First Toungoo Empire

2759:), and formation of musket and artillery units. Portuguese weaponry proved superior in accuracy, safety, ballistic weight, and rapidity of fire than Asian-made counterparts. The first special musket and artillery units, made up mostly of Portuguese and Indian Ocean (mostly Muslim) mercenaries, were formed in the late 1530s. The Burmese later learned to integrate matchlocks into both infantry and elephanteer units. In some late 16th-century campaigns, as high as 20–33 percent of the troops were equipped with muskets. But artillery units continued to be manned by foreign mercenaries throughout the 16th century. Toungoo artillery corps never acquired massive siege guns of Europe but they "used Portuguese cannon to good effect by mounting them on high mounds or towers, and then shooting down into besieged towns". Portuguese firearms proved particularly effective against interior states like the Shan states. However, the advantage of firearms was neutralised against Siam, a prosperous coastal power with its own well-equipped military. 3388:

in a period when the arrival of European firearms and an increase in Indian Ocean commerce enabled lowland polities to project power into interior states. The advantages of the lowland states persisted even after the monumental collapse of the empire. Of the successor states, Restored Toungoo and Siam were the two winners that emerged to dominate the western and central mainland Southeast Asia, respectively, although Ayutthaya's sway in the central mainland was less complete than Restored Toungoo's near complete domination of the western mainland. (Whereas only Arakan escaped Restored Toungoo's restoration, Lan Xang and Cambodia remained independent, albeit greatly weakened, out of Siam's grasp till the 19th century. On the other hand, Lan Na's loss of independence was permanent: after 1558, she remained a Burmese province for the better part of two centuries whereupon Lan Na entered the Siamese empire.) Still, the accelerated thrusts towards regional hegemony were comparable in both sectors.

1595:

supported a Chiang Rai rebellion against Lan Na (Chiang Mai) in 1599. By 1601, Lan Na was divided into three spheres: Chiang Mai, Siam-backed Chiang Rai, Lan Xang-backed Nan. Chiang Mai defeated the Siam-backed rebellion in Chiang Rai in 1602 only to submit to Ayutthaya later that year. Chiang Mai retook Nan from Lan Xang in 1603. In the western mainland, Siam invaded Lower Burma in 1600, and went on to attack Toungoo only to be driven back by Toungoo's ally Arakan. The Portuguese garrison at Syriam switched allegiance from Arakan to Goa in 1603. Siamese vassal Martaban then entered into an alliance with Portuguese Syriam. Ava had seized cis-Salween Shan states by 1604. Siam planned to invade Ava's vassal southern Shan states in 1605 before cancelling it because of the sudden death of its warrior king

1562:(r. 1581–99) never gained the full support of his father's chosen vassal rulers. Within the first three years of his reign, both Ava and Ayutthaya revolted. Though he managed to defeat the Ava rebellion in 1584, the king never did establish firm control over Upper Burma and the surrounding Shan states. He could not get the most populous region in Burma to contribute much to his war effort in Siam. (His best troop levels were never more than a third of his father's.) He should have focused on reestablishing his authority in Upper Burma, and let Siam go—but he could not see it. He feared that acknowledging Ayutthaya's independence would invite yet more Tai rebellions, some perhaps closer to home. Nanda launched 3404:, Bayinnaung is the favourite king of the present-day Burmese generals, who often see themselves "as fighting the same enemies and in the same places... their soldiers slugging their way through the same thick jungle, preparing to torch a town or press-gang villagers. The past closer, more comparable, a way to justify present action. His statues are there because the ordeal of welding a nation together by force is not just history." On the opposite side of the same token, warrior kings Naresuan of Ayutthaya and Setthathirath of Lan Xang remain the most celebrated kings in Thailand and Laos respectively—Naresuan for returning Siam to independence and Setthathirath for his pesky resistance to the empire. 3616:(Lieberman 1984: 18): No large-scale censuses of any kind were conducted. Extant censuses from the period cover just four corridors of settlement in Lower Burma: Bassein-Myaungmya in the western delta; Martaban-Moulmein littoral; Myan Aung to Danubyu in the eastern delta; Pegu-Syriam-Dagon—capital region. (Lieberman 1984: 21–22): In 1581, a regional census of the 16 leading townships of Lower Burma showed a combined population of less than 28,000 households (~200,000 people). (Lieberman 1984: 20): The first-ever Irrawaddy valley-wide census was conducted only in 1638, and the results did not survive. 1430: 1320: 41: 2920:

unconscious) strategy of group mobilization. Shan raids on Upper Burma, which bred bitter anti-Shan diatribes, offer the most dramatic example." But the weak link between ethnicity and political loyalty meant patron-client relationships remained the single most important factor in state building. One figure who successfully exploited this at the grandest scale was Bayinnaung. The emperor formed patron-client relationships based on universal Buddhist cultural concepts—alongside the threat of massive military reprisals—to hold the empire. He presented himself as

1535:'s empire was "probably the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia," and what the Portuguese regarded as "the most powerful monarchy in Asia except that of China". The king standardized laws, calendars, weights and measurements, and Buddhist religious practices throughout the land. But he introduced administrative reforms only at the margins. The "absurdly overextended" empire was largely held together by his personal relationships with the vassal rulers, who were loyal to him and not to Toungoo Burma. 2795:, first took the field in their teenage years. This kind of martial tradition simply did not exist in "far larger, more secure" kingdoms like Siam. (Indeed, the same kind of complacency afflicted later Restored Toungoo kings, who from 1650 onwards stopped taking the field as the country became largely stable.) Their more martial culture and battlefield successes gave the Toungoo command an increasingly greater field experience, which their rival commands in the region simply could not match. According to 609: 2768: 1551: 1288: 2646: 3375:

as “the powerfullest Monarchy in Asia, except that of China”. The prosperous life at the capital, however, was probably not replicated at the countryside. Annual mobilisations of men greatly reduced the manpower necessary to cultivate the rice fields. Even during at the peak of the empire, harvests at times fell perilously low, causing severe rice shortages such as in 1567. By the mid-1590s, constant warfare left Lower Burma severely depopulated and rice prices at unheard of levels.

1584: 1575:

Asia”, in 1600. The First Toungoo Dynasty, “the most adventurous and militarily successful in the country's history”, ceased to exist; it was also the "shortest-lived" major dynasty. The First Toungoo Empire was "a victim of its own success." Its "stunning military conquests were not matched by stable administrative controls in the Tai world or outlying areas of the Irrawaddy basin," and the "overheated" empire "disintegrated no less rapidly than it had been constructed".

1137: 6301: 2903:

distinctive local traditions and in many cases different dialects. The same was true for smaller minorities still—indeed, terms like Kachins, Karens, and Chins are exonyms given by Burmans that summarily group several different groups. In the central mainland, the main Siamese, Lao and Yuan ethnicities were still in an embryonic stage, and a chiefly elite concept. In Siam, the Siamese language and ethnicity were the “preserve” of the aristocracy called the

1267:(r. 1510–30). It would be yet another rebellion except that Nyo won Minkhaung's acquiescence by offering his full support to the embattled king. Nyo turned out to be an able leader. He quickly brought law and order to the region, which attracted refugees from other parts of Central and Upper Burma. Using increased manpower, he sponsored a series of elaborate reclamation and irrigation projects to compensate for the Sittaung valley's modest agriculture. 6325: 1603:

Restored Toungoo Dynasty or Nyaungyan Dynasty) had succeeded in reconstituting a major portion of the First Toungoo Empire, except for Siam, Lan Xang and Manipur. The new dynasty did not overextend itself by trying to take over Siam or Lan Xang. This was a more “realistic and organic” polity that would last until the mid-18th century. The new dynasty proceeded to create a political and legal system whose basic features would continue under the

912: 1328: 1773:

involved in local administration; its remit was national. The court launched standardisation drives to unify laws, weights and measurements, calendars, and Buddhist reforms throughout the empire. The court also drew the borders between the vassal states. But the centuries-old disputes never went away. They resurfaced as soon as Pegu's authority waned, and resulted in the confused, multi-party wars of 1590s and 1600s.

1453:(r. 1550–81) to reunify the kingdom in the next two years. Bayinnaung then pushed up the Irrawaddy in an effort to join Upper Burma and Lower Burma for the first time since Pagan. Victory in the north "promised to strengthen control over interior gems and bullion, and to supply additional levies." In 1555, Upper Burma fell to the southern forces. Over the next decade, a series of “breathtaking campaigns” reduced 2895:

deportees from the conquered states as far away as Lan Xang were settled in Lower Burma. In Upper Burma, Shans, Kadus, Karens, Chins and other minorities still occupied dry zone fringes. The Shan states had Chins, Kachins, Was, Palaungs, Karennis, etc. Over in the central mainland, several linguistically distinct Tai groups coexisted alongside sizeable numbers of Mons, Khmers, and a host of hill minorities. The

6313: 2391:, the armies received tribute from border vassal states of Lan Xang, which are now part of Vietnam. At any rate, the tribute, even if true, most certainly did not translate into any lasting control. Indeed, Pegu's authority dissipated as soon as the armies departed. The lack of firm authority over Lan Xang was the reason why the fruitless campaigns had to be undertaken year-after-year in the first place. 3392:

responses to similar challenges” but they also suggest “a degree of squint-eyed mutual borrowing.” In both sectors, the crown reduced or stopped the appointment of senior princes to provincial towns, and obliged them to reside at the capital in special palaces where they could more easily be monitored. The actual administrators of the provinces went to commoner officials with no claims to the throne.

1311:, and would ultimately fall in 1527. In the meantime, Nyo focused on strengthening the economy and the stability of his kingdom. His policy of non-interference attracted refugees to the only region in Upper Burma at peace. By his death in 1530, Mingyi Nyo had successfully turned Toungoo into a small but strong regional power. History shows that the former vassal was about to "overawe the metropole". 1438: 3176: 2839:, who grew up in Pegu, and were most probably exposed to Toungoo military strategy. By 1600, Siam had not only regained the Tenasserim coast from Burma but also expanded deeper into Cambodia. After 1614, an equilibrium of sorts prevailed between the two successor states. Neither state extended in any direction to a point her supply lines were more extended than those of her nearest rival. 2441:. According to Huxley, the 16th-century Burmese legalism was "quite different from those of its neighbors in East and South Asia", and some aspects "are reminiscent of Western European approaches to law and kingship." Bayinnaung promoted the new law throughout the empire so far as it was compatible with customs and practices of local society. The adoption of Burmese customary law and the 1620:

was even more decentralised and stretched thinner still. At any rate, it was the only system the Toungoo kings knew, and they "had no choice but to retain it." The kings attempted administrative reforms only at the margins, which proved insufficient to hold the empire after Bayinnaung. Indeed, "Bayinnaung's goal of controlling virtually the entire mainland from Pegu proved utterly mad."

3162:) remained "quite a luxury.". In Lan Xang and Lan Na too, the literacy in Lao and Lan Na scripts was the preserve of the aristocrats. The Siamese language (central Thai), a mixture of a more northerly Tai dialect with Khmerized Tai from the Ayutthaya area, was coalescing. The Siamese script too underwent several modifications before achieving its final form by about 1600. 2032:

keep an eye on the local ruler in the peacetime. As a result, the High King heavily depended on the vassal king to be both loyal and able. Ineffective vassal rulers, who did not command respect from their local sub-vassal rulers, such as those in Lan Xang and in Upper Burma after 1584, only brought constant trouble for the crown. On the other hand, able kings such as

1218:(1385–1424) left Ava exhausted. From 1425 onwards, Ava regularly faced rebellions whenever a new king came to power, who then had to restore order, often by war. Toungoo's “relentlessly ambitious leaders” repeatedly tested Ava's resolve by staging assassinations (in 1440, 1452, and 1459) and rebellions (in 1426–40, 1452–59 and 1468–70) at times with Pegu's help. 3467:(Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 19–20): Pinya responded to the first assassination, of Thuwun Gyi in 1317 by Thawun Nge, by sending an army there. Even then, the army returned when Thawun Nge agreed to submit, and allowed Thawun Nge to remain in office. Similarly, later assassin-turned-rulers per (Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 20–22) may have nominally submitted to Pinya. 3323:

supervise lucrative trade between Siam and India. His majesty's government was actively involved in the import-export business. The crown exported luxury products (musk, gold, gems) obtained through the tribute quotas from the interior states. Bayinnaung built a fleet of oceangoing vessels in the 1570s to undertake voyages on behalf of the crown.

3121:. The Burmese language and script continued to affect other languages and scripts in the Irrawaddy valley. Since the 15th century, Mon inscriptions had adopted Burmese orthographic conventions and to incorporate, consciously or not, large numbers of Burmese loan words. Various Tai-Shan scripts were developed based on the Burmese script. 1303:. In 1503, Nyo's forces began surreptitiously aiding ongoing rebellions in the south. In 1504, he openly entered into an alliance with Prome with the intention of taking over all of Central Burma. But Ava was not yet a spent force. It decisively defeated the alliance's raids in 1504–05 and in 1507–08. 3277:

was under cultivation in the 16th century. Upper Burma had about 730,000 hectares (1.8 million acres) under cultivation c. 1600, divided even between rice and dry crops. In addition to rice, New World peanuts, tobacco and maize were grown. Cotton became the major crop in dry zone areas ill-suited for

2739:

were within 200 km of the capital Ava). It meant that the High King of the First Toungoo period needed to rely far more on his vassal rulers to raise the troops. The weakness was brutally exposed when the High King was not Bayinnaung. Nanda's troops most probably never totalled more than 25,000.

2730:

The ability to raise more conscripts depended greatly on the High King's grip over his vassals. Bayinnaung required newly conquered states to provide their quota of manpower for the next campaign. According to scholarship, at the peak of the empire, the imperial army could perhaps raise about 100,000

1574:

in 1595, and the rest of the vassals had broken away—de jure or de facto—by 1597. The breakaway state of Toungoo and the western kingdom of Arakan jointly invaded Lower Burma in 1598, and captured Pegu in 1599. The allies thoroughly looted, and burned down the imperial capital, “one of the wonders of

1420:

Despite the setbacks, Tabinshwehti had founded the most powerful polity in Burma since the fall of Pagan in 1287. The king attempted to forge a "Mon–Burman synthesis" by actively courting the support of ethnic Mons of Lower Burma, many of whom were appointed to the highest positions in his government

3211:

Bayinnaung brought Dhammazedi's Sinhalese-style orthodox reforms to lands throughout his domain. Viewing himself as the "model Buddhist king," the king distributed copies of the scriptures, fed monks, and built pagodas at every new conquered state from Upper Burma and Shan states to Lan Na and Siam.

2861:

The low population spread across a comparatively large region meant that the rulers prized manpower more than land. Winners of wars never failed to deport the local population to their capital region where they can be controlled closer. The deportations also deprived the defeated regions of valuable

2857:

Estimates of the population of the empire point to over 6 million. In 1600, the most populous region of the erstwhile empire was Siam (2.5 million), followed by Upper Burma (1.5 million), the Shan high lands (1 million) and Lower Burma (0.5 million)—for a total of at least 5.5 million. Estimates for

2812:

of Lan Xang (r. 1548–72) was assassinated by a local rival. After Bayinnaung, Lower Burma lost the manpower advantage over a far more populous Siam. Ayutthaya's larger, well-equipped armies not only repulsed Nanda's undermanned invasions but also ended up seizing the Tenasserim coast in the process.

2402:

Chronicles say Bayinnaung considered Kotte a protectorate and got involved in the affairs of the island only because the king wished to protect Theravada Buddhism on the island from the Portuguese. He competed with Portuguese Goa for influence on the island with other Ceylonese kingdoms. After 1576,

2312:

own family. The key innovation was that he required sons of his vassal rulers to reside in the palace as pages, who served a dual purpose: they were hostages for good conduct of their fathers and they received valuable training in Burmese court life. His Shan policy was followed by all Burmese kings

2031:

The Pegu court did not possess a centrally run bureaucracy, as Restored Toungoo and Konbaung dynasties would attempt, to administer the vassal states. Unlike in later periods, Pegu even at the height of the empire maintained no permanent military garrisons, or representatives in the vassal states to

1619:

in which the high king ruled the core while semi-independent tributaries, autonomous viceroys, and governors actually controlled day-to-day administration and manpower. The system did not work well even for mid-size kingdoms like Ava and Siam. Now, because of the sheer size of the empire, the system

1602:

Still, in contrast to 250 years of political fragmentation that followed Pagan's collapse, this interregnum proved brief. As ephemeral as the overextended Toungoo Empire was, the underlying forces that underpinned its rise were not. By 1622, a branch of the fallen house (known retrospectively as the

1508:

in the extreme north also revolted in 1571—proved far more difficult. Toungoo armies suffered heavy casualties from disease and starvation in their fruitless annual campaigns in search of elusive bands of rebels. Pegu reestablished some semblance of control over Lan Xang only in 1575 and Mohnyin and

3512:

These were ethnic Mon titles, and the majority of them were likely ethnic Mons. But not all officials with Mon titles were ethnic Mons. For example, per (Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 280), the leader of the 1565 rebellion at Pegu, was styled as Binnya Kyan Htaw but was an ethnic Shan. Similarly, about

3391:

Another key legacy was the 17th-century administrative reforms that addressed the empire's numerous shortcomings. In both Restored Toungoo Burma and Siam, monarchs worked to reduce the power of viceroys and governors. Similarities between Burmese and Siamese reforms “reflected, in part, independent

3387:

The empire marked the end of the period of petty kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia. Not only did the dynasty successfully reunify the Irrawaddy valley for the first time since the late 13th century but it also absorbed the surrounding highlands into the lowland orbit for good. Toungoo came of age

3374:

Maritime trade wealth sustained Pegu's military might, enabling Pegu to pay for Portuguese firearms and mercenaries. Contemporary European travellers reported immense wealth of Pegu during Bayinnaung's reign. By the 1570s, Pegu's “wealth and power were now unequaled”, and regarded by the Portuguese

3322:

The crown closely supervised trade, and collected duties on any trade that touched the coasts of Lower Burma and Siam. At Pegu, overseas trade was in the hands of eight brokers appointed by the king. Their fee was two percent. The crown appointed officials at Mergui, a former Siamese dependency, to

3224:

Many of Bayinnaung's reforms were continued by his successors of the Restored Toungoo Dynasty. The Forest dweller sect virtually disappeared. Over time, Theravada practices became more regionally uniform, the hill regions were drawn into closer contact with the basin in the 17th and 18th centuries.

