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city-state. Yet if they had no place of political assembly, they often had their own gymnasium, the essential sign of
Hellenism, serving something of the purpose of a university for the young men. Far up the Nile at Ombi a gymnasium of the local Greeks was found in 136–135 BC, which passed resolutions and corresponded with the king. Also, in 123 BC, when there was trouble in Upper Egypt between the towns of Crocodilopolis and Hermonthis, the negotiators sent from Crocodilopolis were the young men attached to the gymnasium, who, according to the Greek tradition, ate bread and salt with the negotiators from the other town. All the Greek dialects of the Greek world gradually became assimilated in the Koine Greek dialect that was the common language of the Hellenistic world. Generally, the Greeks of Ptolemaic Egypt felt like representatives of a higher civilization but were curious about the native culture of Egypt.
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2425:. The main Roman interest in Egypt was always the reliable delivery of grain to the city of Rome. To this end the Roman administration made no change to the Ptolemaic system of government, although Romans replaced Greeks in the highest offices. But Greeks continued to staff most of the administrative offices and Greek remained the language of government except at the highest levels. Unlike the Greeks, the Romans did not settle in Egypt in large numbers. Culture, education and civic life largely remained Greek throughout the Roman period. The Romans, like the Ptolemies, respected and protected Egyptian religion and customs, although the cult of the Roman state and of the Emperor was gradually introduced.
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2170:. Both daughters were killed in Auletes' reclaiming of his throne; Tryphaena by assassination and Berenice by execution, leaving Cleopatra VII as the oldest surviving child of Ptolemy Auletes. Traditionally, Ptolemaic royal siblings were married to one another on ascension to the throne. These marriages sometimes produced children, and other times were only a ceremonial union to consolidate political power. Ptolemy Auletes expressed his wish for Cleopatra and her brother Ptolemy XIII to marry and rule jointly in his will, in which the Roman senate was named as executor, giving Rome further control over the Ptolemies and, thereby, the fate of Egypt as a nation.
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focal point of social, economic, and cultural life; the first three reigns of the dynasty were characterized by rigorous temple building, including the completion of projects left over from the previous dynasty; many older or neglected structures were restored or enhanced. The
Ptolemies generally adhered to traditional architectural styles and motifs. In many respects, the Egyptian religion thrived: temples became centers of learning and literature in the traditional Egyptian style. The worship of Isis and Horus became more popular, as did the practice of offering animal mummies.
2536:
continuation of the
Egyptian art style evidences the Ptolemies' commitment to maintaining Egyptian customs. This strategy not only helped to legitimize their rule, but also placated the general population. Greek-style art was also created during this time and existed in parallel to the more traditional Egyptian art, which could not be altered significantly without changing its intrinsic, primarily-religious function. Art found outside of Egypt itself, though within the Ptolemaic Kingdom, sometimes used Egyptian iconography as it had been used previously, and sometimes adapted it.
2607:
non-idealistic facial features with vertical lines above the bridge of the nose, lines at the corners of the eyes and between the nose and the mouth. The influence of Greek art was shown in an emphasis on the face that was not previously present in
Egyptian art and incorporation of Greek elements into an Egyptian setting: individualistic hairstyles, the oval face, "round deeply set" eyes, and the small, tucked mouth closer to the nose. Early portraits of the Ptolemies featured large and radiant eyes in association to the rulers' divinity as well as general notions of abundance.
