135:
254:
886:. Theatrical performances lasted eight consecutive hours and were performed as part of a competition in which a jury proclaimed a winner. While the decor of the provisional theatres was very simple, the permanent theatrical venues of ancient Athens eventually became more sumptuous and elaborate. No matter the performance venue, plays were performed by, at most, three actors, who wore masks to identify them with the characters they portrayed; they were accompanied by a chorus who sang and danced.
711:, Aristotle asked: "How is it possible to prevent the wives of the poor from going out of doors?" In practice, only wealthy families would have been able to implement this ideology. Women's responsibilities would have forced them to leave the house frequently – to fetch water from the well or wash clothing, for example. Although wealthy families may have had slaves to enable free women to remain in the house, most would not have had enough slaves to prevent free women from leaving at all.
735:
497:
36:
309:), a special salary for the citizens that attended the courts as jurors. This way, these citizens were able to dedicate themselves to public service without facing financial hardship. With this system, Pericles succeeded in keeping the courts full of jurors (Ath. Pol. 27.3), and in giving the people experience in public life. As Athens' ruler, he made the city the first and most important
530:, but Pericles moved it to Athens under the pretext that Delos wasn't safe enough. This resulted in internal friction within the league and the rebellion of some city-states that were members. Athens retaliated quickly and some scholars believe this to be the period wherein it would be more appropriate to discuss an Athenian Empire instead of a league.
718:(the city's eponymous goddess) was central to Athenian society, reinforcing morality and maintaining societal structure. Women played a key role in the cult; the priestesshood of Athena was a position of great importance, and the priestess could use her influence to support political positions. According to
659:
addition to these compulsory lessons, the students had the chance to discuss and learn from the great philosophers, grammarians and orators of the time. Some poor people had to stay at home and help their parents. However, Aristophanes and
Socrates, though they were poor, became famous and successful.
742:
Historians consider the
Athenian 5th and 6th centuries BC as the Golden Age of sculpture and architecture. In this period the ornamental elements and the technique employed did not vary from the previous period. What characterizes this period is the quantity of works and the refinement and perfection
542:
which gave Athens great naval power and to pay and maintain a chorus for large religious festivals. It is believed that rich
Athenian men saw it as an honor to sponsor the triremes (probably because they became leaders of it for the period they supported it) or the festivals and they often engaged in
487:
hill, in a place expressly prepared for the event. The fifty prytaneis in power were located on grandstands carved into the rock. They had stone platforms which they reached by means of a small staircase of three steps. On the first platform were the secretaries and scribes; the orator would climb up
574:
for citizen population has been calculated as 0.708. The economy was based on maritime commerce and manufacturing, according to
Amemiya's estimates, 56% of Athens' GDP was derived from manufacturing. Agriculture was also important, but it did not produce enough to feed the populace, so most food had
384:
were people who occupied a public post and formed the administration of the
Athenian state. They were submitted to rigorous public control. The magistrates were chosen by lot, using fava beans. Black and white beans were put in a box and depending on which color the person drew out they obtained the
850:
were produced in mass quantity due to the heavy trading with other cities all around the
Mediterranean. Large evidence of amphorae from this era can be found around every major ancient port as well as in the Aegean sea. During this period is also seen an abundance of white background ceramics which
1039:
From 461 until his death in 429 BC Pericles was active in the government of Athens, an era of splendour and a standard of living higher than any previously experienced. All was well within the internal government, however discontent within the Delian League was ever increasing. The foreign affairs
688:
if she were not married) could also do so, apparently even against the couple's wishes. After divorce, the husband was required to return the dowry or pay 18 percent interest annually so the woman's livelihood would continue and she could remarry. If there were children at the time of the divorce,
658:
classes where they were prepared for future military service with activities such as wrestling, racing, jumping and gymnastics. At eighteen they served in the army and were instructed on how to bear arms. Physical education was very intense and many of the boys ended up becoming true athletes. In
359:
Most importantly, and in order to emphasize the concept of equality and discourage corruption and patronage, practically all public offices that did not require a particular expertise were appointed by lot and not by election. Among those selected by lot to a political body, specific office was
677:
Athens, when (at least amongst the powerful) marriages were as much about making beneficial connections as they were about perpetuating the family. Married women were responsible for the day-to-day running of the household. At marriage, they assumed responsibility for the prosperity of their
773:
and lay in ruins for more than 30 years. Pericles initiated its reconstruction with white marble brought from the nearby quarry of
Pentelicon. The best architects, sculptors and workers were gathered to complete the Acropolis. The construction lasted 20 years. Financing came from the Delian
433:, that is to say, an assembly by summons), was the first organ of the democracy. In theory it brought together in assembly all the citizens of Athens, however the maximum number which came to congregate is estimated at 6,000 participants. The gathering place was a space on the hill called
851:
are much more delicate than the previously popular yellow and black background ceramics. These ceramics were often used to keep perfume or for mortuary rites, including decorations on graves. It is also known that there were many great painters, but their works are lost, both
338:
The principle of equality granted to all citizens had dangers since many citizens were incapable of exercising political rights due to their extreme poverty or ignorance. To avoid this, Athenian democracy applied itself to the task of helping the poorest in this manner:
264:
During the golden age, Athenian military and external affairs were mostly entrusted to the ten generals who were elected each year by the ten tribes of citizens, who could be relied on rather than the variable-quality magistrates chosen by lot under the democracy. These
878:
and actors. By this means, Pericles maintained the tradition according to which theatrical performances served the moral and intellectual education of the people. Plays were made by men and usually for men, and this platform was often used to reinforce the patriarchy.
467:) consisted of 500 members, fifty from each tribe, functioning as an extension of the Assembly. These were chosen by chance, using the system described earlier, from which they were familiarly known as "councillors of the bean"; officially they were known as
448:
The
Assembly decided on laws and decrees which were proposed. Decisions relied on ancient laws that had long been in force. Bills were voted on in two stages: first the Assembly itself decided and afterwards the Council or βουλή gave definitive approval.
1040:
policies adopted by Athens did not produce the best results; members of the Delian League were increasingly dissatisfied. Athens was the city-state that dominated and subjugated the rest of Greece and these oppressed citizens wanted their independence.
678:
husband's household and the health of its members. Their primary responsibilities were bearing, raising and caring for children, weaving cloth and making clothes. They would also have been responsible for caring for ill household members, supervising
385:
post or not. This was a way of eliminating the personal influence of rich people and possible intrigues and use of favors. There were only two categories of posts not chosen by lot, but by election in the
Popular Assembly. These were
533:
Other small incomes came from customs fees and fines. In times of war, a special tax was levied on rich citizens. These citizens were also charged permanently with other taxes for the good of the city. This was called the system of
800:("chryselephantine statues"), generally face and hands, which were highly celebrated and admired in his own time: Athena, situated in the interior of the Parthenon, whose splendor reached the faithful through the open doors, and
360:
always rotated so that every single member served in all capacities in turn. This was meant to ensure that political functions were instituted in such a way as to run smoothly, regardless of each official's individual capacity.
389:, or general, and magistrate of finance. It was generally supposed that significant qualities were needed to exercise each of those two offices. A magistrate's post did not last more than a year, including that of the
318:
The sovereign people governed themselves, without intermediaries, deciding matters of state in the
Assembly. Athenian citizens were free and only owed obedience to their laws and respect to their gods. They achieved
482:
The council members examined and studied legal projects, supervised the magistrates and saw that daily administrative details were on the right path. They oversaw the city state's external affairs. They also met at
873:
reached its greatest height in the 5th century BC. Pericles promoted and favored the theatre with a series of practical and economic measures. The wealthiest families were obligated to care for and to sustain the
692:
In some cases, Athenian women had the same rights and responsibilities as Athenian men. However, Athenian women did have some significant disabilities at law compared to their male counterparts. Like slaves and
393:
and in this sense the continued selection of Pericles year after year was an exception. At the end of every year, a magistrate would have to give an account of his administration and use of public finances.
283:
for overthrowing the elitist Council of the Aeropagus, Pericles stepped in and was elected in 445 BC, a post he held continuously until his death in 429 BC, always by election of the Athenian Assembly.
566:
The Athenian elite lived modestly and without great luxuries, compared to the elites of other ancient states. There were very few great fortunes and land ownership was not concentrated: 71–73% of the
682:, and ensuring that the household had sufficient food. In classical Athenian marriages, husband or wife could legally initiate a divorce. The woman's closest male relative (who would be her
415:
There were also more than forty public administration officers and more than sixty to police the streets, the markets, to check weights and measures and to carry out arrests and executions.