2807:

Even at the peak of its might, the Toungoo military had the most difficult time controlling remote hill states. They never solved the sheer logistical issues of transporting and feeding large numbers of troops for sustained periods of time. Bayinnaung's persistence in sending troops year after year

1528:

for military aid, he finally sent an elite army in 1576 to Kotte, which he considered a protectorate, ostensibly to protect Theravada Buddhism on the island from the Portuguese threat. Goa considered it was technically at war with Pegu although no war ever broke out. Closer to home, he responded to

1499:

Bayinnaung's authority would be vigorously contested in the following decade. His forces never quite vanquished the Lan Xang resistance in the Laotian hills and jungles, and in 1568, Siam, the most powerful vassal state, revolted. Leveraging the manpower of much of the western and central mainland,

1376:

was assassinated a few months later, and the coalition suddenly ceased to be a coherent force. Tabinshwehti and his court decided to take advantage of the lull, and break out of their increasingly narrow realm by attacking Hanthawaddy, the larger and wealthier but disunited kingdom to the south. In

1116:

This article, for the most part, uses prevailing academic names for place names, not the current official English transliterations in use in Myanmar since 1989. For example, the official English spelling of the city after which the dynasty is named since 1989 has been "Taungoo", replacing the older

3106:

Literacy throughout the empire remained essentially the preserve of the aristocrats and the monks. In the Irrawaddy valley, the system of near-universal village monasteries and male education characteristic of later centuries was not fully yet developed. Unlike in later periods, monks continued to

2915:

Weak or embryonic ethnic identities had broad geopolitical implications. One key result was that patron-client structures often preempted ethnic identity, giving rise to frequent political alliances across ethnic lines. The same phenomenon was also prevalent in states as diverse as Vietnam, Russia

2870:

The First Toungoo Empire was a multi-ethnic society although the concept of ethnicity was still highly fluid, heavily influenced by language, culture, class, locale, and political power. Still, by the 16th century, broad “politicized” ethnic patterns had emerged. In the western mainland, four main

2821:

The First Toungoo dynasty's military organisation and strategy were adapted by its two main successor states: Restored Toungoo and Siam. Restored Toungoo kings used the First Toungoo's formula of greater military experience, modern firearms and (comparatively greater) manpower to partially restore

2295:

Bayinnaung considered control of the Shan states of utmost strategic importance for his hold of the upcountry. Raids by nearby highland Shan states had been an overhanging concern for successive lowland regimes since the 14th century. The most feared were Mohnyin and Mogaung, the twin Shan states,

1075:

The polity is known by a number of names. The prevailing terms used by most international scholars are the "First Toungoo Dynasty"; the "First Toungoo Empire"; and/or the "Second Burmese Empire". In traditional Burmese historiography, however, the period is known as either the "Toungoo–Hanthawaddy

3383:

The First Toungoo Empire left no monumental architecture as the Pagan Empire did. The grandeur of Pegu was forever lost, and is known only from contemporary European accounts. Unlike the Ava period, few literary innovations came out. Its main legacies were political and cultural consolidations in

3331:

annually. Burma also exported finished Indian (and possibly Burmese) textiles as well as spices, gems, and salt to Yunnan. These goods were moved by boat to the upper Irrawaddy, where they were transferred to north-bound trains of oxen and ponies. In the opposite direction flowed Chinese iron and

3243:

also came to settle. The foreign merchants and mercenaries brought their Islam and Roman Catholicism. In the 1550s, the Muslim merchants at Pegu erected what appears to have been their first mosque. The descendants of Muslim and Catholic mercenaries continued to fill the ranks of the army's elite

3606:

Chronicles claim over 500,000 troops for a single campaign. But (Harvey 1925: 333–336) rejects the claim, saying that Bayinnaung at most could have raised 300,000 men, based on the size of the population but such "so high a figure is improbable: he had no transport, and could not have fed them."

3207:

favourite servants and animals were customarily killed and buried with him. Even in predominantly Buddhist lowland Upper Burma, down to the 16th century, animal sacrifices were still regularly performed and distilled liquored was consumed in Buddhist-sanctioned events (often attended by Buddhist

2371:

presumably could have served as the natural border). After 1594, China established eight frontier “Iron Gates” inside Yunnan, which Restored Toungoo kings came to regard as the de facto border. To be sure, Ming China did not view the gates as the extent of its realm, and continued to claim lands

1634:

which had the authority over the entire Irrawaddy basin, was located near the coast. The Toungoo kings retained the traditional three-province structure of the old Hanthawaddy Kingdom; Bayinnaung later annexed the Siamese Province of Mergui into the core administration for its maritime revenues.

1633:

The dynasty's original home was the Toungoo region, with the capital at Toungoo. But from 1539 onward, the High King, styled as “King of Kings”, moved the capital to Pegu (Bago), and governed only what used to be the Hanthawaddy Kingdom. This was the first time in Burmese history that a capital,

1566:

between 1584 and 1593, all of which failed disastrously. With each Siamese victory, other vassals grew more inclined to throw off allegiance and more reluctant to contribute military forces. By the late 1580s and early 1590s, Pegu had to lean ever more heavily on the already modest population of

3395:

As a result of political and economic integration, the cultural norms in the Irrawaddy valley continued to synthesize in the 17th century. More orthodox practices of Theravada Buddhism of Hanthawaddy and Ceylon spread to the upcountry and the Shan states. The Burmese language and customs pushed

2778:

Another key factor was Toungoo's "more martial culture" and "more aggressive leadership". Toungoo was a product of Upper Burma's ceaseless wars of the prior centuries. In the age of rampant gubernatorial revolts, any rulers hoping to rule a kingdom needed to take command of the army. All senior

1594:

Prome attacked Toungoo in 1595. Prome and Ava fought for central Burma in 1596–97. Prome and Toungoo later agreed to attack Ava in 1597 but Toungoo broke off the alliance and attacked Prome in 1597. In the central mainland, Lan Xang and Lan Na went to war in 1595–96 and again in 1598–1603. Siam

1495:

The victories were enabled by a more martial culture and greater military experience of Toungoo armies, Portuguese firearms, and the greater manpower that came with each successive victory. The conquests ended at a stroke, over two centuries of Shan raids into Upper Burma, and "extended lowland

3124:

Low literacy rates notwithstanding, this period saw the continued growth of Burmese literature both in terms of quantity and genres—a trend that began in the Ava period (1364–1555). Chiefly through the efforts of monks and aristocrats, a new generation of chronicles, law codes, and poetry were

1772:

Surrounding the core region were the tributary kingdoms. The vassal rulers were still styled as kings, and were allowed to retain full royal regalia. They were required to send tributes to the crown but they generally had a freehand in the rest of the administration. Pegu generally did not get

1189:

The narrow valley at the southern edge of the dry zone was not easily accessible from Central or Upper Burma; the best access to the region was from the south, via the Sittaung. Its hard-to-reach location would shape much of its early history. In the 14th century, the settlement grew to be the

2894:

Alongside the main politico-ethnicities were several smaller ethnic minority groups. In predominantly Mon-speaking Lower Burma, a sizeable number of Burmans, Karens, and Shans (as well as a host of Europeans, Jews, Armenians, Persians, etc. at key ports) came to settle in this period. Several

2665:

The Toungoo military organisation drew on its Upper Burma precedent. The military was organised into a small standing army of a few thousand, which defended the capital and the palace, and a much larger conscript-based wartime army. The wartime army consisted of infantry, cavalry, elephantry,

2086:. From 1584 onwards except for 1587–93, Nanda pursued a policy of devolution in the upcountry in which Ava's role was essentially eliminated. The direct rule did not work as evidenced by the near total absence of contribution from the Shan states and Manipur towards Pegu's war effort in Siam. 3202:

The state of religious practices in western and central mainland Southeast Asia before the rise of the empire was highly fragmented. In general, the lowland areas were largely—nominally—Theravada Buddhist, and highland regions were a mix of Theravada Buddhist and animist to strictly animist.

2902:

To be sure, the ethnic definitions were loose categorisations. Overarching politico-ethnic identities were still in their early stages of development. In the western mainland, even the so-called major ethnic groups—such as Burmans, Mons, Shans—were themselves divided into rival centres, with

2919:

This is not to say that neither wars nor population movements had little effect. In the Irrawaddy valley, for example, north-to-south migrations "pitted newcomers against established populations and encouraged stereotyping both as an emotional response to an alien presence and as a (perhaps

2656:

The First Toungoo Dynasty was "the most adventurous and militarily successful in the country’s history." It founded the largest empire in Southeast Asia on the back of “breathtaking” military conquests. The success has been attributed to a "more martial culture" of Toungoo, incorporation of

1547:, every new high king had to establish his authority with the vassals all over again. This was already a difficult task when vassals were situated in the same geographic region but nearly impossible with faraway lands, given inherent difficulties in bringing serious warfare to those lands. 1743:

The provinces and their constituent divisions were ruled by vassal rulers, who lived off apanage grants and local taxes. The core region's bureaucracy was a continuation of the old Hanthawaddy court. Most local governors as well as most officials and ministers at the Pegu court—e.g.,

1306:

The setbacks forced Mingyi Nyo to recalibrate his ambitions. He formally declared independence from Ava in 1510 but also withdrew from participating in the internecine warfare. Ava could not and did not take any action. It was facing an existential threat in the ongoing war with the

2409:

The expansive spheres of influence shrank greatly after Bayinnaung's death. Nanda, according to a 1593 inscription, continued to claim his father's realm even after his latest defeat in Siam. In reality, he never had full control of the upcountry, let alone the peripheral states.

2916:

and France during this period. Not surprisingly, all armies and courts of the era consisted of significant minority ethnicities. Frequent cross-ethnic defections "bore no particular stigma." States large and small readily shifted alliances with little regard to ethnic loyalties.

2942:

The First Toungoo society in the Irrawaddy valley followed Pagan and Ava precedents. At the top of the pyramid were the immediate royal family, followed by the upper officialdom made up of extended royal family members. Royalty and officials— known collectively as “rulers” or

3286:

The coastal region instead relied heavily on trade. The main ports were Pegu, Martaban, Tavoy, and Mergui. Products and goods from the interior—rice, and other food stuffs, as well as a variety of luxury goods (rubies, sapphires, musk, lac, benzoin, gold)—were exported to

2321:

According to contemporary sources, Pegu also claimed lands far beyond the princely states as tributaries or protectorates. Scholarship does not accept the claims of control; the states were at least what Pegu considered within its sphere of influence. The claims include:

2731:

troops, and the largest initial troop level for a single campaign was about 70,000. A major weakness of the system was that the vast majority of the potential levy hailed from outside the capital region. In 1581, only 21% of residents within a 200-km radius of Pegu were

2682:

were a class of people, who were exempt from most personal taxes in exchange for regular or military service of the crown. The quotas were fixed until the 17th century, when Restored Toungoo kings instituted variable quotas to take advantage of demographic fluctuations.

1392:

firearms and maritime wealth to pay for them. And Tabinshwehti would quickly exploit these newfound assets for further expansions. By incorporating Portuguese mercenaries, firearms and military tactics as well as experienced former Hanthawaddy military commanders to the

3252:

Agriculture, and maritime trade dominated the economy of the empire. Maritime trade was most prevalent in Lower Burma and southern Siam. Agriculture was dominant in Upper Burma and surrounding highlands. The Ayutthaya region also had a strong agriculture-based economy.

1095:

Furthermore, in international usage, the terms "Toungoo Dynasty/Empire" cover both "First Toungoo Dynasty/Empire" and "Restored Toungoo Dynasty/Empire". Traditional Burmese historiography treats the Restored Toungoo Dynasty/Empire period as a separate era called the

3114:

Burmese orthography continued to follow the antique square format developed for aristocratic stone inscriptions, rather than the cursive format that took hold from the 17th century, when popular writings led to wider use of palm leaves and folded papers known as

1567:

Lower Burma for the debilitating war effort. Able men all over Lower Burma fled military service to become monks, debt slaves, private retainers, or refugees in nearby kingdoms. As more cultivators fled, rice prices in Lower Burma reached unheard of levels.

2690:

dates only from 1605 but the organizational structure of the earlier First Toungoo era is likely to be similar, if not essentially the same. A 1605 royal order decreed that each regiment shall consist of 1000 foot soldiers under 100 company leaders called

1371:

The initial impetus for Toungoo's military campaigns was defensive. The landlocked state was being encircled by the powerful Confederation, which by 1533 had defeated its erstwhile ally Prome. Fortunately for Toungoo, the Confederation's paramount leader

1368:. Though Arakan would become a power in its own right, its geographic isolation meant it would remain a marginal player in mainland affairs. This left the tiny Toungoo, which would bring war to much of mainland Southeast Asia till the end of the century. 3315:. In return, Pegu imported Chinese manufactures and spices from Malacca and Sumatra, and Indian textiles from the Indian states; and indeed highly sought after state-of-the-art firearms from the Portuguese. Pegu established maritime links with the 2858:

Lan Na, Lan Xang and Manipur are not known. The size of the population of the empire before the devastating wars of 1584–99 was probably over 6 million. The population of the Pegu capital region, according to a 1581 census, was only about 200,000.

2657:

Portuguese firearms and foreign mercenaries, and larger forces. But even at its peak, the vaunted Toungoo military had trouble dealing with guerrilla warfare, and faced severe logistic issues in suppressing rebellions in remote hill states.

3476:(Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 103–106): Though Toungoo stayed out of the warfare, for the most part, it continued to aid Ava's enemies. It even seized Yamethin and Taungdwin in March 1523. But Ava counterattacked and retook the lands in early 1526. 2538: 3485:

The province was annexed at least by 1568 per (Maha Yazawin Vol. 2 2006: 295) when the governor of Tenasserim built a gate at the new Pegu city. Since the construction of the city began in 1565, the annexation may have taken place in

3629:(r. 1426–39) celebrated their king’s access by sacrificing horses and cattle to the Mahagiri spirit. Still in Upper Burma, down to the 16th century, forest dweller monks presided over land-transfer rituals in which distilled liquor ( 3208:

abbots and the royalty). Even in Lower Burma, where Theravada Buddhist practices had become more orthodox since the 1480s, "monastic practices were deficient by later standards, and spirit propitiation was a dominant local concern."

3530:

Pegu kept Prome and Toungoo, traditional vassal states of Ava, as separate kingdoms. It also annexed Tennaserim from Siam to Hanthawaddy. The court also placed much contested regions between Lan Na and Lan Xang under the Chiang Mai

3457:

See (Lieberman 2003), (Myint-U 2006), (Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012). Even historians such as Michael Aung-Thwin and Thant Myint-U, who use Myanmar to refer to the country, nonetheless use older terms such as Ava, Toungoo, Pegu,

3216:

at Pegu in his orthodox Theravada Buddhism in the name of purifying the religion. He prohibited all human and animal sacrifices throughout the kingdom. The ban also extended to the foreign settlers’ animal sacrifices such as the

3212:

Some of the pagodas are still to be seen, and in later ages the Burmese would point to them as proof of their claim to rule those countries still. Following in the footsteps of Dhammazedi, he supervised mass ordinations at the

3107:

staff the modest royal secretariats of the regional courts, and most of the Burmese (and certainly Pali) literature of the era were produced by the aristocrats and the clergy. Because scribal talent remained rare, the cost of

3597:(Harvey 1925: 172–173) Bayinnaung had been greatly concerned about the Portuguese effect on the health of Theravada Buddhism since the Portuguese Archbishop of Goa grounded the Buddha Tooth Relic of Ceylon to powder in 1561. 1057:

The First Toungoo Empire marked the end of the period of petty kingdoms in mainland Southeast Asia. Although the overextended empire proved ephemeral, the forces that underpinned its rise were not. Its two main successor

2040:(r. 1555–84) kept their kingdoms peaceful for the High King they were loyal to: Bayinnaung. The downside was that the able rulers were also the most likely to revolt when the High King was not Bayinnaung; and they did. 1117:

spelling of Toungoo; likewise, the older spellings such as Ava, Pegu, Martaban are now Inwa, Bago and Mottama; and so on. However, the changes have not been adopted in international publications on Burmese history.

3447:

Some historians of Burmese origin have used “Toungoo Dynasty” in English language publications to mean just the First Toungoo period as used in Burmese historiography. See (Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012: 129) for

2082:(တိုင်း)). During Bayinnaung's reign, Ava served as the intermediary between Pegu and the hill states. But in Nanda's reign, the court became concerned by the overly close relationship between Thado Minsaw and the 3052:

Royal servicemen who worked a specified period each year (possibly six months) for the crown. They were normally prevented from leaving their village except to perform corvees or military services. Similar to the

3399:

The memories of the First Toungoo Empire still loom large not just in Myanmar but also in Thailand and Laos. In Myanmar, Tabinshwehti's and Bayinnaung's exploits are widely recounted in schoolbooks. According to

2779:

princes of the House of Toungoo received a military style education since childhood, and were expected to take the field in person. Several Toungoo leaders of the era, including Tabinshwehti, Bayinnaung, Nanda,

2418:

In Bayinnaung's reign, the king introduced a measure of legal uniformity by summoning learned monks and officials from all over dominions to prescribe an official collection of law books. The scholars compiled

1194:

had little control over it. Usurpers routinely seized office by assassinating the governor—in 1325, 1344 and 1347—without incurring any reprisals by Pinya. In 1358, Toungoo outright revolted. Pinya's successor

3566:

See the maps in (Harvey 1925: 151) and (Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 44) both of which mark the border with Ming China on the Mekong at Kenghung. Sein Lwin Lay's border goes farther up along the Mekong's than Harvey's.

