Non-denominational 9314:Monarchs of Aragon 9275:Kingdom of Majorca 9238:Kingdom of Viguera 9233:Kingdom of Navarre 9195:Kingdom of Castile 9183:Kingdom of Galicia 9142:Emirate of Granada 9101:Emirate of Córdoba 9058:Duchy of Cantabria 9034:Visigothic Kingdom 8850:Caliphs of Córdoba 7926:A History of Spain 7229:10.1111/emed.12347 5769:2023-10-21 at the 5558:Tapia Garrido 1976 4610:, pp. 30–129. 4502:(September 1997). 4418:Martyrs of Córdoba 4403:History of Morocco 4393:History of Algeria 4248:Caliphs of Córdoba 4013:Baños de la Encina 4005:Almonaster la Real 3937: 3882: 3755:Guadalquivir River 3707: 3594:Dar Si Said Museum 3466:Hasdai ibn Shaprut 3446:أخبار ملوك الأندلس 3272: 3163:Hasdai ibn Shaprut 3090:People of the Book 3043: 2986:Cordillera Central 2942:Ethnic composition 2644: 2360:, a prince of the 2306:Visigothic Kingdom 2040:Current monarchies 1703:Sharifate of Mecca 1173:Emirate of Tbilisi 1163:Emirate of Armenia 1013:Kingdom of Osroene 849:Rashidun Caliphate 724:Emirate of Granada 711:Third Taifa period 665:Battle of Sagrajas 632:First Taifa period 579:Battle of Toulouse 518:(court official), 502:Abbasid Revolution 451:Emirate of Córdoba 34:Emirate of Córdoba 18:Emirate of Córdoba 12381: 12380: 12347: 12346: 12343: 12342: 12315:Domestic violence 12305:Islamic terrorism 12300:Islamic extremism 12121: 12120: 12117: 12116: 11889: 11888: 11885: 11884: 11675:Marriage contract 11505: 11504: 11465:Political aspects 11194:Story of Prophets 10963:Prophets of Islam 10866: 10865: 10788: 10787: 10753:Polish–Lithuanian 9928:Gurjara-Pratihara 9372: 9371: 9290: 9289: 9266:Kingdom of Aragon 9243:Kingdom of Najera 9209:Kingdom of Toledo 9188:County of Castile 9150: 9149: 9130:Almohad Caliphate 9118:Almoravid Emirate 9071: 9070: 9063:Duchy of Vasconia 9017:Early Middle Ages 8969: 8968: 8860:Abd al-Rahman III 8840:Abd al-Rahman III 8592:978-3-935004-38-1 8564:978-8-47100-406-2 8545:978-84-89483-09-5 8526:978-84-350-4582-7 8498:978-84-321-1882-1 8479:978-84-7423-186-1 8460:978-84-239-5090-4 8422:978-84-7813-270-6 8365:978-84-95129-55-0 8327:978-84-7506-677-6 8264:978-84-08-03304-2 8217:978-84-7927-963-9 8198:978-84-89569-40-9 8160:978-0-520-24840-3 8139:978-0-19-506955-6 8101:978-84-7506-941-8 7975:978-0-374-53532-2 7935:978-0-333-63257-4 7916:978-84-89569-85-0 7897:978-84-475-2772-4 7760:978-90-04-16227-3 7652:978-0-271-07941-7 7166:"Ablutions basin" 6694:, pp. 94–95. 6670:, pp. 40–41. 6627:978-1-4263-1258-8 6607:, pp. 89–99. 6567:, pp. 89–95. 6543:, pp. 62–64. 6452:978-90-04-67117-1 6407:978-1-317-23354-1 6375:, pp. 36–38. 6327:, pp. 35–36. 6288:978-1-317-23354-1 6220:978-1-317-09373-2 6179:978-90-04-52415-6 6120:, pp. 57–58. 6017:978-1-317-23354-1 5972:978-1-351-88960-5 5884:Marín Guzmán 2006 5846:978-0-88946-207-6 5746:, pp. 87–89. 5734:, pp. 42–43. 5489:Vernet Ginés 1979 4979:, pp. 38–40. 4955:, pp. 37–38. 4622:, pp. 43–49. 4580:978-1-351-77886-2 4476:Seville Cathedral 4374: 4373: 4062:rulers of Córdoba 4052:Rulers of Córdoba 3980:-influenced gold 3917:(center) and the 3699:two-tiered arches 3454: 3426:vernacular Arabic 3144: 2935:Romance languages 2852:Taifa of Zaragoza 2493:Fatimid Caliphate 2489:Abd al-Rahman III 2366:Abbasid Caliphate 2310:Umayyad Caliphate 2291: 2290: 2256: 2255: 2031: 2030: 2023:Tippu Tip's State 1921: 1920: 1893:Emirate of Beihan 1625:Arabian Peninsula 1616: 1615: 1371: 1370: 1155:Eastern dynasties 1146: 1145: 1091: 1090: 1003:Nabataean Kingdom 993:Kingdom of Lihyan 954: 953: 892:Almohad Caliphate 887:Fatimid Caliphate 864:Ottoman Caliphate 859:Abbasid Caliphate 854:Umayyad Caliphate 811: 810: 765:Iberian Peninsula 618:Abd al-Rahman III 539:Political history 483:Abd al-Rahman III 463:Iberian Peninsula 447: 446: 420: 419: 416: 415: 396: 395: 326:• 1000 est. 237:• 1026–1031 229:Abd al-Rahman III 192:Abd al-Rahman III 16:(Redirected from 12498: 12446:Gharb Al-Andalus 12413: 12412: 12410: 12409: 12408: 12403: 12399: 12396: 12395: 12394: 12391: 12371: 12370: 12363:Islam portal 12361: 12360: 12359: 12141: 12140: 12133: 12127: 12126: 11968:Medieval science 11911: 11910: 11901: 11895: 11894: 11552:Economic history 11535: 11534: 11511: 11510: 11497:Islam by country 11282:Bektashi Alevism 10920: 10919: 10911:Outline of Islam 10893: 10886: 10879: 10870: 10869: 10669: 10668: 10334:Austro-Hungarian 10034:Chagatai Khanate 9399: 9392: 9385: 9376: 9375: 9344:Monarchs of León 9262:County of Aragon 9256: 9216:Catalan counties 9199:Crown of Castile 9156: 9155: 9077: 9076: 9011: 9010: 8996: 8989: 8982: 8973: 8972: 8900:Abd al-Rahman IV 8820:Abd ar-Rahman II 8795:Emirs of Córdoba 8788: 8668: 8661: 8654: 8645: 8644: 8626: 8617:(4): 1215–1228. 8596: 8577: 8568: 8549: 8530: 8511: 8502: 8483: 8464: 8445: 8426: 8407: 8388: 8369: 8350: 8331: 8312: 8287: 8268: 8249: 8230: 8221: 8202: 8183: 8164: 8143: 8124: 8105: 8086: 8069: 8050: 8041: 8022: 8020: 8019: 7990: 7988: 7987: 7958: 7939: 7920: 7901: 7882: 7863: 7834: 7833: 7825: 7819: 7818: 7800: 7794: 7793: 7785: 7776: 7775: 7773: 7772: 7742: 7736: 7735: 7733: 7732: 7704: 7698: 7697: 7679: 7668: 7667: 7665: 7664: 7636: 7630: 7629: 7611: 7605: 7604: 7602: 7600: 7581: 7575: 7574: 7572: 7570: 7550: 7544: 7543: 7525: 7519: 7518: 7516: 7515: 7487: 7481: 7480: 7462: 7456: 7455: 7437: 7424: 7423: 7415: 7409: 7408: 7406: 7405: 7381: 7375: 7374: 7372: 7370: 7351: 7345: 7344: 7342: 7341: 7313: 7307: 7306: 7296: 7272: 7266: 7265: 7247: 7241: 7240: 7212: 7206: 7205: 7197: 7186: 7185: 7183: 7181: 7161: 7155: 7154: 7134: 7125: 7124: 7122: 7120: 7101: 7095: 7094: 7092: 7090: 7071: 7065: 7064: 7062: 7060: 7040: 7034: 7033: 7031: 7029: 7010: 7004: 7003: 7001: 7000: 6972: 6955: 6949: 6943: 6937: 6931: 6930: 6912: 6906: 6900: 6894: 6893: 6891: 6890: 6884: 6869: 6860: 6851: 6845: 6839: 6833: 6827: 6821: 6815: 6809: 6798: 6792: 6786: 6780: 6774: 6773: 6755: 6742: 6741: 6735: 6733: 6713: 6707: 6701: 6695: 6689: 6683: 6677: 6671: 6665: 6659: 6653: 6644: 6638: 6632: 6631: 6614: 6608: 6602: 6596: 6595: 6577: 6568: 6562: 6556: 6550: 6544: 6538: 6529: 6528: 6520: 6514: 6508: 6502: 6501: 6492:(1/2): 117–119. 6481: 6468: 6467: 6465: 6464: 6434: 6423: 6422: 6420: 6419: 6391: 6376: 6370: 6364: 6358: 6352: 6346: 6340: 6334: 6328: 6322: 6316: 6310: 6304: 6303: 6301: 6300: 6272: 6266: 6260: 6254: 6253: 6245: 6236: 6235: 6233: 6232: 6204: 6195: 6194: 6192: 6191: 6163: 6154: 6148: 6142: 6127: 6121: 6115: 6109: 6103: 6094: 6088: 6082: 6076: 6070: 6069:, pp. 23–24 6063: 6057: 6051: 6045: 6039: 6033: 6032: 6030: 6029: 6001: 5988: 5987: 5985: 5984: 5954: 5941: 5935: 5926: 5920: 5914: 5908: 5902: 5896: 5887: 5881: 5875: 5869: 5863: 5857: 5851: 5850: 5830: 5824: 5818: 5812: 5811: 5793: 5774: 5758: 5747: 5741: 5735: 5729: 5723: 5717: 5711: 5705: 5699: 5693: 5684: 5678: 5672: 5666: 5660: 5654: 5648: 5642: 5633: 5627: 5621: 5615: 5609: 5603: 5597: 5591: 5585: 5579: 5573: 5567: 5561: 5555: 5549: 5543: 5537: 5531: 5525: 5510: 5504: 5498: 5492: 5486: 5480: 5474: 5465: 5459: 5450: 5444: 5438: 5432: 5426: 5420: 5414: 5408: 5397: 5391: 5385: 5379: 5366: 5360: 5354: 5348: 5342: 5336: 5319: 5313: 5307: 5301: 5295: 5289: 5280: 5274: 5265: 5259: 5253: 5247: 5241: 5235: 5224: 5218: 5209: 5203: 5197: 5191: 5185: 5179: 5170: 5164: 5153: 5147: 5141: 5135: 5129: 5123: 5114: 5108: 5099: 5093: 5084: 5078: 5069: 5063: 5050: 5044: 5029: 5023: 5017: 5016: 4998: 4992: 4986: 4980: 4974: 4968: 4962: 4956: 4950: 4944: 4938: 4925: 4919: 4910: 4904: 4898: 4897: 4895: 4894: 4866: 4855: 4854: 4846: 4837: 4831: 4825: 4819: 4813: 4812: 4810: 4809: 4803: 4780: 4771: 4765: 4759: 4746: 4740: 4734: 4728: 4722: 4721: 4695: 4689: 4683: 4677: 4674: 4668: 4667: 4641: 4635: 4629: 4623: 4617: 4611: 4605: 4596: 4595: 4593: 4592: 4564: 4558: 4552: 4546: 4545: 4543: 4541: 4496: 4479: 4472: 4466: 4454: 4408:History of Spain 4383:History of Islam 4107:Abd al-Rahman II 4048: 4047: 4011:, the Castle of 4009:Castle of Tarifa 3960:multifoil arches 3886:Madinat al-Zahra 3878:Madinat al-Zahra 3851: 3848: 3833: 3831: 3819:wall. The first 3796:(today known as 3778:Abd al-Rahman II 3774:horseshoe arches 3739:Abd al-Rahman II 3697:The columns and 3669: 3657: 3645: 3629: 3613: 3459: 3449: 3447: 3397:Abbas ibn Firnas 3288:purchasing power 3253: 3247: 3237: 3219: 3213: 3206: 3199: 3195: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3133: 2964: 2927:Classical Arabic 2888:Tertius Chandler 2848:Taifa of Seville 2844:Taifa of Córdoba 2842:, including the 2834:Hammudid dynasty 2703:homes of paratge 2452:Emirate of Crete 2446: 2428: 2425: 2283: 2276: 2269: 2044: 