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2162:. With one empire after another falling to Macedon and the Seleucid empire, the Ptolemies had had little choice but to ally with the Romans, a pact that lasted over 150 years. By Ptolemy XII's time, Rome had achieved a massive amount of influence over Egyptian politics and finances to the point that he declared the Roman senate the guardian of the Ptolemaic Dynasty. He had paid vast sums of Egyptian wealth and resources in tribute to the Romans in order to regain and secure his throne following the rebellion and brief coup led by his older daughters,
3239:. According to Plutarch, the Alexandrians believed that Alexander the Great's motivation to build the city was his wish to "found a large and populous Greek city that should bear his name." Located 30 kilometres (19 mi) west of the Nile's westernmost mouth, the city was immune to the silt deposits that persistently choked harbors along the river. Alexandria became the capital of the Hellenized Egypt of King Ptolemy I (reigned 323–283 BC). Under the wealthy Ptolemaic Dynasty, the city soon surpassed Athens as the cultural center of the
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5611:, Philadelphia, 1968, p. 46: "The Jews of Egypt looked upon the translation of the Bible into Greek as such an important event that they surrounded it later with a halo of legend... The story is told... by a certain Aristeas of Alexandria, that the second Ptolemy... sent ambassadors to the high priest in Jerusalem, and asked that a copy of these books be sent to him along with men capable of rendering them into Greek. The high priest did so, sending seventy-two... scribes and a copy of the Torah."
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3094:, the navy suffered a series of defeats and declined in military importance, which coincided with the loss of Egypt's overseas possessions and the erosion of its maritime hegemony. The navy was relegated primarily to a protective and antipiracy role for the next two centuries, until its partial revival under Cleopatra VII, who sought to restore Ptolemaic naval supremacy amid the rise of Rome as a major Mediterranean power. Egyptian naval forces took part in the decisive
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translations independently from memory, and the resultant works were identical at every letter. However, Josephus states they worked together arguing over the translation and finished the work in 72 days. Josephus goes into great detail on the elaborate preparations and regal treatment of the 70 elders of the tribes of Israel chosen to accomplish the task in his
Antiquities of the Jews Book 12, chapter 2, which is dedicated to the description of this famous event.
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1778:
3347:, with a citizen-body Greek in blood, and the institutions of a Greek city. If there is some doubt whether Alexandria possessed a council and assembly, there is none in regard to Ptolemais. It was more possible for the kings to allow a measure of self-government to a people removed at that distance from the ordinary residence of the court. We have still, inscribed on stone, decrees passed in the assembly of the people of Ptolemais, couched in the regular forms of
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Egyptian in style. Aside from the name of the king, there are other features that specifically date this to the
Ptolemaic period. Most distinctively is the color of the faience. Apple green, deep blue, and lavender-blue are the three colors most frequently used during this period, a shift from the characteristic blue of the earlier kingdoms. This sistrum appears to be an intermediate hue, which fits with its date at the beginning of the Ptolemaic empire.
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Alexandrian palace, he received 22-year-old
Cleopatra, allegedly carried to him in secret wrapped in a carpet. Caesar agreed to support Cleopatra's claim to the throne. Ptolemy XIII and his advisors fled the palace, turning the Egyptian forces loyal to the throne against Caesar and Cleopatra, who barricaded themselves in the palace complex until Roman reinforcements could arrive to combat the rebellion, known afterward as the
2705:, the city's necropolis, was a leading center of worship of Apis bull, which had become integrated into the national mythos. The Ptolemies also lavished attention on Hermopolis, the cult center of Thoth, building a Hellenistic-style temple in his honor. Thebes continued to be a major religious center and home to a powerful priesthood; it also enjoyed royal development, namely of the Karnak complex devoted to the Osiris and
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4137:, p. 268: In a treaty of 301, this region was assigned to Seleucus; however, Ptolemy had just seized it and refused to return it. Because Ptolemy had been very helpful to Seleucus in the past, the latter did not press his claim, but the Seleucid empire continued to regard the region as rightfully theirs. The result was the series of Syrian Wars in which the Seleucids attempted to take the territory back.
3206:
city flourished in
Ptolemaic times "we may see by the quantity of imported amphorae, of which the handles stamped at Rhodes and elsewhere are found so abundantly." The Zeno papyri show that it was the chief port of call on the inland voyage from Memphis to Alexandria, as well as a stopping-place on the land-route from Pelusium to the capital. It was attached, in the administrative system, to the Saïte nome.
2380:, to be raised in her household. No further mention is made of Cleopatra and Antony's sons in the known historical texts of that time, but their daughter Cleopatra Selene was eventually married through arrangement by Octavian into the Mauretanian royal line, one of Rome's many client monarchies. Through Cleopatra Selene's offspring the Ptolemaic line intermarried back into the Roman nobility for centuries.