3326:

Overland trade was principally with China. Burma's principal export to China was cotton. Based on Sun Laichen's analysis of Chinese sources, exports to Yunnan of Burmese raw cotton by c. 1600 had reached 1000

1270:

By the 1490s, Toungoo had grown, and a more confident Nyo began to test the limits of his authority. He built a new “palace”, replete with royal pretensions, in 1491. He then, without Ava's permission, raided

3085:

males on balance were more likely to study for long periods in monasteries, to be knowledgeable in Pali, even Sanskrit; to wear Indian and Chinese textiles, to be familiar with foreign conventions than their

3366:, which an "inordinately bulky medium", and became the standard medium of exchange by the early 17th century. The greater availability of silver greatly aided commercial expansion throughout the empire. 2830:

system in the 1570s—indeed to fulfill Bayinnaung's demands for conscripts. Likewise, the First Toungoo dynasty's military strategy and tactics were likely adopted by Siam's new generation of leadership,

3588:(Yule 1857: 88–89): The "Nine Shan States" (Ko Shan Pyay) paid tribute to both China and Burma down to the 19th century. Only Kaingma (north of Theinni, in China today) was absent from the Chinese list. 2974:

in the Pagan period. Their authority crosscut the territorial jurisdictions of local governors and headmen. They provided the crown with labour on a fixed or rotational basis. Besides military service,

2062:

that ringed the upper Irrawaddy valley (i.e. the Kingdom of Ava) from the Kalay State in the northwest to the Mong Pai State in the southeast. Manipur was not a Shan state, and its ruler styled himself

2633: 2508: 1299:(r. 1501–27) was greeted with a new round of rebellions. By 1502, Mingyi Nyo had already decided to break away despite Narapati's desperate attempt to retain his loyalty by granting the all-important 2583: 2573: 2907:, and most commoners in Ayutthaya, according to an early 16th-century Portuguese observer, still spoke Mon dialects rather than still emerging Siamese, and cut their hair like the Mons of Pegu. 2618: 2613: 2603: 3607:(Lieberman 1984: 98) concurs: "Military mobilizations were probably more of a boast than a realistic estimate. Modern industrial states have difficulty placing 10% of their people under arms." 3579:

says that the extent of Nyaungyan's domain included the Iron Bridge in the east, Siam in the south, the sea coast in the west, and Manipur and northern Shan states (Kachin State) in the north.

2628: 1240:, the general who put down the latest Toungoo rebellion, viceroy-general of the restive province. A distant member of the Ava royalty, Sithu Kyawhtin remained loyal to Thihathura's successor 2548: 2367:

The Province of Sein ("Chinese Province") reportedly included lands beyond Kawsampi (Ko Shan Pyay). The exact border was not mentioned during Bayinnaung's and Nanda's reigns (although the

1529:

the Mughals' 1576 annexation of Bengal by claiming the entire swath of lands in present-day northeast India, as far west as the Ganges and by sending an invasion force to Abakan in 1580.

3098:

was possible but between social classes was "out of the question." What subsequently became known as Siamese language, culture and ethnicity were their more or less exclusive preserve.

2543: 1449:

But the nascent empire fell apart right after Tabinshwehti was assassinated in 1550. Several vassal rulers immediately declared independence, forcing Tabinshwehti's chosen successor

2563: 2484: 2891:(“land of the Rakhines”). Similarly, in the central mainland, nascent politico-ethnic identities of Tai Yuans in Lan Na; Laotians in Lan Xang, and the Siamese in Siam had emerged. 2296:

which led most of the raids. Bayinnaung introduced a key administrative reform, which turned out to be his most important and most enduring of his legacies. The king permitted the

1199:(Inwa) regained Toungoo in 1367 but gubernatorial assassinations continued: 1375, 1376 and 1383, at times with Ava's own permission. Only in 1399 could Ava impose tighter control. 2593: 2553: 2808:

cost an untold number of lives, which at one point caused his senior advisers to murmur loudly. The conqueror king was fortunate that a charismatic guerrilla leader like King

2979:

also supplied the palace with a “variety of specialized services ranging from bird-shooing to perfume-making to the painting of magical signs.” In the late 16th century, the

2934:(obligation). The tradition of cross-ethnic patron-client relationships continued to thrive, albeit at smaller scales, in mainland Southeast Asia down to the 19th century. 2598: 2513: 2678:, "crown service") system, which required local chiefs to supply their predetermined quota of men from their jurisdiction on the basis of population in times of war. The 3544:

was a costly exception. Pegu kept a garrison there throughout the 1560s and 1570s when the garrison was not overrun (1568, and 1571/72), or kept out (1568–69; 1572–74).

1496:

control much farther than Pagan had dreamed possible:" Pegu now “exercised suzerainty from Manipur to the Cambodian marches and from the borders of Arakan to Yunnan.”

581: 567: 553: 539: 514: 500: 486: 472: 458: 444: 430: 2075:", and treated Manipur as another princely state, albeit a major one. Two other major states were Kengtung and Mogaung, whose rulers retained the full royal regalia. 2623: 1030:

then greatly expanded the empire, conquering much of mainland Southeast Asia by 1565. He spent the next decade keeping the empire intact, putting down rebellions in

5376: 3362:) to the 1560s. But New World silver began arriving via the Spanish Philippines and India in the last centuries of the 16th century, and silver gradually overtook 3203:

Pre-Buddhist rituals remained part and parcel of accepted religious practices throughout the mainland. For example, on the Shan highlands, as late as 1557, Shan

7890: 3017:

Private bondsmen who owed labour only to monasteries and temples but not to the crown. They paid no taxes, and could not be conscripted into military service.

2970:

Royal servicemen who received land grants from the crown, and were exempt from most personal taxes in exchange for regular military service. They were called

2947:—were "divided into numerous sub-grades, each with its own sumptuary insignia". The majority of the people belonged to one of four broad group of commoners ( 2477: 3557:

in 1579 after Mughals' annexation of Bengal in 1575–76. The 1580–81 Toungoo invasion of Arakan may have been in response to the Moghul takeover of Bengal.

7885: 3278:

rice, as in Meiktila, Yamethin and Myingyan districts. Cotton was Burma's principal export commodity to China, and drove domestic handicraft industry.

3081:

In both sectors of the empire, the society was deeply stratified: the division between the elite and the commoners was stark. In the Irrawaddy valley,

2352:. Chronicles say rulers of Cachar, Calcutta, and Golkonda paid tribute. The expansive claims may have been Bayinnaung's attempt to check the advancing 2002: 2727:), and all must be equipped with weapons including guns and cannon. A typical 17th-century regiment was armed with 10 cannon, 100 guns and 300 bows. 3273:—as had been the case since the 13th century. Lower Burma's agriculture was not well developed—less than 10% of the acreage of the mid-1930s in the 765: 2470: 1615:

The Toungoo Empire was “in theory and fact, a poly-ethnic political formation.” The Toungoo kings largely employed then prevailing Southeast Asian

3158:

In the Chao Phraya valley, literacy in Siamese, not to mention Pali, were strictly the domain of the elite. Monastic education for the commoners (

2666:

artillery and naval units. The navy was mainly river-borne, and used mostly for transportation of troops and cargo. Conscription was based on the

1591:

Even before the fall of Pegu, the breakaway states of the empire had been engaged in a series of “confused, many-sided wars” since the mid-1590s.

1938: 1340:

The period between 1526 and 1533 saw power change hands in all of the major states of Burma. Three of the states were succeeded by weak rulers:

7860: 2007: 6719: 1409:, however, fell short. In both campaigns, Toungoo forces won all major open battles but could not overcome the heavily fortified defences of 1599:(r. 1590–1605). Ava conquered Prome (1608), Toungoo (1610), Portuguese Syriam (1613), Siamese Martaban and Tavoy (1613), and Lan Na (1614). 1210:

raids in the second half of the 14th century, and both southern vassal states had emerged as new centres of economic activity as well as of

1190:

principal city of the frontier region, which remained a lawless place. Toungoo's first rebellion of 1317–18 failed but its nominal overlord

7910: 7855: 3233:

Various animist practices remained alive and well, not just hill regions but even in the lowlands. Bayinnaung's attempts to rid of animist

1500:

he managed to defeat the Siamese rebellion with great difficulty in 1569. Yet defeating the guerrilla resistance at the remote hill states—

940: 2210: 1275:

territory, during the southern kingdom's succession crisis. It was a disaster: Toungoo barely survived the 1495–96 counterattack by King

2022: 3540:

Pegu maintained garrisons only for short durations: e.g., at Chiang Mai (1558–59, 1564–65), at Ayutthaya (1569–70), at Ava (1593–97).

1003:" and was "probably the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia." The "most adventurous and militarily successful" dynasty in 7905: 7865: 2518: 2372:

beyond the gates. Chinese records show that eight out of nine states of Ko Shan Pyay paid tribute to China down to the 19th century.

2033: 1973: 1616: 1544: 1385: 1381:(Bago) and the Irrawaddy delta. In 1539, Tabinshwehti moved the capital to Pegu where it would remain until the end of the century. 40: 5760: 5611: 3191:(Mahavihara school of Ceylon) to Upper Burma and the Shan States. The Toungoo reforms were modelled after those instituted by King 7900: 5780: 3007:

Bondsmen who owed labour to individual patron, and outside of royal obligation. The debt was not hereditary. They paid no taxes.

2588: 2233: 853: 803: 5211: 1062:

and Ayutthaya Siam—went on to dominate western and central mainland Southeast Asia, respectively, down to the mid-18th century.

6240: 5967: 1054:

never gained the full support of the vassal rulers, and presided over the empire's precipitous collapse in the next 18 years.

7672: 7054: 5402: 5366: 5158: 5139: 2608: 2578: 2568: 2558: 2533: 2528: 1563: 1406: 1402: 1140:

A depiction of old Toungoo (Taungoo) from a later period, though the 14th-century Toungoo might not have been much different.

2308:

could now be removed by the king for gross misconduct although the king's choice of successor was limited to members of the

7895: 5986: 5795: 7578: 5905: 5790: 5770: 5276:

Huxley, Andrew (2012). "Lord Kyaw Thu's Precedent: a Sixteenth Century Law Report". In Paul Dresch; Hannah Skoda (eds.).

3633:) was consumed, and cattle, pigs, and fowls were slaughtered. Princes and even Buddhist abbots attended these ceremonies. 3575:(Than Tun Vol. 1 1983: 18–19, 181–182): The royal order dated 14 November 1598 (1st waning of Tazaungmon 960 ME) by King 2799:, this was a key factor that enabled a western mainland polity "to conquer the central mainland rather than vice versa". 2458: 847: 2494: 7724: 6724: 6008: 5859: 3344:. According to European company records, non-barter trade was chiefly conducted in lumps of copper-lead alloys called 7880: 6368: 5514: 5492: 5461: 5433: 5344: 5308: 5285: 5200: 5181: 3133: 2523: 1959: 1398: 6117: 3500: 933: 841: 835: 1377:

1534, Toungoo forces began annual raids into Hanthawaddy territory. They finally broke through in 1538, capturing

809: 7350: 6112: 3180: 6512: 2997:

The commoners who did not live on royal land. They paid substantial taxes but owed no regular military service.

1042:. From 1576 onwards, he declared a large sphere of influence in westerly lands—trans-Manipur states, Arakan and 7875: 5874: 5755: 2788: 1862: 1753: 5785: 3094:

like the aristocrats in Lan Xang and Lan Na "were a kind of a caste." Marriage between capital and provincial

7850: 7788: 6051: 5996: 5839: 1857: 1279:(r. 1492–1526). At Ava, Minkhaung ignored Nyo's transgressions for he needed Nyo's support against Yamethin. 1168:—founded a new settlement of 370 households, about 40 km farther south. It was named Toungoo (Taungoo) ( 1153: 2983:

system broke down as people fled to avoid military service. Early Restored Toungoo kings had to rebuild the

7783: 7667: 6127: 6071: 5979: 5940: 5925: 5879: 5854: 5750: 5725: 5604: 2784: 1899: 1852: 1308: 859: 815: 773: 7793: 6830: 6260: 6185: 6085: 6046: 5844: 5819: 3428: 2871:

politico-ethnic groups had emerged—Mons in the region south of 18:30N, known in contemporary writings as

1252:(1481) and Prome (1482). Sithu Kyawhtin died in action at Yamethin in 1481, and was succeeded by his son 926: 893: 878: 873: 829: 2387:

paid tribute. According to Harvey, Annam and Cambodia may have paid “propitiatory homage”. According to

6265: 6152: 5581: 5359:

Strange Parallels: Southeast Asia in Global Context, c. 800–1830, volume 1, Integration on the Mainland

2748:

One crucial factor in Toungoo's success was the army's early adoption of Portuguese firearms (arquebus

1442: 1394: 692: 7870: 7751: 6899: 6463: 6003: 5864: 5849: 5824: 2987:

system from ground up by deporting large number of prisoners to lowland areas, close to the capital.

1760:. The word used by European visitors to describe a court official was semini, Italian translation of 1260: 1237: 1206:(Pyay), had received waves of Burmese-speaking migrants, driven out of Upper Burma by the successive 1131: 5212:"The Flight of Lao War Captives from Burma back to Laos in 1596: A Comparison of Historical Sources" 1356:(r. 1533–42) at Ava (Confederation). Two of the states were succeeded by ambitious and able rulers: 1295:

Toungoo's inevitable break with Ava came soon after the death of Minkhaung II in 1501. The new king

7709: 7684: 7534: 7193: 7188: 6317: 5962: 5834: 5572:, Capt. Henry (1857). Dr. Norton Shaw (ed.). "On the Geography of Burma and Its Tributary States". 3423: 3187:

An enduring legacy of the First Toungoo Dynasty was the introduction of a more orthodox version of

2772: 2159: 2103: 898: 162: 7776: 7657: 7198: 7151: 7094: 6793: 6737: 6485: 6275: 6147: 6102: 6041: 5930: 5910: 5597: 3521:

of the Restored Hanthawaddy, despite their Mon titles, were ethnic Burman and Shan, respectively.

3496: 2445:

in Siam began in his reign. He also standardised the weights and measurements such as the cubit,

2356:. Later Restored Toungoo kings claimed only to Manipur, which they never controlled in any case. 1894: 1817: 984: 883: 3261:

In the western mainland, the three principal irrigated regions were all located in Upper Burma:

7798: 7699: 7694: 7382: 7330: 7250: 7183: 7087: 7072: 6965: 6732: 6686: 6527: 6414: 6036: 5935: 1993: 133: 7729: 7689: 7502: 7377: 6441: 6431: 6390: 6361: 6200: 6180: 5915: 5745: 5658: 3274: 2926:, or World Ruler, par excellence, and formed personal relationships based on the concepts of 791: 618: 7617: 7822: 7652: 7622: 7497: 7428: 7399: 6652: 6490: 6480: 6270: 6132: 6107: 6066: 5991: 5952: 5920: 5807: 5412: 3514: 1963: 1847: 1253: 7602: 3332:

copper vessels, weapons, tea, and silk as well as copper and silver from Yunnanese mines.

8: 7514: 7394: 7360: 7262: 7082: 7077: 6889: 6608: 6544: 6419: 6404: 6280: 6137: 5893: 5869: 5703: 3240: 3196: 3127: 2780: 2037: 1919: 1915: 1812: 1512:

No sooner than the Tai-Shan world finally became quiet, the king turned his attention to

1272: 1215: 733: 684: 449: 7230: 7220: 1429: 1319: 987:

in the second half of the 16th century. At its peak, Toungoo "exercised suzerainty from

7627: 7607: 7590: 7541: 7406: 7215: 7166: 7099: 7017: 6958: 6953: 6948: 6904: 6874: 6766: 6664: 6532: 6507: 6335: 6245: 6162: 6061: 6024: 5974: 5829: 5775: 5708: 5650: 5624: 5169: 3188: 2687: 2649: 1997: 1989: 1722: 1698: 1004: 996: 888: 797: 745: 666: 634: 600: 5327:(in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (2006, 4th printing ed.). Yangon: Ya-Pyei Publishing. 3125:

written in vernacular Burmese, or in addition to Pali. Some of the chronicles such as

3111:

transcriptions as late as 1509 may not have been much lower than in the 13th century.

7736: 7632: 7568: 7563: 7492: 7389: 7104: 7032: 7027: 6869: 6798: 6781: 6776: 6771: 6571: 6522: 6324: 6230: 6205: 6122: 5678: 5510: 5488: 5480: 5457: 5429: 5398: 5362: 5340: 5304: 5281: 5226: 5196: 5177: 5154: 5135: 3148: 3143:, first pioneered in the Ava period, flourished. Indeed, some of the most well-known 2255: 1951: 1654: 1485: 1389: 1349: 1233: 1031: 703: 546: 491: 106: 5234: 2403:

Goa considered it was technically at war with Burma for her interference in Ceylon.

7585: 7372: 7367: 7323: 7310: 7240: 7208: 7203: 7067: 7062: 7044: 7005: 6938: 6921: 6862: 6852: 6847: 6788: 6744: 6714: 6674: 6657: 6640: 6603: 6354: 6305: 6255: 6250: 6225: 6210: 6190: 6142: 6097: 5947: 5730: 5502: 5354: 5332: 3418: 3358: 3296: 2822:

the empire in the following two decades. Likewise, Siam's military service system,

2796: 2645: 2442: 2195: 1884: 1604: 1571: 1525: 1521: 1513: 1414: 1300: 1157: 1097: 1059: 967: 958: 779: 157: 82: 5301:

Southeast Asia: a historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, Volume 2

7803: 7771: 7644: 7612: 7595: 7551: 7546: 7524: 7519: 7477: 7470: 7445: 7305: 7300: 7141: 7022: 6916: 6911: 6879: 6704: 6694: 6588: 6581: 6576: 6561: 6517: 6399: 6385: 6235: 6215: 5713: 5688: 5663: 3413: 2214: 2179: 1968: 1943: 1801: 1735: 1726: 1365: 1296: 1227: 753: 713: 638: 624: 574: 532: 519: 7225: 5254: 7746: 7741: 7704: 7679: 7662: 7573: 7558: 7529: 7487: 7335: 7295: 7290: 7245: 7171: 7131: 7121: 7111: 6926: 6805: 6699: 6566: 6448: 6329: 6195: 6170: 5740: 5693: 5668: 3316: 2767: 2122: 1843: 1797: 1249: 1175: 916: 719: 657: 101: 2462: 1550: 608: 7844: 7827: 7714: 7509: 7482: 7455: 7433: 7411: 7178: 7161: 7146: 6990: 6943: 6931: 6857: 6749: 6623: 6618: 6593: 6475: 6220: 5765: 5698: 5683: 5673: 5390: 5230: 3626: 3576: 3401: 3304: 3139: 3108: 2899:

of Ayutthaya hosted significant communities of Bengalis, Arabs and Persians.

