1217:; that is, the gene's regulatory sequence now controls the production of GFP, in addition to the tagged protein(s). In cells where the gene is expressed, and the tagged proteins are produced, GFP is produced at the same time. Thus, only those cells in which the tagged gene is expressed, or the target proteins are produced, will fluoresce when observed under fluorescence microscopy. Analysis of such time lapse movies has redefined the understanding of many biological processes including protein folding, protein transport, and RNA dynamics, which in the past had been studied using fixed (i.e., dead) material. Obtained data are also used to calibrate mathematical models of intracellular systems and to estimate rates of gene expression. Similarly, GFP can be used as an indicator of protein expression in heterologous systems. In this scenario, fusion proteins containing GFP are introduced indirectly, using RNA of the construct, or directly, with the tagged protein itself. This method is useful for studying structural and functional characteristics of the tagged protein on a macromolecular or single-molecule scale with fluorescence microscopy.
1148:-formaldehyde, phenol, triclosan, and paraben. GFP is great as a reporter protein because it has no effect on the host when introduced to the host's cellular environment. Due to this ability, no external visualization stain, ATP, or cofactors are needed. With regards to pollutant levels, the fluorescence was measured in order to gauge the effect that the pollutants have on the host cell. The cellular density of the host cell was also measured. Results from the study conducted by Song, Kim, & Seo (2016) showed that there was a decrease in both fluorescence and cellular density as pollutant levels increased. This was indicative of the fact that cellular activity had decreased. More research into this specific application in order to determine the mechanism by which GFP acts as a pollutant marker. Similar results have been observed in zebrafish because zebrafish that were injected with GFP were approximately twenty times more susceptible to recognize cellular stresses than zebrafish that were not injected with GFP.
1200:
method is to use a GFP that contains a mutation where the fluorescence will change from green to yellow over time, which is referred to as a fluorescent timer. With the fluorescent timer, researchers can study the state of protein production such as recently activated, continuously activated, or recently deactivated based on the color reported by the fluorescent protein. In yet another example, scientists have modified GFP to become active only after exposure to irradiation giving researchers a tool to selectively activate certain portions of a cell and observe where proteins tagged with the GFP move from the starting location. These are only two examples in a burgeoning field of fluorescent microcopy and a more complete review of biosensors utilizing GFP and other fluorescent proteins can be found here
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451:
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826:, eqFP611, Dronpa, TagRFPs, KFP, EosFP/IrisFP, Dendra, and so on. Having been developed from proteins in different organisms, these proteins can sometimes display unanticipated approaches to chromophore formation. Some of these, such as KFP, are developed from naturally non- or weakly-fluorescent proteins to be greatly improved upon by mutagenesis. When GFP-like barrels of different spectra characteristics are used, the excitation spectra of one chromophore can be used to power another chromophore (FRET), allowing for conversion between wavelengths of light.
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1028:
residues of Gln94, Arg96, and His148 are able to stabilize by delocalizing the chromophore charge. Arg96 is the most important stabilizing residue due to the fact that it prompts the necessary structural realignments that are necessary from the HBI ring to occur. Any mutation to the Arg96 residue would result in a decrease in the development rate of the chromophore because proper electrostatic and steric interactions would be lost. Tyr66 is the recipient of hydrogen bonds and does not ionize in order to produce favorable electrostatics.
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692:
1385:
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binds Zn(II) and Cu(II) has been developed. BFPms1 have several important mutations including and the BFP chromophore (Y66H),Y145F for higher quantum yield, H148G for creating a hole into the beta-barrel and several other mutations that increase solubility. Zn(II) binding increases fluorescence intensity, while Cu(II) binding quenches fluorescence and shifts the absorbance maximum from 379 to 444 nm. Therefore, they can be used as Zn biosensor.
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441:
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563:
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of blue light. At a certain pulse threshold, the eGFP's optical output becomes brighter and completely uniform in color of pure green with a wavelength of 516 nm. Before being emitted as laser light, the light bounces back and forth within the resonator cavity and passes the cell numerous times. By studying the changes in optical activity, researchers may better understand cellular processes.
832:(FbFPs) were developed in 2007 and are a class of small (11–16 kDa), oxygen-independent fluorescent proteins that are derived from blue-light receptors. They are intended especially for the use under anaerobic or hypoxic conditions, since the formation and binding of the Flavin chromophore does not require molecular oxygen, as it is the case with the synthesis of the GFP chromophore.
1213:, where expression of GFP can be used as a marker for a particular characteristic. GFP can also be expressed in different structures enabling morphological distinction. In such cases, the gene for the production of GFP is incorporated into the genome of the organism in the region of the DNA that codes for the target proteins and that is controlled by the same
1369:, a German-born artist specializing in "protein sculptures," created sculptures based on the structure of GFP, including the 1.70 metres (5 feet 7 inches) tall "Green Fluorescent Protein" (2004) and the 1.40 metres (4 feet 7 inches) tall "Steel Jellyfish" (2006). The latter sculpture is located at the place of GFP's discovery by
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1342:) that were initially developed to detect pollution in waterways. NeonPets, a US-based company has marketed green fluorescent mice to the pet industry as NeonMice. Green fluorescent pigs, known as Noels, were bred by a group of researchers led by Wu Shinn-Chih at the Department of Animal Science and Technology at
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There are many techniques to utilize GFP in a live cell imaging experiment. The most direct way of utilizing GFP is to directly attach it to a protein of interest. For example, GFP can be included in a plasmid expressing other genes to indicate a successful transfection of a gene of interest. Another
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structure is a nearly perfect cylinder, 42Å long and 24Å in diameter (some studies have reported a diameter of 30Å), creating what is referred to as a "β-can" formation, which is unique to the GFP-like family. HBI, the spontaneously modified form of the tripeptide Ser65–Tyr66–Gly67, is nonfluorescent
741:
appears to evolutionarily prefer the less-efficient, dual-peaked excitation spectrum. Roger Tsien has speculated that varying hydrostatic pressure with depth may affect serine 65's ability to donate a hydrogen to the chromophore and shift the ratio of the two excitation peaks. Thus, the jellyfish may
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of GFP in jellyfish is unknown. GFP is co-expressed with aequorin in small granules around the rim of the jellyfish bell. The secondary excitation peak (480 nm) of GFP does absorb some of the blue emission of aequorin, giving the bioluminescence a more green hue. The serine 65 residue of the GFP
603:
derivatives (YFP, Citrine, Venus, YPet). BFP derivatives (except mKalama1) contain the Y66H substitution. They exhibit a broad absorption band in the ultraviolet centered close to 380 nanometers and an emission maximum at 448 nanometers. A green fluorescent protein mutant (BFPms1) that preferentially
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GFP can be used to analyse the colocalization of proteins. This is achieved by "splitting" the protein into two fragments which are able to self-assemble, and then fusing each of these to the two proteins of interest. Alone, these incomplete GFP fragments are unable to fluoresce. However, if the two
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The biggest advantage of GFP is that it can be heritable, depending on how it was introduced, allowing for continued study of cells and tissues it is expressed in. Visualizing GFP is noninvasive, requiring only illumination with blue light. GFP alone does not interfere with biological processes, but
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is responsible for the dual-peaked excitation spectra of wild-type GFP. It is conserved in all three GFP isoforms originally cloned by
Prasher. Nearly all mutations of this residue consolidate the excitation spectra to a single peak at either 395 nm or 480 nm. The precise mechanism of this
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rather than phenol component. Several additional compensatory mutations in the surrounding barrel are required to restore brightness to this modified chromophore due to the increased bulk of the indole group. In ECFP and
Cerulean, the N-terminal half of the seventh strand exhibits two conformations.
583:
filter sets, increasing the practicality of use by the general researcher. A 37 °C folding efficiency (F64L) point mutant to this scaffold, yielding enhanced GFP (EGFP), was discovered in 1995 by the laboratories of
Thastrup and Falkow. EGFP allowed the practical use of GFPs in mammalian cells.
531:
in 1994. Frederick Tsuji's lab independently reported the expression of the recombinant protein one month later. Remarkably, the GFP molecule folded and was fluorescent at room temperature, without the need for exogenous cofactors specific to the jellyfish. Although this near-wtGFP was fluorescent,
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A novel possible use of GFP includes using it as a sensitive monitor of intracellular processes via an eGFP laser system made out of a human embryonic kidney cell line. The first engineered living laser is made by an eGFP expressing cell inside a reflective optical cavity and hitting it with pulses
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fluorescence from quenching by water. In addition to the auto-cyclization of the Ser65-Tyr66-Gly67, a 1,2-dehydrogenation reaction occurs at the Tyr66 residue. Besides the three residues that form the chromophore, residues such as Gln94, Arg96, His148, Thr203, and Glu222 all act as stabilizers. The
843:
Fluorescent proteins with other chromophores, such as UnaG with bilirubin, can display unique properties like red-shifted emission above 600 nm or photoconversion from a green-emitting state to a red-emitting state. They can have excitation and emission wavelengths far enough apart to achieve
623:
Additional site-directed random mutagenesis in combination with fluorescence lifetime based screening has further stabilized the seventh β-strand resulting in a bright variant, mTurquoise2, with a quantum yield (QY) of 0.93. The red-shifted wavelength of the YFP derivatives is accomplished by the
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when used in live cells, fluorescent proteins such as GFP are usually much less harmful when illuminated in living cells. This has triggered the development of highly automated live-cell fluorescence microscopy systems, which can be used to observe cells over time expressing one or more proteins
1224:
microscope using the SPDM Phymod technology uses the so-called "reversible photobleaching" effect of fluorescent dyes like GFP and its derivatives to localize them as single molecules in an optical resolution of 10 nm. This can also be performed as a co-localization of two GFP derivatives
628:(FRET) experiments. Genetically encoded FRET reporters sensitive to cell signaling molecules, such as calcium or glutamate, protein phosphorylation state, protein complementation, receptor dimerization, and other processes provide highly specific optical readouts of cell activity in real time.
431:
Most commercially available genes for GFP and similar fluorescent proteins are around 730 base-pairs long. The natural protein has 238 amino acids. Its molecular mass is 27 kD. Therefore, fusing the GFP gene to the gene of a protein of interest can significantly increase the protein's size and
579:. This mutation dramatically improved the spectral characteristics of GFP, resulting in increased fluorescence, photostability, and a shift of the major excitation peak to 488 nm, with the peak emission kept at 509 nm. This matched the spectral characteristics of commonly available
1120:
Mechanistically, the process involves base-mediated cyclization followed by dehydration and oxidation. In the reaction of 7a to 8 involves the formation of an enamine from the imine, while in the reaction of 7b to 9 a proton is abstracted. The formed HBI fluorophore is highlighted in green.