2043: 2008:Nabahani dynasty 1953:Nabahani dynasty 1938:Makhzumi dynasty 1934: 1933: 1629: 1628: 1384: 1383: 1183:Emirate of Crete 1159: 1158: 1104: 1103: 1083:Kingdom of Kinda 1033:Kingdom of Hatra 983:Kingdom of Qedar 979: 978: 968: 956: 955: 946: 939: 932: 920:Islam portal 918: 917: 916: 897:Sokoto Caliphate 836: 827: 826: 824: 813: 812: 803: 796: 789: 757:Related articles 731: 730: 718: 717: 694: 693: 681: 680: 652: 651: 639: 638: 605: 604: 574:Siege of Córdoba 561: 560: 543: 542: 471:Balearic Islands 453:, from 929, the 412: 411: 400: 399: 387: 386: 373: 372: 366: 365: 350: 349: 211: 210: 161: 160: 98:Berber languages 93:Andalusi Romance 63: 48: 47: 40: 39: 30: 29: 21: 12506: 12505: 12501: 12500: 12499: 12497: 12496: 12495: 12416: 12415: 12406: 12404: 12400: 12397: 12392: 12389: 12387: 12385: 12384: 12382: 12377: 12357: 12355: 12339: 12261:Cultural Muslim 12232: 12199: 12145:Other religions 12135: 12131: 12113: 12048: 12015: 11962: 11905: 11903:Islamic studies 11899: 11881: 11715: 11660: 11637: 11584: 11529: 11528: 11501: 11450:Moral teachings 11393: 11375: 11349:Nation of Islam 11262:Twelver Shi'ism 11199: 11165:Religious texts 11159: 11077:Early conquests 11060: 11042: 10994: 10914: 10903: 10897: 10867: 10862: 10851:American Empire 10836: 10832:African empires 10784: 10667: 10359:Central African 10305: 10123:Romano-Germanic 9709: 9443:Middle Assyrian 9416: 9408: 9403: 9373: 9368: 9364:Military orders 9304:Suebic monarchs 9286: 9270:Crown of Aragon 9250: 9178:Kingdom of León 9165: 9146: 9087: 9067: 9020: 9005: 9000: 8970: 8965: 8954: 8933:Abd al-Rahman V 8852: 8844: 8805:Abd al-Rahman I 8797: 8789: 8780: 8703: 8695: 8677: 8675:Umayyad dynasty 8672: 8604: 8602:Further reading 8599: 8593: 8565: 8546: 8527: 8499: 8480: 8461: 8442: 8423: 8404: 8385: 8366: 8347: 8328: 8309: 8284: 8265: 8246: 8218: 8199: 8180: 8161: 8140: 8121: 8102: 8066: 8038: 8017: 8015: 8008: 7985: 7983: 7976: 7955: 7936: 7917: 7898: 7879: 7860: 7843: 7838: 7837: 7826: 7822: 7815: 7801: 7797: 7786: 7779: 7770: 7768: 7761: 7743: 7739: 7730: 7728: 7721: 7705: 7701: 7694: 7680: 7671: 7662: 7660: 7653: 7637: 7633: 7626: 7612: 7608: 7598: 7596: 7583: 7582: 7578: 7568: 7566: 7559:Arte en Córdoba 7551: 7547: 7540: 7526: 7522: 7513: 7511: 7504: 7488: 7484: 7477: 7463: 7459: 7452: 7438: 7427: 7416: 7412: 7403: 7401: 7382: 7378: 7368: 7366: 7353: 7352: 7348: 7339: 7337: 7330: 7314: 7310: 7273: 7269: 7262: 7248: 7244: 7213: 7209: 7198: 7189: 7179: 7177: 7162: 7158: 7135: 7128: 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5917: 5909: 5905: 5897: 5890: 5882: 5878: 5870: 5866: 5858: 5854: 5847: 5831: 5827: 5819: 5815: 5808: 5794: 5777: 5771:Wayback Machine 5759: 5750: 5742: 5738: 5730: 5726: 5718: 5714: 5706: 5702: 5694: 5687: 5679: 5675: 5667: 5663: 5655: 5651: 5643: 5636: 5628: 5624: 5616: 5612: 5604: 5600: 5592: 5588: 5580: 5576: 5568: 5564: 5556: 5552: 5544: 5540: 5532: 5528: 5511: 5507: 5499: 5495: 5487: 5483: 5475: 5468: 5460: 5453: 5445: 5441: 5433: 5429: 5421: 5417: 5409: 5400: 5392: 5388: 5380: 5369: 5361: 5357: 5349: 5345: 5337: 5322: 5314: 5310: 5302: 5298: 5290: 5283: 5275: 5268: 5260: 5256: 5248: 5244: 5236: 5227: 5219: 5212: 5204: 5200: 5192: 5188: 5180: 5173: 5165: 5156: 5148: 5144: 5136: 5132: 5124: 5117: 5109: 5102: 5094: 5087: 5079: 5072: 5064: 5053: 5045: 5032: 5024: 5020: 5013: 4999: 4995: 4987: 4983: 4975: 4971: 4963: 4959: 4951: 4947: 4939: 4928: 4920: 4913: 4905: 4901: 4892: 4890: 4883: 4867: 4858: 4847: 4840: 4832: 4828: 4820: 4816: 4807: 4805: 4801: 4778: 4772: 4768: 4760: 4749: 4741: 4737: 4729: 4725: 4710: 4696: 4692: 4684: 4680: 4675: 4671: 4656: 4642: 4638: 4630: 4626: 4618: 4614: 4606: 4599: 4590: 4588: 4581: 4565: 4561: 4553: 4549: 4539: 4537: 4500:Taagepera, Rein 4497: 4493: 4488: 4483: 4482: 4473: 4469: 4455: 4451: 4446: 4441: 4433:Sara al-Qutiyya 4379: 4077:Abd al-Rahman I 4046: 3945:) of Córdoba's 3870: 3868:Caliphal period 3849: 3828: 3731:Tariq ibn Ziyad 3691: 3686: 3680: 3673: 3670: 3661: 3658: 3649: 3646: 3637: 3630: 3621: 3614: 3536:Pyxis of Zamora 3509: 3361: 3327: 3260: 3225:the slave trade 3188: 3179:Richard Bulliet 3171: 3151:Visigothic rite 3110:Catholic Church 3086: 3035: 3030: 2944: 2931:Andalusi Arabic 2923: 2880: 2864: 2804: 2755:(idolaters) or 2585: 2532:Abul-Aish Ahmad 2486: 2480:circa 902–903. 2459:Abd al-Rahman I 2440: 2426: 2358:Abd al-Rahman I 2354: 2314:Tariq ibn Ziyad 2302: 2296: 2287: 2258: 2257: 2041: 2033: 2032: 1968:Mahdali dynasty 1931: 1923: 1922: 1863:Muscat and Oman 1633:Imamate of Oman 1626: 1618: 1617: 1381: 1373: 1372: 1156: 1148: 1147: 1101: 1093: 1092: 1023:Emesene Dynasty 976: 950: 914: 912: 907: 906: 877: 869: 868: 844: 843:Main caliphates 819: 807: 728: 727: 726: 715: 714: 713: 691: 690: 689: 678: 677: 676: 649: 648: 647: 636: 635: 634: 613:Abd al-Rahman I 602: 601: 600: 584:Battle of Tours 558: 557: 556: 554:Muslim conquest 541: 494:Abd al-Rahman I 459:Umayyad dynasty 440: 436: 432: 409: 391:Idrisid dynasty 384: 370: 327: 291: 277: 268:Abd al-Rahman I 238: 225: 224:• 929–961 208: 207: 206: 188: 187:• 912–929 179:Abd al-Rahman I 175: 174:• 756–788 158: 157: 156: 137: 131: 126: 112: 107:Medieval Hebrew 88:Andalusi Arabic 66: 49: 45: 44: 43: 41: 37: 36: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 12504: 12494: 12493: 12488: 12483: 12478: 12473: 12468: 12463: 12458: 12453: 12448: 12443: 12438: 12433: 12428: 12402:37.88°N 4.78°W 12379: 12378: 12376: 12375: 12365: 12352: 12349: 12348: 12345: 12344: 12341: 12340: 12338: 12337: 12332: 12327: 12322: 12317: 12312: 12307: 12302: 12297: 12296: 12295: 12285: 12284: 12283: 12278: 12273: 12263: 12258: 12257: 12256: 12251: 12240: 12238: 12237:Related topics 12234: 12233: 12231: 12230: 12225: 12220: 12215: 12209: 12207: 12201: 12200: 12198: 12197: 12192: 12187: 12182: 12177: 12172: 12171: 12170: 12165: 12160: 12149: 12147: 12137: 12136: 12123: 12122: 12119: 12118: 12115: 12114: 12112: 12111: 12106: 12099: 12094: 12093: 12092: 12082: 12077: 12072: 12067: 12062: 12056: 12054: 12050: 12049: 12047: 12046: 12041: 12036: 12031: 12025: 12023: 12017: 12016: 12014: 12013: 12008: 12003: 11998: 11993: 11988: 11983: 11978: 11972: 11970: 11964: 11963: 11961: 11960: 11955: 11950: 11945: 11940: 11935: 11930: 11925: 11919: 11917: 11907: 11906: 11891: 11890: 11887: 11886: 11883: 11882: 11880: 11879: 11874: 11873: 11872: 11860: 11858:Sources of law 11855: 11850: 11849: 11848: 11838: 11831: 11826: 11819: 11814: 11807: 11802: 11797: 11792: 11787: 11782: 11777: 11772: 11765: 11758: 11757: 11756: 11751: 11746: 11736: 11731: 11723: 11721: 11717: 11716: 11714: 11713: 11706: 11699: 11692: 11685: 11678: 11671: 11663: 11661: 11659: 11658: 11653: 11648: 11642: 11639: 11638: 11636: 11635: 11628: 11623: 11616: 11609: 11602: 11594: 11592: 11586: 11585: 11583: 11582: 11575: 11568: 11561: 11554: 11549: 11543: 11541: 11531: 11530: 11527: 11526: 11521: 11515: 11507: 11506: 11503: 11502: 11500: 11499: 11494: 11489: 11484: 11482:Social welfare 11479: 11474: 11467: 11462: 11457: 11452: 11447: 11442: 11437: 11432: 11427: 11422: 11417: 11412: 11407: 11402: 11396: 11394: 11392: 11391: 11386: 11380: 11377: 11376: 11374: 11373: 11368: 11363: 11362: 11361: 11351: 11346: 11345: 11344: 11339: 11338: 11337: 11332: 11331: 11330: 11325: 11320: 11307: 11293: 11292: 11291: 11286: 11285: 11284: 11274: 11269: 11264: 11254: 11249: 11248: 11247: 11246: 11245: 11235: 11230: 11225: 11220: 11209: 11207: 11201: 11200: 11198: 11197: 11190: 11185: 11180: 11175: 11169: 11167: 11161: 11160: 11158: 11157: 11156: 11155: 11150: 11145: 11140: 11135: 11130: 11125: 11120: 11108: 11103: 11096: 11089: 11087:Historiography 11084: 11079: 11074: 11069: 11063: 11061: 11059: 11058: 11053: 11047: 11044: 11043: 11041: 11040: 11033: 11026: 11019: 11012: 11004: 11002: 10996: 10995: 10993: 10992: 10987: 10982: 10975: 10970: 10965: 10960: 10959: 10958: 10948: 10941: 10940: 10939: 10928: 10926: 10916: 10915: 10908: 10905: 10904: 10896: 10895: 10888: 10881: 10873: 10864: 10863: 10861: 10860: 10859: 10858: 10853: 10844: 10842: 10838: 10837: 10835: 10834: 10829: 10824: 10819: 10814: 10809: 10808: 10807: 10796: 10794: 10790: 10789: 10786: 10785: 10783: 10782: 10777: 10772: 10767: 10762: 10761: 10760: 10750: 10745: 10740: 10735: 10730: 10725: 10720: 10715: 10710: 10705: 10704: 10703: 10698: 10688: 10683: 10677: 10675: 10666: 10665: 10664: 10663: 10658: 10653: 10648: 10643: 10633: 10628: 10627: 10626: 10616: 10611: 10610: 10609: 10604: 10599: 10589: 10584: 10583: 10582: 10577: 10567: 10566: 10565: 10560: 10555: 