2809: 2353: 2017: 2012: 1839: 1829: 1745: 1711: 1673: 1517: 1458: 1276: 1149: 1145: 1023: 725: 707: 697: 678: 121: 93: 69: 7255: 7235: 1520:

in the west. In response to competing requests by the Ceylonese kingdoms of

1144:

The earliest known record of administration of the region dates to the late

1010:

The empire grew out of the principality of Toungoo, a minor vassal state of

7719: 7460: 7450: 7416: 7345: 7340: 7267: 7057: 7039: 7000: 6995: 6975: 6970: 6842: 6835: 6825: 6820: 6815: 6709: 6647: 6628: 6613: 6549: 6175: 6056: 5381: 5323: 5296: 3235: 3152: 3042:

Tax-exempt administrative elite in the capital and administrative centres.

2922: 2836: 2792: 2753: 2446: 2146: 1927: 1731: 1583: 1357: 1333: 1241: 1015: 647: 248: 197: 145: 113: 97: 2078:

For administrative purposes, the court grouped the states into provinces (

1287: 1263:

to be assassinated in office. The assassin was none other than his nephew

7438: 7423: 7272: 6985: 6894: 6884: 6810: 6458: 6453: 5735: 3518: 3218: 2887:(“land of the Shans”); and Rakhines in the western coastal region called 2287: 2270: 2224:

Kaingma, Maing Maw, Mowun, Latha, Hotha, Sanda, Mona, Maing Lyin, Sigwin

2059: 1923: 1878: 1874: 1833: 1702: 1677: 1559: 1465: 1378: 1207: 1196: 1136: 1051: 1047: 1039: 1014:

until 1510. The landlocked petty state began its rise in the 1530s under

1011: 739: 463: 435: 272: 126: 2896: 7465: 7282: 7156: 7116: 7049: 5569: 5548: 5385:(in Burmese). Vol. 1–3 (2nd ed.). Yangon: Ya-Pyei Publishing. 3192: 3067:

Commoners with no obligation to the crown. They vastly outnumbered the

2433: 2388: 2279: 2266: 2250: 2190: 2174: 2126: 1889: 1757: 1532: 1450: 1388:

by 1541, gaining complete control of Lower Burma's manpower, access to

1345: 1264: 1183: 1165: 1161: 1027: 260: 236: 1433:

Major military campaigns and the expansion of Toungoo Empire (1550–65)

1244:(r. 1480–1501), who was greeted with a wave of rebellions by lords of 7355: 7126: 7010: 6980: 6761: 6635: 6426: 5264: 5193:

Seventeenth-century Burma and the Dutch East India Company, 1634–1680

3541: 3396:

outward of Upper Burma in all directions in the following centuries.

2749: 2300:

to retain their feudal rights over their subjects. The office of the

2135: 1756:, Binnya Law, Daw Binnya, Binnya Kyan Htaw—were most probably ethnic 1749: 1694: 1663: 1477: 1353: 1341: 1179: 181: 5447:(in Burmese) (2006, 2nd printing ed.). Yangon: Yan Aung Sarpay. 2348:

The Province of Tammaleitta reportedly stretched as far west as the

2048:

A rank below the vassal kingdoms were the princely states, ruled by

1174:, "Hill's Spur") because of its location by the hills in the narrow 6756: 6539: 6497: 6436: 5957: 5589: 5536: 5524: 3270: 3117: 2879:(“land of the Mons”); Burmans in the region north of 18.30N called 2832: 2283: 2239: 1981: 1683: 1596: 1489: 1481: 1327: 1245: 1035: 992: 560: 505: 202: 150: 5509:. Vol. 2 (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. 5176:. Translated by Aung Thein (2001 ed.). Bangkok: White Lotus. 2313:

right up to the final fall of the kingdom to the British in 1885.

6669: 6598: 6554: 6409: 5620: 5337:

Burmese Administrative Cycles: Anarchy and Conquest, c. 1580–1760

3312: 3300: 3292: 3288: 3262: 2735:(whereas in 1650 in the Restored Toungoo period, over 40% of the 2384: 2218: 2155: 2151: 2108: 2055: 1707: 1659: 1570:

The empire's precipitous collapse ensued. Siam seized the entire

1505: 1501: 1473: 1462: 1454: 1410: 1361: 1214:(Bamar) culture. Toungoo's growth continued especially after the 1019: 988: 286: 192: 64: 6470: 6502: 6377: 5318: 5134:(illustrated ed.). Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. 3308: 3175: 2756: 2428: 2368: 2349: 2342: 2275: 2206: 2050: 1933: 1907: 1469: 1373: 1043: 1000: 477: 138: 54: 5473:

Siam; Or, the History of the Thais: From 1569 A.D. to 1824 A.D

3553:(Phayre 1967: 118–119): Bayinnaung sent an embassy to Emperor 7136: 3554: 3328: 3266: 2163: 2131: 1437: 1211: 1191: 207: 5129: 3495:

One exception was that the Martaban Province had a viceroy,

1809:

Tammadipa (Ava, Pagan, Pinya, Myinsaing, Nyaungyan, Pakhan)

1554:

Portrait of Burmese nobility painted by Qing dynasty in 1751

5259:. London: Frank Cass & Co. Ltd – via archive.org. 3341: 1587:

The restored Taungoo dynasty, or Nyaungyan dynasty, c. 1650

1203: 401: 397: 6346: 5256:

History of Burma: From the Earliest Times to 10 March 1824

5174:

Our Wars with the Burmese: Thai–Burmese Conflict 1539–1767

2883:(“land of the Burmans”); Shans in the hill regions called 5564:(in Burmese) (2011, 3rd ed.). Yangon: Khit-Pya Taik. 5445:

Mintaya Shwe Hti and Bayinnaung: Ketumadi Taungoo Yazawin

5423: 5167: 5424:

Ratchasomphan (Sænluang.) (1994). David K. Wyatt (ed.).

3137:

have survived to this day. A new form of poetry, called

2413: 1050:, declined soon after his death in 1581. His successor 1401:

from the Confederation by 1545. The campaigns against

2910: 2437:. The decisions given in his court were collected in 5151:

History of the Shan State: From Its Origins to 1962

5130:Aung-Thwin, Michael A.; Maitrii Aung-Thwin (2012). 5636: 5454:The Kingdoms of Laos: Six Hundred Years of History 5271:. New York and London: Cambridge University Press. 5067: 5065: 5063: 5017: 5015: 5013: 4819: 4817: 4259: 4257: 3384:both western and central mainland Southeast Asia. 3147:poets such as Shin Htwe Hla, Yaza Thara, Nawaday, 2686:The earliest extant record of organisation of the 5092: 4831: 4829: 4514: 4512: 4510: 1160:. In 1279, two great-grandsons of Ananda Thuriya— 7842: 5451: 4646: 3625:(Lieberman 2003: 135–136): The soldiers of King 5060: 5010: 4992: 4940: 4938: 4928: 4926: 4924: 4814: 4678: 4676: 4630: 4628: 4588: 4586: 4584: 4254: 2492: 1331:King Tabinshwehti depicted as the Tabinshwehti 5395:The River of Lost Footsteps—Histories of Burma 5195:(illustrated ed.). Singapore: NUS Press. 4826: 4805: 4507: 4386: 4384: 4382: 4380: 4352: 4350: 4328: 4326: 4107: 4105: 4061: 4059: 4057: 4055: 4053: 4006: 4004: 3677: 3675: 3673: 3671: 7891:States and territories disestablished in 1599 6362: 5605: 5574:The Journal of the Royal Geographical Society 5442: 5083: 4726: 4402: 3731: 3729: 3701: 3699: 3689: 3687: 3661: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3653: 3651: 3649: 3349: 3090:counterparts. In the Chao Phraya valley, the 2720: 2708: 2696: 2671: 2478: 1169: 1101: 1085: 1077: 934: 7819:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy 5559: 5101: 4974: 4965: 4947: 4935: 4921: 4912: 4903: 4894: 4703: 4694: 4673: 4625: 4581: 4470: 4468: 4197: 4022: 4020: 4018: 4016: 3926: 3811: 45:Toungoo Empire at its greatest extent (1580) 5053: 5051: 4878: 4876: 4874: 4864: 4862: 4852: 4850: 4798: 4796: 4794: 4792: 4782: 4780: 4768: 4752: 4750: 4740: 4738: 4719: 4717: 4715: 4618: 4616: 4604: 4574: 4572: 4377: 4347: 4323: 4293: 4211: 4209: 4188: 4158: 4123: 4102: 4050: 4001: 3953: 3935: 3917: 3892: 3668: 3239:worship from Buddhism failed. Adherents of 2802: 1623: 1221: 1018:who went on to found the largest polity in 7886:States and territories established in 1510 6369: 6355: 5612: 5598: 5547: 5479: 5456:(illustrated ed.). Psychology Press. 5375: 4544: 4542: 4540: 4538: 4528: 4526: 4524: 4491: 4489: 4340: 4338: 4307: 4305: 4172: 4170: 4151: 4149: 4147: 4137: 4135: 4095: 4093: 4091: 4089: 4087: 4085: 4075: 4073: 4071: 3994: 3992: 3980: 3971: 3910: 3908: 3906: 3904: 3804: 3802: 3800: 3798: 3726: 3696: 3684: 3646: 3101: 2485: 2471: 2067:(king). Nevertheless, Pegu classified the 1564:five major punitive campaigns against Siam 1441:Statue of King Bayinnaung in front of the 1125: 941: 927: 39: 5529:The Royal Orders of Burma, A.D. 1598–1885 5353: 5331: 5263: 5209: 4655: 4465: 4013: 3874: 3856: 3838: 3829: 3820: 3786: 3743: 3741: 5535: 5523: 5379:(2012) . Kyaw Win; Thein Hlaing (eds.). 5148: 5132:A History of Myanmar Since Ancient Times 5074: 5048: 5024: 5001: 4983: 4956: 4871: 4859: 4847: 4838: 4789: 4777: 4759: 4747: 4735: 4712: 4685: 4664: 4637: 4613: 4595: 4569: 4560: 4551: 4266: 4227: 4206: 4034: 4032: 3750: 3174: 2766: 2644: 1607:(1752–1885) well into the 19th century. 1582: 1549: 1436: 1428: 1326: 1318: 1291:Political map of Burma (Myanmar) in 1530 1286: 1135: 7643: 5531:. Vol. 1. Kyoto: Kyoto University. 5507:The Cambridge History of Southeast Asia 5501: 5389: 5110: 4885: 4732:Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012: 132-133 4535: 4521: 4498: 4486: 4477: 4456: 4429: 4411: 4393: 4368: 4335: 4302: 4284: 4245: 4179: 4167: 4144: 4132: 4114: 4082: 4068: 4041: 3989: 3962: 3944: 3901: 3883: 3795: 3681:Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012: 137–138 3023:A similar system was in place in Siam. 2383:Chronicles claim states as far east as 2316: 2304:remained hereditary. But the incumbent 1026:by 1550. His more celebrated successor 7843: 5562:Research Dictionary of Burmese History 5553:Aspects of Myanmar History and Culture 5411: 5275: 5252: 5044:. Oxford University Press. p. 74. 5039: 4447: 4438: 4420: 4359: 4314: 3865: 3847: 3777: 3768: 3759: 3738: 3717: 3708: 2842: 2826:, was reorganised, modelled after the 1873:Eastern central Myanmar (northeastern 1617:administrative model of solar polities 7861:Former countries in Cambodian history 6350: 5593: 5470: 5419:(1967 ed.). London: Susil Gupta. 5294: 4275: 4236: 4218: 4029: 3735:Lieberman 1984: transcriptions, dates 3357: 2852: 2771:Statue of Bayinnaung in front of the 2466: 2439:Hanthawaddy Hsinbyumyashin Hpyat-hton 2414:Legal and commercial standardisations 1070: 966: 6312: 5619: 5568: 5543:(in Burmese). Yangon: Gangaw Myaing. 5317: 5190: 3826:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 28–30, 33–35, 37 1545:Southeast Asian administrative model 1323:Toungoo military campaigns (1534–47) 16:16th-century Southeast Asian kingdom 7911:Former monarchies of Southeast Asia 7856:Former countries in Burmese history 5771:State Peace and Development Council 5539:(2011). "23. Nga Zinga and Thida". 5280:. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 4661:Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012: 131 3756:Aung-Thwin and Aung-Thwin 2012: 143 3499:between 1552 and 1556 and another, 3340:The Toungoo empire had no official 3170: 2459:Military history of Toungoo Dynasty 1543:In the tradition of the prevailing 1538: 1084:), or simply the "Toungoo Period" ( 13: 5452:Simms, Peter; Sanda Simms (2001). 5278:Legalism: Anthropology and History 3228: 2911:Effects of fluid ethnic identities 2762: 2703:), 10 battalion commanders called 2043: 14: 7922: 5443:Sein Lwin Lay, Kahtika U (1968). 5415:, Lt. Gen. Sir Arthur P. (1883). 4203:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 112–113 4194:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 97, 112 3134:Hanthawaddy Hsinbyushin Ayedawbon 2937: 2594:Nyaungyan Restoration (1599–1626) 2539:Central and Lower Burma (1551–52) 1282: 7906:Early modern history of Thailand 7866:Former countries in Thai history 6323: 6311: 6300: 6299: 5033: 3619: 3610: 3179:Wat Phu Khao Thong just outside 2865: 995:marches and from the borders of 910: 607: 579: 565: 551: 537: 512: 498: 484: 470: 456: 442: 428: 5219:SOAS Bulletin of Burma Research 5153:. Chiang Mai: Silk Worm Books. 5122: 4026:Yazawin Thit Vol. 2 2012: lxxxx 3986:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 48–50 3977:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 44–45 3600: 3591: 3582: 3569: 3560: 3547: 3534: 3524: 3513:two hundred years later, kings 3506: 3489: 3479: 3470: 3461: 3451: 2862:manpower with which to revolt. 2660: 2449:, basket throughout the realm. 1807:Thunaparana (Sagaing, Tagaung) 1461:world to tributary status: cis- 1046:. The empire, held together by 1007:was also the "shortest-lived." 7901:1599 disestablishments in Asia 5582:The Royal Geographical Society 5361:. Cambridge University Press. 5339:. Princeton University Press. 5210:Fernquest, Jon (Spring 2005). 5042:The Ottoman Age of Exploration 3817:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 30, 33, 34 3441: 3256: 2054:(chiefs, princes). Except for 1956:Central and Southern Thailand 1628: 1259:In 1485, Min Sithu became the 1111: 1: 5485:Historical Dictionary of Laos 5475:. Vol. 2. Decatur Press. 5471:Smith, Ronald Bishop (1966). 5397:. Farrar, Straus and Giroux. 4272:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 128 3640: 3369: 3025: 2953: 2847: 2324: 2088: 1775: 1636: 1610: 1360:(r. 1530–50) at Toungoo, and 1344:(r. 1526–39) at Hanthawaddy; 1202:By then, Toungoo, along with 1065: 319:• Independence from Ava 5980:State Administration Council 5726:Restored Hanthawaddy Kingdom 4652:Lieberman 2003: 267–268, 271 4185:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 96 4038:Maha Yazawin Vol. 3 2006: 76 3932:Hmannan Vol. 2 2003: 220–222 1986:Laos, Northeastern Thailand 1578: 1424: 1309:Confederation of Shan States 983:) was the dominant power in 7: 7896:1510 establishments in Asia 6376: 5781:2011–2015 political reforms 5172:(1928). Chris Baker (ed.). 4408:Than Tun Vol. 1 1983: 18–19 3429:Military history of Myanmar 3407: 3378: 3335: 3165: 2951:lit. “people of poverty”). 2743: 2496:Wars of the Taungoo dynasty 2452: 2138:, Myet-Hna-Me (Chin Hills) 1767: 1352:(r. 1532–39) at Prome; and 1048:patron-client relationships 10: 7927: 5040:Casale, Giancarlo (2010). 3247: 2624:Manipuri raids (1724–1749) 2456: 1399:seized up to Pagan (Bagan) 1386:conquer all of Lower Burma 1225: 1129: 1120: 7812: 7764: 7281: 6685: 6384: 6295: 6161: 6093: 6084: 6032: 6023: 5901: 5892: 5815: 5806: 5649: 5637:Myanmar is also known as 5635: 5631: 4215:Ratchasomphan 1994: 68–69 3880:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 66–67 3862:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 59–61 3844:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 51–52 3835:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 37–38 3792:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 23–25 3350: 3155:hailed from this period. 3031: 3028: 2959: 2956: 2816: 2721: 2715:) and 1 commander called 2709: 2697: 2672: 2504: 2333: 2330: 2327: 2097: 2094: 2091: 2036:(r. 1569–90) of Siam and 1828:Western central Myanmar ( 1787: 1784: 1781: 1778: 1645: 1642: 1639: 1261:eleventh ruler of Toungoo 1170: 1152:(r. 1174–1211) appointed 1132:List of rulers of Toungoo 1102: 1086: 1078: 962: 407: 393: 389: 379: 366: 353: 340: 327: 317: 304: 300: 292: 282: 278: 266: 254: 242: 230: 226: 218: 175: 76: 60: 50: 38: 33: 23: 7881:16th century in Thailand 5906:Administrative divisions 5560:Thein Hlaing, U (2000). 5555:. Yangon: Gangaw Myaing. 4918:Lieberman 2003: 266, 269 4900:Lieberman 2003: 131, 134 4774:Thaw Kaung 2010: 115–116 4682:Lieberman 2003: 267, 273 4224:Simms and Simms 2001: 92 3503:, between 1581 and 1584. 3434: 3281: 2803:Limits of military power 2599:Portuguese Syriam (1613) 2202:Kawsampi (Ko Shan Pyay) 1930:— 57 provinces in total 1624:Administrative Divisions 1222:Start of Toungoo dynasty 533:Restored Taungoo dynasty 6276:Twelve Auspicious Rites 6057:Myanmar kyat (currency) 5107:Lieberman 2003: 188–192 5098:Lieberman 1984: 121–122 4971:Lieberman 2003: 191–192 4944:Lieberman 2003: 135–136 4700:Lieberman 2003: 134–135 4610:Lieberman 2003: 52, 175 4592:Lieberman 2003: 275–276 4557:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 109 4399:Hmannan Vol. 3 2003: 67 4390:Htin Aung 1967: 117–118 4332:Lieberman 2003: 154–156 4111:Lieberman 2003: 154–155 3898:Lieberman 2003: 150–151 3889:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 107 3665:Lieberman 2003: 151–152 3275:British colonial period 3102:Literacy and literature 2345:and Northeastern India 1788:King (reign as vassal) 1314: 1236:(r. 1468–80) appointed 1126:Principality of Toungoo 985:mainland Southeast Asia 792:British colonial period 308:Toungoo Dynasty founded 5541:Myanmar History Briefs 5253:Harvey, G. E. (1925). 5149:Aung Tun, Sai (2009). 4835:Aung Thwin 1985: 87–91 4811:Aung-Thwin 1985: 71–73 4365:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 44 4263:Than Tun 2011: 135–136 4164:Liberman 2003: 155–156 3871:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 64 3853:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 57 3783:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 22 3774:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 15 3765:Sein Lwin Lay 2006: 18 3184: 2957:Commoner social class 2775: 2653: 2652:mobilisation (1530–99) 2095:Present-day region(s) 2034:Maha Thammarachathirat 1588: 1555: 1446: 1434: 1397:, the upstart kingdom 1337: 1324: 1292: 1141: 1060:Restored Toungoo Burma 67:(Taungoo) (1510–1539) 7876:16th century in Burma 7789:Medieval great powers 5428:. SEAP Publications. 5295:James, Helen (2004). 5191:Dijk, Wil O. (2006). 5071:Lieberman 1984: 31–32 5021:Lieberman 1984: 27–28 4998:Lieberman 1984: 18–19 4823:Lieberman 1984: 97–98 4518:Lieberman 1984: 28–29 4233:Fernquest 2005: 50–51 3183:donated by Bayinnaung 3178: 3075:(private retainers). 3071:. Similar to Burmese 2789:Thado Dhamma Yaza III 2770: 2648: 2634:Hanthawaddy (1740–52) 2549:Shan states (1557–63) 2519:Hanthawaddy (1534–41) 2509:Hanthawaddy (1495–96) 1974:Mahathammarachathirat 1863:Thado Dhamma Yaza III 1586: 1553: 1440: 1432: 1330: 1322: 1290: 1139: 1038:and the northernmost 977:Second Burmese Empire 973:First Toungoo Dynasty 766:Nyaungyan Restoration 693:Warring states period 619:Prehistory of Myanmar 77:Common languages 7851:First Toungoo Empire 7799:European colonialism 7784:Ancient great powers 6113:Environmental issues 6072:Units of measurement 5719:First Toungoo Empire 5357:, Victor B. (2003). 5335:, Victor B. (1984). 4953:Harvey 1925: 166–167 4932:Harvey 1925: 172–173 4909:Harvey 1925: 170–171 4444:Thaw Kaung 2010: 113 4299:Harvey 1925: 185–189 4010:Phayre 1967: 118–119 3959:Harvey 1925: 168–169 3941:Harvey 1925: 158–160 3923:Harvey 1925: 154–155 3515:Smim Htaw Buddhaketi 3501:Thiri Thudhamma Yaza 3424:Burmese–Siamese wars 2331:Present-day regions 2317:Spheres of influence 1858:Thado Dhamma Yaza II 1782:Present-day regions 1643:Present-day regions 1395:Toungoo armed forces 1080:တောင်ငူ–ဟံသာဝတီ ခေတ် 971:; also known as the 968:[tàʊɴŋùkʰɪʔ] 955:First Toungoo Empire 810:Nationalist movement 774:Restored Hanthawaddy 760:First Toungoo Empire 736:1287–1539, 1550–1552 381:• Fall of Pegu 25:First Toungoo Empire 7794:Modern great powers 5751:Japanese occupation 5704:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 5505:, Nicholas (1999). 5487:. Scarecrow Press. 5089:Lieberman 1984: 121 5080:Lieberman 2003: 145 5030:Lieberman 2003: 168 5007:Lieberman 2003: 174 4989:Lieberman 2003: 166 4962:Lieberman 2003: 159 4882:Lieberman 2003: 136 4868:Lieberman 2003: 280 4856:Lieberman 2003: 271 4844:Lieberman 2003: 272 4802:Lieberman 2003: 113 4786:Lieberman 2003: 194 4765:Lieberman 2003: 154 4756:Lieberman 2003: 133 4744:Lieberman 2003: 135 4723:Lieberman 2003: 273 4691:Lieberman 2003: 254 4670:Lieberman 2003: 134 4643:Lieberman 2003: 132 4622:Lieberman 2003: 175 4601:Lieberman 2003: 295 4548:Lieberman 2003: 274 4532:Lieberman 2003: 153 4504:Lieberman 2003: 163 4462:Lieberman 2003: 185 4344:Lieberman 2003: 275 4311:Lieberman 2003: 161 4290:Htin Aung 1967: 139 4251:Htin Aung 1967: 134 4176:Lieberman 2003: 158 4155:Lieberman 2003: 156 4079:Htin Aung 1967: 127 4065:Tarling 1999: 72–73 4047:Lieberman 2003: 152 3950:Lieberman 2003: 199 3914:Lieberman 2003: 151 3808:Lieberman 2003: 150 3723:Htin Aung 1967: 104 3128:Razadarit Ayedawbon 2843:Culture and society 2584:Civil War (1594–99) 2377:Annam and Cambodia 2038:Thado Minsaw of Ava 2005:(1565–68; 1570–72) 1897:(1549–50; 1551–84) 1853:Thado Dhamma Yaza I 1482:Chinese Shan States 1384:Toungoo went on to 1182:range and southern 1178:valley between the 842:Ne Win dictatorship 816:Japanese occupation 804:Resistance movement 734:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 685:Early Pagan Kingdom 450:Hanthawaddy Kingdom 6336:Outline of Myanmar 6052:Telecommunications 5968:commander-in-chief 5761:Socialist Republic 5709:Kingdom of Mrauk U 5269:A History of Burma 5240:on 18 January 2022 5170:Damrong Rajanubhab 4980:Lieberman 1984: 28 4709:Lieberman 1984: 17 4634:Lieberman 1984: 21 4426:Than Tun 1985: xiv 4356:Lieberman 1984: 31 4320:Lieberman 2003: 35 4281:Fernquest 2005: 53 4242:Fernquest 2005: 52 4129:Lieberman 1984: 39 3705:Lieberman 1984: 15 3693:Lieberman 1984: 13 3189:Theravada Buddhism 3185: 2853:Size of population 2776: 2688:Royal Burmese Army 2654: 2650:Royal Burmese Army 2574:Lan Xang (1568–74) 2380:Vietnam, Cambodia 2339:Tammaleitta Taing 1912:Northern Thailand 1796:Northern Myanmar ( 1723:Tanintharyi Region 1699:Tanintharyi Region 1589: 1556: 1516:and the advancing 1447: 1435: 1421:and armed forces. 