1306:
Macro-scale biological processes, such as the spread of virus infections, can be followed using GFP labeling. In the past, mutagenic ultra violet light (UV) has been used to illuminate living organisms (e.g., see) to detect and photograph the GFP expression. Recently, a technique using
1266:
It has also been found that new lines of transgenic GFP rats can be relevant for gene therapy as well as regenerative medicine. By using "high-expresser" GFP, transgenic rats display high expression in most tissues, and many cells that have not been characterized or have been only poorly
3138:
Maiti, Atanu; Buffalo, Cosmo Z.; Saurabh, Saumya; Montecinos-Franjola, Felipe; Hachey, Justin S.; Conlon, William J.; Tran, Geraldine N.; Hassan, Bakar; Walters, Kylie J.; Drobizhev, Mikhail; Moerner, W. E.; Ghosh, Partho; Matsuo, Hiroshi; Tsien, Roger Y.; Lin, John Y. (2023-07-12).
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sensitivity is complex, but, it seems, involves donation of a hydrogen from serine 65 to glutamate 222, which influences chromophore ionization. Since a single mutation can dramatically enhance the 480 nm excitation peak, making GFP a much more efficient partner of aequorin,
620:
These conformations both have a complex set of van der Waals interactions with the chromophore. The Y145A and H148D mutations in
Cerulean stabilize these interactions and allow the chromophore to be more planar, better packed, and less prone to collisional quenching.
549:
formation and neighboring residue interactions. Researchers have modified these residues by directed and random mutagenesis to produce the wide variety of GFP derivatives in use today. Further research into GFP has shown that it is resistant to detergents, proteases,
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in the absence of the properly folded GFP scaffold and exists mainly in the un-ionized phenol form in wtGFP. Inward-facing sidechains of the barrel induce specific cyclization reactions in Ser65–Tyr66–Gly67 that induce ionization of HBI to the phenolate form and
1298:
proteins of interest colocalize, then the two GFP fragments assemble together to form a GFP-like structure which is able to fluoresce. Therefore, by measuring the level of fluorescence it is possible to determine whether the two proteins of interest colocalize.
1023:. The hydrogen-bonding network and electron-stacking interactions with these sidechains influence the color, intensity and photostability of GFP and its numerous derivatives. The tightly packed nature of the barrel excludes solvent molecules, protecting the
3671:
Pan Y, Leifert A, Graf M, Schiefer F, Thoröe-Boveleth S, Broda J, Halloran MC, Hollert H, Laaf D, Simon U, Jahnen-Dechent W (March 2013). "High-sensitivity real-time analysis of nanoparticle toxicity in green fluorescent protein-expressing zebrafish".
4342:
Remy S, Tesson L, Usal C, Menoret S, Bonnamain V, Nerriere-Daguin V, Rossignol J, Boyer C, Nguyen TH, Naveilhan P, Lescaudron L, Anegon I (Oct 2010). "New lines of GFP transgenic rats relevant for regenerative medicine and gene therapy".
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ions, inducing a blue glow. Some of this luminescent energy is transferred to the GFP, shifting the overall color towards green. However, its utility as a tool for molecular biologists did not begin to be realized until 1992 when
631:
Semirational mutagenesis of a number of residues led to pH-sensitive mutants known as pHluorins, and later super-ecliptic pHluorins. By exploiting the rapid change in pH upon synaptic vesicle fusion, pHluorins tagged to
2501:
Lelimousin M, Noirclerc-Savoye M, Lazareno-Saez C, Paetzold B, Le Vot S, Chazal R, Macheboeuf P, Field MJ, Bourgeois D, Royant A (Oct 2009). "Intrinsic dynamics in ECFP and
Cerulean control fluorescence quantum yield".
570:
Due to the potential for widespread usage and the evolving needs of researchers, many different mutants of GFP have been engineered. The first major improvement was a single point mutation (S65T) reported in 1995 in
3475:
Rosenow MA, Huffman HA, Phail ME, Wachter RM (April 2004). "The crystal structure of the Y66L variant of green fluorescent protein supports a cyclization-oxidation-dehydration mechanism for chromophore maturation".
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1157:
when fused to proteins of interest, careful design of linkers is required to maintain the function of the protein of interest. Moreover, if used with a monomer it is able to diffuse readily throughout cells.
454:
3D reconstruction of confocal image of VEGF-overexpressing neural progenitors (red) and GFP-positive control neural progenitor cells (green) in the rat olfactory bulb. RECA-1-positive blood vessels - blue
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it had several drawbacks, including dual peaked excitation spectra, pH sensitivity, chloride sensitivity, poor fluorescence quantum yield, poor photostability and poor folding at 37 °C (99 °F).
598:
Many other mutations have been made, including color mutants; in particular, blue fluorescent protein (EBFP, EBFP2, Azurite, mKalama1), cyan fluorescent protein (ECFP, Cerulean, CyPet, mTurquoise2), and
1144:
For example, GFP can be used as a reporter for environmental toxicity levels. This protein has been shown to be an effective way to measure the toxicity levels of various chemicals including ethanol,
1358:
with fibroblast cells from sea anemones. The dogs give off a red fluorescent light, and they are meant to allow scientists to study the genes that cause human diseases like narcolepsy and blindness.
1289:
GFP is used widely in cancer research to label and track cancer cells. GFP-labelled cancer cells have been used to model metastasis, the process by which cancer cells spread to distant organs.
412:, and maintained in their genome and that of their offspring. GFP has been expressed in many species, including bacteria, yeasts, fungi, fish and mammals, including in human cells. Scientists
4093:
Livet J, Weissman TA, Kang H, Draft RW, Lu J, Bennis RA, Sanes JR, Lichtman JW (Nov 2007). "Transgenic strategies for combinatorial expression of fluorescent proteins in the nervous system".
566:
The diversity of genetic mutations is illustrated by this San Diego beach scene drawn with living bacteria expressing 8 different colors of fluorescent proteins (derived from GFP and dsRed).
2873:
Chudakov DM, Belousov VV, Zaraisky AG, Novoselov VV, Staroverov DB, Zorov DB, Lukyanov S, Lukyanov KA (February 2003). "Kindling fluorescent proteins for precise in vivo photolabeling".
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T203Y mutation and is due to π-electron stacking interactions between the substituted tyrosine residue and the chromophore. These two classes of spectral variants are often employed for
1307:
non-mutagenic LED lights have been developed for macro-photography. The technique uses an epifluorescence camera attachment based on the same principle used in the construction of
683:
tendency at concentrations above 5 mg/mL. mGFP also stands for "modified GFP," which has been optimized through amino acid exchange for stable expression in plant cells.
2916:
Wiens MD, Shen Y, Li X, Salem MA, Smisdom N, Zhang W, Brown A, Campbell RE (December 2016). "A Tandem Green-Red
Heterodimeric Fluorescent Protein with High FRET Efficiency".
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agent in the larvae, preventing damage caused by high-intensity blue light by converting it into lower-intensity green light. However, these theories have not been tested.
3511:
Ma Y, Yu JG, Sun Q, Li Z, Smith SC (2015-07-01). "The mechanism of dehydration in chromophore maturation of wild-type green fluorescent protein: A theoretical study".
1793:
Shimomura O, Johnson FH, Saiga Y (Jun 1962). "Extraction, purification and properties of aequorin, a bioluminescent protein from the luminous hydromedusan, Aequorea".
164:
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that a gene can be expressed throughout a given organism, in selected organs, or in cells of interest. GFP can be introduced into animals or other species through
5148:
3296:
Bokman SH, Ward WW (1982). "Reversible denaturation of
Aequorea green-fluorescent protein: physical separation and characterization of the renatured protein".
4587:
Cabantous S, Terwilliger TC, Waldo GS (January 2005). "Protein tagging and detection with engineered self-assembling fragments of green fluorescent protein".
791:
712:
1179:(GFP-Snf2H and RFP-H2A), Co-localisation studies (2CLM) in the nucleus of a bone cancer cell. 120.000 localized molecules in a widefield area (470 μm).
4421:
Fakhrudin N, Ladurner A, Atanasov AG, Heiss EH, Baumgartner L, Markt P, Schuster D, Ellmerer EP, Wolber G, Rollinger JM, Stuppner H, Dirsch VM (Apr 2010).
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Terskikh A, Fradkov A, Ermakova G, Zaraisky A, Tan P, Kajava AV, et al. (November 2000). ""Fluorescent timer": protein that changes color with time".
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Another powerful use of GFP is to express the protein in small sets of specific cells. This allows researchers to optically detect specific types of cells
595:
Superfolder GFP (sfGFP), a series of mutations that allow GFP to rapidly fold and mature even when fused to poorly folding peptides, was reported in 2006.
5133:
4423:"Computer-aided discovery, validation, and mechanistic characterization of novel neolignan activators of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma"
5334:
3636:
Song YH, Kim CS, Seo JH (April 2016). "Noninvasive monitoring of environmental toxicity through green fluorescent protein expressing
Escherichia coli".
1447:
Ormö M, Cubitt AB, Kallio K, Gross LA, Tsien RY, Remington SJ (September 1996). "Crystal structure of the
Aequorea victoria green fluorescent protein".
1711:
Uckert W, Pedersen L, Günzburg W (2000). "Green fluorescent protein retroviral vector: generation of high-titer producer cells and virus supernatant".
1498:
Prendergast FG, Mann KG (Aug 1978). "Chemical and physical properties of aequorin and the green fluorescent protein isolated from
Aequorea forskålea".
2959:
Drepper T, Eggert T, Circolone F, Heck A, Krauss U, Guterl JK, et al. (April 2007). "Reporter proteins for in vivo fluorescence without oxygen".
2419:
Pédelacq JD, Cabantous S, Tran T, Terwilliger TC, Waldo GS (Jan 2006). "Engineering and characterization of a superfolder green fluorescent protein".
2192:
365:) has a single major excitation peak at 498 nm. GFP makes for an excellent tool in many forms of biology due to its ability to form an internal
2594:
Miesenböck G, De Angelis DA, Rothman JE (Jul 1998). "Visualizing secretion and synaptic transmission with pH-sensitive green fluorescent proteins".