10550: 10545: 10535: 10534: 10533: 10528: 10518: 10513: 10508: 10503: 10502: 10501: 10496: 10491: 10486: 10481: 10471: 10470: 10469: 10464: 10454: 10449: 10448: 10447: 10442: 10432: 10431: 10430: 10425: 10415: 10414: 10413: 10408: 10398: 10393: 10392: 10391: 10386: 10381: 10376: 10371: 10361: 10356: 10355: 10354: 10349: 10341: 10336: 10331: 10326: 10321: 10315: 10313: 10307: 10306: 10304: 10303: 10298: 10293: 10288: 10287: 10286: 10281: 10276: 10271: 10266: 10261: 10256: 10246: 10241: 10240: 10239: 10234: 10229: 10224: 10219: 10214: 10204: 10203: 10202: 10197: 10192: 10187: 10177: 10172: 10167: 10162: 10157: 10152: 10147: 10142: 10137: 10136: 10135: 10130: 10120: 10119: 10118: 10113: 10108: 10103: 10098: 10093: 10080: 10075: 10070: 10065: 10064: 10063: 10058: 10053: 10043: 10042: 10041: 10036: 10031: 10026: 10016: 10011: 10006: 10001: 9996: 9991: 9990: 9989: 9984: 9979: 9974: 9964: 9963: 9962: 9957: 9952: 9947: 9937: 9936: 9935: 9930: 9925: 9915: 9910: 9905: 9900: 9895: 9894: 9893: 9888: 9883: 9873: 9868: 9867: 9866: 9861: 9856: 9851: 9846: 9841: 9831: 9830: 9829: 9824: 9814: 9813: 9812: 9807: 9802: 9797: 9787: 9782: 9781: 9780: 9770: 9769: 9768: 9763: 9755: 9750: 9745: 9740: 9735: 9730: 9725: 9719: 9717: 9715:Post-classical 9711: 9710: 9708: 9707: 9706: 9705: 9695: 9690: 9689: 9688: 9683: 9673: 9672: 9671: 9661: 9660: 9659: 9654: 9649: 9644: 9639: 9634: 9624: 9619: 9614: 9613: 9612: 9607: 9602: 9597: 9587: 9586: 9585: 9580: 9570: 9565: 9564: 9563: 9558: 9553: 9548: 9543: 9533: 9528: 9523: 9522: 9521: 9516: 9514:Middle Kingdom 9511: 9501: 9496: 9495: 9494: 9489: 9484: 9474: 9473: 9472: 9470:Neo-Babylonian 9467: 9462: 9460:Old Babylonian 9452: 9451: 9450: 9445: 9435: 9430: 9424: 9422: 9410: 9409: 9402: 9401: 9394: 9387: 9379: 9370: 9369: 9367: 9366: 9361: 9356: 9351: 9346: 9341: 9336: 9331: 9326: 9321: 9316: 9311: 9306: 9301: 9295: 9292: 9291: 9288: 9287: 9285: 9284: 9283: 9282: 9277: 9259: 9258: 9257: 9245: 9240: 9226: 9213: 9212: 9211: 9192: 9191: 9190: 9185: 9170: 9167: 9166: 9152: 9151: 9148: 9147: 9145: 9144: 9139: 9132: 9127: 9120: 9115: 9108: 9103: 9098: 9092: 9089: 9088: 9073: 9072: 9069: 9068: 9066: 9065: 9060: 9055: 9050: 9049: 9048: 9038: 9037: 9036: 9025: 9022: 9021: 9007: 9006: 8999: 8998: 8991: 8984: 8976: 8967: 8966: 8959: 8956: 8955: 8953: 8952: 8947: 8940: 8935: 8930: 8923: 8916: 8909: 8902: 8897: 8892: 8887: 8882: 8877: 8872: 8867: 8862: 8856: 8854: 8846: 8845: 8843: 8842: 8837: 8832: 8827: 8822: 8817: 8812: 8807: 8801: 8799: 8791: 8790: 8783: 8781: 8779: 8778: 8773: 8768: 8763: 8758: 8753: 8748: 8743: 8738: 8733: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8713: 8707: 8705: 8697: 8696: 8694: 8693: 8688: 8682: 8679: 8678: 8671: 8670: 8663: 8656: 8648: 8642: 8641: 8627: 8603: 8600: 8598: 8597: 8591: 8578: 8569: 8563: 8550: 8544: 8531: 8525: 8512: 8503: 8497: 8484: 8478: 8465: 8459: 8446: 8440: 8427: 8421: 8408: 8403:978-8470900945 8402: 8389: 8384:978-8434445345 8383: 8370: 8364: 8351: 8346:978-9968936965 8345: 8332: 8326: 8313: 8308:978-8423948000 8307: 8288: 8283:978-0582495159 8282: 8269: 8263: 8250: 8245:978-8477371830 8244: 8231: 8222: 8216: 8203: 8197: 8189:La España mora 8184: 8179:978-8489569294 8178: 8165: 8159: 8144: 8138: 8125: 8120:978-8477374640 8119: 8106: 8100: 8087: 8077:(39): 97–114. 8070: 8065:978-8472326354 8064: 8051: 8042: 8036: 8023: 8006: 7991: 7974: 7959: 7954:978-8478239672 7953: 7940: 7934: 7921: 7915: 7902: 7896: 7883: 7878:978-8433594235 7877: 7864: 7859:978-8478132706 7858: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7836: 7835: 7820: 7813: 7795: 7777: 7759: 7737: 7720:978-0812207286 7719: 7699: 7692: 7669: 7651: 7631: 7624: 7606: 7576: 7545: 7538: 7520: 7502: 7482: 7475: 7457: 7450: 7425: 7410: 7376: 7346: 7328: 7308: 7287:(3): 161–165. 7267: 7260: 7242: 7223:(3): 349–373. 7207: 7187: 7156: 7145:(2): 152–198. 7126: 7109:www.mia.org.qa 7096: 7066: 7035: 7005: 6987: 6956: 6944: 6932: 6925: 6907: 6905:, p. 167. 6895: 6878:(4): 323–327. 6852: 6840: 6838:, p. 169. 6828: 6826:, p. 168. 6816: 6814:, p. 166. 6799: 6787: 6785:, p. 165. 6775: 6769:978-0195309911 6768: 6743: 6708: 6696: 6684: 6672: 6660: 6658:, p. 164. 6645: 6633: 6626: 6609: 6597: 6590: 6569: 6557: 6545: 6530: 6515: 6503: 6469: 6451: 6424: 6406: 6377: 6365: 6353: 6341: 6329: 6317: 6305: 6287: 6267: 6265:, p. 150. 6255: 6237: 6219: 6196: 6178: 6155: 6143: 6122: 6110: 6095: 6083: 6071: 6058: 6056:, p. 202. 6046: 6034: 6016: 5989: 5971: 5942: 5940:, p. 104. 5927: 5925:, p. 134. 5915: 5903: 5888: 5886:, p. 109. 5876: 5864: 5852: 5845: 5825: 5823:, p. 107. 5813: 5806: 5775: 5748: 5736: 5724: 5722:, p. 119. 5712: 5710:, p. 119. 5700: 5685: 5681:Ballestín 2004 5673: 5671:, p. 431. 5661: 5659:, p. 354. 5649: 5647:, p. 135. 5634: 5632:, p. 100. 5622: 5620:, p. 152. 5618:Ballestín 2004 5610: 5598: 5586: 5574: 5562: 5560:, p. 166. 5550: 5548:, p. 130. 5538: 5536:, p. 195. 5526: 5505: 5503:, p. 153. 5501:Ballestín 2004 5493: 5491:, p. 403. 5481: 5479:, p. 146. 5466: 5464:, p. 113. 5451: 5449:, p. 111. 5439: 5427: 5415: 5413:, p. 140. 5398: 5386: 5384:, p. 173. 5367: 5365:, p. 172. 5355: 5353:, p. 138. 5343: 5320: 5318:, p. 116. 5308: 5306:, p. 137. 5296: 5281: 5266: 5254: 5252:, p. 118. 5242: 5240:, p. 134. 5225: 5223:, p. 133. 5210: 5208:, p. 129. 5198: 5196:, p. 134. 5186: 5184:, p. 130. 5171: 5154: 5152:, p. 131. 5142: 5138:Fernández 1999 5130: 5115: 5113:, p. 126. 5100: 5085: 5081:Fernández 1999 5070: 5068:, p. 128. 5051: 5049:, p. 117. 5030: 5026:Fernández 1999 5018: 5011: 4993: 4981: 4969: 4957: 4945: 4926: 4911: 4899: 4881: 4856: 4838: 4826: 4814: 4766: 4764:, p. 326. 4747: 4745:, p. 124. 4735: 4733:, p. 239. 4723: 4709:978-1473856431 4708: 4690: 4678: 4669: 4655:978-0231531924 4654: 4636: 4624: 4612: 4597: 4579: 4559: 4547: 4490: 4489: 4487: 4484: 4481: 4480: 4467: 4448: 4447: 4445: 4442: 4440: 4437: 4436: 4435: 4430: 4425: 4420: 4415: 4410: 4405: 4400: 4395: 4390: 4385: 4378: 4375: 4372: 4371: 4365: 4364: 4361: 4355: 4354: 4345: 4344: 4341: 4335: 4334: 4321: 4320: 4317: 4311: 4310: 4307: 4301: 4300: 4291: 4290: 4287: 4281: 4280: 4277: 4271: 4270: 4267: 4261: 4260: 4257: 4251: 4250: 4241: 4240: 4237: 4231: 4230: 4227: 4221: 4220: 4217: 4211: 4210: 4207: 4201: 4200: 4197: 4191: 4190: 4187: 4181: 4180: 4177: 4171: 4170: 4167: 4161: 4160: 4157: 4153: 4152: 4149: 4143: 4142: 4139: 4133: 4132: 4129: 4123: 4122: 4119: 4113: 4112: 4109: 4103: 4102: 4099: 4093: 4092: 4089: 4083: 4082: 4079: 4073: 4072: 4069: 4065: 4064: 4055: 4054: 4045: 4044:List of rulers 4042: 4017:Caliphal Baths 3955:call to prayer 3921:arches of the 3869: 3866: 3832: 888–912 3794:Bab al-Wuzara' 3690: 3689:Emirate period 3687: 3679: 3676: 3675: 3674: 3671: 3664: 3662: 3659: 3652: 3650: 3647: 3640: 3638: 3631: 3624: 3622: 3615: 3608: 3508: 3505: 3381:Arabic grammar 3360: 3357: 3326: 3323: 3259: 3256: 3187: 3184: 3170: 3167: 3128:, from Arabic 3085: 3082: 3034: 3031: 3029: 3026: 2943: 2940: 2922: 2919: 2905:, Almería and 2884:Constantinople 2879: 2876: 2863: 2860: 2803: 2800: 2794:and replaced. 2757:al-Urdumaniyun 2714:Alcácer do Sal 2651:colonization. 2584: 2581: 2485: 2482: 2353: 2350: 2295: 2292: 2289: 2288: 2286: 2285: 2278: 2271: 2263: 2260: 2259: 2254: 2253: 2250: 2239: 2238: 2235: 2224: 2223: 2220: 2209: 2208: 2205: 2194: 2193: 2190: 2179: 2178: 2175: 2164: 2163: 2160: 2149: 2148: 2145: 2134: 2133: 2130: 2119: 2118: 2115: 2104: 2103: 2100: 2089: 2088: 2085: 2074: 2073: 2070: 2067:Ras al Khaymah 2059: 2058: 2055: 2042: 2039: 2038: 2035: 2034: 2029: 2028: 2025: 2019: 2018: 2015: 2004: 2003: 2000: 1994: 1993: 1990: 1983:Mazrui dynasty 1979: 1978: 1975: 1964: 1963: 1960: 1949: 1948: 1945: 1932: 1929: 1928: 1925: 1924: 1919: 1918: 1915: 1909: 1908: 1905: 1899: 1898: 1895: 1889: 1888: 1885: 1879: 1878: 1875: 1869: 1868: 1865: 1859: 1858: 1855: 1849: 1848: 1845: 1839: 1838: 1835: 1829: 1828: 1825: 1819: 1818: 1815: 1809: 1808: 1805: 1799: 1798: 1795: 1789: 1788: 1785: 1779: 1778: 1775: 1769: 1768: 1765: 1759: 1758: 1755: 1749: 1748: 1745: 1739: 1738: 1735: 1729: 1728: 1725: 1719: 1718: 1715: 1709: 1708: 1705: 1699: 1698: 1695: 1689: 1688: 1685: 1679: 1678: 1675: 1669: 1668: 1665: 1659: 1658: 1655: 1649: 1648: 1645: 1639: 1638: 1635: 1627: 1624: 1623: 1620: 1619: 1614: 1613: 1610: 1604: 1603: 1600: 1594: 1593: 1590: 1584: 1583: 1580: 1574: 1573: 1570: 1564: 1563: 1560: 1554: 1553: 1550: 1544: 1543: 1540: 1534: 1533: 1530: 1524: 1523: 1520: 1514: 1513: 1510: 1504: 1503: 1500: 1494: 1493: 1490: 1484: 1483: 1480: 1474: 1473: 1470: 