1338: 1325: 1293: 1142: 1071:Name of the period 917:Myanmar portal 848:SLORC / SPDC junta 798:Anglo-Burmese Wars 746:Kingdom of Mrauk U 667:Arakanese kingdoms 635:Sri Ksetra Kingdom 601:History of Myanmar 182:Theravada Buddhism 72:(Bago) (1539–1599) 7838: 7837: 7760: 7759: 7725:Polish–Lithuanian 6900:Gurjara-Pratihara 6344: 6343: 6291: 6290: 6128:Human trafficking 6080: 6079: 6019: 6018: 5987:Political parties 5926:Foreign relations 5888: 5887: 5679:Myinsaing Kingdom 5645: 5644: 5483:, Martin (2008). 5426:The Nan Chronicle 5404:978-0-374-16342-6 5368:978-0-521-80496-7 5160:978-974-9511-43-5 5141:978-1-86189-901-9 4891:Aung Tun 2009: 27 3244:artillery units. 3149:Hsinbyushin Medaw 3079: 3078: 3021: 3020: 2930:(allegiance) and 2642: 2641: 2407: 2406: 2293: 2292: 2232:Southern Yunnan ( 2029: 2028: 1900:Minye Thihathu II 1741: 1740: 1655:Ayeyarwady Region 1509:Mogaung in 1576. 1348:(r. 1527–32) and 1234:Thihathura of Ava 951: 950: 854:Political reforms 627:200 BCE – 1050 CE 595: 594: 591: 590: 587: 586: 547:Ayutthaya Kingdom 525: 524: 492:Ayutthaya Kingdom 166: 154: 142: 130: 118: 110: 7918: 7871:Burmese monarchy 7641: 7640: 7306:Austro-Hungarian 7006:Chagatai Khanate 6371: 6364: 6357: 6348: 6347: 6327: 6315: 6314: 6303: 6302: 6261:National symbols 6091: 6090: 6047:Opium production 6030: 6029: 5899: 5898: 5813: 5812: 5731:Konbaung dynasty 5633: 5632: 5614: 5607: 5600: 5591: 5590: 5585: 5565: 5556: 5544: 5532: 5520: 5498: 5476: 5467: 5448: 5439: 5420: 5417:History of Burma 5408: 5393:, Thant (2006). 5386: 5372: 5350: 5328: 5314: 5291: 5272: 5267:, Maung (1967). 5260: 5249: 5247: 5245: 5239: 5233:. Archived from 5216: 5206: 5187: 5164: 5145: 5117: 5116:Myint-U 2006: 71 5114: 5108: 5105: 5099: 5096: 5090: 5087: 5081: 5078: 5072: 5069: 5058: 5057:Harvey 1925: 175 5055: 5046: 5045: 5037: 5031: 5028: 5022: 5019: 5008: 5005: 4999: 4996: 4990: 4987: 4981: 4978: 4972: 4969: 4963: 4960: 4954: 4951: 4945: 4942: 4933: 4930: 4919: 4916: 4910: 4907: 4901: 4898: 4892: 4889: 4883: 4880: 4869: 4866: 4857: 4854: 4845: 4842: 4836: 4833: 4824: 4821: 4812: 4809: 4803: 4800: 4787: 4784: 4775: 4772: 4766: 4763: 4757: 4754: 4745: 4742: 4733: 4730: 4724: 4721: 4710: 4707: 4701: 4698: 4692: 4689: 4683: 4680: 4671: 4668: 4662: 4659: 4653: 4650: 4644: 4641: 4635: 4632: 4623: 4620: 4611: 4608: 4602: 4599: 4593: 4590: 4579: 4578:Harvey 1925: 177 4576: 4567: 4566:Phayre 1967: 116 4564: 4558: 4555: 4549: 4546: 4533: 4530: 4519: 4516: 4505: 4502: 4496: 4495:Harvey 1925: 334 4493: 4484: 4483:Harvey 1925: 164 4481: 4475: 4474:Dijk 2006: 35–37 4472: 4463: 4460: 4454: 4453:Huxley 2012: 230 4451: 4445: 4442: 4436: 4435:Harvey 1925: 151 4433: 4427: 4424: 4418: 4417:Harvey 1925: 323 4415: 4409: 4406: 4400: 4397: 4391: 4388: 4375: 4374:Harvey 1925: 178 4372: 4366: 4363: 4357: 4354: 4345: 4342: 4333: 4330: 4321: 4318: 4312: 4309: 4300: 4297: 4291: 4288: 4282: 4279: 4273: 4270: 4264: 4261: 4252: 4249: 4243: 4240: 4234: 4231: 4225: 4222: 4216: 4213: 4204: 4201: 4195: 4192: 4186: 4183: 4177: 4174: 4165: 4162: 4156: 4153: 4142: 4141:Harvey 1925: 180 4139: 4130: 4127: 4121: 4120:Harvey 1925: 181 4118: 4112: 4109: 4100: 4099:Harvey 1925: 171 4097: 4080: 4077: 4066: 4063: 4048: 4045: 4039: 4036: 4027: 4024: 4011: 4008: 3999: 3998:Harvey 1925: 174 3996: 3987: 3984: 3978: 3975: 3969: 3968:Harvey 1925: 170 3966: 3960: 3957: 3951: 3948: 3942: 3939: 3933: 3930: 3924: 3921: 3915: 3912: 3899: 3896: 3890: 3887: 3881: 3878: 3872: 3869: 3863: 3860: 3854: 3851: 3845: 3842: 3836: 3833: 3827: 3824: 3818: 3815: 3809: 3806: 3793: 3790: 3784: 3781: 3775: 3772: 3766: 3763: 3757: 3754: 3748: 3747:Harvey 1925: 153 3745: 3736: 3733: 3724: 3721: 3715: 3714:James 2004: 1291 3712: 3706: 3703: 3694: 3691: 3682: 3679: 3666: 3663: 3634: 3623: 3617: 3614: 3608: 3604: 3598: 3595: 3589: 3586: 3580: 3573: 3567: 3564: 3558: 3551: 3545: 3538: 3532: 3528: 3522: 3510: 3504: 3493: 3487: 3483: 3477: 3474: 3468: 3465: 3459: 3455: 3449: 3445: 3419:Nyaungyan period 3361: 3359:[gɪ̀ɴzà] 3355: 3354: 3353: 3297:Coromandel Coast 3241:Abrahamic faiths 3171:Buddhist reforms 3026: 2954: 2726: 2725: 2724: 2714: 2713: 2712: 2702: 2701: 2700: 2677: 2676: 2675: 2629:Lan Na (1727–32) 2589:Siam (1594–1605) 2529:Arakan (1545–47) 2499: 2497: 2487: 2480: 2473: 2464: 2463: 2443:Burmese calendar 2427:, based on King 2364:Southern Yunnan 2325: 2143:Mohnyin–Mogaung 2089: 2058:, they were all 2003:Maing Pat Sawbwa 1890:Minye Thihathu I 1818:Minye Kyawswa II 1802:Mandalay Regions 1776: 1764:, Mon for lord. 1637: 1605:Konbaung dynasty 1572:Tenasserim coast 1539:Decline and fall 1403:Arakan (1545–47) 1366:Mrauk-U (Arakan) 1364:(r. 1531–54) at 1216:Forty Years' War 1173: 1172: 1148:. In 1191, King 1107: 1106: 1105: 1098:Nyaungyan period 1091: 1090: 1089: 1083: 1082: 1081: 970: 964: 943: 936: 929: 915: 914: 913: 894:Military history 889:Royal chronicles 879:List of capitals 836:AFPFL government 780:Konbaung dynasty 661: 642: 611: 597: 596: 583: 582: 569: 568: 555: 554: 541: 540: 529: 528: 516: 515: 502: 501: 488: 487: 474: 473: 460: 459: 446: 445: 432: 431: 425: 424: 409: 408: 385:19 December 1599 371: 358: 345: 332: 309: 160: 148: 136: 124: 116: 104: 43: 21: 20: 7926: 7925: 7921: 7920: 7919: 7917: 7916: 7915: 7841: 7840: 7839: 7834: 7823:American Empire 7808: 7804:African empires 7756: 7639: 7331:Central African 7277: 7095:Romano-Germanic 6681: 6415:Middle Assyrian 6388: 6380: 6375: 6345: 6340: 6287: 6266:Public holidays 6157: 6153:Sex trafficking 6076: 6015: 5953:Law enforcement 5884: 5860:Protected areas 5802: 5714:Toungoo dynasty 5689:Sagaing Kingdom 5664:Pyu city-states 5641: 5627: 5618: 5588: 5517: 5495: 5464: 5436: 5405: 5369: 5347: 5311: 5288: 5243: 5241: 5237: 5214: 5203: 5184: 5161: 5142: 5125: 5120: 5115: 5111: 5106: 5102: 5097: 5093: 5088: 5084: 5079: 5075: 5070: 5061: 5056: 5049: 5038: 5034: 5029: 5025: 5020: 5011: 5006: 5002: 4997: 4993: 4988: 4984: 4979: 4975: 4970: 4966: 4961: 4957: 4952: 4948: 4943: 4936: 4931: 4922: 4917: 4913: 4908: 4904: 4899: 4895: 4890: 4886: 4881: 4872: 4867: 4860: 4855: 4848: 4843: 4839: 4834: 4827: 4822: 4815: 4810: 4806: 4801: 4790: 4785: 4778: 4773: 4769: 4764: 4760: 4755: 4748: 4743: 4736: 4731: 4727: 4722: 4713: 4708: 4704: 4699: 4695: 4690: 4686: 4681: 4674: 4669: 4665: 4660: 4656: 4651: 4647: 4642: 4638: 4633: 4626: 4621: 4614: 4609: 4605: 4600: 4596: 4591: 4582: 4577: 4570: 4565: 4561: 4556: 4552: 4547: 4536: 4531: 4522: 4517: 4508: 4503: 4499: 4494: 4487: 4482: 4478: 4473: 4466: 4461: 4457: 4452: 4448: 4443: 4439: 4434: 4430: 4425: 4421: 4416: 4412: 4407: 4403: 4398: 4394: 4389: 4378: 4373: 4369: 4364: 4360: 4355: 4348: 4343: 4336: 4331: 4324: 4319: 4315: 4310: 4303: 4298: 4294: 4289: 4285: 4280: 4276: 4271: 4267: 4262: 4255: 4250: 4246: 4241: 4237: 4232: 4228: 4223: 4219: 4214: 4207: 4202: 4198: 4193: 4189: 4184: 4180: 4175: 4168: 4163: 4159: 4154: 4145: 4140: 4133: 4128: 4124: 4119: 4115: 4110: 4103: 4098: 4083: 4078: 4069: 4064: 4051: 4046: 4042: 4037: 4030: 4025: 4014: 4009: 4002: 3997: 3990: 3985: 3981: 3976: 3972: 3967: 3963: 3958: 3954: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3936: 3931: 3927: 3922: 3918: 3913: 3902: 3897: 3893: 3888: 3884: 3879: 3875: 3870: 3866: 3861: 3857: 3852: 3848: 3843: 3839: 3834: 3830: 3825: 3821: 3816: 3812: 3807: 3796: 3791: 3787: 3782: 3778: 3773: 3769: 3764: 3760: 3755: 3751: 3746: 3739: 3734: 3727: 3722: 3718: 3713: 3709: 3704: 3697: 3692: 3685: 3680: 3669: 3664: 3647: 3643: 3638: 3637: 3624: 3620: 3615: 3611: 3605: 3601: 3596: 3592: 3587: 3583: 3574: 3570: 3565: 3561: 3552: 3548: 3539: 3535: 3531:administration. 3529: 3525: 3511: 3507: 3494: 3490: 3484: 3480: 3475: 3471: 3466: 3462: 3456: 3452: 3446: 3442: 3437: 3414:Toungoo dynasty 3410: 3381: 3372: 3351: 3338: 3284: 3259: 3250: 3231: 3229:Other practices 3173: 3168: 3104: 2940: 2913: 2868: 2855: 2850: 2845: 2819: 2805: 2765: 2763:Martial culture 2752:and cast-metal 2746: 2722: 2710: 2698: 2673: 2663: 2643: 2638: 2564:Lan Xang (1565) 2500: 2495: 2493: 2491: 2461: 2455: 2421:Dhammathat Kyaw 2416: 2319: 2046: 2044:Princely states 2021: 2016: 2011: 2006: 1972: 1969:Mahinthrathirat 1944:Nawrahta Minsaw 1942: 1937: 1898: 1893: 1861: 1856: 1832:, northwestern 1816: 1808: 1770: 1727:Phuket Province 1631: 1626: 1613: 1581: 1541: 1457:and the entire 1443:National Museum 1427: 1317: 1301:Kyaukse granary 1285: 1230: 1228:Toungoo dynasty 1224: 1134: 1128: 1123: 1114: 1103: 1087: 1079: 1073: 1068: 1005:Burmese history 947: 911: 909: 754:Toungoo dynasty 714:Sagaing Kingdom 655: 639:Tagaung Kingdom 632: 625:Pyu city-states 580: 575:Manipur Kingdom 566: 552: 538: 520:Manipur Kingdom 513: 499: 485: 471: 457: 443: 429: 382: 372: 369: 359: 356: 346: 343: 333: 330: 323:16 October 1510 320: 310: 307: 269: 268:• 1581–99 257: 256:• 1550–81 245: 244:• 1530–50 233: 232:• 1510–30 214: 213: 212: 187: 180: 171: 170: 169: 88: 81: 68: 46: 29: 26: 17: 12: 11: 5: 7924: 7914: 7913: 7908: 7903: 7898: 7893: 7888: 7883: 7878: 7873: 7868: 7863: 7858: 7853: 7836: 7835: 7833: 7832: 7831: 7830: 7825: 7816: 7814: 7810: 7809: 7807: 7806: 7801: 7796: 7791: 7786: 7781: 7780: 7779: 7768: 7766: 7762: 7761: 7758: 7757: 7755: 7754: 7749: 7744: 7739: 7734: 7733: 7732: 7722: 7717: 7712: 7707: 7702: 7697: 7692: 7687: 7682: 7677: 7676: 7675: 7670: 7660: 7655: 7649: 7647: 7638: 7637: 7636: 7635: 7630: 7625: 7620: 7615: 7605: 7600: 7599: 7598: 7588: 7583: 7582: 7581: 7576: 7571: 7561: 7556: 7555: 7554: 7549: 7539: 7538: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7522: 7517: 7507: 7506: 7505: 7500: 7490: 7485: 7480: 7475: 7474: 7473: 7468: 7463: 7458: 7453: 7443: 7442: 7441: 7436: 7426: 7421: 7420: 7419: 7414: 7404: 7403: 7402: 7397: 7387: 7386: 7385: 7380: 7370: 7365: 7364: 7363: 7358: 7353: 7348: 7343: 7333: 7328: 7327: 7326: 7321: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7293: 7287: 7285: 7279: 7278: 7276: 7275: 7270: 7265: 7260: 7259: 7258: 7253: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7228: 7218: 7213: 7212: 7211: 7206: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7186: 7176: 7175: 7174: 7169: 7164: 7159: 7149: 7144: 7139: 7134: 7129: 7124: 7119: 7114: 7109: 7108: 7107: 7102: 7092: 7091: 7090: 7085: 7080: 7075: 7070: 7065: 7052: 7047: 7042: 7037: 7036: 7035: 7030: 7025: 7015: 7014: 7013: 7008: 7003: 6998: 6988: 6983: 6978: 6973: 6968: 6963: 6962: 6961: 6956: 6951: 6946: 6936: 6935: 6934: 6929: 6924: 6919: 6909: 6908: 6907: 6902: 6897: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6872: 6867: 6866: 6865: 6860: 6855: 6845: 6840: 6839: 6838: 6833: 6828: 6823: 6818: 6813: 6803: 6802: 6801: 6796: 6786: 6785: 6784: 6779: 6774: 6769: 6759: 6754: 6753: 6752: 6742: 6741: 6740: 6735: 6727: 6722: 6717: 6712: 6707: 6702: 6697: 6691: 6689: 6687:Post-classical 6683: 6682: 6680: 6679: 6678: 6677: 6667: 6662: 6661: 6660: 6655: 6645: 6644: 6643: 6633: 6632: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6585: 6584: 6579: 6574: 6569: 6559: 6558: 6557: 6552: 6542: 6537: 6536: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6494: 6493: 6488: 6486:Middle Kingdom 6483: 6473: 6468: 6467: 6466: 6461: 6456: 6446: 6445: 6444: 6442:Neo-Babylonian 6439: 6434: 6432:Old Babylonian 6424: 6423: 6422: 6417: 6407: 6402: 6396: 6394: 6382: 6381: 6374: 6373: 6366: 6359: 6351: 6342: 6341: 6339: 6338: 6333: 6321: 6309: 6296: 6293: 6292: 6289: 6288: 6286: 6285: 6284: 6283: 6273: 6268: 6263: 6258: 6253: 6248: 6243: 6238: 6233: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6203: 6198: 6193: 6188: 6183: 6178: 6173: 6167: 6165: 6159: 6158: 6156: 6155: 6150: 6145: 6140: 6135: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6115: 6110: 6105: 6100: 6094: 6088: 6082: 6081: 6078: 6077: 6075: 6074: 6069: 6067:Transportation 6064: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6033: 6027: 6021: 6020: 6017: 6016: 6014: 6013: 6012: 6011: 6004:Prime Minister 6001: 6000: 5999: 5989: 5984: 5983: 5982: 5972: 5971: 5970: 5965: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5944: 5943: 5941:Women's rights 5938: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5913: 5908: 5902: 5896: 5890: 5889: 5886: 5885: 5883: 5882: 5877: 5872: 5867: 5862: 5857: 5852: 5847: 5842: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5816: 5810: 5804: 5803: 5801: 5800: 5799: 5798: 5793: 5783: 5778: 5773: 5768: 5763: 5758: 5756:Union of Burma 5753: 5748: 5743: 5741:Karenni States 5738: 5733: 5728: 5723: 5722: 5721: 5711: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5694:Kingdom of Ava 5691: 5686: 5681: 5676: 5671: 5669:Thaton Kingdom 5666: 5661: 5655: 5653: 5647: 5646: 5643: 5642: 5629: 5628: 5617: 5616: 5609: 5602: 5594: 5587: 5586: 5566: 5557: 5545: 5533: 5521: 5515: 5499: 5493: 5477: 5468: 5462: 5449: 5440: 5434: 5421: 5409: 5403: 5387: 5373: 5367: 5351: 5345: 5329: 5315: 5309: 5292: 5286: 5273: 5261: 5250: 5207: 5201: 5188: 5182: 5165: 5159: 5146: 5140: 5126: 5124: 5121: 5119: 5118: 5109: 5100: 5091: 5082: 5073: 5059: 5047: 5032: 5023: 5009: 5000: 4991: 4982: 4973: 4964: 4955: 4946: 4934: 4920: 4911: 4902: 4893: 4884: 4870: 4858: 4846: 4837: 4825: 4813: 4804: 4788: 4776: 4767: 4758: 4746: 4734: 4725: 4711: 4702: 4693: 4684: 4672: 4663: 4654: 4645: 4636: 4624: 4612: 4603: 4594: 4580: 4568: 4559: 4550: 4534: 4520: 4506: 4497: 4485: 4476: 4464: 4455: 4446: 4437: 4428: 4419: 4410: 4401: 4392: 4376: 4367: 4358: 4346: 4334: 4322: 4313: 4301: 4292: 4283: 4274: 4265: 4253: 4244: 4235: 4226: 4217: 4205: 4196: 4187: 4178: 4166: 4157: 4143: 4131: 4122: 4113: 4101: 4081: 4067: 4049: 4040: 4028: 4012: 4000: 3988: 3979: 3970: 3961: 3952: 3943: 3934: 3925: 3916: 3900: 3891: 3882: 3873: 3864: 3855: 3846: 3837: 3828: 3819: 3810: 3794: 3785: 3776: 3767: 3758: 3749: 3737: 3725: 3716: 3707: 3695: 3683: 3667: 3644: 3642: 3639: 3636: 3635: 3618: 3609: 3599: 3590: 3581: 3568: 3559: 3546: 3533: 3523: 3505: 3488: 3478: 3469: 3460: 3450: 3439: 3438: 3436: 3433: 3432: 3431: 3426: 3421: 3416: 3409: 3406: 3380: 3377: 3371: 3368: 3337: 3334: 3317:Ottoman Empire 3283: 3280: 3258: 3255: 3249: 3246: 3230: 3227: 3199:(r. 1471–92). 