2686:
Zacharias DA, Violin JD, Newton AC, Tsien RY (May 2002). "Partitioning of lipid-modified monomeric GFPs into membrane microdomains of live cells".
4935:
2005:
Ormö M, Cubitt AB, Kallio K, Gross LA, Tsien RY, Remington SJ (Sep 1996). "Crystal structure of the Aequorea victoria green fluorescent protein".
1867:
Prasher DC, Eckenrode VK, Ward WW, Prendergast FG, Cormier MJ (Feb 1992). "Primary structure of the Aequorea victoria green-fluorescent protein".
1107:
4759:"An epifluorescent attachment improves whole-plant digital photography of Arabidopsis thaliana expressing red-shifted green fluorescent protein"
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Zhu YJ, Agbayani R, Moore PH (Apr 2004). "Green fluorescent protein as a visual selection marker for papaya (Carica papaya L.) transformation".
1006:-hydroxybenzylidene)imidazolidin-5-one (HBI) running through the center. Five shorter alpha helices form caps on the ends of the structure. The
4630:
Rodman MK, Yadav NS, Artus NN (2002-09-01). "Progression of geminivirus-induced transgene silencing is associated with transgene methylation".
1795:
3380:
Chudakov DM, Matz MV, Lukyanov S, Lukyanov KA (Jul 2010). "Fluorescent proteins and their applications in imaging living cells and tissues".
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assays were 0.97. Another application is the use of GFP co-transfection as internal control for transfection efficiency in mammalian cells.
4386:
Elliott G, McGrath J, Crockett-Torabi E (Jun 2000). "Green fluorescent protein: A novel viability assay for cryobiological applications".
4144:
Baker BJ, Mutoh H, Dimitrov D, Akemann W, Perron A, Iwamoto Y, Jin L, Cohen LB, Isacoff EY, Pieribone VA, Hughes T, Knöpfel T (Aug 2008).
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The nomenclature of modified GFPs is often confusing due to overlapping mapping of several GFP versions onto a single name. For example,
1240:(in the living organism). Genetically combining several spectral variants of GFP is a useful trick for the analysis of brain circuitry (
625:
5387:
1334:
using GFP for purposes of art and social commentary. The US company Yorktown Technologies markets to aquarium shops green fluorescent
615:
Chromophore binding. The critical mutation in cyan derivatives is the Y66W substitution, which causes the chromophore to form with an
5226:
1124:
The reactions are catalyzed by residues Glu222 and Arg96. An analogous mechanism is also possible with threonine in place of Ser65.
5474:
1830:
Morise H, Shimomura O, Johnson FH, Winant J (Jun 1974). "Intermolecular energy transfer in the bioluminescent system of Aequorea".
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Patterson GH, Lippincott-Schwartz J (September 2002). "A photoactivatable GFP for selective photolabeling of proteins and cells".
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molecular mass, and can impair the protein's natural function or change its location or trajectory of transport within the cell.
3552:"Construction and use of a Cupriavidus necator H16 soluble hydrogenase promoter (PSH) fusion to gfp (green fluorescent protein)"
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structure consisting of eleven β-strands with a pleated sheet arrangement, with an alpha helix containing the covalently bonded
5469:
4757:
Baker SS, Vidican CB, Cameron DS, Greib HG, Jarocki CC, Setaputri AW, Spicuzza CH, Burr AA, Waqas MA, Tolbert DA (2012-01-01).
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Montecinos-Franjola F, Lin JY, Rodriguez EA (2020-11-16). "Fluorescent proteins for in vivo imaging, where's the biliverdin?".
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of 395 nm and a minor one at 475 nm. Its emission peak is at 509 nm, which is in the lower green portion of the
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5040:
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746:, where GFP was originally discovered, has hampered further study of the role of GFP in the jellyfish's natural environment.
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3601:
Arun KH, Kaul CL, Ramarao P (2005). "Green fluorescent proteins in receptor research: an emerging tool for drug discovery".
1904:
Chalfie M, Tu Y, Euskirchen G, Ward WW, Prasher DC (Feb 1994). "Green fluorescent protein as a marker for gene expression".
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184:
4807:"PlantEdDL - Using SRL digital cameras in quantitative investigations of plants expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP)"
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Goedhart J, von Stetten D, Noirclerc-Savoye M, Lelimousin M, Joosen L, Hink MA, van Weeren L, Gadella TW, Royant A (2012).
213:
4710:"Non-invasive quantitative detection and applications of non-toxic, S65T-type green fluorescent protein in living plants"
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Phillips GJ (Oct 2001). "Green fluorescent protein—a bright idea for the study of bacterial protein localization".
3956:"Using a single fluorescent reporter gene to infer half-life of extrinsic noise and other parameters of gene expression"
1959:"Aequorea green fluorescent protein. Expression of the gene and fluorescence characteristics of the recombinant protein"
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and the way it is used in cell biology and other biological disciplines. While most small fluorescent molecules such as
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Mattson S, Tran GN, Rodriguez EA (2023). "Directed Evolution of Fluorescent Proteins in Bacteria". In Sharma M (ed.).
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818:
There are many GFP-like proteins that, despite being in the same protein family as GFP, are not directly derived from
3333:"Kinetic isotope effect studies on the de novo rate of chromophore formation in fast- and slow-maturing GFP variants"
1728:
1603:
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McRae SR, Brown CL, Bushell GR (May 2005). "Rapid purification of EGFP, EYFP, and ECFP with high yield and purity".
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1016:
1629:"Fluorescent proteins as biomarkers and biosensors: throwing color lights on molecular and cellular processes"
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2327:, Thastrup O, Tullin S, Kongsbak Poulsen L, Bjørn S, "Fluorescent Proteins", published 2001-01-09
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585:
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Kouros-Mehr H, Bechis SK, Slorach EM, Littlepage LE, Egeblad M, Ewald AJ, Pai SY, Ho IC, Werb Z (Feb 2008).
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Rodriguez EA, Campbell RE, Lin JY, Lin MZ, Miyawaki A, Palmer AE, Shu X, Zhang J, Tsien RY (February 2017).
2739:"The evolution of genes encoding for green fluorescent proteins: insights from cephalochordates (amphioxus)"
5362:
4058:
Chudakov DM, Lukyanov S, Lukyanov KA (Dec 2005). "Fluorescent proteins as a toolkit for in vivo imaging".
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change the color of its bioluminescence with depth. However, a collapse in the population of jellyfish in
5525:
5461:
5367:
5295:
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expressed the coding sequence of wtGFP, with the first few amino acids deleted, in heterologous cells of
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2647:"Investigating mitochondrial redox potential with redox-sensitive green fluorescent protein indicators"
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GFP, which is often achieved by the dimer interface breaking A206K mutation. Wild-type GFP has a weak
600:
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Stepanenko OV, Verkhusha VV, Shavlovsky MM, Kuznetsova IM, Uversky VN, Turoverov KK (November 2008).
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340:
125:
1244:). Other interesting uses of fluorescent proteins in the literature include using FPs as sensors of
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in 1996. One month later, the Phillips group independently reported the wild-type GFP structure in
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The first reported crystal structure of a GFP was that of the S65T mutant by the Remington group in
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Reviews on new classes of fluorescent proteins and applications can be found in the cited reviews.
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towards the mouth of the lancelet, serving as a passive hunting mechanism. It may also serve as a
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Gunkel M, Erdel F, Rippe K, Lemmer P, Kaufmann R, Hörmann C, Amberger R, Cremer C (Jun 2009).
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Goodman SR, ed. (2008). "Chapter 1 - Tools of the Cell Biologist: Green Fluorescent Protein".
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3058:. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 2564. New York, NY: Springer US. pp. 75–97.
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Hanson GT, Aggeler R, Oglesbee D, Cannon M, Capaldi RA, Tsien RY, Remington SJ (Mar 2004).
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2463:
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2145:
2014:
1915:
1456:
1056:
551:
450:
151:
3141:"Structural and photophysical characterization of the small ultra-red fluorescent protein"
1350:
as proof of concept to use them potentially as model organisms for diseases, particularly
978:
814:
Different proteins produce different fluorescent colors when exposed to ultraviolet light.
253:
8:
5290:
5281:
4012:
3425:"Understanding the role of Arg96 in structure and stability of green fluorescent protein"
1388:
1366:
1214:
960:
848:
810:
428:
on 10 October 2008 for their discovery and development of the green fluorescent protein.
409:
378:
4483:
4251:
4106:
3971:
3865:
3822:
3724:
3520:
3181:
3156:
3140:
2813:
2754:
2699:
2607:
2554:
2539:"Structure-guided evolution of cyan fluorescent proteins towards a quantum yield of 93%"
2286:
2149:
2018:
1919:
1460:
1323:
Mice expressing GFP under UV light (left & right), compared to normal mouse (center)
799:
of 0.92, making them nearly two-fold brighter than the commonly used EGFP isolated from
607:
5276:
4966:
4912:
4887:
4783:
4758:
4739:
4690:
4612:
4564:
4540:"GATA-3 links tumor differentiation and dissemination in a luminal breast cancer model"
4539:
4495:
4447:
4422:
4368:
4319:
4294:
4170:
4145:
4126:
4040:
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3955:
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3551:
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3424:
3405:
3357:
3332:
3278:
3230:
3205:
3120:
3031:
3006:
2984:
2941:
2898:
2832:
2798:"Very bright green fluorescent proteins from the Pontellid copepod Pontella mimocerami"
2797:
2773:
2738:
2719:
2627:
2571:
2538:
2444:
2306:
2223:
2103:
2038:
1939:
1775:
1761:
1653:
1628:
1609:
1480:
1354:. In 2009 a South Korean team from Seoul National University bred the first transgenic
1248:
1171:
760:
361:
5138:
4270:
4235:
1689:
5431:
5193:
5184:
5074:
5064:
5046:
5036:
5029:
4917:
4788:
4731:
4726:
4709:
4682:
4647:
4643:
4604:
4569:
4452:
4403:
4360:
4324:
4275:
4216:
4175:
4118:
4075:
4032:
3993:
3936:
3877:
3834:
3795:
3783:
3748:
3689:
3618:
3583:
3532:
3493:
3454:
3397:
3362:
3313:
3282:
3270:
3235:
3186:
3168:
3112:
3108:
3077:
3067:
3036:
3005:
Rodriguez EA, Tran GN, Gross LA, Crisp JL, Shu X, Lin JY, Tsien RY (September 2016).