405:
in English. In previous ages they had been the heads of the Athenian state, but in the Age of Pericles they lost their influence and power, although they still presided over tribunals.
673:
The primary role of free women in classical Athens was to marry and bear children. The emphasis on marriage as a way to perpetuate the family through childbearing had changed from
1023:) who wrote courses and created a new literary form characterized by the clarity and purity of the language. It became a lucrative profession. It is known that the logographer
169:, economic growth and cultural flourishing. The period began in 478 BC, after the defeat of the Persian invasion, when an Athenian-led coalition of city-states, known as the
271:
were given duties which included planning military expeditions, receiving envoys of other states and directing diplomatic affairs. During the time of the ascendancy of
726:
the priestess of Athena encouraged the evacuation of Athens by telling the Athenians that the snake sacred to Athena (which lived on the Acropolis) had already left.
335:
classes did not disappear, but their power was more limited; they shared the fiscal and military offices but they did not have the power of distributing privileges.
990:
had the opportunity to associate with not only the great Athenians thinkers of their day but also other Greek and foreign scholars. Among them were the philosopher
575:
to be imported (it is estimated that the carrying capacity of Attica's soil was between 84,000 and 150,000, while the population was 300,000 to 350,000 in 431 BC).
1378:
582:
in honor of the goddess Athena, a ritual procession carried out once a year in May and once every four years in July, in which the town presented a new veil (
983:, expert, teacher, man of wisdom) was given to the teachers that gave instruction on diverse branches of science and knowledge in exchange for a fee.
705:. Women ideally remained apart from men. However it was recognised that an ideology of separation could not be practiced by many Athenians. In
291:; this quality brought him tremendous success in the Assembly, presenting his vision of politics. One of his most popular reforms was to allow
412:, or generals, who served as both military officers and diplomats. It was through this position that Pericles shaped 5th-century BC Athens.
363:
These measures appear to have been carried out in great measure since the testimony has come to us from (among others) the Greek historian
367:(c. 460–400 BC), who comments: "Everyone who is capable of serving the city meets no impediment, neither poverty, nor civic condition..."
184:
became an Athenian empire after Athens abandoned the pretense of parity among its allies and relocated the Delian League treasury from
821:, in order to conserve the marble of these sculptures, oil receptacles were placed in the temples so that the ivory would not crack.
100:
72:
196:, put half its population on the public payroll, and maintained its position as the dominant naval power in the Greek world.
53:
1543:
Patterson, Cynthia (2007). "Other Sorts: Slaves, Foreigners, and Women in Periclean Athens". In Sammons, Loren J. II (ed.).
79:
1664:
17:
257:
203:, Athens produced some of the most influential and enduring cultural artifacts of the Western tradition. The playwrights
1581:
Rhodes, P. J. (1992). "The Athenian Revolution". In Lewis, David M.; Boardman, John; Davis, J. K.; et al. (eds.).
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began to confront Athens. After a long lasting series of poorly managed, hawkish policies, (c. 431 BC) and the ensuing
948:(who first inquired as to what substance lies within all matter, the earliest known proposal of what is now called the
86:
1590:
1571:
1552:
1474:
119:
1386:
1027:(460–380 BC) made a great fortune thanks to his profession. Later, in the 4th century BC, the orators Isocrates and
496:
604:), large competitions were organized which included gymnastics and horseback riding, the winners of which received
295:(Athenians without wealth) to occupy public office. Another success of his administration was the creation of the
748:
743:
of the works. Most were religious in nature, mainly sanctuaries and temples. Some examples from this period are:
68:
57:
925:
The Golden Age featured some of the most renowned Western philosophers of all time. Chief among these were
1522:
Osborne, Robin (1997). "Law, the Democratic Citizen, and the Representation of Women in Classical Athens".
1072:
920:
929:, whose ideas exist primarily in a series of dialogues by his student Plato, who mixed them with his own;
625:
180:
After peace was made with Persia in the mid-5th century BC, what started as an alliance of independent
522:
The economic resources of the Athenian State would not have been possible without the treasury of the
488:
to the second. Any one who became unpopular would be kicked out and would be brought to another city.