1464: 1463: 1460: 1454: 1453: 1450: 1444: 1443: 1440: 1434: 1433: 1430: 1424: 1423: 1420: 1414: 1413: 1410: 1404: 1403: 1400: 1398:Fihrid Emirate 1394: 1393: 1390: 1382: 1379: 1378: 1375: 1374: 1369: 1368: 1365: 1359: 1358: 1355: 1349: 1348: 1345: 1339: 1338: 1335: 1329: 1328: 1325: 1319: 1318: 1315: 1309: 1308: 1305: 1299: 1298: 1295: 1289: 1288: 1285: 1279: 1278: 1275: 1269: 1268: 1265: 1259: 1258: 1255: 1249: 1248: 1245: 1239: 1238: 1235: 1229: 1228: 1225: 1219: 1218: 1215: 1209: 1208: 1205: 1199: 1198: 1195: 1189: 1188: 1185: 1179: 1178: 1175: 1169: 1168: 1165: 1157: 1154: 1153: 1150: 1149: 1144: 1143: 1140: 1134: 1133: 1130: 1124: 1123: 1120: 1114: 1113: 1110: 1102: 1099: 1098: 1095: 1094: 1089: 1088: 1085: 1079: 1078: 1075: 1069: 1068: 1065: 1059: 1058: 1055: 1049: 1048: 1045: 1039: 1038: 1035: 1029: 1028: 1025: 1019: 1018: 1015: 1009: 1008: 1005: 999: 998: 995: 989: 988: 985: 977: 974: 973: 970: 969: 961: 960: 952: 951: 949: 948: 941: 934: 926: 923: 922: 909: 908: 905: 904: 899: 894: 889: 884: 878: 875: 874: 871: 870: 867: 866: 861: 856: 851: 845: 842: 841: 838: 837: 829: 828: 809: 808: 806: 805: 798: 791: 783: 780: 779: 778: 777: 772: 767: 759: 758: 754: 753: 752: 751: 746: 741: 739:Nasrid dynasty 733: 732: 720: 719: 707: 706: 705: 704: 696: 695: 683: 682: 670: 669: 668: 667: 662: 654: 653: 645:Almoravid rule 641: 640: 628: 627: 626: 625: 620: 615: 607: 606: 594: 593: 592: 591: 586: 581: 576: 571: 563: 562: 550: 549: 540: 537: 445: 444: 426: 422: 421: 418: 417: 414: 413: 406: 404:Taifa kingdoms 397: 394: 393: 388: 380: 379: 374: 362: 361: 356: 346: 345: 340: 336: 335: 332: 331: 328: 325: 322: 321: 318: 317: 313: 312: 309: 305: 304: 300: 299: 296: 295: 292: 285: 282: 281: 278: 265: 262: 261: 258: 257: 254: 250: 249: 246: 245: 239: 236: 233: 232: 226: 223: 220: 219: 216: 215: 212: 200: 199: 196: 195: 189: 186: 183: 182: 176: 173: 170: 169: 166: 165: 162: 150: 149: 143: 139: 138: 136: 135: 134: 133: 128: 120: 118: 114: 113: 111: 110: 100: 95: 90: 84: 82: 78: 77: 72: 68: 67: 64: 56: 55: 51: 50: 33: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 12503: 12492: 12489: 12487: 12484: 12482: 12479: 12477: 12474: 12472: 12469: 12467: 12464: 12462: 12459: 12457: 12454: 12452: 12449: 12447: 12444: 12442: 12439: 12437: 12434: 12432: 12429: 12427: 12424: 12423: 12421: 12414: 12411: 12374: 12366: 12364: 12354: 12353: 12350: 12336: 12333: 12331: 12328: 12326: 12323: 12321: 12318: 12316: 12313: 12311: 12308: 12306: 12303: 12301: 12298: 12294: 12291: 12290: 12289: 12286: 12282: 12279: 12277: 12276:Post-Islamism 12274: 12272: 12269: 12268: 12267: 12264: 12262: 12259: 12255: 12252: 12250: 12247: 12246: 12245: 12242: 12241: 12239: 12235: 12229: 12226: 12224: 12221: 12219: 12216: 12214: 12211: 12210: 12208: 12206: 12202: 12196: 12193: 12191: 12188: 12186: 12183: 12181: 12178: 12176: 12173: 12169: 12168:Protestantism 12166: 12164: 12161: 12159: 12156: 12155: 12154: 12151: 12150: 12148: 12146: 12142: 12138: 12128: 12124: 12110: 12107: 12105: 12104: 12100: 12098: 12095: 12091: 12088: 12087: 12086: 12083: 12081: 12078: 12076: 12073: 12071: 12068: 12066: 12063: 12061: 12058: 12057: 12055: 12051: 12045: 12042: 12040: 12037: 12035: 12032: 12030: 12027: 12026: 12024: 12022: 12018: 12012: 12009: 12007: 12006:Ophthalmology 12004: 12002: 11999: 11997: 11994: 11992: 11989: 11987: 11984: 11982: 11979: 11977: 11974: 11973: 11971: 11969: 11965: 11959: 11956: 11954: 11951: 11949: 11946: 11944: 11941: 11939: 11936: 11934: 11931: 11929: 11926: 11924: 11921: 11920: 11918: 11916: 11912: 11908: 11904: 11896: 11892: 11878: 11875: 11871: 11870: 11866: 11865: 11864: 11861: 11859: 11856: 11854: 11851: 11847: 11844: 11843: 11842: 11839: 11837: 11836: 11832: 11830: 11827: 11825: 11824: 11820: 11818: 11815: 11813: 11812: 11808: 11806: 11803: 11801: 11798: 11796: 11793: 11791: 11788: 11786: 11783: 11781: 11778: 11776: 11773: 11771: 11770: 11766: 11764: 11763: 11759: 11755: 11754:Death penalty 11752: 11750: 11747: 11745: 11742: 11741: 11740: 11737: 11735: 11732: 11730: 11729: 11725: 11724: 11722: 11720:Other aspects 11718: 11712: 11711: 11707: 11705: 11704: 11700: 11698: 11697: 11693: 11691: 11690: 11686: 11684: 11683: 11679: 11677: 11676: 11672: 11670: 11669: 11665: 11664: 11662: 11657: 11654: 11652: 11649: 11647: 11644: 11643: 11640: 11634: 11633: 11629: 11627: 11624: 11622: 11621: 11617: 11615: 11614: 11610: 11608: 11607: 11603: 11601: 11600: 11596: 11595: 11593: 11591: 11587: 11581: 11580: 11576: 11574: 11573: 11569: 11567: 11566: 11562: 11560: 11559: 11555: 11553: 11550: 11548: 11545: 11544: 11542: 11540: 11536: 11532: 11525: 11524:Jurisprudence 11522: 11520: 11517: 11516: 11512: 11508: 11498: 11495: 11493: 11490: 11488: 11485: 11483: 11480: 11478: 11475: 11473: 11472: 11468: 11466: 11463: 11461: 11458: 11456: 11453: 11451: 11448: 11446: 11443: 11441: 11438: 11436: 11433: 11431: 11428: 11426: 11423: 11421: 11418: 11416: 11413: 11411: 11408: 11406: 11403: 11401: 11398: 11397: 11395: 11390: 11387: 11385: 11382: 11381: 11378: 11372: 11369: 11367: 11364: 11360: 11357: 11356: 11355: 11352: 11350: 11347: 11343: 11340: 11336: 11333: 11329: 11326: 11324: 11321: 11319: 11316: 11315: 11314: 11311: 11310: 11308: 11306: 11303: 11302: 11301: 11297: 11294: 11290: 11287: 11283: 11280: 11279: 11278: 11275: 11273: 11270: 11268: 11265: 11263: 11260: 11259: 11258: 11255: 11253: 11250: 11244: 11241: 11240: 11239: 11236: 11234: 11231: 11229: 11226: 11224: 11221: 11219: 11216: 11215: 11214: 11211: 11210: 11208: 11206: 11205:Denominations 11202: 11196: 11195: 11191: 11189: 11186: 11184: 11181: 11179: 11176: 11174: 11171: 11170: 11168: 11166: 11162: 11154: 11151: 11149: 11146: 11144: 11141: 11139: 11136: 11134: 11131: 11129: 11126: 11124: 11121: 11119: 11118: 11114: 11113: 11112: 11109: 11107: 11104: 11102: 11101: 11097: 11095: 11094: 11090: 11088: 11085: 11083: 11080: 11078: 11075: 11073: 11070: 11068: 11065: 11064: 11062: 11057: 11054: 11052: 11049: 11048: 11045: 11039: 11038: 11034: 11032: 11031: 11027: 11025: 11024: 11020: 11018: 11017: 11013: 11011: 11010: 11006: 11005: 11003: 11001: 10997: 10991: 10990:Holiest sites 10988: 10986: 10985:Judgement Day 10983: 10981: 10980: 10976: 10974: 10971: 10969: 10966: 10964: 10961: 10957: 10954: 10953: 10952: 10949: 10947: 10946: 10942: 10938: 10935: 10934: 10933: 10930: 10929: 10927: 10925: 10921: 10917: 10913: 10912: 10906: 10901: 10894: 10889: 10887: 10882: 10880: 10875: 10874: 10871: 10857: 10856:Soviet empire 10854: 10852: 10849: 10848: 10846: 10845: 10843: 10841:Miscellaneous 10839: 10833: 10830: 10828: 10825: 10823: 10820: 10818: 10815: 10813: 10810: 10806: 10803: 10802: 10801: 10798: 10797: 10795: 10791: 10781: 10778: 10776: 10773: 10771: 10768: 10766: 10763: 10759: 10756: 10755: 10754: 10751: 10749: 10746: 10744: 10741: 10739: 10736: 10734: 10731: 10729: 10726: 10724: 10721: 10719: 10716: 10714: 10711: 10709: 10706: 10702: 10699: 10697: 10694: 10693: 10692: 10689: 10687: 10684: 10682: 10679: 10678: 10676: 10674: 10670: 10662: 10659: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10649: 10647: 10644: 10642: 10639: 10638: 10637: 10634: 10632: 10629: 10625: 10622: 10621: 10620: 10617: 10615: 10612: 10608: 10605: 10603: 10600: 10598: 10595: 10594: 10593: 10590: 10588: 10585: 10581: 10578: 10576: 10573: 10572: 10571: 10568: 10564: 10561: 10559: 10556: 10554: 10551: 10549: 10546: 10544: 10541: 10540: 10539: 10536: 10532: 10529: 10527: 10524: 10523: 10522: 10519: 10517: 10514: 10512: 10509: 10507: 10504: 10500: 10497: 10495: 10492: 10490: 10487: 10485: 10482: 10480: 10477: 10476: 10475: 10472: 10468: 10465: 10463: 10460: 10459: 10458: 10455: 10453: 10450: 10446: 10443: 10441: 10440:German Empire 10438: 10437: 10436: 10433: 10429: 10426: 10424: 10421: 10420: 10419: 10416: 10412: 10409: 10407: 10404: 10403: 10402: 10399: 10397: 10394: 10390: 10387: 10385: 10382: 10380: 10377: 10375: 10372: 10370: 10367: 10366: 10365: 10362: 10360: 10357: 10353: 10350: 10348: 10345: 10344: 10342: 10340: 10337: 10335: 10332: 10330: 10327: 10325: 10322: 10320: 10317: 10316: 10314: 10312: 10308: 10302: 10299: 10297: 10294: 10292: 10289: 10285: 10282: 10280: 10277: 10275: 10272: 10270: 10267: 10265: 10262: 10260: 10257: 10255: 10252: 10251: 10250: 10247: 10245: 10242: 10238: 10235: 10233: 10230: 10228: 10225: 10223: 10220: 10218: 10215: 10213: 10210: 10209: 10208: 10205: 10201: 10198: 10196: 10193: 10191: 10188: 10186: 10183: 10182: 10181: 10180:Turco-Persian 10178: 10176: 10173: 10171: 10168: 10166: 10163: 10161: 10158: 10156: 