2976:
2933:
2890:
2837:
2778:
2711:
2668:
2619:
2576:
2519:
2483:
2436:
2401:
2366:
2361:
2344:
2298:
2246:
2215:
2173:
2168:
2127:
2095:
2030:
1982:
1977:
1958:
1931:
1906:
1886:
1882:
1849:
1812:
1765:
1734:
1724:
1693:
1658:
1613:
1599:
1564:
1560:
1515:
1472:
1085:
1061:
932:
916:
755:
537:
527:
389:
304:
159:
117:
4970:
4694:
4616:
4499:
4372:
4044:
3889:
3657:
3409:
2902:
2723:
2310:
2227:
2107:
2042:
1779:
1484:
839:
White light image, or image seen by the eye, of fluorescent proteins in image above.
68:
5446:
4958:
4907:
4899:
4831:
4778:
4770:
4721:
4674:
4639:
4596:
4559:
4551:
4487:
4442:
4434:
4395:
4352:
4314:
4306:
4265:
4255:
4206:
4165:
4157:
4130:
4110:
4067:
4024:
3983:
3975:
3926:
3916:
3869:
3826:
3775:
3738:
3728:
3681:
3645:
3610:
3573:
3563:
3524:
3485:
3444:
3436:
3389:
3352:
3344:
3305:
3262:
3225:
3217:
3176:
3160:
3124:
3104:
3059:
3026:
3018:
2988:
2968:
2945:
2925:
2882:
2827:
2817:
2768:
2758:
2703:
2658:
2631:
2611:
2566:
2558:
2511:
2475:
2448:
2428:
2393:
2356:
2290:
2207:
2163:
2153:
2126:
Brejc K, Sixma TK, Kitts PA, Kain SR, Tsien RY, Ormö M, Remington SJ (March 1997).
2085:
2077:
2022:
1972:
1943:
1923:
1878:
1841:
1804:
1757:
1716:
1685:
1648:
1640:
1591:
1556:
1507:
1464:
862:
515:
405:
348:
147:
4743:
4071:
3905:"Genetically encoded fluorescent biosensors illuminate kinase signaling in cancer"
3830:
2026:
1468:
643:) was engineered by introduction of cysteines into the beta barrel structure. The
81:
5415:
5239:
5204:
5152:
4949:
Voss-Andreae J (2005). "Protein Sculptures: Life's Building Blocks Inspire Art".
4211:
4194:
3528:
2822:
2323:
1627:
Stepanenko OV, Verkhusha VV, Kuznetsova IM, Uversky VN, Turoverov KK (Aug 2008).
1400:
1370:
1330:, a green-fluorescent rabbit, was created by a French laboratory commissioned by
1275:
866:
768:
720:
592:(QY) of EGFP is 0.60. The relative brightness, expressed as ε•QY, is 33,000 Mcm.
498:
481:
417:
93:
20:
16:
Protein that exhibits bright green fluorescence when exposed to ultraviolet light
4195:"Photoinactivation of native AMPA receptors reveals their real-time trafficking"
3614:
3063:
2466:(Apr 2002). "Structural chemistry of a green fluorescent protein Zn biosensor".
1720:
1031:
263:
5354:
5271:
5160:
5156:
4240:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3713:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
3393:
3221:
3164:
2500:
2137:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
1869:
1644:
1176:
1080:
668:
576:
510:
421:
413:
4962:
4678:
4555:
4356:
4161:
3979:
3921:
3649:
3007:"A far-red fluorescent protein evolved from a cyanobacterial phycobiliprotein"
2397:
5489:
5451:
5441:
5382:
4883:
3536:
3172:
2536:
1327:
1138:
1047:
GFP molecules drawn in cartoon style, one fully and one with the side of the
952:
912:
852:
796:
680:
672:
633:
589:
397:
352:
100:
5078:
5050:
4774:
4491:
4260:
3873:
3733:
2707:
2243:
Fluorescent Analogs of Biomolecular Building Blocks: Design and Applications
1927:
404:, and many animals have been created that express GFP, which demonstrates a
5436:
5405:
5266:
5171:
4921:
4792:
4735:
4686:
4651:
4608:
4573:
4456:
4438:
4407:
4399:
4364:
4328:
4279:
4220:
4179:
4122:
4079:
4036:
4028:
3997:
3940:
3881:
3838:
3787:
3752:
3693:
3685:
3622:
3587:
3497:
3458:
3401:
3366:
3274:
3239:
3190:
3081:
3040:
2980:
2937:
2929:
2894:
2841:
2782:
2715:
2672:
2663:
2646:
2580:
2523:
2487:
2440:
2405:
2219:
2158:
1963:
1816:
1808:
1738:
1697:
1662:
1204:
728:
385:
288:
5165:
3779:
3317:
3116:
2623:
2370:
2302:
2177:
2099:
2034:
1986:
1935:
1890:
1853:
1595:
1568:
1476:
1035:
GFP Movie showing entire structure and zoom in to fluorescent chromophore.
121:
4295:"Visualization of targeted transduction by engineered lentiviral vectors"
3206:"The Growing and Glowing Toolbox of Fluorescent and Photoactive Proteins"
2081:
1413:
1331:
1279:
1271:
1256:
1221:
1188:
1052:
1048:
1024:
1012:
1007:
999:
995:
936:
920:
885:
782:
775:
759:, lancelets do not produce their own blue light, and the origin of their
733:
648:
580:
546:
464:
In the 1960s and 1970s, GFP, along with the separate luminescent protein
366:
317:
292:
234:
5177:
5139:
Video of 2008 Nobel Prize lecture of Roger Tsien on fluorescent proteins
4114:
3309:
3266:
1845:
1519:
1511:
1384:
19:"EGFP" redirects here. For the airport with that ICAO airport code, see
5248:
4903:
4310:
3568:
3440:
3422:
3022:
2855:
2562:
1192:
940:
888:
786:
344:
321:
229:
3489:
3348:
3137:
2763:
2515:
2479:
2090:
1101:
1089:
1065:
1043:
2294:
2211:
1335:
1260:
1183:
The availability of GFP and its derivatives has thoroughly redefined
900:
881:
473:
401:
356:
300:
5003:
4600:
3331:
Pouwels LJ, Zhang L, Chan NH, Dorrestein PC, Wachter RM (Sep 2008).
2972:
2432:
2128:"Structural basis for dual excitation and photoisomerization of the
1756:(3rd ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. pp. 14–25.
1626:
703:
440:
5151:
dedicated to the 2008 Nobel Prize winners in Chemistry, Professors
2886:
1241:
1230:
764:
750:
724:
709:
691:
489:
465:
329:
88:
4537:
2615:
753:
are known to produce GFP in various regions of their body. Unlike
105:
5235:
5198:
5188:
5174:: an illustrated overview of GFP-like variants by David Goodsell.
2872:
1339:
1236:
892:
778:
676:
493:
374:
325:
284:
5144:
Excitation and emission spectra for various fluorescent proteins
2418:
1715:. Methods in Molecular Medicine. Vol. 35. pp. 275–85.
1114:
1075:
5132:
Interactive Java applet demonstrating the chemistry behind the
5123:
A comprehensive article on fluorescent proteins at Scholarpedia
5031:
Aglow in the Dark: The Revolutionary Science of Biofluorescence
4888:"Antiviral restriction factor transgenesis in the domestic cat"
4146:"Genetically encoded fluorescent sensors of membrane potential"
4013:"Dual color localization microscopy of cellular nanostructures"
3808:
3252:
2345:"FACS-optimized mutants of the green fluorescent protein (GFP)"
1866:
1245:
968:
944:
928:
924:
908:
878:
874:
616:
562:
469:
179:
35:
4708:
Niwa Y, Hirano T, Yoshimoto K, Shimizu M, Kobayashi H (1999).
4420:
2461:
1319:
5397:
4385:
1355:
964:
904:
896:
823:
652:
644:
640:
505:. The funding for this project had run out, so Prasher sent
313:
312:. However, GFPs have been found in other organisms including
5183:
Overview of all the structural information available in the
5055:
Popular science book describing history and discovery of GFP
4881:
4233:
3851:
3379:
1829:
955:(0.20), which makes it comparable biophysical brightness to
299:
traditionally refers to the protein first isolated from the
4470:
Gather MC, Yun SH (2011). "Single-cell biological lasers".
2644:
2593:
1418:
1252:
956:
506:
393:
141:
75:
63:
4707:
3474:
3330:
2958:
2685:
636:
have been used to visualize synaptic activity in neurons.
476:, releasing light), was first purified from the jellyfish
4586:
4234:
Lakadamyali M, Rust MJ, Babcock HP, Zhuang X (Aug 2003).
4143:
3953:
1395:(2006). The image shows the stainless-steel sculpture at
1351:
1347:
972:
774:
GFP-like proteins have been found in multiple species of
501:
reported the cloning and nucleotide sequence of wtGFP in
4756:
4057:
3549:
3095:
Tsien RY (1998-01-01). "The green fluorescent protein".
545:. These crystal structures provided vital background on
4849:
4236:"Visualizing infection of individual influenza viruses"
3550:
Jugder BE, Welch J, Braidy N, Marquis CP (2016-07-26).
3203:
3004:
2796:
Hunt ME, Scherrer MP, Ferrari FD, Matz MV (July 2010).
2795:
2737:
Yue JX, Holland ND, Holland LZ, Deheyn DD (June 2016).
2736:
1903:
1207:
of various organisms for identification purposes as in
1203:
For example, GFP had been widely used in labelling the
4092:
4010:
3670:
2063:"The molecular structure of green fluorescent protein"
1710:
1590:. Boca Raton: Jenny Stanford Publishing. p. 122.
763:
GFP is still unknown. Some speculate that it attracts
4341:
3766:
Yuste R (Dec 2005). "Fluorescence microscopy today".
2342:
2004:
1792:
1446:
1346:. A Japanese-American Team created green-fluorescent
554:(GdmCl) treatments, and drastic temperature changes.
4192:
3603:
Journal of Pharmacological and Toxicological Methods
3053:
2190:
5168:: an illustrated overview of GFP by David Goodsell.