199:
With the empire's funds, military dominance and its political fortunes guided by statesman and orator
883:
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The education of boys began in their own home up until the age of seven when they had to attend
1060:
458:
1013:. Since the late 5th century BC, eloquence had been elevated to an art form. There were the
769:, the marble city for the glory of the gods. The site had suffered from a fire started by the
1454:
995:
1620:
1616:
1412:
Cohen, David (1989). "Seclusion, Separation, and the Status of Women in Classical Athens".
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707:
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1051:—had been founded. Taking advantage of the general dissent of the Greek city-states, this
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they remained in their father's house and he remained responsible for their upbringing.
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The state oversaw all the major religious festivals. The most important one was the
253:
1531:
1500:
1489:"Law, Custom and Myth: Aspects of the Social Position of Women in Classical Athens"
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full of sacred olive oil as a prize. The other important festival was the dramatic
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571:
551:
1463:
812:
808:, considered in its age and in later ages to be one of the marvels of the world.
805:
320:
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of the Greek world, acquiring a resplendent culture and democratic institutions.
684:
1446:
1109:
1094:""When I Squeeze You with Eisphorai": Taxes and Tax Policy in Classical Athens"
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597:
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In the second half of the 5th century BC the name of sophist (from the Greek
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280:
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1535:
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Hesperia: The Journal of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens
1002:, as well as the historians Herodotus (484–425), Thucydides (460–400), and
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875:
332:
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In this age, Athens was the "school of Greece." Pericles and his mistress
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of Athens, built in the 5th century BC following the Greek victory in the
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Dover, K. J. (1973). "Classical Greek Attitudes to Sexual Behaviour".
1585:. Vol. V (2nd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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is considered the greatest sculptor of this era. He created colossal
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the word of a poor person had the same worth as that of a rich person
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216:
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all lived and worked in 5th-century BC Athens, as did the historians
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1600:
Schaps, D. M. (1998). "What Was Free about a Free Athenian Woman?".
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Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity
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Previously, in 550 BC, a similar league between the cities of the
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Public assistance for war widows, invalids, orphans and indigents.
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the city of Athens finally lost its independence in 338 BC, when
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1379:"The Ideal Image: The Depiction of Women in Fifth Century Drama"
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The dramatic poets from this era whose plays have survived are:
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During this age, the production of ceramic pieces was abundant.
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797:
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631:
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Athens also benefited from a proximity to the trading port of
260:, marble Roman copy after a Greek original from c. 430 BC
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1151:“Economy and Economics of Ancient Greece,” Routledge, 2007
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on cargo passing through the port. At Piraeus (the main
1164:". Princeton/Stamford Working Papers in Classics. 2005.
1142:". Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics. 2010.
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of Athens), this tax was set at 1% or higher on goods.
441:. The sessions sometimes lasted from dawn to dusk. The
1623:, which was accessed in the version of 28 August 2005.
940:
Other notable philosophers of the Golden Age included
697:, they were denied political freedom, citizenship and
157:
in the time from 480 to 404 BC. Formerly known as the
1162:
The growth of Greek cities in the first millennium BC
526:. The treasury was originally held on the island of
60:. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
1462:
1602:Transactions of the American Philological Society
570:population owned 60–65% of the land, whereas the
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561:
1360:
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1270:
1211:
1209:
824:The other great sculptors of this century were
343:Concession of salaries to public functionaries.
192:, where it funded the building of the Athenian
177:to keep the liberated Asian Greek cities free.
1545:The Cambridge Companion to the Age of Pericles
1172:
1170:
754:The reconstruction of the Temple of Apollo in
588:) to the old wooden statue of Athena Poliada.
1234:
1034:
701:, being excluded from the law courts and the
616:where tragedies and comedies were performed.
418:
1465:Women in the Classical World: Image and Text
1355:
1258:
1246:
1206:
1167:
508:—protector of the city—on the front and an
1306:
1547:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
1542:
1504:
1276:
512:—symbol of wisdom—on the back (c. 490 BC)
349:To grant lands to dispossessed villagers.
120:Learn how and when to remove this message
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397:The most honored posts were the ancient
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538:. The taxes were used to maintain the
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1469:. New York: Oxford University Press.
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275:as leader of the democratic faction,
592:immortalized this procession in the
408:Every year the citizens elected ten
346:To seek and supply work to the poor.