3172: 3169: 3167: 3164: 3103: 3100: 3077: 3076: 3065: 3059: 3058: 3050: 3044: 3043: 3040: 3034: 3033: 3030: 3019: 3018: 3015: 3009: 3008: 3005: 2999: 2998: 2995: 2989: 2988: 2968: 2962: 2961: 2958: 2939: 2938:Social classes 2936: 2912: 2909: 2867: 2864: 2854: 2851: 2849: 2846: 2844: 2841: 2818: 2815: 2804: 2801: 2785:Minye Thihathu 2764: 2761: 2745: 2742: 2662: 2659: 2640: 2639: 2637: 2636: 2631: 2626: 2621: 2619:Siam (1700–01) 2616: 2614:Siam (1675–76) 2611: 2609:Siam (1662–64) 2606: 2604:Siam (1613–14) 2601: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2581: 2579:Siam (1584–93) 2576: 2571: 2569:Siam (1568–69) 2566: 2561: 2559:Siam (1563–64) 2556: 2551: 2546: 2541: 2536: 2534:Siam (1547–49) 2531: 2526: 2521: 2516: 2511: 2505: 2502: 2501: 2490: 2489: 2482: 2475: 2467: 2457:Main article: 2454: 2451: 2415: 2412: 2405: 2404: 2400: 2397: 2393: 2392: 2381: 2378: 2374: 2373: 2365: 2362: 2358: 2357: 2346: 2340: 2336: 2335: 2332: 2329: 2318: 2315: 2291: 2290: 2273: 2263: 2259: 2258: 2253: 2247: 2243: 2242: 2237: 2230: 2226: 2225: 2222: 2203: 2199: 2198: 2193: 2187: 2186:Gantala Rahta 2183: 2182: 2177: 2171: 2167: 2166: 2160:Khamti (Putao) 2149: 2144: 2140: 2139: 2129: 2123:Sagaing Region 2119: 2115: 2114: 2111: 2106: 2100: 2099: 2096: 2093: 2045: 2042: 2027: 2026: 2000: 1987: 1984: 1978: 1977: 1966: 1957: 1954: 1948: 1947: 1931: 1913: 1910: 1904: 1903: 1887: 1882: 1871: 1867: 1866: 1850: 1837: 1826: 1822: 1821: 1810: 1805: 1794: 1790: 1789: 1786: 1785:Key provinces 1783: 1780: 1769: 1766: 1739: 1738: 1729: 1719: 1715: 1714: 1705: 1692: 1688: 1687: 1680: 1671: 1667: 1666: 1657: 1652: 1648: 1647: 1644: 1641: 1630: 1627: 1625: 1622: 1612: 1609: 1580: 1577: 1540: 1537: 1514:Portuguese Goa 1426: 1423: 1407:Siam (1547–49) 1316: 1313: 1284: 1283:Break from Ava 1281: 1238:Sithu Kyawhtin 1232:In 1470, King 1226:Main article: 1223: 1220: 1176:Sittaung river 1154:Ananda Thuriya 1127: 1124: 1122: 1119: 1113: 1110: 1104:ညောင်ရမ်း ခေတ် 1072: 1069: 1067: 1064: 981:Toungoo Empire 979:or simply the 949: 948: 946: 945: 938: 931: 923: 920: 919: 906: 905: 904: 903: 902: 901: 891: 886: 881: 876: 868: 867: 866: 865: 864: 863: 857: 851: 845: 839: 824: 823: 822: 821: 820: 819: 813: 807: 801: 786: 785: 784: 783: 777: 771: 770: 769: 763: 751: 750: 749: 743: 737: 731: 730: 729: 723: 720:Kingdom of Ava 717: 711: 708:Pinya Kingdoms 690: 689: 688: 673: 672: 671: 670: 663: 662: 658:Thaton Kingdom 652: 651: 644: 643: 629: 628: 622: 621:11,000–200 BCE 613: 612: 604: 603: 593: 592: 589: 588: 585: 584: 577: 571: 570: 563: 557: 556: 549: 543: 542: 535: 526: 523: 522: 517: 509: 508: 503: 495: 494: 489: 481: 480: 475: 467: 466: 461: 453: 452: 447: 439: 438: 433: 421: 420: 415: 405: 404: 395: 391: 390: 387: 386: 383: 380: 377: 376: 373: 367: 364: 363: 360: 354: 351: 350: 347: 341: 338: 337: 334: 328: 325: 324: 321: 318: 315: 314: 311: 305: 302: 301: 298: 297: 294: 290: 289: 284: 280: 279: 276: 275: 270: 267: 264: 263: 258: 255: 252: 251: 246: 243: 240: 239: 234: 231: 228: 227: 224: 223: 220: 216: 215: 211: 210: 205: 200: 195: 189: 188: 185: 184: 177: 173: 172: 168: 167: 155: 143: 131: 119: 111: 90: 89: 86: 85: 78: 74: 73: 62: 58: 57: 52: 48: 47: 44: 36: 35: 31: 30: 27: 24: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 7923: 7912: 7909: 7907: 7904: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7877: 7874: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7848: 7846: 7829: 7828:Soviet empire 7826: 7824: 7821: 7820: 7818: 7817: 7815: 7813:Miscellaneous 7811: 7805: 7802: 7800: 7797: 7795: 7792: 7790: 7787: 7785: 7782: 7778: 7775: 7774: 7773: 7770: 7769: 7767: 7763: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7731: 7728: 7727: 7726: 7723: 7721: 7718: 7716: 7713: 7711: 7708: 7706: 7703: 7701: 7698: 7696: 7693: 7691: 7688: 7686: 7683: 7681: 7678: 7674: 7671: 7669: 7666: 7665: 7664: 7661: 7659: 7656: 7654: 7651: 7650: 7648: 7646: 7642: 7634: 7631: 7629: 7626: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7616: 7614: 7611: 7610: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7601: 7597: 7594: 7593: 7592: 7589: 7587: 7584: 7580: 7577: 7575: 7572: 7570: 7567: 7566: 7565: 7562: 7560: 7557: 7553: 7550: 7548: 7545: 7544: 7543: 7540: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7512: 7511: 7508: 7504: 7501: 7499: 7496: 7495: 7494: 7491: 7489: 7486: 7484: 7481: 7479: 7476: 7472: 7469: 7467: 7464: 7462: 7459: 7457: 7454: 7452: 7449: 7448: 7447: 7444: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7431: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7412:German Empire 7410: 7409: 7408: 7405: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7392: 7391: 7388: 7384: 7381: 7379: 7376: 7375: 7374: 7371: 7369: 7366: 7362: 7359: 7357: 7354: 7352: 7349: 7347: 7344: 7342: 7339: 7338: 7337: 7334: 7332: 7329: 7325: 7322: 7320: 7317: 7316: 7314: 7312: 7309: 7307: 7304: 7302: 7299: 7297: 7294: 7292: 7289: 7288: 7286: 7284: 7280: 7274: 7271: 7269: 7266: 7264: 7261: 7257: 7254: 7252: 7249: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7227: 7224: 7223: 7222: 7219: 7217: 7214: 7210: 7207: 7205: 7202: 7200: 7197: 7195: 7192: 7190: 7187: 7185: 7182: 7181: 7180: 7177: 7173: 7170: 7168: 7165: 7163: 7160: 7158: 7155: 7154: 7153: 7152:Turco-Persian 7150: 7148: 7145: 7143: 7140: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7128: 7125: 7123: 7120: 7118: 7115: 7113: 7110: 7106: 7103: 7101: 7098: 7097: 7096: 7093: 7089: 7086: 7084: 7081: 7079: 7076: 7074: 7071: 7069: 7066: 7064: 7061: 7060: 7059: 7056: 7053: 7051: 7048: 7046: 7043: 7041: 7038: 7034: 7031: 7029: 7026: 7024: 7021: 7020: 7019: 7016: 7012: 7009: 7007: 7004: 7002: 6999: 6997: 6994: 6993: 6992: 6989: 6987: 6984: 6982: 6979: 6977: 6974: 6972: 6969: 6967: 6964: 6960: 6957: 6955: 6952: 6950: 6947: 6945: 6942: 6941: 6940: 6937: 6933: 6930: 6928: 6925: 6923: 6920: 6918: 6915: 6914: 6913: 6910: 6906: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6896: 6893: 6892: 6891: 6888: 6886: 6883: 6881: 6878: 6876: 6873: 6871: 6868: 6864: 6861: 6859: 6856: 6854: 6851: 6850: 6849: 6846: 6844: 6841: 6837: 6834: 6832: 6829: 6827: 6824: 6822: 6819: 6817: 6814: 6812: 6809: 6808: 6807: 6804: 6800: 6797: 6795: 6792: 6791: 6790: 6787: 6783: 6780: 6778: 6775: 6773: 6770: 6768: 6765: 6764: 6763: 6760: 6758: 6755: 6751: 6748: 6747: 6746: 6743: 6739: 6736: 6734: 6731: 6730: 6728: 6726: 6723: 6721: 6718: 6716: 6713: 6711: 6708: 6706: 6703: 6701: 6698: 6696: 6693: 6692: 6690: 6688: 6684: 6676: 6673: 6672: 6671: 6668: 6666: 6663: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6650: 6649: 6646: 6642: 6639: 6638: 6637: 6634: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6601: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6583: 6580: 6578: 6575: 6573: 6570: 6568: 6565: 6564: 6563: 6560: 6556: 6553: 6551: 6548: 6547: 6546: 6543: 6541: 6538: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6510: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6492: 6489: 6487: 6484: 6482: 6479: 6478: 6477: 6474: 6472: 6469: 6465: 6462: 6460: 6457: 6455: 6452: 6451: 6450: 6447: 6443: 6440: 6438: 6435: 6433: 6430: 6429: 6428: 6425: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6412: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6397: 6395: 6392: 6387: 6383: 6379: 6372: 6367: 6365: 6360: 6358: 6353: 6352: 6349: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6331: 6326: 6322: 6320: 6319: 6310: 6308: 6307: 6298: 6297: 6294: 6282: 6279: 6278: 6277: 6274: 6272: 6269: 6267: 6264: 6262: 6259: 6257: 6254: 6252: 6249: 6247: 6244: 6242: 6239: 6237: 6234: 6232: 6229: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6202: 6199: 6197: 6194: 6192: 6189: 6187: 6184: 6182: 6179: 6177: 6174: 6172: 6169: 6168: 6166: 6164: 6160: 6154: 6151: 6149: 6146: 6144: 6141: 6139: 6136: 6134: 6131: 6129: 6126: 6124: 6121: 6119: 6118:Ethnic groups 6116: 6114: 6111: 6109: 6106: 6104: 6101: 6099: 6096: 6095: 6092: 6089: 6087: 6083: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6034: 6031: 6028: 6026: 6022: 6010: 6007: 6006: 6005: 6002: 5998: 5995: 5994: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5981: 5978: 5977: 5976: 5973: 5969: 5966: 5964: 5963:military rule 5961: 5960: 5959: 5956: 5954: 5951: 5949: 5946: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5933: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5912: 5909: 5907: 5904: 5903: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5891: 5881: 5878: 5876: 5873: 5871: 5868: 5866: 5863: 5861: 5858: 5856: 5853: 5851: 5848: 5846: 5843: 5841: 5838: 5836: 5835:Deforestation 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5817: 5814: 5811: 5809: 5805: 5797: 5794: 5792: 5789: 5788: 5787: 5784: 5782: 5779: 5777: 5776:2007 protests 5774: 5772: 5769: 5767: 5766:8888 Uprising 5764: 5762: 5759: 5757: 5754: 5752: 5749: 5747: 5744: 5742: 5739: 5737: 5734: 5732: 5729: 5727: 5724: 5720: 5717: 5716: 5715: 5712: 5710: 5707: 5705: 5702: 5700: 5699:Prome Kingdom 5697: 5695: 5692: 5690: 5687: 5685: 5684:Pinya Kingdom 5682: 5680: 5677: 5675: 5674:Pagan Kingdom 5672: 5670: 5667: 5665: 5662: 5660: 5657: 5656: 5654: 5652: 5648: 5640: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5615: 5610: 5608: 5603: 5601: 5596: 5595: 5592: 5583: 5579: 5575: 5571: 5567: 5563: 5558: 5554: 5550: 5546: 5542: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5516:9780521663700 5512: 5508: 5504: 5500: 5496: 5494:9780810864115 5490: 5486: 5482: 5478: 5474: 5469: 5465: 5463:9780700715312 5459: 5455: 5450: 5446: 5441: 5437: 5435:9780877277156 5431: 5427: 5422: 5418: 5414: 5410: 5406: 5400: 5396: 5392: 5388: 5384: 5383: 5378: 5374: 5370: 5364: 5360: 5356: 5352: 5348: 5346:0-691-05407-X 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5326: 5325: 5320: 5316: 5312: 5310:1-57607-770-5 5306: 5302: 5298: 5293: 5289: 5287:9780191641473 5283: 5279: 5274: 5270: 5266: 5262: 5258: 5257: 5251: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5213: 5208: 5204: 5202:9789971693046 5198: 5194: 5189: 5185: 5183:974-7534-58-4 5179: 5175: 5171: 5166: 5162: 5156: 5152: 5147: 5143: 5137: 5133: 5128: 5127: 5113: 5104: 5095: 5086: 5077: 5068: 5066: 5064: 5054: 5052: 5043: 5036: 5027: 5018: 5016: 5014: 5004: 4995: 4986: 4977: 4968: 4959: 4950: 4941: 4939: 4929: 4927: 4925: 4915: 4906: 4897: 4888: 4879: 4877: 4875: 4865: 4863: 4853: 4851: 4841: 4832: 4830: 4820: 4818: 4808: 4799: 4797: 4795: 4793: 4783: 4781: 4771: 4762: 4753: 4751: 4741: 4739: 4729: 4720: 4718: 4716: 4706: 4697: 4688: 4679: 4677: 4667: 4658: 4649: 4640: 4631: 4629: 4619: 4617: 4607: 4598: 4589: 4587: 4585: 4575: 4573: 4563: 4554: 4545: 4543: 4541: 4539: 4529: 4527: 4525: 4515: 4513: 4511: 4501: 4492: 4490: 4480: 4471: 4469: 4459: 4450: 4441: 4432: 4423: 4414: 4405: 4396: 4387: 4385: 4383: 4381: 4371: 4362: 4353: 4351: 4341: 4339: 4329: 4327: 4317: 4308: 4306: 4296: 4287: 4278: 4269: 4260: 4258: 4248: 4239: 4230: 4221: 4212: 4210: 4200: 4191: 4182: 4173: 4171: 4161: 4152: 4150: 4148: 4138: 4136: 4126: 4117: 4108: 4106: 4096: 4094: 4092: 4090: 4088: 4086: 4076: 4074: 4072: 4062: 4060: 4058: 4056: 4054: 4044: 4035: 4033: 4023: 4021: 4019: 4017: 4007: 4005: 3995: 3993: 3983: 3974: 3965: 3956: 3947: 3938: 3929: 3920: 3911: 3909: 3907: 3905: 3895: 3886: 3877: 3868: 3859: 3850: 3841: 3832: 3823: 3814: 3805: 3803: 3801: 3799: 3789: 3780: 3771: 3762: 3753: 3744: 3742: 3732: 3730: 3720: 3711: 3702: 3700: 3690: 3688: 3678: 3676: 3674: 3672: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3652: 3650: 3645: 3632: 3628: 3627:Mohnyin Thado 3622: 3613: 3603: 3594: 3585: 3578: 3572: 3563: 3556: 3550: 3543: 3537: 3527: 3520: 3516: 3509: 3502: 3498: 3492: 3482: 3473: 3464: 3454: 3444: 3440: 3430: 3427: 3425: 3422: 3420: 3417: 3415: 3412: 3411: 3405: 3403: 3397: 3393: 3389: 3385: 3376: 3367: 3365: 3360: 3347: 3343: 3333: 3330: 3324: 3320: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3306: 3302: 3298: 3294: 3290: 3279: 3276: 3272: 3268: 3264: 3254: 3245: 3242: 3238: 3237: 3226: 3222: 3220: 3215: 3214:Kalyani Thein 3209: 3206: 3200: 3198: 3194: 3190: 3182: 3177: 3163: 3161: 3156: 3154: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3141: 3136: 3135: 3130: 3129: 3122: 3120: 3119: 3112: 3110: 3099: 3097: 3093: 3089: 3084: 3074: 3070: 3066: 3064: 3061: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3045: 3041: 3039: 3036: 3035: 3029:Social class 3027: 3024: 3016: 3014: 3011: 3010: 3006: 3004: 3001: 3000: 2996: 2994: 2991: 2990: 2986: 2982: 2978: 2973: 2969: 2967: 2964: 2963: 2955: 2952: 2950: 2946: 2935: 2933: 2929: 2925: 2924: 2917: 2908: 2906: 2900: 2898: 2892: 2890: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2877:Ramanya-Detha 2874: 2866:Ethnic groups 2863: 2859: 2840: 2838: 2834: 2829: 2825: 2814: 2811: 2810:Setthathirath 2800: 2798: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2782: 2774: 2769: 2760: 2758: 2755: 2751: 2741: 2738: 2734: 2728: 2718: 2706: 2694: 2689: 2684: 2681: 2669: 2658: 2651: 2647: 2635: 2632: 2630: 2627: 2625: 2622: 2620: 2617: 2615: 2612: 2610: 2607: 2605: 2602: 2600: 2597: 2595: 2592: 2590: 2587: 2585: 2582: 2580: 2577: 2575: 2572: 2570: 2567: 2565: 2562: 2560: 2557: 2555: 2554:Lan Na (1558) 2552: 2550: 2547: 2545: 2544:Ava (1554–55) 2542: 2540: 2537: 2535: 2532: 2530: 2527: 2525: 2524:Ava (1538–45) 2522: 2520: 2517: 2515: 2512: 2510: 2507: 2506: 2503: 2498: 2488: 2483: 2481: 2476: 2474: 2469: 2468: 2465: 2460: 2450: 2448: 2444: 2440: 2436: 2435: 2430: 2426: 2422: 2411: 2401: 2398: 2395: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2379: 2376: 2375: 2370: 2366: 2363: 2360: 2359: 2355: 2354:Mughal Empire 2351: 2347: 2344: 2341: 2338: 2337: 2326: 2323: 2314: 2311: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2289: 2285: 2281: 2277: 2274: 2272: 2268: 2264: 2261: 2260: 2257: 2254: 2252: 2248: 2245: 2244: 2241: 2238: 2235: 2234:Xishuangbanna 2231: 2228: 2227: 2223: 2220: 2216: 2212: 2208: 2205:Southwestern 2204: 2201: 2200: 2197: 2194: 2192: 2189:northwestern 2188: 2185: 2184: 2181: 2178: 2176: 2172: 2169: 2168: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2150: 2148: 2145: 2142: 2141: 2137: 2133: 2130: 2128: 2124: 2121:Northwestern 2120: 2117: 2116: 2112: 2110: 2107: 2105: 2102: 2101: 2090: 2087: 2085: 2081: 2076: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2052: 2041: 2039: 2035: 2024: 2019: 2018:Nokeo Koumane 2014: 2013:Sen Soulintha 2009: 2004: 2001: 1999: 1995: 1994:Luang Prabang 1991: 1988: 1985: 1983: 1980: 1979: 1975: 1970: 1967: 1965: 1961: 1958: 1955: 1953: 1950: 1949: 1945: 1940: 1939:Visuddha Devi 1935: 1932: 1929: 1925: 1921: 1917: 1914: 1911: 1909: 1906: 1905: 1901: 1896: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1883: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1869: 1868: 1864: 1859: 1854: 1851: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1838: 1835: 1831: 1830:Magway Region 1827: 1824: 1823: 1819: 1814: 1811: 1806: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1792: 1791: 1777: 1774: 1765: 1763: 1759: 1755: 1751: 1747: 1746:Saw Lagun Ein 1737: 1733: 1730: 1728: 1724: 1720: 1717: 1716: 1713: 1709: 1706: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1693: 1690: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1679: 1675: 1674:Yangon Region 1672: 1669: 1668: 1665: 1661: 1658: 1656: 1653: 1650: 1649: 1638: 1635: 1621: 1618: 1608: 1606: 1600: 1598: 1592: 1585: 1576: 1573: 1568: 1565: 1561: 1552: 1548: 1546: 1536: 1534: 1530: 1527: 1523: 1519: 1518:Mughal Empire 1515: 1510: 1507: 1503: 1497: 1493: 1491: 1487: 1483: 1479: 1475: 1471: 1467: 1464: 1460: 1456: 1452: 1444: 1439: 1431: 1422: 1418: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1404: 1400: 1396: 1391: 1387: 1382: 1380: 1375: 1369: 1367: 1363: 1359: 1355: 1351: 1347: 1343: 1336: 1335: 1329: 1321: 1312: 1310: 1304: 1302: 1298: 1289: 1280: 1278: 1277:Binnya Ran II 1274: 1268: 1266: 1262: 1257: 1255: 1251: 1247: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1229: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1200: 1198: 1193: 1187: 1185: 1181: 1177: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1138: 1133: 1118: 1109: 1099: 1093: 1063: 1061: 1055: 1053: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1008: 1006: 1002: 998: 994: 990: 986: 982: 978: 974: 969: 960: 956: 944: 939: 937: 932: 930: 925: 924: 922: 921: 918: 908: 907: 900: 899:Military rule 897: 896: 895: 892: 890: 887: 885: 882: 880: 877: 875: 872: 871: 870: 869: 861: 858: 855: 852: 849: 846: 843: 840: 837: 834: 833: 832:1948–present 831: 828: 827: 826: 825: 817: 814: 811: 808: 805: 802: 799: 796: 795: 793: 790: 789: 788: 787: 781: 778: 775: 772: 767: 764: 761: 758: 757: 755: 752: 747: 744: 741: 738: 735: 732: 727: 726:Prome Kingdom 724: 721: 718: 715: 712: 709: 705: 702: 701: 699: 698:Upper Myanmar 696: 695: 694: 691: 686: 683: 682: 680: 679:Pagan Kingdom 677: 676: 675: 674: 668: 665: 664: 659: 654: 653: 650:825?