5149:
Green Fluorescent Protein Chem Soc Rev themed issue
4936:"Fluorescent puppy is world's first transgenic dog"
4515:"Green Fluorescent Protein Makes for Living Lasers"
2125:
1102:
Autocatalytic formation of the chromophore in wtGFP
971:spectral properties are similar to the organic dye
5234:
5028:
3680:(6). Weinheim an Der Bergstrasse, Germany: 863–9.
675:. However, the same term is also used to refer to
4871:Scientists in Taiwan breed fluorescent green pigs
2383:
982:E. coli colonies expressing fluorescent proteins.
5487:
4875:
4664:
4629:
3954:Komorowski M, Finkenstädt B, Rand D (Jun 2010).
2915:
2060:
5026:
3600:
2587:
2494:
2265:
1497:
1491:
1267:characterized in previous GFP-transgenic rats.
1108:3,5-Difluoro-4-hydroxybenzylidene imidazolinone
2679:
2455:
2240:
2191:Shaner NC, Steinbach PA, Tsien RY (Dec 2005).
1796:Journal of Cellular and Comparative Physiology
959:and ~2-fold brighter than most red or far-red
5220:
4193:Adesnik H, Nicoll RA, England PM (Dec 2005).
4051:
3902:
2412:
2317:
2121:
2119:
2117:
1786:
805:
400:. It has been used in modified forms to make
5061:Glowing Genes: A Revolution In Biotechnology
4948:
4882:Wongsrikeao P, Saenz D, Rinkoski T, Otoi T,
4701:
4414:
4335:
4286:
4227:
4186:
4137:
4086:
4004:
3947:
3700:
3664:
3594:
3416:
3324:
2336:
2056:
2054:
2052:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1897:
1860:
1669:
1535:
1533:
1531:
1529:
727:'s action on luciferin) and the (secondary)
588:(denoted ε) of 55,000 Mcm. The fluorescence
4984:Pawlak A (2005). "Inspirierende Proteine".
3289:
2638:
2184:
1956:
1950:
1823:
1704:
1620:
1403:(Wash., USA), the place of GFP's discovery.
1137:Green fluorescent protein may be used as a
795:has shown high levels of brightness with a
5227:
5213:
3759:
3635:
3295:
2343:Cormack BP, Valdivia RH, Falkow S (1996).
2193:"A guide to choosing fluorescent proteins"
2114:
1440:
1278:. Correlation of viability as measured by
1191:(fluorescein isothiocyanate) are strongly
1160:
34:
5180:on FPbase, a fluorescent protein database
4911:
4782:
4725:
4563:
4469:
4446:
4318:
4269:
4259:
4210:
4169:
3987:
3930:
3920:
3742:
3732:
3577:
3567:
3510:
3448:
3356:
3229:
3180:
3030:
2831:
2821:
2789:
2772:
2762:
2662:
2570:
2360:
2259:
2167:
2157:
2089:
2061:Yang F, Moss LG, Phillips GN (Oct 1996).
2049:
1993:
1976:
1652:
1575:
1526:
667:often refers to a GFP with an N-terminal
3903:Lin W, Mehta S, Zhang J (October 2019).
2730:
2468:Journal of the American Chemical Society
2266:Heim R, Cubitt AB, Tsien RY (Feb 1995).
1675:
1383:
1318:
1170:
1074:
1042:
1030:
977:
844:conversion between red and green light.
834:
809:
702:
690:
606:
561:
459:
449:
439:
4292:
3706:
2952:
1751:
611:A palette of variants of GFP and DsRed.
5488:
5470:Photoactivated localization microscopy
5388:Protein–protein interaction prediction
5058:
4983:
4512:
3638:Korean Journal of Chemical Engineering
2462:Barondeau DP, Kassmann CJ, Tainer JA,
647:state of the cysteines determines the
355:(QY) of GFP is 0.79. The GFP from the
5208:
3765:
3470:
3468:
3094:
3000:
2998:
1633:Current Protein & Peptide Science
1581:
1539:
1429:Genetically encoded voltage indicator
1263:viruses and lentiviral viruses, etc.
291:when exposed to light in the blue to
5128:Brief summary of landmark GFP papers
1588:Fundamentals of Fluorescence Imaging
1301:
509:samples to several labs. The lab of
5345:Freeze-fracture electron microscopy
5197:(Green fluorescent protein) at the
3909:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
2651:The Journal of Biological Chemistry
2386:Protein Expression and Purification
1270:GFP has been shown to be useful in
907:-derived GFP-like proteins require
13:
5019:
3465:
2995:
1762:10.1016/B978-0-12-370458-0.50006-2
1314:
1196:tagged with fluorescent proteins.
1132:
1106:For a synthetic analogue see also
719:The purpose of both the (primary)
557:
14:
5537:
5087:
5063:. Buffalo, NY: Prometheus Books.
699:) under a fluorescent microscope.
626:Förster resonance energy transfer
5325:Isothermal titration calorimetry
5305:Dual-polarization interferometry
5172:Molecule of the Month, June 2014
5166:Molecule of the Month, June 2003
5134:formation of the GFP chromophore
4727:10.1046/j.1365-313X.1999.00464.x
4644:10.1046/j.1469-8137.2002.00467.x
3255:Biochemical Society Transactions
3109:10.1146/annurev.biochem.67.1.509
1561:10.1146/annurev.biochem.67.1.509
1259:and the infection of individual
1113:
951:(180,000 M cm) and has a modest
891:without the need of an external
830:FMN-binding fluorescent proteins
472:that catalyzes the breakdown of
369:without requiring any accessory
5004:"Julian Voss-Andreae Sculpture"
4996:
4977:
4942:
4928:
4864:
4838:
4829:
4823:
4799:
4750:
4658:
4623:
4580:
4531:
4506:
4463:
4379:
3896:
3845:
3802:
3629:
3543:
3504:
3373:
3246:
3197:
3131:
3088:
3047:
2909:
2866:
2848:
2530:
2377:
2234:
1957:Inouye S, Tsuji FI (Mar 1994).
1542:"The green fluorescent protein"
1127:
1017:post-translational modification
671:that causes the GFP to bind to
658:
488:, GFP fluorescence occurs when
5027:Pieribone V, Gruber D (2006).
3210:Trends in Biochemical Sciences
1745:
480:and its properties studied by
1:
5315:Chromatin immunoprecipitation
4072:10.1016/j.tibtech.2005.10.005
3831:10.1126/science.290.5496.1585
3097:Annual Review of Biochemistry
2268:"Improved green fluorescence"
2241:Wilhelmsson M, Tor Y (2016).
2027:10.1126/science.273.5280.1392
1690:10.1016/S0378-1097(01)00358-5
1549:Annual Review of Biochemistry
1469:10.1126/science.273.5280.1392
1434:
1255:receptors on cell membranes,
1151:
435:
381:other than molecular oxygen.
136:Available protein structures:
5378:Protein structural alignment
5363:Protein structure prediction
5113:Resources in other libraries
5035:. Cambridge: Belknap Press.
4212:10.1016/j.neuron.2005.11.030
3529:10.1016/j.cplett.2015.04.061
2823:10.1371/journal.pone.0011517
2362:10.1016/0378-1119(95)00685-0
1978:10.1016/0014-5793(94)80472-9
1883:10.1016/0378-1119(92)90691-H
1292:
989:
789:families. GFP isolated from
686:
525:, publishing the results in
7:
5462:Super-resolution microscopy
5368:Protein function prediction
5296:Peptide mass fingerprinting
5291:Protein immunoprecipitation
4846:"Glow-In-The Dark NeonMice"
4293:Joo KI, Wang P (Oct 2008).
3615:10.1016/j.vascn.2004.07.006
3064:10.1007/978-1-0716-2667-2_4
1407:
1309:epifluorescence microscopes
1015:formation. This process of
10:
5542:
3394:10.1152/physrev.00038.2009
3222:10.1016/j.tibs.2016.09.010
3165:10.1038/s41467-023-39776-9
2132:green fluorescent protein"
1645:10.2174/138920308785132668
1424:Yellow fluorescent protein
1397:Friday Harbor Laboratories
1379:Friday Harbor Laboratories
1344:National Taiwan University
1164:
1105:
1040:
806:Other fluorescent proteins
601:yellow fluorescent protein
44:green fluorescent protein.
18:
5460:
5424:
5396:
5353:
5320:Surface plasmon resonance
5310:Microscale thermophoresis
5300:Protein mass spectrometry
5262:Green fluorescent protein
5247:
5178:Green Fluorescent Protein
5108:Resources in your library
5099:Green fluorescent protein
4963:10.1162/leon.2005.38.1.41
4679:10.1007/s00299-004-0755-5
4556:10.1016/j.ccr.2008.01.011
4357:10.1007/s11248-009-9352-2
4162:10.1007/s11068-008-9026-7
3980:10.1016/j.bpj.2010.03.032
3922:10.1074/jbc.REV119.006177
3650:10.1007/s11814-015-0253-1
2398:10.1016/j.pep.2004.12.030
1721:10.1385/1-59259-086-1:275
1678:FEMS Microbiology Letters
1175:Superresolution with two
277:green fluorescent protein
259:
249:
244:
240:
228:
220:
208:
203:
199:Green fluorescent protein
198:
178:
158:
140:
135:
131:
111:
99:
87:
74:
62:
54:
49:
33:
29:Green fluorescent protein
28:
5340:Cryo-electron microscopy
3513:Chemical Physics Letters
1375:University of Washington
869:, and named small ultra
858:Trichodesmium erythraeum
781:, particularly from the
426:Nobel Prize in Chemistry
396:is frequently used as a
308:and is sometimes called
5373:Protein–protein docking
5286:Protein electrophoresis
4492:10.1038/nphoton.2011.99
4261:10.1073/pnas.0832269100
4060:Trends in Biotechnology
3874:10.1126/science.1074952
3734:10.1073/pnas.0904061106
3709:"GFP: Lighting up life"
2708:10.1126/science.1068539
1928:10.1126/science.8303295
1391:'s GFP-based sculpture
1210:Drosophila melanogaster
1185:fluorescence microscopy
1167:Fluorescence microscope
1161:Fluorescence microscopy
1051:cut away to reveal the
871:red fluorescent protein
5272:Protein immunostaining
4439:10.1124/mol.109.062141
4427:Molecular Pharmacology
4400:10.1006/cryo.2000.2258
4029:10.1002/biot.200900005
3707:Chalfie M (Jun 2009).