58:adding citations to reliable sources
29:
1637:Historia Universal Oriente y Grecia
279:was his deputy. When Ephialtes was
24:
1615:This article draws heavily on the
550:. The state of Athens collected a
410:"strategoi" (singular "strategos")
375:
25:
1676:
479:, meaning "chief" or "teacher").
239:, from whom it derived the name.
27:Golden Age of Athens, 480–404 BCE
882:Athens became the great city of
654:. Boys also had to take part in
34:
1493:The Journal of Hellenic Studies
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1343:
1331:
1318:
1294:
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1009:Athens was also the capital of
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45:needs additional citations for
1625:That article, in turn, cites:
1405:
1377:Allan, Davin (27 March 2013).
1221:
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1063:conquered the rest of Greece.
646:, as well as subjects such as
235:. Athens's patron goddess was
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1:
1639:. Daniel Jorro, Madrid, 1930.
1583:The Cambridge Ancient History
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855:and free-standing paintings.
562:Athens in the Age of Pericles
445:occurred forty times a year.
165:, it was buoyed by political
1073:Greece in the 5th century BC
921:Philosophy in ancient Greece
778:
758:, which was destroyed by an
619:
596:, which is currently at the
500:Reproduction of an Athenian
161:, the latter part being the
153:was the Greek city-state of
7:
1665:History of Classical Athens
1461:; Shapiro, H. Alan (1994).
1066:
1047:—directed and dominated by
626:Education in ancient Greece
600:. In the July Panathenaia (
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10:
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1621:Spanish-language Knowledge
1562:Pomeroy, Sarah B. (1994).
1126:10.2972/hesperia.85.1.0153
1110:10.2972/hesperia.85.1.0153
1035:End of the Age of Pericles
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765:The reconstruction of the
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634:. There, they had several
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419:The Assembly of the People
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1632:. Bordas, sideline, 1963.
1426:10.1017/S0017383500029284
865:Theatre of ancient Greece
842:Pottery of ancient Greece
669:Women in Classical Athens
518:Economy of ancient Greece
662:
305:, which literally means
1092:Fawcett, Peter (2016).
933:; and Plato's student,
785:Ancient Greek sculpture
749:Temple of Olympian Zeus
594:frieze of the Parthenon
1455:Kampen, Natalie Boymel
1061:Philip II of Macedonia
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543:competitive donating.
513:
261:
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69:"Fifth-century Athens"
1630:Egypte, Orient, Grèce
1617:corresponding article
996:Hippodamus of Miletus
738:View of the Acropolis
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516:Further information:
499:
287:Pericles was a great
256:
227:and the philosophers
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1536:10.1093/past/155.1.3
1053:Peloponnesian League
1031:also became famous.
998:, who reconstructed
806:Sanctuary of Olympia
453:The Council or Boule
159:Golden Age of Athens
151:Fifth-century Athens
54:improve this article
18:Golden Age of Athens
1566:. London: Pimlico.
1201:Fantham et al. 1994
952:or its sub-units);
767:Acropolis of Athens
730:Arts and literature
638:who taught them to
1524:Past & Present
1451:Foley, Helene Peet
740:
656:physical education
514:
504:with the image of
437:, in front of the
355:Other social help.
262:
148:
1459:Pomeroy, Sarah B.
1414:Greece & Rome
1057:Peloponnesian War
724:Battle of Salamis
602:Great Panathenaia
327:in the Assembly:
173:, confronted the
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818:Natural History
813:Pliny the Elder
787:
781:
732:
671:
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457:The Council or
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163:Age of Pericles
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28:
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1660:Ancient Greece
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1352:, pp. 8–9
1342:
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1277:Patterson 2007
1269:
1257:
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1205:
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1181:
1166:
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1140:Wealthy Hellas
1138:Josiah Ober, "
1131:
1104:(1): 153–199.