–1057? CE 649: 646: 645: 640: 636: 631: 630: 626: 623: 620: 617: 616: 615: 614: 610: 606: 605: 602: 599: 598: 578: 576: 573: 572: 564: 562: 559: 558: 550: 548: 545: 544: 536: 534: 531: 530: 527: 521: 518: 511: 510: 507: 504: 497: 496: 493: 490: 483: 482: 479: 476: 469: 468: 465: 462: 455: 454: 451: 448: 441: 440: 437: 434: 427: 426: 423: 422: 419: 416: 414: 411: 410: 406: 403: 399: 396: 392: 388: 384: 378: 374: 365: 361: 352: 348: 339: 335: 326: 322: 316: 312: 303: 299: 295: 291: 288: 285: 281: 277: 274: 271: 265: 262: 259: 253: 250: 247: 241: 238: 235: 229: 225: 221: 217: 209: 206: 204: 201: 199: 196: 194: 191: 190: 183: 178: 174: 164: 159: 156: 152: 147: 144: 140: 135: 132: 128: 123: 120: 117:(Lower Burma) 115: 112: 108: 103: 99: 95: 92: 91: 84: 79: 75: 71: 66: 63: 59: 56: 53: 49: 42: 37: 32: 22: 19: 7579:Contemporary 7429:Indo-Persian 7417:Nazi Germany 7361:Contemporary 7318: 7263:Vijayanagara 7162:Great Seljuk 7073:Thessalonica 7001:Golden Horde 6641:Carthaginian 6420:Neo-Assyrian 6405:Neo-Sumerian 6328: 6316: 6304: 6148:Prostitution 6103:Demographics 6042:Central bank 5931:Human rights 5911:Constitution 5746:British rule 5718: 5638: 5577: 5573: 5561: 5552: 5551:, U (2010). 5540: 5528: 5506: 5484: 5472: 5453: 5444: 5425: 5416: 5394: 5382:Yazawin Thit 5380: 5358: 5336: 5324:Maha Yazawin 5322: 5321:, U (1724). 5303:. ABC-CLIO. 5300: 5297:Keat Gin Ooi 5277: 5268: 5255: 5242:. Retrieved 5235:the original 5222: 5218: 5192: 5173: 5150: 5131: 5123:Bibliography 5112: 5103: 5094: 5085: 5076: 5041: 5035: 5026: 5003: 4994: 4985: 4976: 4967: 4958: 4949: 4914: 4905: 4896: 4887: 4840: 4807: 4770: 4761: 4728: 4705: 4696: 4687: 4666: 4657: 4648: 4639: 4606: 4597: 4562: 4553: 4500: 4479: 4458: 4449: 4440: 4431: 4422: 4413: 4404: 4395: 4370: 4361: 4316: 4295: 4286: 4277: 4268: 4247: 4238: 4229: 4220: 4199: 4190: 4181: 4160: 4125: 4116: 4043: 3982: 3973: 3964: 3955: 3946: 3937: 3928: 3919: 3894: 3885: 3876: 3867: 3858: 3849: 3840: 3831: 3822: 3813: 3788: 3779: 3770: 3761: 3752: 3719: 3710: 3630: 3621: 3612: 3602: 3593: 3584: 3571: 3562: 3549: 3536: 3526: 3508: 3491: 3481: 3472: 3463: 3453: 3443: 3398: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3373: 3363: 3345: 3339: 3325: 3321: 3299:(Portuguese 3285: 3260: 3251: 3234: 3232: 3223: 3213: 3210: 3204: 3201: 3186: 3159: 3157: 3153:Natshinnaung 3144: 3138: 3132: 3126: 3123: 3116: 3113: 3105: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3082: 3080: 3072: 3068: 3062: 3054: 3047: 3037: 3032:Description 3022: 3012: 3002: 2992: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2971: 2965: 2960:Description 2949:hsin-ye-tha, 2948: 2944: 2941: 2931: 2927: 2921: 2918: 2914: 2904: 2901: 2893: 2889:Rakhine Pyay 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2873:Talaing-Pyay 2872: 2869: 2860: 2856: 2837:Ekathotsarot 2827: 2823: 2820: 2806: 2793:Natshinnaung 2781:Thado Minsaw 2777: 2754:muzzleloader 2747: 2736: 2732: 2729: 2716: 2704: 2692: 2685: 2679: 2667: 2664: 2661:Organisation 2655: 2438: 2432: 2424: 2420: 2417: 2408: 2320: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2294: 2229:Maha Nagara 2170:Thiri Rahta 2147:Kachin State 2083: 2079: 2077: 2072: 2068: 2064: 2049: 2047: 2030: 2008:Maha Ouparat 1895:Minkhaung II 1813:Thado Minsaw 1771: 1761: 1742: 1632: 1614: 1601: 1593: 1590: 1569: 1557: 1542: 1531: 1511: 1498: 1494: 1480:(1562), the 1448: 1419: 1383: 1370: 1358:Tabinshwehti 1339: 1332: 1305: 1294: 1269: 1258: 1242:Minkhaung II 1231: 1201: 1188: 1156:governor of 1146:Pagan period 1143: 1115: 1094: 1088:တောင်ငူ ခေတ် 1074: 1056: 1024:Pagan Empire 1016:Tabinshwehti 1009: 980: 976: 972: 963:တောင်ငူ ခေတ် 954: 952: 862:2021–present 759: 648:Mon kingdoms 418:Succeeded by 417: 412: 249:Tabinshwehti 198:Christianity 18: 7167:Khwarezmian 7100:Carolingian 6905:Rashtrakuta 6609:Shaishunaga 6508:Hellenistic 6491:New Kingdom 6481:Old Kingdom 6037:Agriculture 5875:Earthquakes 5736:Shan States 3519:Binnya Dala 3497:Minye Sithu 3305:Masulipatam 3257:Agriculture 3219:Eid al-Adha 3197:Hanthawaddy 3088:hsin-ye-tha 3069:phrai luang 3048:phrai luang 2881:Myanma-Pyay 2824:phrai luang 2425:Kosaungchok 2361:Sein Taing 2278:(Onbaung), 2271:Kayah State 2098:Key states 2060:Shan states 1964:Phitsanulok 1924:Chiang Saen 1879:Kayin State 1877:, northern 1875:Bago Region 1848:Tharrawaddy 1834:Bago Region 1754:Binnya Dala 1703:Kayin State 1701:, southern 1697:, northern 1686:(Thanlyin) 1678:Bago Region 1676:, southern 1662:(Pathein), 1646:Key cities 1629:Core Region 1488:(1564) and 1466:Shan states 1342:Taka Yut Pi 1297:Narapati II 1273:Hanthawaddy 1158:Kanba Myint 1112:Place names 1040:Shan states 740:Shan States 464:Shan states 436:Ava Kingdom 413:Preceded by 402:silver kyat 283:Legislature 273:Nanda Bayin 127:Shan states 28:တောင်ငူခေတ် 7845:Categories 7737:Portuguese 7618:Revival Le 7608:Vietnamese 7251:Later Tran 7221:Vietnamese 7117:Singhasari 7105:Holy Roman 6729:Bulgarian 6665:Satavahana 6636:Phoenician 6572:Achaemenid 6533:Indo-Greek 6513:Macedonian 6427:Babylonian 6246:Literature 6201:Censorship 6181:State Seal 5975:Parliament 5916:Corruption 5840:Ecoregions 5659:Prehistory 5580:. London: 5549:Thaw Kaung 5481:Stuart-Fox 5377:Maha Sithu 5244:25 October 3641:References 3370:Conditions 3193:Dhammazedi 3057:in Burma. 2923:cakkavatti 2848:Demography 2750:matchlocks 2514:Ava (1525) 2434:dhammathat 2399:Sri Lanka 2389:Thaw Kaung 2280:Nyaungshwe 2267:Shan State 2251:Shan State 2246:Khemawara 2191:Shan State 2175:Shan State 2127:Chin State 2025:(1596–99) 2020:(1591–95) 2015:(1589–91) 2010:(1574–88) 1976:(1569–84) 1971:(1564–68) 1946:(1579–97) 1941:(1565–79) 1936:(1558–63) 1920:Chiang Rai 1916:Chiang Mai 1902:(1584–97) 1892:(1540–49) 1865:(1589–95) 1860:(1551–88) 1855:(1542–50) 1820:(1587–93) 1815:(1555–84) 1736:Junkceylon 1611:Government 1533:Bayinnaung 1451:Bayinnaung 1390:Portuguese 1346:Bayin Htwe 1265:Mingyi Nyo 1184:Shan Hills 1166:Thawun Nge 1162:Thawun Gyi 1130:See also: 1066:Background 1028:Bayinnaung 1022:since the 830:Modern era 794:1824–1948 756:1510–1752 700:1297–1555 398:ganza kyat 261:Bayinnaung 237:Mingyi Nyo 219:Government 7730:Couronian 7368:Ethiopian 7356:Manchukuo 7311:Brazilian 7157:Ghaznavid 7127:Srivijaya 7078:Trebizond 7063:Byzantine 7045:North Sea 7040:Norwegian 7028:Almoravid 7011:Ilkhanate 6981:Majapahit 6954:Muromachi 6863:Solomonic 6848:Ethiopian 6762:Caliphate 6695:Aragonese 6523:Ptolemaic 6271:Tattooing 6231:Festivals 6226:Etymology 6133:Languages 6108:Education 5992:President 5921:Elections 5880:Volcanoes 5855:Mountains 5808:Geography 5796:Civil war 5786:2021 coup 5355:Lieberman 5333:Lieberman 5265:Htin Aung 5231:1479-8484 3577:Nyaungyan 3542:Vientiane 3319:by 1545. 3271:Mu valley 3181:Ayutthaya 3118:parabaiks 3063:phrai som 3013:paya kyun 2885:Shan Pyay 2797:Lieberman 2328:State(s) 2262:Kanbawza 2256:Keng Tung 2240:Keng Hung 2173:northern 2136:Thaungdut 2092:Province 1998:Champasak 1990:Vientiane 1960:Ayutthaya 1750:Smim Payu 1734:(Myeik), 1721:Southern 1695:Mon State 1691:Martaban 1664:Myaungmya 1640:Province 1579:Aftermath 1478:Keng Tung 1445:in Yangon 1425:Expansion 1415:Ayutthaya 1354:Thohanbwa 1254:Min Sithu 1180:Bago Yoma 1076:Period" ( 993:Cambodian 860:SAC junta 856:2011–2015 850:1988–2010 844:1962–1988 838:1948–1962 818:1942–1945 812:1900–1948 806:1885–1895 800:1824–1885 782:1752–1885 776:1740–1757 768:1599–1752 762:1510–1599 748:1429–1785 742:1215–1563 728:1482–1542 722:1365–1555 716:1315–1365 710:1297–1365 704:Myinsaing 681:849–1297 669:788?–1406 344:Expansion 176:Religion 34:1510–1599 7710:Japanese 7673:Scottish 7653:American 7645:Colonial 7574:Imperial 7542:Moroccan 7478:Japanese 7456:Afsharid 7315:Burmese 7301:Austrian 7256:Later Le 7231:Early Le 7216:Venetian 7142:Tiwanaku 7055:Hellenic 7018:Moroccan 6949:Kamakura 6939:Japanese 6922:Saffarid 6875:Georgian 6789:Chalukya 6767:Rashidun 6757:Calakmul 6725:Bruneian 6604:Haryanka 6582:Sasanian 6577:Parthian 6528:Bactrian 6518:Seleucid 6498:Goguryeo 6476:Egyptian 6410:Assyrian 6400:Akkadian 6391:Colonies 6306:Category 6281:Weddings 6241:Folklore 6211:Clothing 6191:Calendar 6186:Capitals 6138:Religion 5958:Military 5948:Conflict 5894:Politics 5870:Wildlife 5791:Protests 5625:articles 5537:Than Tun 5527:(1983). 5525:Than Tun 3448:example. 3408:See also 3336:Currency 3205:sawbwas' 3166:Religion 3109:Tipitika 2977:ahmudans 2897:entrepôt 2833:Naresuan 2744:Firearms 2737:ahmudans 2733:ahmudans 2674:အမှုထမ်း 2453:Military 2310:sawbwa's 2288:Mong Pai 2284:Mong Nai 2265:Western 2249:Eastern 2196:Mong Mit 2118:Mawriya 2113:Manipur 2023:Vorapita 1982:Lan Xang 1870:Toungoo 1768:Kingdoms 1708:Martaban 1651:Bassein 1597:Naresuan 1492:(1565). 1490:Lan Xang 1484:(1563), 1476:(1560), 1472:(1558), 1468:(1557), 1459:Tai-Shan 1350:Narapati 1248:(1480), 1246:Yamethin 1150:Sithu II 1036:Lan Xang 874:Timeline 687:849–1044 561:Lan Xang 506:Lan Xang 394:Currency 222:Monarchy 203:Hinduism 186:Minority 179:Official 151:Lan Xang 87:Regional 80:Official 7777:largest 7772:Empires 7752:Swedish 7747:Spanish 7742:Russian 7705:Italian 7680:Chinese 7668:English 7663:British 7658:Belgian 7633:Vietnam 7623:Tay son 7569:Tsarist 7564:Russian 7559:Ottoman 7525:Dzungar 7520:Khoshut 7493:Mexican 7488:Maratha 7471:Pahlavi 7451:Safavid 7446:Iranian 7373:Haitian 7336:Chinese 7296:Ashanti 7268:Wagadou 7194:Eastern 7189:Western 7172:Timurid 7132:Tibetan 7122:Songhai 7112:Serbian 7033:Almohad 7023:Idrisid 6927:Samanid 6917:Tahirid 6912:Iranian 6890:Kannauj 6870:Genoese 6806:Chinese 6799:Eastern 6794:Western 6782:Fatimid 6777:Abbasid 6772:Umayyad 6745:Burmese 6705:Ayyubid 6700:Angevin 6670:Xianbei 6658:Eastern 6653:Western 6599:Magadha 6562:Iranian 6555:Xiongnu 6540:Hittite 6449:Chinese 6437:Kassite 6386:Ancient 6378:Empires 6318:Commons 6216:Cuisine 6163:Culture 6086:Society 6062:Tourism 6025:Economy 5845:Islands 5830:Climate 5820:Borders 5651:History 5621:Myanmar 5503:Tarling 5391:Myint-U 5299:(ed.). 5168:Prince 3402:Myint-U 3342:coinage 3313:Gujarat 3301:Pulicat 3293:Sumatra 3289:Malacca 3263:Kyaukse 3248:Economy 3055:ahmudan 2985:ahmudan 2981:ahmudan 2972:kyundaw 2966:ahmudan 2828:ahmudan 2680:ahmudan 2668:ahmudan 2396:Ceylon 2298:sawbwas 2219:Lincang 2215:Baoshan 2156:Mogaung 2152:Mohnyin 2109:Manipur 2104:Manipur 2084:sawbwas 2056:Manipur 2051:sawbwas 1885:Toungoo 1798:Sagaing 1718:Mergui 1660:Bassein 1506:Mogaung 1502:Mohnyin 1474:Manipur 1463:Salween 1455:Manipur 1411:Mrauk-U 1374:Saw Lon 1362:Min Bin 1171:တောင်ငူ 1121:History 1058:states— 1020:Myanmar 991:to the 989:Manipur 959:Burmese 884:Leaders 375:1584–99 370:Decline 368:• 362:1568–76 357:Defense 355:• 349:1550–65 342:• 336:1534–49 329:• 306:• 293:History 287:Hluttaw 193:Animism 163:Manipur 158:Meithei 94:Siamese 83:Burmese 65:Toungoo 61:Capital 7715:Mongol 7700:German 7695:French 7685:Danish 7628:Dainam 7603:Tongan 7591:Somali 7586:Sokoto 7552:'Alawi 7530:Kalmyk 7510:Mongol 7503:Second 7483:Korean 7434:Mughal 7424:Indian 7407:German 7400:Second 7390:French 7383:Second 7319:Second 7291:Afghan 7283:Modern 7209:Kyrgyz 7204:Uighur 7199:Second 7179:Turkic 7147:Toltec 7083:Epirus 7068:Nicaea 6991:Mongol 6944:Yamato 6880:Huetar 6738:Second 6675:Rouran 6624:Shunga 6619:Maurya 6594:Kushan 6567:Median 6545:Hunnic 6503:Harsha 6330:Portal 6206:Cinema 6196:Zodiac 6176:Anthem 6123:Health 5865:Rivers 5825:Cities 5623: 5513: 5491: 5460: 5432: 5413:Phayre 5401: 5365: 5343: 5307: 5284: 5229: 5199: 5180: 5157: 5138: 3379:Legacy 3329:tonnes 3309:Bengal 3295:, the 3151:, and 3096:munnai 3092:munnai 3038:munnai 2928:thissa 2905:munnai 2817:Legacy 2757:cannon 2429:Wareru 2369:Mekong 2350:Ganges 2343:Cachar 2334:Notes 2306:sawbwa 2302:sawbwa 2276:Hsipaw 2211:Dehong 2207:Yunnan 2180:Hsenwi 2073:sawbwa 1934:Mekuti 1908:Lan Na 1825:Prome 1779:State 1732:Mergui 1684:Syriam 1682:Pegu, 1470:Lan Na 1212:Burman 1044:Ceylon 1001:Yunnan 997:Arakan 975:, the 478:Lan Na 296: 139:Lan Na 55:Empire 51:Status 7765:Lists 7720:Omani 7690:Dutch 7596:Isaaq 7547:Saadi 7515:Oirat 7498:First 7466:Qajar 7395:First 7378:First 7351:China 7324:Third 7184:First 7137:Tikal 7088:Morea 7058:Roman 6976:Latin 6971:Khmer 6966:Kanem 6932:Buyid 6858:Zagwe 6853:Aksum 6843:Chola 6750:First 6733:First 6720:Bornu 6715:Benin 6710:Aztec 6648:Roman 6629:Gupta 6614:Nanda 6550:White 6256:Music 6251:Media 6221:Dance 6143:Women 6098:Crime 5850:Lakes 5639:Burma 5238:(PDF) 5225:(1). 5215:(PDF) 3555:Akbar 3486:1565. 3435:Notes 3364:ganza 3352:ဂင်ဇာ 3346:ganza 3282:Trade 3267:Minbu 3160:phrai 2932:kyezu 2711:အဆော် 2705:ahsaw 2699:အကြပ် 2693:akyat 2447:tical 2385:Annam 2164:Bhamo 2132:Kalay 2080:taing 1844:Salin 1840:Prome 1670:Pegu 1560:Nanda 1558:King 1526:Kandy 1522:Kotte 1250:Salin 1204:Prome 1192:Pinya 1052:Nanda 208:Islam 102:Khmer 7535:Bogd 7461:Zand 7439:Sikh 7346:Qing 7341:Ming 7273:Wari 7241:Tran 7226:Dinh 6996:Yuan 6986:Mali 6895:Pala 6885:Inca 6836:Yuan 6826:Song 6821:Liao 6816:Tang 6589:Kush 6471:Dʿmt 6236:Flag 6009:list 5997:list 5936:LGBT 5570:Yule 5511:ISBN 5489:ISBN 5458:ISBN 5430:ISBN 5399:ISBN 5363:ISBN 5341:ISBN 5319:Kala 5305:ISBN 5282:ISBN 5246:2015 5227:ISSN 5197:ISBN 5178:ISBN 5155:ISBN 5136:ISBN 3631:ayek 3517:and 3458:etc. 3311:and 3269:and 3145:yadu 3140:yadu 3131:and 3073:kyun 3003:kyun 2993:athi 2835:and 2791:and 2423:and 2069:raja 2065:raja 1952:Siam 1800:and 1793:Ava 1762:smim 1758:Mons 1524:and 1504:and 1486:Siam 1413:and 1405:and 1379:Pegu 1315:Rise 1208:Shan 1164:and 1032:Siam 953:The 706:and 400:and 331:Rise 313:1485 134:Yuan 122:Shan 107:Siam 70:Pegu 7613:Mac 7050:Oyo 6959:Edo 6831:Jīn 6811:Sui 6464:Jin 6459:Han 6454:Qin 6171:Art 3307:), 3236:nat 3195:of 3083:min 2945:min 2875:or 2773:DSA 2723:အကဲ 2717:ake 2431:'s 2071:a " 1928:Nan 1334:Nat 1197:Ava 1108:). 1092:). 1012:Ava 999:to 146:Lao 114:Mon 98:Mon 7847:: 7246:Ho 7236:Ly 5578:27 5576:. 5221:. 5217:. 5062:^ 5050:^ 5012:^ 4937:^ 4923:^ 4873:^ 4861:^ 4849:^ 4828:^ 4816:^ 4791:^ 4779:^ 4749:^ 4737:^ 4714:^ 4675:^ 4627:^ 4615:^ 4583:^ 4571:^ 4537:^ 4523:^ 4509:^ 4488:^ 4467:^ 4379:^ 4349:^ 4337:^ 4325:^ 4304:^ 4256:^ 4208:^ 4169:^ 4146:^ 4134:^ 4104:^ 4084:^ 4070:^ 4052:^ 4031:^ 4015:^ 4003:^ 3991:^ 3903:^ 3797:^ 3740:^ 3728:^ 3698:^ 3686:^ 3670:^ 3648:^ 3356:, 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First Toungoo Empire

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