2461:, a research centre located in the royal sector of the city. Its scholars were housed in the same sector and funded by Ptolemaic rulers. The chief librarian served also as the crown prince's tutor. For the first hundred and fifty years of its existence, the library drew the top Greek scholars from all over the Hellenistic world. It was a key academic, literary and scientific centre in antiquity.
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coinage. And the number of Greek men of letters during the
Ptolemaic and Roman period, who were citizens of Naucratis, proves that in the sphere of Hellenic culture Naucratis held to its traditions. Ptolemy II bestowed his care upon Naucratis. He built a large structure of limestone, about 100 metres (330 ft) long and 18 metres (59 ft) wide, to fill up the broken entrance to the great
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troops were sometimes looked down upon and distrusted due to their reputation for disloyalty and tendency to aid local revolts; however, they were well regarded as fighters, and beginning with the reforms of
Ptolemy V in the early third century BC, they appeared more frequently as officers and cavalrymen. Egyptian soldiers also enjoyed a socioeconomic status higher than the average native.
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1750:, one of the masterpieces of ancient Egyptian temple architecture and now the best-preserved of all Egyptian temples. Ptolemy III initiated construction on it on 23 August 237 BC. Work continued for most of the Ptolemaic dynasty; the main temple was finished in the reign of his son, Ptolemy IV, in 212 BC, and the full complex was only completed in 142 BC, during the reign of
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Similarly, units were grouped and equipped based on ethnicity. Nevertheless, different nationalities were trained to fight together, and most officers were of Greek or Macedonian origin, which allowed for a degree of cohesion and coordination. Military leadership and the figure of the king and queen were central for ensuring unity and morale among multiethnic troops; at the
2666:; she usually had either a small throne as her headdress or the more traditional sun disk between two horns. Reflecting Greek preferences, the traditional table for offerings disappeared from reliefs during the Ptolemaic period, while male gods were no longer portrayed with tails, so as to make them more human-like in accordance with the Hellenistic tradition.
1623:, and a host of other poets, glorified the Ptolemaic family. Ptolemy himself was eager to increase the library and to patronise scientific research. He spent lavishly on making Alexandria the economic, artistic and intellectual capital of the Hellenistic world. The academies and libraries of Alexandria proved vital in preserving much Greek literary heritage.
2603:. For example, a relief in the temple of Kom Ombo is separated from other scenes by two vertical columns of texts. The figures in the scenes are smooth, rounded, and high relief, a style continued throughout the 30th Dynasty. The relief represents the interaction between the Ptolemaic kings and the Egyptian deities, which legitimized their rule in Egypt .
1293:, Arsinoë and Berenice. The Ptolemies also adopted the Egyptian custom of marrying their sisters, with many of their line ruling jointly with their spouses, who were also of the royal house. This custom made Ptolemaic politics confusingly incestuous, and the later Ptolemies were increasingly feeble. The only
3266:, at that time the largest in the world, contained several hundred thousand volumes and housed and employed scholars and poets. A similar scholarly complex was the Museum (Mouseion, "hall of the Muses"). During Alexandria's brief literary golden period, c. 280–240 BC, the Library subsidized three poets—
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Of the many foreign groups who had come to settle in Egypt, the Greeks were the most privileged. They were partly spread as allotment-holders over the country, forming social groups, in the country towns and villages, side by side with the native population, partly gathered in the three Greek cities,
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wrote the words just quoted the great Temenos was identified with the Hellenion. But Mr. Edgar has recently pointed out that the building connected with it was an Egyptian temple, not a Greek building. Naucratis, therefore, in spite of its general Hellenic character, had an Egyptian element. That the
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Of the three Greek cities, Naucratis, although its commercial importance was reduced with the founding of Alexandria, continued in a quiet way its life as a Greek city-state. During the interval between the death of Alexander and Ptolemy's assumption of the style of king, it even issued an autonomous
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The Ptolemies maintained a standing army throughout their reign, made up of both professional soldiers (including mercenaries) and recruits. From the very beginning the Ptolemaic army demonstrated considerable resourcefulness and adaptability. In his fight for control over Egypt, Ptolemy I had relied