10153: 10151: 10148: 10146: 10143: 10141: 10138: 10134: 10131: 10129: 10126: 10125: 10124: 10121: 10117: 10114: 10112: 10109: 10107: 10104: 10102: 10099: 10097: 10094: 10092: 10089: 10088: 10087: 10084: 10081: 10079: 10076: 10074: 10071: 10069: 10066: 10062: 10059: 10057: 10054: 10052: 10049: 10048: 10047: 10044: 10040: 10037: 10035: 10032: 10030: 10027: 10025: 10022: 10021: 10020: 10017: 10015: 10012: 10010: 10007: 10005: 10002: 10000: 9997: 9995: 9992: 9988: 9985: 9983: 9980: 9978: 9975: 9973: 9970: 9969: 9968: 9965: 9961: 9958: 9956: 9953: 9951: 9948: 9946: 9943: 9942: 9941: 9938: 9934: 9931: 9929: 9926: 9924: 9921: 9920: 9919: 9916: 9914: 9911: 9909: 9906: 9904: 9901: 9899: 9896: 9892: 9889: 9887: 9884: 9882: 9879: 9878: 9877: 9874: 9872: 9869: 9865: 9862: 9860: 9857: 9855: 9852: 9850: 9847: 9845: 9842: 9840: 9837: 9836: 9835: 9832: 9828: 9825: 9823: 9820: 9819: 9818: 9815: 9811: 9808: 9806: 9803: 9801: 9798: 9796: 9793: 9792: 9791: 9788: 9786: 9783: 9779: 9776: 9775: 9774: 9771: 9767: 9764: 9762: 9759: 9758: 9756: 9754: 9751: 9749: 9746: 9744: 9741: 9739: 9736: 9734: 9731: 9729: 9726: 9724: 9721: 9720: 9718: 9716: 9712: 9704: 9701: 9700: 9699: 9696: 9694: 9691: 9687: 9684: 9682: 9679: 9678: 9677: 9674: 9670: 9667: 9666: 9665: 9662: 9658: 9655: 9653: 9650: 9648: 9645: 9643: 9640: 9638: 9635: 9633: 9630: 9629: 9628: 9625: 9623: 9620: 9618: 9615: 9611: 9608: 9606: 9603: 9601: 9598: 9596: 9593: 9592: 9591: 9588: 9584: 9581: 9579: 9576: 9575: 9574: 9571: 9569: 9566: 9562: 9559: 9557: 9554: 9552: 9549: 9547: 9544: 9542: 9539: 9538: 9537: 9534: 9532: 9529: 9527: 9524: 9520: 9517: 9515: 9512: 9510: 9507: 9506: 9505: 9502: 9500: 9497: 9493: 9490: 9488: 9485: 9483: 9480: 9479: 9478: 9475: 9471: 9468: 9466: 9463: 9461: 9458: 9457: 9456: 9453: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9440: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9426: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9415: 9411: 9407: 9400: 9395: 9393: 9388: 9386: 9381: 9380: 9377: 9365: 9362: 9360: 9357: 9355: 9352: 9350: 9347: 9345: 9342: 9340: 9337: 9335: 9332: 9330: 9327: 9325: 9322: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9312: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9302: 9300: 9297: 9296: 9293: 9281: 9278: 9276: 9273: 9272: 9271: 9267: 9263: 9260: 9254: 9249: 9246: 9244: 9241: 9239: 9236: 9235: 9234: 9230: 9227: 9225: 9221: 9217: 9214: 9210: 9207: 9206: 9204: 9200: 9196: 9193: 9189: 9186: 9184: 9181: 9180: 9179: 9175: 9172: 9171: 9168: 9164: 9163: 9157: 9153: 9143: 9140: 9138: 9137: 9133: 9131: 9128: 9126: 9125: 9121: 9119: 9116: 9114: 9113: 9109: 9107: 9104: 9102: 9099: 9097: 9094: 9093: 9090: 9085: 9084: 9078: 9074: 9064: 9061: 9059: 9056: 9054: 9051: 9047: 9044: 9043: 9042: 9039: 9035: 9032: 9031: 9030: 9027: 9026: 9023: 9019: 9018: 9012: 9008: 9004: 8997: 8992: 8990: 8985: 8983: 8978: 8977: 8974: 8963: 8957: 8951: 8948: 8946: 8945: 8941: 8939: 8936: 8934: 8931: 8929: 8928: 8924: 8922: 8921: 8917: 8915: 8914: 8910: 8908: 8907: 8903: 8901: 8898: 8896: 8893: 8891: 8888: 8886: 8883: 8881: 8878: 8876: 8873: 8871: 8868: 8866: 8863: 8861: 8858: 8857: 8855: 8851: 8847: 8841: 8838: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8826: 8823: 8821: 8818: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8802: 8800: 8796: 8792: 8787: 8777: 8774: 8772: 8769: 8767: 8764: 8762: 8759: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8708: 8706: 8702: 8698: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8683: 8680: 8676: 8669: 8664: 8662: 8657: 8655: 8650: 8649: 8646: 8640: 8636: 8632: 8628: 8624: 8620: 8616: 8612: 8606: 8605: 8594: 8588: 8584: 8579: 8575: 8570: 8566: 8560: 8556: 8551: 8547: 8541: 8537: 8532: 8528: 8522: 8518: 8513: 8509: 8504: 8500: 8494: 8490: 8485: 8481: 8475: 8471: 8466: 8462: 8456: 8452: 8447: 8443: 8437: 8433: 8428: 8424: 8418: 8414: 8409: 8405: 8399: 8395: 8390: 8386: 8380: 8376: 8371: 8367: 8361: 8357: 8352: 8348: 8342: 8338: 8333: 8329: 8323: 8319: 8314: 8310: 8304: 8300: 8296: 8295: 8289: 8285: 8279: 8275: 8270: 8266: 8260: 8256: 8251: 8247: 8241: 8237: 8232: 8228: 8223: 8219: 8213: 8209: 8204: 8200: 8194: 8190: 8185: 8181: 8175: 8171: 8166: 8162: 8156: 8152: 8151: 8150:Moorish Spain 8145: 8141: 8135: 8131: 8126: 8122: 8116: 8112: 8107: 8103: 8097: 8093: 8088: 8084: 8080: 8076: 8071: 8067: 8061: 8057: 8052: 8048: 8043: 8039: 8033: 8029: 8024: 8013: 8009: 8007:9780465055876 8003: 7999: 7998: 7992: 7981: 7977: 7971: 7967: 7966: 7960: 7956: 7950: 7946: 7941: 7937: 7931: 7927: 7922: 7918: 7912: 7908: 7903: 7899: 7893: 7889: 7884: 7880: 7874: 7870: 7865: 7861: 7855: 7851: 7846: 7845: 7831: 7824: 7816: 7810: 7806: 7799: 7791: 7784: 7782: 7766: 7762: 7756: 7752: 7748: 7741: 7726: 7722: 7716: 7712: 7711: 7703: 7695: 7689: 7685: 7678: 7676: 7674: 7658: 7654: 7648: 7644: 7643: 7635: 7627: 7625:9780190624552 7621: 7617: 7610: 7594: 7590: 7589:ArqueoCordoba 7586: 7580: 7564: 7560: 7556: 7549: 7541: 7535: 7531: 7524: 7509: 7505: 7503:9780300218701 7499: 7495: 7494: 7486: 7478: 7472: 7468: 7461: 7453: 7447: 7443: 7436: 7434: 7432: 7430: 7421: 7414: 7399: 7395: 7391: 7387: 7380: 7364: 7360: 7356: 7350: 7335: 7331: 7329:9788882654337 7325: 7321: 7320: 7312: 7304: 7300: 7295: 7290: 7286: 7282: 7278: 7271: 7263: 7261:9780195309911 7257: 7253: 7246: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7226: 7222: 7218: 7211: 7203: 7196: 7194: 7192: 7175: 7171: 7167: 7160: 7152: 7148: 7144: 7140: 7133: 7131: 7114: 7110: 7106: 7100: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7070: 7054: 7050: 7046: 7039: 7023: 7019: 7015: 7009: 6994: 6990: 6984: 6980: 6979: 6971: 6969: 6967: 6965: 6963: 6961: 6953: 6948: 6942:, p. 91. 6941: 6936: 6928: 6926:9780195309911 6922: 6918: 6911: 6904: 6899: 6881: 6877: 6873: 6866: 6859: 6857: 6849: 6844: 6837: 6832: 6825: 6820: 6813: 6808: 6806: 6804: 6796: 6791: 6784: 6779: 6771: 6765: 6761: 6754: 6752: 6750: 6748: 6740: 6727: 6723: 6719: 6712: 6706:, p. 42. 6705: 6700: 6693: 6688: 6682:, p. 94. 6681: 6676: 6669: 6664: 6657: 6652: 6650: 6643:, p. 97. 6642: 6637: 6629: 6623: 6619: 6613: 6606: 6601: 6593: 6591:9780195309911 6587: 6583: 6576: 6574: 6566: 6561: 6555:, p. 63. 6554: 6553:Fletcher 1992 6549: 6542: 6541:Fletcher 1992 6537: 6535: 6526: 6519: 6513:, p. 62. 6512: 6511:Fletcher 1992 6507: 6499: 6495: 6491: 6487: 6480: 6478: 6476: 6474: 6458: 6454: 6448: 6444: 6440: 6433: 6431: 6429: 6413: 6409: 6403: 6399: 6398: 6390: 6388: 6386: 6384: 6382: 6374: 6373:Fletcher 1992 6369: 6363:, p. 68. 6362: 6357: 6351:, p. 36. 6350: 6349:Fletcher 1992 6345: 6339:, p. 67. 6338: 6333: 6326: 6325:Fletcher 1992 6321: 6314: 6309: 6294: 6290: 6284: 6280: 6279: 6271: 6264: 6259: 6251: 6244: 6242: 6226: 6222: 6216: 6212: 6211: 6203: 6201: 6185: 6181: 6175: 6171: 6170: 6162: 6160: 6152: 6147: 6140: 6139:0-7818-1015-9 6136: 6132: 6126: 6119: 6114: 6108:, p. 56. 6107: 6102: 6100: 6092: 6087: 6080: 6075: 6068: 6062: 6055: 6050: 6044:, p. 25. 6043: 6042:Fletcher 1992 6038: 6023: 6019: 6013: 6009: 6008: 6000: 5998: 5996: 5994: 5978: 5974: 5968: 5964: 5960: 5953: 5951: 5949: 5947: 5939: 5934: 5932: 5924: 5919: 5913:, p. 66. 5912: 5907: 5901:, p. 48. 5900: 5895: 5893: 5885: 5880: 5874:, p. 49. 5873: 5872:Aizpurúa 2012 5868: 5862:, p. 50. 5861: 5860:Aizpurúa 2012 5856: 5848: 5842: 5838: 5837: 5829: 5822: 5817: 5809: 5807:9789004161658 5803: 5799: 5792: 5790: 5788: 5786: 5784: 5782: 5780: 5772: 5768: 5765: 5764: 5757: 5755: 5753: 5745: 5740: 5733: 5728: 5721: 5716: 5709: 5704: 5698:, p. 40. 5697: 5696:Fletcher 1999 5692: 5690: 5682: 5677: 5670: 5665: 5658: 5653: 5646: 5641: 5639: 5631: 5626: 5619: 5614: 5608:, p. 66. 5607: 5602: 5596:, p. 62. 5595: 5590: 5584:, p. 78. 5583: 5578: 5572:, p. 93. 5571: 5566: 5559: 5554: 5547: 5542: 5535: 5530: 5523: 5519: 5515: 5509: 5502: 5497: 5490: 5485: 5478: 5473: 5471: 5463: 5458: 5456: 5448: 5443: 5437:, p. 93. 5436: 5431: 5425:, p. 15. 5424: 5419: 5412: 5407: 5405: 5403: 5395: 5390: 5383: 5378: 5376: 5374: 5372: 5364: 5359: 5352: 5347: 5341:, p. 77. 5340: 5339:Fletcher 2000 5335: 5333: 5331: 5329: 5327: 5325: 5317: 5312: 5305: 5300: 5294:, p. 72. 5293: 5288: 5286: 5279:, p. 70. 5278: 5273: 5271: 5263: 5258: 5251: 5246: 5239: 5234: 5232: 5230: 5222: 5217: 5215: 5207: 5202: 5195: 5190: 5183: 5178: 5176: 5169:, p. 45. 5168: 5163: 5161: 5159: 5151: 5146: 5140:, p. 14. 5139: 5134: 5128:, p. 95. 5127: 5126:Fletcher 2000 5122: 5120: 5112: 5107: 5105: 5098:, p. 46. 5097: 5092: 5090: 5083:, p. 15. 