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1036:
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249:Pentecontaetia
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1592:9780521233477
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884:Greek theatre
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811:According to
809:
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722:, before the
721:
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519:
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110:November 2013
102:
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71: –
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65:Find sources:
59:
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43:This article
41:
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1413:
1391:. Retrieved
1387:the original
1382:
1372:
1367:, p. 75
1365:Pomeroy 1994
1345:
1340:, p. 69
1333:
1325:
1320:
1315:, p. 61
1308:
1296:
1291:, p. 95
1284:
1272:
1267:, p. 65
1265:Pomeroy 1994
1260:
1255:, p. 63
1253:Pomeroy 1994
1248:
1243:, p. 43
1236:
1228:
1223:
1218:, p. 51
1196:
1191:, p. 28
1189:Osborne 1997
1184:
1179:, p. 62
1177:Pomeroy 1994
1156:
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1134:
1101:
1097:
1087:
1042:
1038:
1015:logographers
1008:
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978:
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924:
909:Aristophanes
888:
881:
868:
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823:
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714:The cult of
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371:Institutions
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297:misthophoria
286:
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144:Persian wars
131:
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107:
97:
90:
83:
76:
64:
52:Please help
47:verification
44:
1485:Gould, John
1420:(1): 3–15.
1406:Works cited
1383:Literatured
1324:Aristotle,
1301:Schaps 1998
1289:Rhodes 1992
1231:, 7.35–7.37
1229:Oeconomicus
1029:Demosthenes
1006:(430–354).
794:gold-plated
648:mathematics
580:Panathenaia
502:tetradrachm
427:(in Greek,
382:magistrates
225:Hippocrates
182:city-states
1649:Categories
1350:Cohen 1989
1338:Dover 1973
1313:Dover 1973
1241:Gould 1980
1227:Xenophon,
1216:Gould 1980
1079:References
1020:λογογράφος
992:Anaxagoras
974:Protagoras
970:Heraclitus
966:Parmenides
954:Empedocles
946:Democritus
942:Anaxagoras
915:Philosophy
830:Polycletus
760:earthquake
365:Thucydides
302:μισθοφορία
247:See also:
221:Thucydides
80:newspapers
1635:Charles:
1628:Maurice:
1499:: 38–59.
1118:0018-098X
1011:eloquence
981:sophistês
962:Isocrates
935:Aristotle
904:Euripides
899:Sophocles
894:Aeschylus
779:Sculpture
720:Herodotus
620:Education
470:prytaneis
439:Acropolis
399:archontes
391:strategos
387:strategoi
333:censorial
273:Ephialtes
268:strategoi
217:Herodotus
213:Euripides
209:Sophocles
205:Aeschylus
194:Acropolis
140:Parthenon
1530:: 3–33.
1487:(1980).
1435:Arethusa
1393:29 March
1328:, 1300a.
1326:Politics
1067:See also
1004:Xenophon
1000:Peiraeus
927:Socrates
876:choruses
848:Amphorae
771:Persians
708:Politics
703:Assembly
636:teachers
614:Dionysus
610:Dionysia
606:amphoras
540:triremes
492:Finances
476:πρύτανις
443:ecclesia
430:ἐκκλησία
425:Assembly
321:equality
277:Pericles
243:Overview
233:Socrates
201:Pericles
175:Persians
167:hegemony
1619:in the
988:Aspasia
958:Hippias
871:theatre
859:Theatre
853:frescos
836:Pottery
804:in the
798:statues
790:Phidias
774:League.
675:archaic
590:Phidias
568:citizen
548:Piraeus
536:liturgy
403:archons
331:. The
289:speaker
94:scholar
1589:
1570:
1551:
1515:630731
1513:
1473:
1124:
1116:
1049:Sparta
1025:Lysias
972:; and
796:ivory
756:Delphi
695:metics
685:kyrios
680:slaves
632:school
585:peplos
325:speech
293:thetes
237:Athena
190:Athens
155:Athens
96:
89:
82:
75:
67:
1511:JSTOR
1122:JSTOR
931:Plato
826:Myron
663:Women
652:music
644:write
528:Delos
464:βουλή
459:Boule
401:, or
312:polis
229:Plato
186:Delos
101:JSTOR
87:books
1587:ISBN
1568:ISBN
1549:ISBN
1471:ISBN
1441:(1).
1395:2014
1114:ISSN
950:atom
869:The
828:and
802:Zeus
650:and
642:and
640:read
556:port
552:duty
485:Pnyx
435:Pnyx
423:The
380:The
231:and
219:and
211:and
138:The
73:news
1606:128
1532:doi
1528:155
1501:doi
1497:100
1422:doi
1106:doi
815:'s
510:owl
323:of
188:to
56:by
1651::
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1495:.
1491:.
1457:;
1453:;
1449:;
1437:.
1418:36
1416:.
1381:.
1357:^
1208:^
1169:^
1120:.
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