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Although Egypt was a prosperous kingdom, with the Ptolemies lavishing patronage through religious monuments and public works, the native population enjoyed few benefits; wealth and power remained overwhelmingly in the hands of Greeks. Subsequently, uprising and social unrest were frequent, especially
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After the death of their father, Cleopatra VII and her younger brother Ptolemy XIII inherited the throne and were married. Their marriage was only nominal, however, and their relationship soon degenerated. Cleopatra was stripped of authority and title by Ptolemy XIII's advisors, who held considerable
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Greek culture was so much bound up with the life of the city-state that any king who wanted to present himself to the world as a genuine champion of Hellenism had to do something in this direction, but the king of Egypt, ambitious to shine as a Hellene, would find Greek cities, with their republican
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Ptolemaic art was produced during the reign of the Ptolemaic Rulers (304–30 BC), and was concentrated primarily within the bounds of the Ptolemaic Empire. At first, artworks existed separately in either the Egyptian or the Hellenistic style, but over time, these characteristics began to combine. The
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of Egypt. Ptolemy ruled Egypt from 323 BC, nominally in the name of the joint kings Philip III and Alexander IV. However, as Alexander the Great's empire disintegrated, Ptolemy soon established himself as ruler in his own right. Ptolemy successfully defended Egypt against an invasion by Perdiccas in
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By the second and first centuries BC, increasing warfare and expansion, coupled with reduced Greek immigration, led to increasing reliance on native Egyptians; however, Greeks retained the higher ranks of royal guards, officers, and generals. Though present in the military from its founding, native
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by both the rebel Egyptian princes and the Persian kings, who later gave them land grants, spreading Greek culture into the valley of the Nile. When Alexander the Great arrived, he established Alexandria on the site of the Persian fort of Rhakortis. Following Alexander's death, control passed into
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influence had spread through the country and intermarriage had produced a large Greco-Egyptian educated class. Nevertheless, the Greeks always remained a privileged minority in Ptolemaic Egypt. They lived under Greek law, received a Greek education, were tried in Greek courts, and were citizens of
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respected the Egyptian people and recognized the importance of their religion and traditions. During the reign of Ptolemies II and III, thousands of Macedonian veterans were rewarded with grants of farm lands, and Macedonians were planted in colonies and garrisons or settled themselves in villages
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Greeks held virtually all the political and economic power, while native Egyptians generally occupied only the lower posts; over time, Egyptians who spoke Greek were able to advance further and many individuals identified as "Greek" were of Egyptian descent. Eventually, a bilingual and bicultural
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region in 157 BC. Decorations on the first pylon of the Temple of Isis at Philae emphasise the Ptolemaic claim to rule the whole of Nubia. The aforementioned inscription regarding the priests of Mandulis shows that some Nubian leaders at least were paying tribute to the Ptolemaic treasury in this
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Nevertheless, the Ptolemies remained generally supportive of the Egyptian religion, which always remained key to their legitimacy. Egyptian priests and other religious authorities enjoyed royal patronage and support, more or less retaining their historical privileged status. Temples remained the
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During the reign of Ptolemy II, Arsinoe II was deified either as stand-alone goddesses or as a personification of another divine figure and given their own sanctuaries and festivals in association to both Egyptian and Hellenistic gods (such as Isis of Egypt and Hera of Greece). For example, Head
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that exploited the country's vast economic resources to the benefit of a Greek ruling class, which dominated military, political, and economic affairs, and which rarely integrated into Egyptian society and culture. Native Egyptians maintained power over local and religious institutions, and only
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served as the primary infantry formation. The multiethnic nature of the Ptolemaic army was an official organizational principle: soldiers were evidently trained and utilized based on their national origin; Cretans generally served as archers, Libyans as heavy infantry, and Thracians as cavalry.
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in Upper Egypt. The Ptolemies also relied on the military to assert and maintain their control over Egypt, often by virtue of their presence. Soldiers served in several units of the royal guard and were mobilized against uprisings and dynastic usurpers, both of which became increasingly common.