5082: 5077: 5075: 5067: 5062: 5060: 5058: 5056: 5048: 5043: 5041: 5039: 5037: 5035: 5028:, p. 37. 5027: 5022: 5014: 5012:84-7013-007-2 5008: 5004: 4997: 4991:, p. 23. 4990: 4985: 4978: 4973: 4967:, p. 30. 4966: 4961: 4954: 4949: 4943:, p. 39. 4942: 4941:Fletcher 1999 4937: 4935: 4933: 4931: 4924:, p. 23. 4923: 4922:Fletcher 1991 4918: 4916: 4909:, p. 35. 4908: 4903: 4888: 4884: 4878: 4874: 4873: 4865: 4863: 4861: 4852: 4845: 4843: 4836:, p. 84. 4835: 4830: 4824:, p. 38. 4823: 4818: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4788: 4784: 4777: 4770: 4763: 4758: 4756: 4754: 4752: 4744: 4739: 4732: 4727: 4719: 4715: 4711: 4705: 4701: 4694: 4688:, p. 37. 4687: 4682: 4673: 4665: 4661: 4657: 4651: 4647: 4640: 4634:, p. 29. 4633: 4628: 4621: 4616: 4609: 4604: 4602: 4586: 4582: 4576: 4573:. Routledge. 4572: 4571: 4563: 4556: 4551: 4535: 4531: 4527: 4523: 4519: 4515: 4511: 4510: 4505: 4501: 4495: 4491: 4477: 4471: 4464: 4460: 4453: 4449: 4434: 4431: 4429: 4426: 4424: 4421: 4419: 4416: 4414: 4411: 4409: 4406: 4404: 4401: 4399: 4396: 4394: 4391: 4389: 4386: 4384: 4381: 4380: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4360: 4357: 4356: 4353: 4351: 4346: 4342: 4340: 4337: 4336: 4333: 4331: 4327: 4322: 4318: 4316: 4313: 4312: 4308: 4306: 4303: 4302: 4299: 4297: 4292: 4288: 4286: 4283: 4282: 4278: 4276: 4273: 4272: 4268: 4266: 4263: 4262: 4258: 4256: 4253: 4252: 4249: 4247: 4242: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4232: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4222: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4212: 4208: 4206: 4203: 4202: 4198: 4196: 4193: 4192: 4188: 4186: 4183: 4182: 4178: 4176: 4173: 4172: 4168: 4166: 4163: 4162: 4158: 4155: 4154: 4150: 4148: 4145: 4144: 4140: 4138: 4135: 4134: 4130: 4128: 4125: 4124: 4120: 4118: 4115: 4114: 4110: 4108: 4105: 4104: 4100: 4098: 4095: 4094: 4090: 4088: 4085: 4084: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4074: 4070: 4067: 4066: 4063: 4061: 4056: 4053: 4049: 4041: 4038: 4034: 4030: 4024: 4022: 4021:Baths of Jaen 4018: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4002: 4001:former mosque 3998: 3994: 3990: 3985: 3983: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3970: 3965: 3961: 3956: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3943: 3934: 3930: 3926: 3925: 3920: 3916: 3915: 3910: 3905: 3901: 3899: 3895: 3891: 3887: 3879: 3874: 3865: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3844: 3839: 3837: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3817: 3812: 3811: 3806: 3801: 3799: 3795: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3763: 3758: 3756: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3712: 3704: 3700: 3695: 3685: 3668: 3663: 3656: 3651: 3644: 3639: 3635: 3628: 3623: 3619: 3612: 3607: 3606: 3605: 3603: 3599: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3583: 3579: 3575: 3570: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3543: 3541: 3537: 3533: 3529: 3525: 3520: 3516: 3515: 3504: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3493:jurisprudence 3490: 3486: 3485: 3478: 3476: 3472: 3467: 3461: 3458: 3452: 3443: 3439: 3435: 3434:Ahmad al-Razi 3431: 3427: 3423: 3422: 3417: 3412: 3410: 3404: 3402: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3356: 3353: 3349: 3345: 3340: 3338: 3334: 3333: 3322: 3320: 3316: 3312: 3308: 3304: 3300: 3295: 3291: 3289: 3283: 3281: 3277: 3269: 3264: 3255: 3252: 3246: 3241: 3233: 3232: 3226: 3221: 3218: 3212: 3207: 3205: 3194: 3186:Social status 3183: 3180: 3175: 3166: 3164: 3158: 3156: 3152: 3148: 3132: 3127: 3122: 3120: 3116: 3111: 3106: 3104: 3103: 3098: 3096: 3091: 3081: 3079: 3075: 3071: 3069: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3055: 3050: 3049: 3039: 3025: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2978: 2975: 2970: 2968: 2960: 2958: 2953: 2949: 2939: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2918: 2916: 2912: 2908: 2904: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2889: 2885: 2875: 2873: 2869: 2859: 2858:(1027–1031). 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2840: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2824:The death of 2822: 2820: 2816: 2811: 2808: 2799: 2795: 2791: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2768: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2741: 2739: 2735: 2731: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2709: 2706: 2704: 2700: 2696: 2690: 2687: 2681: 2679: 2675: 2671: 2665: 2663: 2658: 2655: 2652: 2648: 2641: 2640: 2634: 2630: 2628: 2624: 2618: 2616: 2612: 2607: 2605: 2601: 2596: 2594: 2590: 2580: 2578: 2574: 2570: 2565: 2563: 2558: 2556: 2551: 2549: 2545: 2541: 2536: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2512: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2498: 2494: 2490: 2481: 2479: 2474: 2472: 2468: 2464: 2460: 2455: 2454:in the 820s. 2453: 2449: 2444: 2439: 2435: 2430: 2421: 2417: 2412: 2410: 2406: 2401: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2359: 2349: 2347: 2346: 2341: 2340: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2307: 2301: 2284: 2279: 2277: 2272: 2270: 2265: 2264: 2262: 2261: 2251: 2248: 2244: 2241: 2240: 2236: 2233: 2229: 2226: 2225: 2221: 2218: 2214: 2211: 2210: 2206: 2203: 2199: 2196: 2195: 2191: 2188: 2184: 2181: 2180: 2176: 2173: 2169: 2166: 2165: 2161: 2158: 2157:Umm al-Quwain 2154: 2151: 2150: 2146: 2143: 2139: 2136: 2135: 2131: 2128: 2124: 2121: 2120: 2116: 2113: 2109: 2106: 2105: 2101: 2098: 2094: 2091: 2090: 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1204: 1201: 1200: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1190: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1180: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1170: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1160: 1152: 1151: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1135: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1125: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1115: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1105: 1097: 1096: 1087:450 AD–550 AD 1086: 1084: 1081: 1080: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1070: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1060: 1056: 1054: 1051: 1050: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1040: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1030: 1027:64 BC–300s AD 1026: 1024: 1021: 1020: 1017:132 BC–244 AD 1016: 1014: 1011: 1010: 1007:400 BC–106 AD 1006: 1004: 1001: 1000: 997:600 BC–100 BC 996: 994: 991: 990: 987:800 BC–300 BC 986: 984: 981: 980: 972: 971: 967: 963: 962: 958: 957: 947: 942: 940: 935: 933: 928: 927: 925: 924: 921: 911: 910: 903: 900: 898: 895: 893: 890: 888: 885: 883: 880: 879: 873: 872: 865: 862: 860: 857: 855: 852: 850: 847: 846: 840: 839: 835: 831: 830: 818: 815: 814: 804: 799: 797: 792: 790: 785: 784: 782: 781: 776: 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 762: 761: 760: 756: 755: 750: 747: 745: 742: 740: 737: 736: 735: 734: 725: 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12101: 12034:Contemporary 11928:Architecture 11867: 11833: 11821: 11809: 11767: 11760: 11726: 11708: 11703:Nikah mut'ah 11701: 11694: 11687: 11680: 11673: 11666: 11630: 11618: 11611: 11604: 11597: 11577: 11570: 11563: 11556: 11469: 11192: 11116: 11098: 11091: 11035: 11028: 11021: 11014: 11007: 11000:Five Pillars 10977: 10943: 10932:God in Islam 10909: 10607:Contemporary 10457:Indo-Persian 10445:Nazi Germany 10389:Contemporary 10291:Vijayanagara 10190:Great Seljuk 10101:Thessalonica 10029:Golden Horde 9669:Carthaginian 9448:Neo-Assyrian 9433:Neo-Sumerian 9203:Castile-León 9202: 9160: 9134: 9124:Second Taifa 9122: 9110: 9081: 9015: 8942: 8938:Muhammad III 8925: 8918: 8911: 8904: 8731:Abd al-Malik 8630: 8614: 8610: 8582: 8573: 8554: 8535: 8516: 8507: 8488: 8469: 8450: 8431: 8412: 8393: 8374: 8355: 8336: 8317: 8293: 8273: 8254: 8235: 8226: 8207: 8188: 8169: 8149: 8129: 8110: 8091: 8074: 8055: 8046: 8027: 8016:. Retrieved 7996: 7984:. Retrieved 7964: 7944: 7925: 7906: 7887: 7868: 7849: 7841:Bibliography 7829: 7823: 7804: 7798: 7789: 7769:. Retrieved 7750: 7740: 7729:. Retrieved 7709: 7702: 7683: 7661:. Retrieved 7641: 7634: 7615: 7609: 7597:. Retrieved 7588: 7579: 7567:. Retrieved 7558: 7548: 7529: 7523: 7512:. Retrieved 7492: 7485: 7466: 7460: 7441: 7419: 7413: 7402:. Retrieved 7393: 7389: 7379: 7367:. Retrieved 7358: 7349: 7338:. Retrieved 7318: 7311: 7284: 7280: 7270: 7251: 7245: 7220: 7216: 7210: 7201: 7178:. Retrieved 7169: 7159: 7142: 7138: 7117:. Retrieved 