3686:10.1002/smll.201201173
2930:10.1002/cbic.201600492
2664:10.1074/jbc.M312846200
2159:10.1073/pnas.94.6.2306
1809:10.1002/jcp.1030590302
1713:Gene Therapy of Cancer
1584:"Fluorescent Proteins"
1404:
1361:
1324:
1180:
1094:
1070:
1036:
983:
949:extinction coefficient
884:self-incorporates the
840:
815:
716:
707:In the marine copepod
700:
612:
586:extinction coefficient
567:
456:
447:
424:were awarded the 2008
398:reporter of expression
5330:X-ray crystallography
4775:10.1093/aobpla/pls003
4017:Biotechnology Journal
3780:10.1038/nmeth1205-902
3382:Physiological Reviews
3145:Nature Communications
2543:Nature Communications
2325:US patent 6172188
2245:. New Jersey: Wiley.
1596:10.1201/9781351129404
1387:
1322:
1234:(in a dish), or even
1174:
1078:
1046:
1034:
981:
838:
813:
706:
694:
639:Redox sensitive GFP (
610:
565:
460:Wild-type GFP (wtGFP)
453:
443:
410:transgenic techniques
5516:Fluorescent proteins
5501:Recombinant proteins
5257:Protein purification
4852:on February 14, 2009
4589:Nature Biotechnology
3056:Fluorescent Proteins
2961:Nature Biotechnology
2875:Nature Biotechnology
2421:Nature Biotechnology
2355:(1 Spec No): 33–38.
2082:10.1038/nbt1096-1246
2070:Nature Biotechnology
1754:Medical Cell Biology
961:fluorescent proteins
552:guanidinium chloride
543:Nature Biotechnology
373:, gene products, or
287:that exhibits green
5282:Gel electrophoresis
4519:Scientific American
4484:2011NaPho...5..406G
4345:Transgenic Research
4252:2003PNAS..100.9280L
4115:10.1038/nature06293
4107:2007Natur.450...56L
3972:2010BpJ....98.2759K
3960:Biophysical Journal
3915:(40): 14814–14822.
3866:2002Sci...297.1873P
3823:2000Sci...290.1585T
3725:2009PNAS..10610073C
3719:(25): 10073–10080.
3521:2015CPL...631...42M
3310:10.1021/bi00262a003
3267:10.1042/BST20200444
3157:2023NatCo..14.4155M
2814:2010PLoSO...511517H
2755:2016NatSR...628350Y
2700:2002Sci...296..913Z
2608:1998Natur.394..192M
2555:2012NatCo...3..751G
2510:(42): 10038–10046.
2287:1995Natur.373..663H
2150:1997PNAS...94.2306B
2019:1996Sci...273.1392O
1920:1994Sci...263..802C
1846:10.1021/bi00709a028
1512:10.1021/bi00610a004
1461:1996Sci...273.1392O
1389:Julian Voss-Andreae
1367:Julian Voss-Andreae
1215:regulatory sequence
851:was evolved from a
849:fluorescent protein
792:Pontella mimocerami
351:. The fluorescence
5526:Cnidarian proteins
5425:Display techniques
5277:Protein sequencing
4904:10.1038/nmeth.1703
4811:planted.botany.org
4667:Plant Cell Reports
4311:10.1038/gt.2008.87
4150:Brain Cell Biology
3569:10.7717/peerj.2269
3515:. 631–632: 42–46.
3441:10.1002/prot.22089
3023:10.1038/nmeth.3935
2743:Scientific Reports
2563:10.1038/ncomms1738
1586:. In Cox G (ed.).
1405:
1325:
1249:membrane potential
1181:
1095:
1071:
1037:
1019:is referred to as
984:
841:
816:
717:
701:
613:
568:
457:
448:
362:Renilla reniformis
295:range. The label
5483:
5482:
5432:Bacterial display
5094:Library resources
5070:978-1-59102-253-4
5059:Zimmer M (2005).
5042:978-0-674-01921-8
4714:The Plant Journal
4513:Matson J (2011).
3966:(12): 2759–2769.
3490:10.1021/bi0361315
3484:(15): 4464–4472.
3349:10.1021/bi8007164
3304:(19): 4535–4540.
3073:978-1-0716-2666-5
2924:(24): 2361–2367.
2764:10.1038/srep28350
2516:10.1021/bi901093w
2480:10.1021/ja0176954
2474:(14): 3522–3524.
2252:978-1-118-17586-6
2130:Aequorea victoria
1771:978-0-12-370458-0
1540:Tsien RY (1998).
1302:Macro-photography
1099:
1098:
933:hydrogen peroxide
927:does not require
917:hydrogen peroxide
882:autocatalytically
820:Aequorea victoria
478:Aequorea victoria
445:Aequorea victoria
390:molecular biology
305:Aequorea victoria
273:
272:
269:
268:
214:Aequorea victoria
194:
193:
190:
189:
185:structure summary
42:Aequorea victoria
40:Structure of the
5533:
5447:Ribosome display
5383:Protein ontology
5229:
5222:
5215:
5206:
5205:
5082:
5054:
5034:
5014:
5013:
5011:
5010:
5000:
4994:
4993:
4981:
4975:
4974:
4946:
4940:
4939:
4932:
4926:
4925:
4915:
4879:
4873:
4868:
4862:
4861:
4859:
4857:
4848:. Archived from
4842:
4836:
4835:
4827:
4821:
4820:
4818:
4817:
4803:
4797:
4796:
4786:
4754:
4748:
4747:
4729:
4705:
4699:
4698:
4662:
4656:
4655:
4627:
4621:
4620:
4584:
4578:
4577:
4567:
4535:
4529:
4528:
4526:
4525:
4510:
4504:
4503:
4472:Nature Photonics
4467:
4461:
4460:
4450:
4418:
4412:
4411:
4383:
4377:
4376:
4339:
4333:
4332:
4322:
4290:
4284:
4283:
4273:
4263:
4231:
4225:
4224:
4214:
4190:
4184:
4183:
4173:
4141:
4135:
4134:
4090:
4084:
4083:
4055:
4049:
4048:
4008:
4002:
4001:
3991:
3951:
3945:
3944:
3934:
3924:
3900:
3894:
3893:
3860:(5588): 1873–7.
3849:
3843:
3842:
3817:(5496): 1585–8.
3806:
3800:
3799:
3763:
3757:
3756:
3746:
3736:
3704:
3698:
3697:
3668:
3662:
3661:
3633:
3627:
3626:
3598:
3592:
3591:
3581:
3571:
3547:
3541:
3540:
3508:
3502:
3501:
3472:
3463:
3462:
3452:
3420:
3414:
3413:
3377:
3371:
3370:
3360:
3343:(38): 10111–22.
3328:
3322:
3321:
3293:
3287:
3286:
3261:(6): 2657–2667.
3250:
3244:
3243:
3233:
3201:
3195:
3194:
3184:
3135:
3129:
3128:
3092:
3086:
3085:
3051:
3045:
3044:
3034:
3002:
2993:
2992:
2956:
2950:
2949:
2913:
2907:
2906:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2852:
2846:
2845:
2835:
2825:
2793:
2787:
2786:
2776:
2766:
2734:
2728:
2727:
2694:(5569): 913–16.
2683:
2677:
2676:
2666:
2657:(13): 13044–53.
2642:
2636:
2635:
2591:
2585:
2584:
2574:
2534:
2528:
2527:
2498:
2492:
2491:
2459:
2453:
2452:
2416:
2410:
2409:
2381:
2375:
2374:
2364:
2340:
2334:
2333:
2332:
2328:
2321:
2315:
2314:
2295:10.1038/373663b0
2272:
2263:
2257:
2256:
2238:
2232:
2231:
2212:10.1038/nmeth819
2197:
2188:
2182:
2181:
2171:
2161:
2144:(6): 2306–2311.
2123:
2112:
2111:
2093:
2067:
2058:
2047:
2046:
2013:(5280): 1392–5.
2002:
1991:
1990:
1980:
1954:
1948:
1947:
1901:
1895:
1894:
1864:
1858:
1857:
1827:
1821:
1820:
1790:
1784:
1783:
1749:
1743:
1742:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1673:
1667:
1666:
1656:
1624:
1618:
1617:
1582:Salih A (2019).
1579:
1573:
1572:
1546:
1537:
1524:
1523:
1495:
1489:
1488:
1455:(5280): 1392–5.
1444:
1117:
1092:
1068:
1055:(highlighted as
1039:
1038:
863:phycobiliprotein
822:. These include
749:Most species of
406:proof of concept
349:visible spectrum
242:
241:
216:
196:
195:
133:
132:
38:
26:
25:
5541:
5540:
5536:
5535:
5534:
5532:
5531:
5530:
5521:Bioluminescence
5511:Protein imaging
5496:Protein methods
5486:
5485:
5484:
5479:
5456:
5420:
5416:Secretion assay
5392:
5349:
5243:
5233:
5153:Osamu Shimomura
5119:
5118:
5117:
5102:
5101:
5097:
5090:
5085:
5071:
5043:
5022:
5020:Further reading
5017:
5008:
5006:
5002:
5001:
4997:
4982:
4978:
4947:
4943:
4934:
4933:
4929:
4880:
4876:
4869:
4865:
4855:
4853:
4844:
4843:
4839:
4828:
4824:
4815:
4813:
4805:
4804:
4800:
4755:
4751:
4706:
4702:
4663:
4659:
4632:New Phytologist
4628:
4624:
4601:10.1038/nbt1044
4585:
4581:
4536:
4532:
4523:
4521:
4511:
4507:
4468:
4464:
4419:
4415:
4384:
4380:
4340:
4336:
4305:(20): 1384–96.
4291:
4287:
4232:
4228:
4191:
4187:
4142:
4138:
4101:(7166): 56–62.
4091:
4087:
4056:
4052:
4009:
4005:
3952:
3948:
3901:
3897:
3850:
3846:
3807:
3803:
3764:
3760:
3705:
3701:
3669:
3665:
3634:
3630:
3599:
3595:
3548:
3544:
3509:
3505:
3473:
3466:
3421:
3417:
3378:
3374:
3329:
3325:
3294:
3290:
3251:
3247:
3202:
3198:
3136:
3132:
3093:
3089:
3074:
3052:
3048:
3003:
2996:
2973:10.1038/nbt1293
2957:
2953:
2914:
2910:
2871:
2867:
2854:
2853:
2849:
2794:
2790:
2735:
2731:
2684:
2680:
2643:
2639:
2602:(6689): 192–5.