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For example, the faience sistrum inscribed with the name of Ptolemy has some deceptively Greek characteristics, such as the scrolls at the top. However, there are many examples of nearly identical sistrums and columns dating all the way to Dynasty 18 in the New Kingdom. It is, therefore, purely
2383:
With the deaths of Cleopatra and Caesarion, the dynasty of Ptolemies and the entirety of pharaonic Egypt came to an end. Alexandria remained the capital of the country, but Egypt itself became a Roman province. Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome and began converting it into a monarchy, the
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left Rome for Alexandria in 48 BC in order to quell the looming civil war, as war in Egypt, which was one of Rome's greatest suppliers of grain and other expensive goods, would have had a detrimental effect on trade with Rome, especially on Rome's working-class citizens. During his stay in the
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at least five auroras, considered enough for one family. The lucrative nature of military service under the Ptolemies appeared to have been effective at ensuring loyalty. Few mutinies and revolts are recorded, and even rebellious troops would be placated with land grants and other incentives.
2775:
Ptolemaic Egypt was highly stratified in terms of both class and language. More than any previous foreign rulers, the Ptolemies retained or co-opted many aspects of the Egyptian social order, using Egyptian religion, traditions, and political structures to increase their own power and wealth.
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At its apex under Ptolemy II, the Ptolemaic navy may have had as many as 336 warships, with Ptolemy II reportedly having at his disposal more than 4,000 ships (including transports and allied vessels). Maintaining a fleet of this size would have been costly, and reflected the vast wealth and
2635:, Dionysos, and Helios; he had powers over fertility, the sun, funerary rites, and medicine. His growth and popularity reflected a deliberate policy by the Ptolemaic state, and was characteristic of the dynasty's use of Egyptian religion to legitimize their rule and strengthen their control.
2567:
The Statuette of Arsinoe II was created c. 150–100 BC, well after her death, as a part of her own specific posthumous cult which was started by her husband Ptolemy II. The figure also exemplifies the fusing of Greek and Egyptian art. Although the backpillar and the goddess's striding pose is
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in Egypt. There were indeed country towns with names such as Ptolemais, Arsinoe, and Berenice, in which Greek communities existed with a certain social life and there were similar groups of Greeks in many of the old Egyptian towns, but they were not communities with the political forms of a
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to the task of organizing an effort with the Jewish high priests to translate the Jewish books of the Law for his library. Josephus thus places the origins of the Septuagint in the 3rd century BC, when Demetrius and Ptolemy II lived. According to one Jewish legend, the seventy wrote their
2859:
The military of Ptolemaic Egypt is considered to have been one of the best of the Hellenistic period, benefiting from the kingdom's vast resources and its ability to adapt to changing circumstances. The Ptolemaic military initially served a defensive purpose, primarily against competing
2606:
In Ptolemaic art, the idealism seen in the art of previous dynasties continues, with some alterations. Women are portrayed as more youthful, and men begin to be portrayed in a range from idealistic to realistic. An example of realistic portrayal is the Berlin Green Head, which shows the
2246:. When Mark Antony seemed to prevail, Cleopatra supported him and, shortly after, they too became lovers and eventually married in Egypt (though their marriage was never recognized by Roman law, as Antony was married to a Roman woman). Their union produced three children; the twins
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were all to be given as client monarchies to Antony's children by Cleopatra. In his will Antony expressed his desire to be buried in Alexandria, rather than taken to Rome in the event of his death, which Octavian used against Antony, sowing further dissent in the Roman populace.
3382:, Macedonians and other Greeks were given land grants and allowed to settle with their families, encouraging tens of thousands of Greek mercenaries and soldiers to immigrate where they became a landed class of royal soldiers. Greeks soon became the dominant elite; native
3251:, thus forming a double harbor, east and west. On the east was the main harbor, called the Great Harbor; it faced the city's chief buildings, including the royal palace and the famous Library and Museum. At the Great Harbor's mouth, on an outcropping of Pharos, stood the
2599:, and dark and centrally located sanctuary. However, ways of presenting text on columns and reliefs became formal and rigid during the Ptolemaic Dynasty. Scenes were often framed with textual inscriptions, with a higher text to image ratio than seen previously during the
2792:
social class emerged in Ptolemaic Egypt. Priests and other religious officials remained overwhelmingly Egyptian, and continued to enjoy royal patronage and social prestige, as the Ptolemies' relied on the Egyptian faith to legitimize their rule and placate the populace.