7108: 7099: 7087:. Retrieved 7078: 7069: 7057:. Retrieved 7048: 7038: 7026:. Retrieved 7017: 7008: 6997:. Retrieved 6977: 6947: 6935: 6916: 6910: 6898: 6887:. Retrieved 6875: 6871: 6843: 6831: 6819: 6790: 6778: 6759: 6737: 6730:. Retrieved 6721: 6711: 6699: 6687: 6675: 6663: 6636: 6617: 6612: 6600: 6581: 6560: 6548: 6524: 6518: 6506: 6489: 6485: 6461:. Retrieved 6442: 6416:. Retrieved 6396: 6368: 6356: 6344: 6332: 6320: 6308: 6297:. Retrieved 6277: 6270: 6258: 6249: 6229:. Retrieved 6209: 6188:. Retrieved 6168: 6146: 6130: 6125: 6118:Kennedy 1996 6113: 6106:Kennedy 1996 6091:Kennedy 1996 6086: 6074: 6061: 6049: 6037: 6026:. Retrieved 6006: 5981:. Retrieved 5962: 5918: 5911:Ríu Ríu 1988 5906: 5879: 5867: 5855: 5835: 5828: 5821:Kennedy 1996 5816: 5797: 5762: 5739: 5727: 5720:Kennedy 1996 5715: 5703: 5676: 5664: 5652: 5625: 5613: 5601: 5589: 5577: 5565: 5553: 5541: 5529: 5513: 5508: 5496: 5484: 5442: 5430: 5418: 5411:Bariani 2003 5389: 5358: 5351:Bariani 2003 5346: 5311: 5299: 5292:Ríu Ríu 1988 5257: 5250:Kennedy 1996 5245: 5201: 5194:Bariani 2003 5189: 5150:Bariani 2003 5145: 5133: 5111:Bariani 2003 5047:Kennedy 1996 5021: 5002: 4996: 4984: 4972: 4960: 4948: 4902: 4891:. Retrieved 4871: 4850: 4829: 4817: 4806:. Retrieved 4786: 4782: 4769: 4738: 4726: 4699: 4693: 4681: 4672: 4645: 4639: 4627: 4615: 4608:Kennedy 1996 4589:. Retrieved 4569: 4562: 4550: 4538:. Retrieved 4513: 4507: 4494: 4470: 4452: 4368: 4348: 4324: 4294: 4244: 4219:1010 – 1013 4058: 4051: 4037:Andalusiyyin 4025: 3986: 3967: 3947:Great Mosque 3940: 3938: 3922: 3912: 3883: 3857: 3840: 3820: 3814: 3808: 3804: 3802: 3797: 3793: 3759: 3753:) along the 3718: 3714: 3708: 3678:Architecture 3634:Leyre Casket 3585: 3571: 3546: 3544: 3540:Leyre Casket 3518: 3512: 3510: 3482: 3479: 3462: 3437: 3419: 3413: 3405: 3362: 3341: 3336: 3330: 3328: 3296: 3292: 3284: 3273: 3230: 3222: 3189: 3176: 3172: 3159: 3123: 3119:heterodoxies 3107: 3100: 3094: 3087: 3067: 3052: 3046: 3044: 3021: 3009: 3005: 2979: 2973: 2971: 2967:Thomas Glick 2956: 2945: 2924: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2881: 2872:Islamization 2865: 2837: 2823: 2812: 2809: 2805: 2796: 2792: 2769: 2756: 2752: 2742: 2721: 2710: 2707: 2702: 2694: 2691: 2682: 2669: 2666: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2653: 2649: 2645: 2637: 2626: 2619: 2608: 2597: 2586: 2577:Al-Hassan II 2566: 2559: 2552: 2544:East Francia 2540:West Francia 2537: 2522:in 931, and 2513: 2487: 2475: 2462: 2456: 2438:rose against 2431: 2413: 2402: 2355: 2343: 2337: 2333: 2303: 2252:1921–present 2237:1900–present 2222:1868–present 2207:1833–present 2192:1810–present 2177:1783–present 2162:1775–present 2147:1761–present 2132:1752–present 2117:1749–present 2102:1744–present 2097:Saudi Arabia 2087:1727–present 2072:1727–present 2057:1631–present 1407: 1067:300s–500s AD 687:Almohad rule 597: 530: 528:(kingdoms). 523: 513: 491: 454: 450: 448: 359:Succeeded by 358: 353: 271: 12405: / 12158:Catholicism 12053:Other areas 12044:Theological 12039:Eschatology 11996:Mathematics 11933:Calligraphy 11863:Theological 11817:Inheritance 11734:Cleanliness 11106:Shi'a Imams 11100:Ahl al-Bayt 10195:Khwarezmian 10128:Carolingian 9933:Rashtrakuta 9637:Shaishunaga 9536:Hellenistic 9519:New Kingdom 9509:Old Kingdom 9251: [ 9136:Third Taifa 9112:First Taifa 8875:Muhammad II 8865:Al-Hakam II 8761:Al-Walid II 8721:Mu'awiya II 8686:Family tree 7686:. Taschen. 7369:20 February 7119:16 November 7105:"Doha Hind" 7089:16 November 7079:Qantara-med 7059:16 November 7028:16 November 6952:Catlos 2018 6940:Catlos 2018 6903:Catlos 2018 6848:Catlos 2018 6836:Catlos 2018 6824:Catlos 2018 6812:Catlos 2018 6795:Catlos 2018 6783:Catlos 2018 6704:Barton 2004 6692:Catlos 2018 6680:Catlos 2018 6668:Barton 2004 6656:Catlos 2018 6641:Catlos 2018 6605:Catlos 2018 6565:Catlos 2018 6361:Catlos 2018 6337:Catlos 2018 6313:Catlos 2018 6263:Catlos 2018 6151:Catlos 2018 6079:Catlos 2018 5938:Catlos 2018 5744:Reilly 1993 5732:Chejne 1974 5423:Weiner 2001 4989:Catlos 2014 4977:Chejne 1974 4965:Catlos 2014 4953:Chejne 1974 4907:Chejne 1974 4834:Reilly 1993 4822:Barton 2004 4686:Barton 2004 4676:Barton, 37. 4632:Catlos 2018 4620:Chejne 1974 4555:Catlos 2018 4540:7 September 4428:Reconquista 4330:Interregnum 4189:976 – 1009 3933:al-Hakam II 3919:interlacing 3911:-decorated 3836:al-Hakam II 3751:waterwheels 3723:Roman villa 3497:calligraphy 3489:Islamic law 3487:(expert on 3311:watermelons 3136:مُسْتَعْرَب 3002:transhumant 2994:Extremadura 2982:Tagus River 2868:Arabization 2778:, Count of 2562:Al-Hakam II 2441: [ 1957:Pate Island 1930:East Africa 1723:Sulaymanids 1663:Ukhaidhirds 1448:Sulaymanids 1418:Muhallabids 1323:Munqidhites 1223:Shirvanshah 1077:300s–602 AD 1047:196–1100 AD 1037:100s–241 AD 775:Convivencia 770:Reconquista 749:Granada War 729:(1232–1492) 716:(1232–1287) 692:(1147–1238) 679:(1140–1203) 650:(1085–1145) 637:(1009–1110) 354:Preceded by 276:of Córdoba 270:proclaimed 12420:Categories 12218:Ex-Muslims 12103:Shu'ubiyya 12097:Psychology 12085:Literature 12075:Inventions 12021:Philosophy 11829:Leadership 11805:Honorifics 11460:Philosophy 11267:Isma'ilism 11228:Maturidism 11111:Caliphates 11082:Golden Age 10973:Revelation 10765:Portuguese 10646:Revival Le 10636:Vietnamese 10279:Later Tran 10249:Vietnamese 10145:Singhasari 10133:Holy Roman 9757:Bulgarian 9693:Satavahana 9664:Phoenician 9600:Achaemenid 9561:Indo-Greek 9541:Macedonian 9455:Babylonian 9086:(711-1492) 9083:Al-Andalus 8960:indicates 8950:Hisham III 8853:(929–1031) 8830:al-Mundhir 8825:Muhammad I 8815:Al-Hakam I 8736:Al-Walid I 8711:Mu'awiya I 8639:8421120166 8441:0521394368 8037:0816606889 8018:2021-11-25 7986:2020-09-22 7814:0521337674 7771:2021-11-25 7731:2021-11-25 7693:3822876348 7663:2024-07-25 7539:3822876348 7514:2024-07-25 7476:0870996371 7451:3822876348 7404:2024-07-25 7340:2024-07-25 6999:2024-07-29 6988:0870996371 6889:2021-11-16 6722:Britannica 6463:2024-07-29 6418:2024-07-29 6299:2024-07-29 6231:2024-07-29 6190:2024-08-27 6067:Glick 2005 6054:Glick 2005 6028:2024-07-29 5983:2024-07-29 5606:Frers 2008 5546:Allen 2002 4893:2021-10-28 4882:0521337674 4808:2024-08-17 4591:2024-07-25 4516:(3): 495. 4463:Castilians 4459:Almoravids 4439:References 4363:1026–1031 4343:1025–1026 4319:1024–1025 4309:1023–1024 4279:1021–1023 4269:1018–1021 4259:1016–1018 4229:1013–1016 4209:1009–1010 4179:961 – 976 4169:929 – 961 4151:912 – 929 4141:888 – 912 4131:886 – 888 4127:al-Mundhir 4121:852 – 886 4117:Muhammad I 4111:822 – 852 4101:796 – 822 4097:al-Hakam I 4091:788 – 796 4081:756 – 788 4033:Qarawiyyin 3850: 830 3786:Al-Mundhir 3782:Muhammad I 3745:and other 3584:(known as 3538:, and the 3528:epigraphic 3524:figurative 3421:Muwashshah 3319:cash crops 3303:hard wheat 3169:Conversion 3018:Ebro River 2856:Hisham III 2784:Roussillon 2776:Gausfred I 2699:Borrell II 2471:Muhammad I 2467:Al-Hakam I 2448:Al-Hakam I 2427: 900 2298:See also: 2294:Background 2243:Hashemites 2198:Al Maktoum 2168:Al Khalifa 1853:Upper Yafa 1843:Ya'arubids 1683:Qarmatians 1568:Sumadihids 1057:220–638 AD 1053:Ghassanids 603:(756–1031) 467:al-Andalus 330:10,000,000 316:Population 242:Hisham III 209:(929–1031) 142:Government 46:(929–1031) 12335:Symbolism 12293:Incidents 12271:Criticism 12163:Mormonism 12060:Astrology 11986:Cosmology 11981:Astronomy 11923:Arabesque 11790:Etiquette 11749:Blasphemy 11539:Economics 11354:Ahmadiyya 11296:Muhakkima 11243:Wahhabism 11233:Mu'tazili 11218:Ash'arism 10758:Couronian 10396:Ethiopian 10384:Manchukuo 10339:Brazilian 10185:Ghaznavid 10155:Srivijaya 10106:Trebizond 10091:Byzantine 10073:North Sea 10068:Norwegian 10056:Almoravid 10039:Ilkhanate 10009:Majapahit 9982:Muromachi 9891:Solomonic 9876:Ethiopian 9790:Caliphate 9723:Aragonese 9551:Ptolemaic 9029:Visigoths 8885:Hisham II 8870:Hisham II 8798:(756–929) 8776:Marwan II 8766:Yazid III 8704:(661–750) 8083:0212-467X 7599:8 October 7569:6 October 7303:108444717 7237:202373296 6732:5 October 5800:. Brill. 