2592:
2588:
2535:
2531:
2499:
2495:
2460:
2456:
2433:10.1038/nbt1172
2417:
2413:
2382:
2378:
2341:
2337:
2330:
2322:
2318:
2281:(6516): 663–4.
2270:
2264:
2260:
2253:
2239:
2235:
2195:
2189:
2185:
2124:
2115:
2076:(10): 1246–51.
2065:
2059:
2050:
2003:
1994:
1971:(2–3): 277–80.
1955:
1951:
1914:(5148): 802–5.
1902:
1898:
1865:
1861:
1840:(12): 2656–62.
1828:
1824:
1791:
1787:
1772:
1750:
1746:
1731:
1709:
1705:
1674:
1670:
1625:
1621:
1606:
1580:
1576:
1544:
1538:
1527:
1506:(17): 3448–53.
1496:
1492:
1445:
1441:
1437:
1410:
1401:San Juan Island
1393:Steel Jellyfish
1364:
1317:
1315:Transgenic pets
1304:
1295:
1276:viability assay
1177:fusion proteins
1169:
1163:
1154:
1135:
1133:Reporter assays
1130:
1111:
1104:
1084:
1060:
992:
867:allophycocyanin
847:A new class of
808:
769:photoprotective
721:bioluminescence
695:Live lancelet (
689:
661:
560:
558:GFP derivatives
499:Douglas Prasher
492:interacts with
482:Osamu Shimomura
462:
438:
418:Osamu Shimomura
341:excitation peak
212:
45:
24:
21:Pembrey Airport
17:
12:
11:
5:
5539:
5529:
5528:
5523:
5518:
5513:
5508:
5503:
5498:
5481:
5480:
5478:
5477:
5472:
5466:
5464:
5458:
5457:
5455:
5454:
5449:
5444:
5439:
5434:
5428:
5426:
5422:
5421:
5419:
5418:
5413:
5408:
5402:
5400:
5394:
5393:
5391:
5390:
5385:
5380:
5375:
5370:
5365:
5359:
5357:
5355:Bioinformatics
5351:
5350:
5348:
5347:
5342:
5337:
5332:
5327:
5322:
5317:
5312:
5307:
5302:
5293:
5288:
5279:
5274:
5269:
5264:
5259:
5253:
5251:
5245:
5244:
5232:
5231:
5224:
5217:
5209:
5203:
5202:
5181:
5175:
5169:
5163:
5161:Roger Y. Tsien
5157:Martin Chalfie
5146:
5141:
5136:
5130:
5125:
5116:
5115:
5110:
5104:
5103:
5092:
5091:
5089:
5088:External links
5086:
5084:
5083:
5069:
5056:
5041:
5023:
5021:
5018:
5016:
5015:
4995:
4986:Physik Journal
4976:
4941:
4927:
4892:Nature Methods
4874:
4863:
4837:
4822:
4798:
4749:
4700:
4657:
4638:(3): 461–468.
4622:
4579:
4530:
4505:
4478:(7): 406–410.
4462:
4413:
4394:(4): 360–369.
4378:
4334:
4285:
4246:(16): 9280–5.
4226:
4185:
4156:(1–4): 53–67.
4136:
4085:
4066:(12): 605–13.
4050:
4003:
3946:
3895:
3844:
3801:
3768:Nature Methods
3758:
3699:
3663:
3628:
3593:
3542:
3503:
3464:
3435:(3): 539–551.
3415:
3388:(3): 1103–63.
3372:
3323:
3288:
3245:
3216:(2): 111–129.
3196:
3130:
3087:
3072:
3046:
3011:Nature Methods
2994:
2967:(4): 443–445.
2951:
2908:
2887:10.1038/nbt778
2865:
2847:
2788:
2729:
2678:
2637:
2586:
2529:
2493:
2454:
2411:
2392:(1): 121–127.
2376:
2335:
2316:
2258:
2251:
2233:
2200:Nature Methods
2183:
2113:
2048:
1992:
1949:
1896:
1859:
1822:
1785:
1770:
1744:
1729:
1703:
1668:
1619:
1604:
1574:
1525:
1490:
1438:
1436:
1433:
1432:
1431:
1426:
1421:
1416:
1409:
1406:
1363:
1360:
1316:
1313:
1303:
1300:
1294:
1291:
1251:, tracking of
1165:Main article:
1162:
1159:
1153:
1150:
1134:
1131:
1129:
1126:
1103:
1100:
1097:
1096:
1081:ribbon diagram
1072:
1057:ball-and-stick
991:
988:
913:stoichiometric
911:and produce a
853:cyanobacterial
807:
804:
688:
685:
673:cell membranes
669:palmitoylation
660:
657:
651:properties of
559:
556:
511:Martin Chalfie
461:
458:
437:
434:
422:Martin Chalfie
414:Roger Y. Tsien
271:
270:
267:
266:
261:
257:
256:
251:
247:
246:
238:
237:
232:
226:
225:
222:
218:
217:
210:
206:
205:
201:
200:
192:
191:
188:
187:
182:
176:
175:
162:
156:
155:
145:
138:
137:
129:
128:
115:
109:
108:
103:
97:
96:
91:
85:
84:
79:
72:
71:
66:
60:
59:
56:
52:
51:
47:
46:
39:
31:
30:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
5538:
5527:
5524:
5522:
5519:
5517:
5514:
5512:
5509:
5507:
5504:
5502:
5499:
5497:
5494:
5493:
5491:
5476:
5473:
5471:
5468:
5467:
5465:
5463:
5459:
5453:
5452:Yeast display
5450:
5448:
5445:
5443:
5442:Phage display
5440:
5438:
5435:
5433:
5430:
5429:
5427:
5423:
5417:
5414:
5412:
5411:Protein assay
5409:
5407:
5404:
5403:
5401:
5399:
5395:
5389:
5386:
5384:
5381:
5379:
5376:
5374:
5371:
5369:
5366:
5364:
5361:
5360:
5358:
5356:
5352:
5346:
5343:
5341:
5338:
5336:
5333:
5331:
5328:
5326:
5323:
5321:
5318:
5316:
5313:
5311:
5308:
5306:
5303:
5301:
5297:
5294:
5292:
5289:
5287:
5283:
5280:
5278:
5275:
5273:
5270:
5268:
5265:
5263:
5260:
5258:
5255:
5254:
5252:
5250:
5246:
5241:
5237:
5230:
5225:
5223:
5218:
5216:
5211:
5210:
5207:
5200:
5196:
5195:
5190:
5186:
5182:
5179:
5176:
5173:
5170:
5167:
5164:
5162:
5158:
5154:
5150:
5147:
5145:
5142:
5140:
5137:
5135:
5131:
5129:
5126:
5124:
5121:
5120:
5114:
5111:
5109:
5106:
5105:
5100:
5095:
5080:
5076:
5072:
5066:
5062:
5057:
5052:
5048:
5044:
5038:
5033:
5032:
5025:
5024:
5005:
4999:
4991:
4987:
4980:
4972:
4968:
4964:
4960:
4956:
4952:
4945:
4937:
4931:
4923:
4919:
4914:
4909:
4905:
4901:
4898:(10): 853–9.
4897:
4893:
4889:
4885:
4878:
4872:
4867:
4851:
4847:
4841:
4833:
4826:
4812:
4808:
4802:
4794:
4790:
4785:
4780:
4776:
4772:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4753:
4745:
4741:
4737:
4733:
4728:
4723:
4720:(4): 455–63.
4719:
4715:
4711:
4704:
4696:
4692:
4688:
4684:
4680:
4676:
4672:
4668:
4661:
4653:
4649:
4645:
4641:
4637:
4633:
4626:
4618:
4614:
4610:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4583:
4575:
4571:
4566:
4561:
4557:
4553:
4550:(2): 141–52.
4549:
4545:
4541:
4534:
4520:
4516:
4509:
4501:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4485:
4481:
4477:
4473:
4466:
4458:
4454:
4449:
4444:
4440:
4436:
4433:(4): 559–66.
4432:
4428:
4424:
4417:
4409:
4405:
4401:
4397:
4393:
4389:
4382:
4374:
4370:
4366:
4362:
4358:
4354:
4351:(5): 745–63.
4350:
4346:
4338:
4330:
4326:
4321:
4316:
4312:
4308:
4304:
4300:
4296:
4289:
4281:
4277:
4272:
4267:
4262:
4257:
4253:
4249:
4245:
4241:
4237:
4230:
4222:
4218:
4213:
4208:
4205:(6): 977–85.
4204:
4200:
4196:
4189:
4181:
4177:
4172:
4167:
4163:
4159:
4155:
4151:
4147:
4140:
4132:
4128:
4124:
4120:
4116:
4112:
4108:
4104:
4100:
4096:
4089:
4081:
4077:
4073:
4069:
4065:
4061:
4054:
4046:
4042:
4038:
4034:
4030:
4026:
4023:(6): 927–38.
4022:
4018:
4014:
4007:
3999:
3995:
3990:
3985:
3981:
3977:
3973:
3969:
3965:
3961:
3957:
3950:
3942:
3938:
3933:
3928:
3923:
3918:
3914:
3910:
3906:
3899:
3891:
3887:
3883:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3867:
3863:
3859:
3855:
3848:
3840:
3836:
3832:
3828:
3824:
3820:
3816:
3812:
3805:
3797:
3793:
3789:
3785:
3781:
3777:
3774:(12): 902–4.
3773:
3769:
3762:
3754:
3750:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3710:
3703:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3683:
3679:
3675:
3667:
3659:
3655:
3651:
3647:
3644:(4): 1331–6.
3643:
3639:
3632:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3597:
3589:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3561:
3557:
3553:
3546:
3538:
3534:
3530:
3526:
3522:
3518:
3514:
3507:
3499:
3495:
3491:
3487:
3483:
3479:
3471:
3469:
3460:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3442:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3419:
3411:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3395:
3391:
3387:
3383:
3376:
3368:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3342:
3338:
3334:
3327:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3292:
3284:
3280:
3276:
3272:
3268:
3264:
3260:
3256:
3249:
3241:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3223:
3219:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3200:
3192:
3188:
3183:
3178:
3174:
3170:
3166:
3162:
3158:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3134:
3126:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3110:
3106:
3103:(1): 509–44.