5288:
Robinson, Carlos. Francis. (2019). "Queen Arsinoë II, the Maritime Aphrodite and Early Ptolemaic Ruler Cult". Chapter: Naval Power, the Ptolemies and the Maritime Aphrodite. pp.79–94. A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Philosophy. University of Queensland,
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states, the Ptolemaic army inherited the doctrines and organization of Macedonia, albeit with some variations over time. The core of the army consisted of cavalry and infantry; as under Alexander, cavalry played a larger role both numerically and tactically, while the
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tradition and aspirations to independence, inconvenient elements in a country that lent itself, as no other did, to bureaucratic centralization. The Ptolemies therefore limited the number of Greek city-states in Egypt to Alexandria, Ptolemais, and Naucratis.
1801:
in 217 BC secured the kingdom. A sign of the domestic weakness of his reign was the rebellions by native Egyptians that took away over half the country for over 20 years. Philopator was devoted to orgiastic religions and to literature. He married his sister
1460:
in 306 BC. Antigonus then tried to invade Egypt but Ptolemy held the frontier against him. When the coalition was renewed against Antigonus in 302 BC, Ptolemy joined it, but neither he nor his army were present when Antigonus was defeated and killed at
2375:
Caesarion, her son by Julius Caesar, nominally succeeded Cleopatra until his capture and supposed execution in the weeks after his mother's death. Cleopatra's children by Antony were spared by Octavian and given to his sister (and Antony's Roman wife)
2552:
Attributed to Arsinoe II deified her as an Egyptian goddess. However, the Marble head of a Ptolemaic queen deified Arsinoe II as Hera. Coins from this period also show Arsinoe II with a diadem that is solely worn by goddesses and deified royal women.
2872:, and Cyprus, as well as over cities in Anatolia, southern Thrace, the Aegean islands, and Crete. The military expanded and secured these territories while continuing its primary function of protecting Egypt; its main garrisons were in Alexandria,
3386:, though always the majority, generally occupied lower posts in the Ptolemaic government. Over time, the Greeks in Egypt became somewhat homogenized and the cultural distinctions between immigrants from different regions of Greece became blurred.
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defeated the navy of Cleopatra and Antony. Octavian waited for a year before he claimed Egypt as a Roman province. He arrived in Alexandria and easily defeated Mark Antony's remaining forces outside the city. Facing certain death at the hands of
3521:
and intensified the production of goods such as wool. Wine production increased dramatically during the Ptolemaic period, as the new Greek ruling class greatly preferred wine to the beer traditionally produced in Egypt. Vines from regions like
2471:. As Egypt came under foreign domination and decline, the Pharaohs depended on the Greeks as mercenaries and even advisors. When the Persians took over Egypt, Naucratis remained an important Greek port and the colonist population were used as
3293:
Cosmopolitan and flourishing, Alexandria possessed a varied population of Greeks, Egyptians and other Oriental peoples, including a sizable minority of Jews, who had their own city quarter. Periodic conflicts occurred between Jews and ethnic
2720:, a type of religious object produced for the purpose of protecting individuals. These magical stelae were made of various materials such as limestone, chlorite schist, and metagreywacke, and were connected with matters of health and safety.