5522:0763-7608 5304:Arié 1984 5262:Vara 2012 4795:0212-7458 4743:Arié 1984 4731:Dozy 2010 4718:905696269 4664:833763900 4486:Citations 3978:Byzantine 3935:after 962 3770:hypostyle 3743:Albolafia 3715:ar-Ruṣāfa 3602:ablutions 3598:Marrakesh 3586:ataurique 3501:astronomy 3451:romanized 3401:polymaths 3389:astrology 3276:monetized 3234:(Arabic: 3196:(Arabic: 3153:, and to 3134:(Arabic: 3131:must'arab 3004:, and of 2961:(Arabic: 2734:dockyards 2722:saqalibas 2662:Dar Jihad 2589:Hisham II 2484:Caliphate 2398:Barcelona 2228:Al Sharqi 2183:Al Nuaimi 2153:Al Mualla 2142:Abu Dhabi 2138:Al Nahyan 2078:Al Qasimi 2063:Al Qasimi 2027:1860–1887 2017:1858–1895 2002:1856–1964 1992:1746–1828 1977:1277–1495 1962:1203–1894 1917:1926–1970 1907:1906–1934 1897:1903–1967 1887:1858–1967 1883:Qu'aitids 1877:1836–1921 1873:Rashidids 1867:1820–1970 1857:1800–1967 1847:1624–1742 1837:1597–1872 1827:1463–1521 1817:1454–1526 1807:1395–1967 1803:Kathirids 1797:1305–1487 1793:Jarwanids 1787:1253–1320 1777:1229–1454 1767:1159–1174 1757:1154–1624 1753:Nabhanids 1747:1083–1174 1737:1076–1253 1727:1063–1174 1717:1047–1138 1713:Sulayhids 1612:1837–1969 1608:Senussids 1602:1554–1659 1592:1230–1492 1582:1049–1078 1572:1041–1091 1562:1039–1110 1552:1031–1091 1548:Jawharids 1542:1027–1063 1538:Muzaynids 1532:1026–1057 1528:Hammudids 1522:1023–1062 1518:Yahsubids 1512:1023–1091 1502:1020–1086 1492:1013–1039 1482:1012–1051 1472:1004–1412 1438:Aghlabids 1367:1697–1842 1357:1517–1865 1347:1480–1677 1337:1517–1697 1327:1025–1157 1317:1024–1080 1313:Mirdasids 1303:Numayrids 1283:Jarrahids 1273:Mazyadids 1253:Hamdanids 1243:Hashimids 1203:Habbarids 1193:Dulafids 1043:Tanukhids 817:Caliphate 559:(711–732) 520:Al-Mansur 510:Hisham II 429:Gibraltar 308:1000 est. 290:kingdoms 159:(756–929) 130:Minority: 125:Official: 117:Religion 38:(756–929) 12373:Category 12266:Islamism 12249:Muhammad 12205:Apostasy 12180:Hinduism 12070:Feminism 12001:Medicine 11841:Military 11795:Gambling 11744:Apostasy 11739:Criminal 11651:Marriage 11620:Tayammum 11572:Murabaha 11445:Madrasas 11435:Holidays 11425:Clothing 11420:Children 11415:Calendar 11366:Quranism 11300:Khawarij 11272:Alawites 11223:Atharism 11117:Rashidun 10956:In Islam 10951:Muhammad 10738:Japanese 10701:Scottish 10681:American 10673:Colonial 10602:Imperial 10570:Moroccan 10506:Japanese 10484:Afsharid 10343:Burmese 10329:Austrian 10284:Later Le 10259:Early Le 10244:Venetian 10170:Tiwanaku 10083:Hellenic 10046:Moroccan 9977:Kamakura 9967:Japanese 9950:Saffarid 9903:Georgian 9817:Chalukya 9795:Rashidun 9785:Calakmul 9753:Bruneian 9632:Haryanka 9610:Sasanian 9605:Parthian 9556:Bactrian 9546:Seleucid 9526:Goguryeo 9504:Egyptian 9438:Assyrian 9428:Akkadian 9419:Colonies 8964:usurpers 8962:Hammudid 8890:Sulayman 8880:Sulayman 8835:Abdullah 8810:Hisham I 8751:Yazid II 8741:Sulayman 8726:Marwan I 8623:21874703 8012:Archived 7980:Archived 7907:Almanzor 7765:Archived 7725:Archived 7657:Archived 7593:Archived 7563:Archived 7508:Archived 7398:Archived 7390:Meridies 7363:Archived 7334:Archived 7174:Archived 7113:Archived 7083:Archived 7053:Archived 7022:Archived 6993:Archived 6880:Archived 6726:Archived 6498:20840029 6457:Archived 6412:Archived 6293:Archived 6225:Archived 6184:Archived 6022:Archived 5977:Archived 5767:Archived 4887:Archived 4799:Archived 4585:Archived 4534:Archived 4377:See also 4326:Hammudid 4246:Hammudid 4156:Caliphs 4087:Hisham I 3825:Abdallah 3810:maqsurah 3790:Abdallah 3574:capitals 3565:and the 3475:Arabized 3428:and the 3393:medicine 3251:ṣaqāliba 3231:ṣaqāliba 3126:Mozarabs 3115:orthodox 3061:and the 3028:Religion 3022:Muwallad 3016:and the 3014:Zaragoza 3010:Muwallad 3006:Muwallad 2990:Pyrenees 2974:Muwallad 2957:Muwallad 2921:Language 2911:Valencia 2802:Collapse 2788:Galician 2780:Empurias 2772:Catalans 2753:al-Magus 2627:saqaliba 2623:saqaliba 2593:Almanzor 2567:Another 2518:in 927, 2509:Muhammad 2478:Abdullah 2463:saqaliba 2394:Pamplona 2390:Zaragoza 2378:fiefdoms 2370:Damascus 2356:In 756, 2330:province 2232:Fujairah 2213:Al Thani 2123:Al Sabah 2012:Wituland 1947:896–1279 1903:Idrisids 1833:Qasimids 1813:Tahirids 1783:Usfurids 1773:Rasulids 1743:Zurayids 1707:968–1925 1693:Wajihids 1687:899–1077 1677:897–1962 1667:865–1066 1653:Yufirids 1647:819–1138 1643:Ziyadids 1637:751–1970 1578:Tahirids 1508:Abbadids 1488:Tujibids 1462:831–1091 1428:Idrisids 1412:756–1031 1392:710–1019 1388:Salihids 1353:Harfushs 1343:Turabays 1307:990–1081 1297:990–1096 1293:Uqaylids 1287:970–1107 1277:961–1150 1267:955–1071 1263:Rawadids 1257:890–1004 1247:869–1075 1227:861–1538 1213:Kaysites 1207:854–1011 1177:736–1122 1142:909–1171 1138:Fatimids 1132:750–1258 1128:Abbasids 1118:Umayyads 1108:Rashidun 1073:Lakhmids 1063:Salihids 660:Conquest 489:in 929. 438:Portugal 339:Currency 148:monarchy 54:756–1031 12390:37°53′N 12320:Nursing 12281:Qutbism 12195:Sikhism 12190:Judaism 12185:Jainism 12175:Druzism 12011:Physics 11958:Pottery 11943:Gardens 11938:Carpets 11853:Slavery 11775:Divorce 11762:Dhabiĥa 11590:Hygiene 11565:Takaful 11547:Banking 11477:Science 11471:Qurbani 11440:Mosques 11400:Animals 11389:Culture 11323:Nukkari 11318:Azzabas 11305:Azariqa 11289:Zaydism 11277:Alevism 11153:Ottoman 11143:Almohad 11138:Fatimid 11133:Córdoba 11128:Abbasid 11123:Umayyad 11056:Leaders 11051:History 11009:Shahada 10924:Beliefs 10805:largest 10800:Empires 10780:Swedish 10775:Spanish 10770:Russian 10733:Italian 10708:Chinese 10696:English 10691:British 10686:Belgian 10661:Vietnam 10651:Tay son 10597:Tsarist 10592:Russian 10587:Ottoman 10553:Dzungar 10548:Khoshut 10521:Mexican 10516:Maratha 10499:Pahlavi 10479:Safavid 10474:Iranian 10401:Haitian 10364:Chinese 10324:Ashanti 10296:Wagadou 10222:Eastern 10217:Western 10200:Timurid 10160:Tibetan 10150:Songhai 10140:Serbian 10061:Almohad 10051:Idrisid 9955:Samanid 9945:Tahirid 9940:Iranian 9918:Kannauj 9898:Genoese 9834:Chinese 9827:Eastern 9822:Western 9810:Fatimid 9805:Abbasid 9800:Umayyad 9773:Burmese 9733:Ayyubid 9728:Angevin 9698:Xianbei 9686:Eastern 9681:Western 9627:Magadha 9590:Iranian 9583:Xiongnu 9568:Hittite 9477:Chinese 9465:Kassite 9414:Ancient 9406:Empires 8771:Ibrahim 8716:Yazid I 6141:, p. 73 4789:: 419. 4530:2600793 4350:Umayyad 4296:Umayyad 4060:Umayyad 3982:mosaics 3976:) with 3951:minaret 3927:in the 3924:maqsura 3843:Seville 3735:Alcázar 3453:: 3348:Baghdad 3325:Culture 3307:bananas 3258:Economy 3240:eunuchs 3208:(sing. 3143: 3074:Shafi'i 3068:maddhab 2952:Berbers 2907:Granada 2862:Society 2790:coast. 2765:Algarve 2761:Vikings 2749:Pechina 2738:Tortosa 2730:Almería 2726:Coimbra 2674:Astorga 2611:Tangier 2604:Berbers 2569:Fatimid 2528:Idrisid 2524:Tangier 2516:Melilla 2497:Shiʿite 2434:Corsica 2416:Maghreb 2382:emirate 2352:Emirate 2326:Roderic 2172:Bahrain 2108:Al Said 2093:Al Saud 2082:Sharjah 2052:Morocco 2048:'Alawis 1987:Mombasa 1823:Jabrids 1763:Mahdids 1733:Uyunids 1697:926–965 1673:Rassids 1657:847–997 1598:Saadids 1588:Nasrids 1498:Amirids 1478:Bakrids 1468:Kanzids 1452:814–922 1442:800–909 1432:788–974 1422:771–793 1402:745-757 1363:Shihabs 1333:Ma'nids 1237:864–928 1233:Alavids 1217:860–964 1197:840–897 1187:824–961 1167:654–884 1122:661–750 1112:632–661 825:‎ 589:Fihrids 498:Umayyad 479:emirate 475:Córdoba 469:), the 434:Morocco 377:Fihrids 266:• 253:History 231:(first) 181:(first) 146:Islamic 75:Córdoba 71:Capital 12393:4°47′W 12132: 12090:poetry 11900: 11785:Ethics 11769:Dhimmi 11728:Baligh 11689:Mahram 11646:Family 11626:Toilet 11606:Miswak 11359:Lahori 11342:Najdat 11238:Salafi 11188:Seerah 11183:Tafsir 11178:Hadith 11148:Sokoto 11093:Sahaba 10968:Angels 10945:Tawhid 10902:topics 10743:Mongol 10728:German 10723:French 10713:Danish 10656:Dainam 10631:Tongan 10619:Somali 10614:Sokoto 10580:'Alawi 10558:Kalmyk 10538:Mongol 10531:Second 10511:Korean 10462:Mughal 10452:Indian 10435:German 10428:Second 10418:French 10411:Second 10347:Second 10319:Afghan 10311:Modern 10237:Kyrgyz 10232:Uighur 10227:Second 10207:Turkic 10175:Toltec 10111:Epirus 10096:Nicaea 10019:Mongol 9972:Yamato 9908:Huetar 9766:Second 9703:Rouran 9652:Shunga 9647:Maurya 9622:Kushan 9595:Median 9573:Hunnic 9531:Harsha 8756:Hisham 8637: 8621: 8589: 8561: 8542: 8523: 8495: 8476: 8457: 8438: 8419: 8400: 8381: 8362: 8343: 8324: 8305: 8280: 8261: 8242: 8214: 8195: 8176: 8170:El Cid 8157: 8136: 8117: 8098: 8081: 8062: 8034: 8004: 7972: 7951: 7932: 7913: 7894: 7875: 7856: 7811: 7757: 7717: 7690: 7649: 7622: 7536: 7500: 7473: 7448: 7326: 7301: 7258: 7235: 7180:5 June 6985: 6923: 6766: 6739:books. 6624: 6588: 6496: 6449: 6404: 6285: 6217: 6176: 6137: 6014: 5969: 5843: 5804: 5520: 5009: 4879: 4793: 4716: 4706: 4662: 4652: 4577: 4528: 4159:Reign 4071:Reign 4068:Emirs 4007:, the 3993:Toledo 3969:mihrab 3914:mihrab 3909:mosaic 3821:sabbat 3805:sabbat 3788:, and 3747:norias 3727:Berber 3711:villas 3590:spolia 3551:bronze 3534:, the 3526:, and 3442:Arabic 3385:poetry 3373:Hebrew 3365:Arabic 3352:Ziryab 3344:Syrian 3315:norias 3236:صقالبة 3204:mawālī 3193:khāṣṣa 3095:dhimmi 3078:Zahiri 3063:Hanafi 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