3102:
3098:
3091:
3083:
3079:
3075:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3050:
3042:
3038:
3033:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3001:
2999:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2955:
2947:
2943:
2939:
2935:
2931:
2927:
2923:
2919:
2912:
2904:
2900:
2896:
2892:
2888:
2884:
2880:
2876:
2869:
2861:
2857:
2851:
2843:
2839:
2834:
2829:
2824:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2808:(7): e11517.
2807:
2803:
2799:
2792:
2784:
2780:
2775:
2770:
2765:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2748:
2744:
2740:
2733:
2725:
2721:
2717:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2682:
2674:
2670:
2665:
2660:
2656:
2652:
2648:
2641:
2633:
2629:
2625:
2621:
2617:
2616:10.1038/28190
2613:
2609:
2605:
2601:
2597:
2590:
2582:
2578:
2573:
2568:
2564:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2544:
2540:
2533:
2525:
2521:
2517:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2497:
2489:
2485:
2481:
2477:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2458:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2438:
2434:
2430:
2426:
2422:
2415:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2380:
2372:
2368:
2363:
2358:
2354:
2350:
2346:
2339:
2326:
2320:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2288:
2284:
2280:
2276:
2269:
2262:
2254:
2248:
2244:
2237:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2206:(12): 905–9.
2205:
2201:
2194:
2187:
2179:
2175:
2170:
2165:
2160:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2133:
2131:
2122:
2120:
2118:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2092:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2064:
2057:
2055:
2053:
2044:
2040:
2036:
2032:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2012:
2008:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1988:
1984:
1979:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1965:
1960:
1953:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1908:
1900:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1877:(2): 229–33.
1876:
1872:
1871:
1863:
1855:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1839:
1835:
1834:
1826:
1818:
1814:
1810:
1806:
1803:(3): 223–39.
1802:
1798:
1797:
1789:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1748:
1740:
1736:
1732:
1730:1-59259-086-1
1726:
1722:
1718:
1714:
1707:
1699:
1695:
1691:
1687:
1683:
1679:
1672:
1664:
1660:
1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1639:(4): 338–69.
1638:
1634:
1630:
1623:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1605:9781351129404
1601:
1597:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1578:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1543:
1536:
1534:
1532:
1530:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1505:
1501:
1494:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1443:
1439:
1430:
1427:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1411:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1390:
1386:
1382:
1380:
1376:
1373:in 1962, the
1372:
1368:
1359:
1357:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1337:
1333:
1329:
1321:
1312:
1310:
1299:
1290:
1287:
1283:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1268:
1264:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1238:
1233:
1232:
1226:
1223:
1218:
1216:
1212:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1186:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1158:
1149:
1147:
1142:
1140:
1139:reporter gene
1125:
1122:
1118:
1116:
1109:
1091:
1087:
1082:
1077:
1073:
1067:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1045:
1041:
1033:
1029:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1014:
1009:
1005:
1001:
997:
987:
980:
976:
974:
970:
966:
963:derived from
962:
958:
954:
953:quantum yield
950:
946:
942:
938:
935:and uses the
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
914:
910:
906:
902:
898:
895:, known as a
894:
890:
887:
883:
880:
876:
872:
868:
864:
860:
859:
854:
850:
845:
837:
833:
831:
827:
825:
821:
812:
803:
802:
798:
797:quantum yield
794:
793:
788:
784:
780:
777:
772:
770:
766:
762:
758:
757:
752:
747:
745:
744:Friday Harbor
740:
735:
730:
726:
722:
715:
714:
711:
705:
698:
693:
684:
682:
678:
674:
670:
666:
656:
654:
650:
646:
642:
637:
635:
634:synaptobrevin
629:
627:
621:
618:
609:
605:
602:
596:
593:
591:
590:quantum yield
587:
582:
578:
574:
564:
555:
553:
548:
544:
540:
539:
533:
530:
529:
524:
523:
518:
517:
512:
508:
504:
500:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
452:
446:
442:
433:
429:
427:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
387:
382:
380:
376:
372:
368:
364:
363:
358:
354:
353:quantum yield
350:
346:
342:
338:
335:The GFP from
333:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
306:
302:
298:
294:
290:
286:
282:
278:
265:
262:
258:
255:
252:
248:
243:
239:
236:
233:
231:
227:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
202:
197:
186:
183:
181:
177:
174:
170:
166:
163:
161:
157:
153:
149:
146:
143:
139:
134:
130:
127:
123:
119:
116:
114:
110:
107:
104:
102:
98:
95:
92:
90:
86:
83:
80:
77:
73:
70:
67:
65:
61:
57:
53:
48:
43:
37:
32:
27:
22:
5506:Cell imaging
5437:mRNA display
5406:Enzyme assay
5267:Western blot
5261:
5249:Experimental
5192:
5098:
5060:
5030:
5007:. Retrieved
4998:
4989:
4985:
4979:
4954:
4950:
4944:
4930:
4895:
4891:
4877:
4866:
4854:. Retrieved
4850:the original
4840:
4825:
4814:. Retrieved
4810:
4801:
4766:
4762:
4752:
4717:
4713:
4703:
4673:(9): 660–7.
4670:
4666:
4660:
4635:
4631:
4625:
4595:(1): 102–7.
4592:
4588:
4582:
4547:
4543:
4533:
4522:. Retrieved
4518:
4508:
4475:
4471:
4465:
4430:
4426:
4416:
4391:
4387:
4381:
4348:
4344:
4337:
4302:
4299:Gene Therapy
4298:
4288:
4243:
4239:
4229:
4202:
4198:
4188:
4153:
4149:
4139:
4098:
4094:
4088:
4063:
4059:
4053:
4020:
4016:
4006:
3963:
3959:
3949:
3912:
3908:
3898:
3857:
3853:
3847:
3814:
3810:
3804:
3771:
3767:
3761:
3716:
3712:
3702:
3677:
3673:
3666:
3641:
3637:
3631:
3606:
3602:
3596:
3559:
3555:
3545:
3512:
3506:
3481:
3478:Biochemistry
3477:
3432:
3428:
3418:
3385:
3381:
3375:
3340:
3337:Biochemistry
3336:
3326:
3301:
3298:Biochemistry
3297:
3291:
3258:
3254:
3248:
3213:
3209:
3199:
3148:
3144:
3133:
3100:
3096:
3090:
3055:
3049:
3017:(9): 763–9.
3014:
3010:
2964:
2960:
2954:
2921:
2917:
2911:
2881:(2): 191–4.
2878:
2874:
2868:
2859:
2850:
2805:
2801:
2791:
2749:(1): 28350.
2746:
2742:
2732:
2691:
2687:
2681:
2654:
2650:
2640:
2599:
2595:
2589:
2546:
2542:
2532:
2507:
2504:Biochemistry
2503:
2496:
2471:
2467:
2457:
2427:(1): 79–88.
2424:
2420:
2414:
2389:
2385:
2379:
2352:
2348:
2338:
2319:
2278:
2274:
2261:
2242:
2236:
2203:
2199:
2186:
2141:
2135:
2129:
2073:
2069:
2010:
2006:
1968:
1964:FEBS Letters
1962:
1952:
1911:
1905:
1899:
1874:
1868:
1862:
1837:
1833:Biochemistry
1831:
1825:
1800:
1794:
1788:
1753:
1747:
1712:
1706:
1681:
1677:
1671:
1636:
1632:
1622:
1587:
1577:
1552:
1548:
1503:
1500:Biochemistry
1499:
1493:
1452:
1448:
1442:
1392:
1365:
1326:
1305:
1296:
1288:
1284:
1269:
1265:
1235:
1229:
1227:
1219:
1208:
1202:
1198:
1182:
1155:
1145:
1143:
1136:
1128:Applications
1123:
1119:
1112:
1020:
1003:
993:
985:
947:has a large
856:
846:
842:
828:
819:
817:
801:A. victoria.
800:
790:
773:
754:
748:
738:
729:fluorescence
718:
708:
696:
681:dimerization
664:
662:
659:Nomenclature
638:
630:
622:
614:
597:
594:
584:EGFP has an
572:
569:
542:
536:
534:
526:
520:
514:
502:
485:
477:
463:
444:
430:
383:
360:
339:has a major
336:
334:
318:sea anemones
309:
303:
296:
289:fluorescence
280:
276:
274:
41:
5475:Vertico SMI
5335:Protein NMR
4832:"GFP Bunny"
4544:Cancer Cell
4388:Cryobiology
3609:(1): 1–23.
3151:(1): 4155.
2918:ChemBioChem
1684:(1): 9–18.
1414:Protein tag
1332:Eduardo Kac
1280:trypan blue
1272:cryobiology
1257:viral entry
1222:Vertico SMI
1205:spermatozoa
1053:chromophore
1049:beta barrel
1025:chromophore
1013:chromophore
1008:beta barrel
1000:chromophore
996:beta barrel
937:chromophore
931:or produce
923:formation.
921:chromophore
886:chromophore
877:) in 2016.
783:Pontellidae
756:A. victoria
739:A. victoria
734:chromophore
697:B. floridae
649:fluorescent
577:Roger Tsien
547:chromophore
486:A. victoria
367:chromophore
337:A. victoria
293:ultraviolet
254:Swiss-model
204:Identifiers
50:Identifiers
5490:Categories
5009:2007-06-14
4884:Poeschla E
4856:August 30,
4816:2016-03-23
4769:: pls003.
4763:AoB Plants
4524:2011-06-13
2464:Getzoff ED
2091:1911/19233
1555:: 509–44.
1435:References
1193:phototoxic
1152:Advantages
1021:maturation
994:GFP has a
941:biliverdin
915:amount of
889:biliverdin
787:Aetideidae
761:endogenous
713:mimocerami
522:C. elegans
436:Background
402:biosensors
392:, the GFP
379:substrates
345:wavelength
322:zoanithids
250:Structures
245:Search for
148:structures
4957:: 41–45.
3796:205418407
3562:: e2269.
3537:0009-2614
3283:226971864
3173:2041-1723
1614:213688192
1371:Shimomura
1336:zebrafish
1293:Split GFP
1261:influenza
990:Structure
901:Jellyfish
687:In nature
677:monomeric
474:luciferin
371:cofactors
357:sea pansy
330:lancelets
301:jellyfish
94:IPR011584
5242:of study
5236:Proteins
5079:56614624
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