2930:
To obtain reliable and loyal soldiers, the Ptolemies developed several strategies that leveraged their ample financial resources and even Egypt's historical reputation for wealth; royal propaganda could be evidenced in a line by the poet
3015:, owing to its innovation of "traditional styles of Mediterranean sea power", which allowed its rulers to "exert power and influence in unprecedented ways". With territories and vassals spread across the eastern Mediterranean, including
1509:, who succeeded his father as pharaoh of Egypt in 283 BC, was a peaceful and cultured pharaoh, though unlike his father was no great warrior. Fortunately, Ptolemy I had left Egypt strong and prosperous; three years of campaigning in the
2582:
Despite the unification of Greek and Egyptian elements in the intermediate Ptolemaic period, the Ptolemaic Kingdom also featured prominent temple construction as a continuation of developments based on Egyptian art tradition from the
1850:. In return, the priests undertook to erect a statue group in each of their temples, depicting the god of the temple presenting a sword of victory to Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III. A five-day festival was inaugurated in honour of the
3351:
political tradition: It seemed good to the boule and to the demos: Hermas son of Doreon, of the deme Megisteus, was the proposer: Whereas the prytaneis who were colleagues with Dionysius the son of Musaeus in the 8th year, etc.
3246:
Laid out on a grid pattern, Alexandria occupied a stretch of land between the sea to the north and Lake Mareotis to the south; a man-made causeway, over three-quarters of a mile long, extended north to the sheltering island of
3050:
founded the navy to help defend Egypt and consolidate his control against invading rivals. He and his immediate successors turned to developing the navy to project power overseas, rather than build a land empire in Greece or
1710:. He was said to have had every book unloaded in the Alexandria docks seized and copied, returning the copies to their owners and keeping the originals for the Library. It is said that he borrowed the official manuscripts of
2658:, but she wore the crown of lower Egypt, with ram's horns, ostrich feathers, and other traditional Egyptian indicators of royalty and/or deification; she wore the vulture headdress only on the religious portion of a relief.
1545:
in war, gaining the Ptolemies free access to Kushite territory and control of important gold deposits south of Egypt known as Dodekasoinos. As a result, the Ptolemies established hunting stations and ports as far south as
2024:. They soon fell out, however, and quarrels between the two brothers allowed Rome to interfere and to steadily increase its influence in Egypt. Philometor eventually regained the throne. In 145 BC, he was killed in the
2638:
The cult of Serapis included the worship of the new Ptolemaic line of pharaohs; the newly established Hellenistic capital of Alexandria supplanted Memphis as the preeminent religious city. Ptolemy I also promoted the
2787:
now formed the new upper classes, replacing the old native aristocracy. A complex state bureaucracy was established to manage and extract Egypt's vast wealth for the benefit of the Ptolemies and the landed gentry.
2084:, the son of Ptolemy X. He was lynched by the Alexandrian mob after murdering his stepmother, who was also his cousin, aunt and wife. These sordid dynastic quarrels left Egypt so weakened that the country became a
1060:, and had themselves portrayed on public monuments in Egyptian style and dress; however, the monarchy otherwise rigorously maintained its Hellenistic character and traditions. The kingdom had a complex government
2922:
In addition to Egypt itself, soldiers were recruited from Macedonia, Cyrenaica (modern Libya), mainland Greece, the Aegean, Asia Minor, and Thrace; overseas territories were often garrisoned with local soldiers.
2261:
Mark Antony's alliance with Cleopatra angered Rome even more. Branded a power-hungry enchantress by the Romans, she was accused of seducing Antony to further her conquest of Rome. Further outrage followed at the
1611:, beginning a practice that, while pleasing to the Egyptian population, had serious consequences in later reigns. The material and literary splendour of the Alexandrian court was at its height under Ptolemy II.
75:
3298:. According to Strabo, Alexandria had been inhabited during Polybius' lifetime by local Egyptians, foreign mercenaries and the tribe of the Alexandrians, whose origin and customs Polybius identified as Greek.
2103:. In 58 BC Auletes was driven out by the Alexandrian mob, but the Romans restored him to power three years later. He died in 51 BC, leaving the kingdom to his ten-year-old son and seventeen-year-old daughter,
5648:
A History of the Arabs in the Sudan: The inhabitants of the northern Sudan before the time of the Islamic invasions. The progress of the Arab tribes through Egypt. The Arab tribes of the Sudan at the present
1726:
and forfeited the considerable deposit he paid for them in order to keep them for the Library rather than returning them. The most distinguished scholar at Ptolemy III's court was the polymath and geographer
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were provided with stipends and produced masterpieces of Hellenistic poetry, including panegyrics in honour of the Ptolemaic family. Other scholars operating under Ptolemy's aegis included the mathematician
1813:
and actively supported the Egyptian priestly elite through donations and temple construction. Ptolemy III had introduced an important innovation in 238 BC by holding a synod of all the priests of Egypt at
2918:
on a combination of imported Greek troops, mercenaries, native Egyptians, and even prisoners of war. The army was characterized by its diversity and maintained records of its troops' national origins, or
2361:, Antony attempted suicide by falling on his own sword, but survived briefly. He was taken by his remaining soldiers to Cleopatra, who had barricaded herself in her mausoleum, where he died soon after.
1854:
and their victory. The decree thus seems to represent a successful marriage of Egyptian Pharaonic ideology and religion with the Hellenistic Greek ideology of the victorious king and his ruler cult.
2064:
After Ptolemy VI's death a series of civil wars and feuds between the members of the Ptolemaic dynasty started and lasted for over a century. Philometor was succeeded by yet another infant, his son
1215:, to be the new capital. The wealth of Egypt could now be harnessed for Alexander's conquest of the rest of the Achaemenid Empire. Early in 331 BC he was ready to depart, and led his forces away to
1092:, and the leading example of Greek civilization. Beginning in the mid second century BC, dynastic strife and a series of foreign wars weakened the kingdom, and it became increasingly reliant on the
1876:, whose forces nearly drove the Ptolemies out of the country. The revolutionary dynasty was finally defeated in 185, and a stele celebrating this event was historically significant as the famous
2543:
Faience sistrum with head of Hathor with bovine ears from the reign of Ptolemy I. Color is intermediate between traditional Egyptian color to colors more characteristic of Ptolemaic-era faience.
4057:
Hemingway, Colette, and Seán Hemingway. "The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander the Great". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.
2368:(and likely executed thereafter), Cleopatra and her handmaidens committed suicide on 12 August 30 BC. Legend and numerous ancient sources claim that she died by way of the venomous bite of an
3339:. If Alexandria perpetuated the name and cult of the great Alexander, Ptolemais was to perpetuate the name and cult of the founder of the Ptolemaic time. Framed in by the barren hills of the
2467:
had a long but minor presence in Egypt long before Alexander the Great founded the city of Alexandria. It began when Greek colonists, encouraged by many Pharaohs, set up the trading post of
6117:
1842:. The decree records the military success of Ptolemy IV and Arsinoe III and their benefactions to the Egyptian priestly elite. Throughout, Ptolemy IV is presented as taking on the role of
9121:
5475:"The Nile Police in the Ptolemaic Period", in: K. Buraselis – M. Stefanou – D.J. Thompson (Hg.), The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile. Studies in Waterborne Power, Cambridge 2013, 172–184"
3613:
Scholars also argue that the kingdom was founded in 304 BC because of different use of calendars: Ptolemy crowned himself in 304 BC on the ancient Egyptian calendar but in 305 BC on the
2568:
distinctively Egyptian, the cornucopia she holds and her hairstyle are both Greek in style. The rounded eyes, prominent lips, and overall youthful features show Greek influence as well.
2587:. Such behavior expanded the rulers' social and political capital and demonstrated their loyalty toward Egyptian deities, to the satisfaction of the local people. Temples remained very
2068:. But Physcon soon returned, killed his young nephew, seized the throne and as Ptolemy VIII soon proved himself a cruel tyrant. On his death in 116 BC he left the kingdom to his wife
9116:
1476:
in 285 BC. He then may have devoted his retirement to writing a history of the campaigns of Alexander—which unfortunately was lost but was a principal source for the later work of
2631:, to garner support from both Greeks and Egyptians. Serapis was the patron god of Ptolemaic Egypt, combining the Egyptian gods Apis and Osiris with the Greek deities Zeus, Hades,
4044:
Department of Ancient Near Eastern Art. "The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 B.C.)". In Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.
1652:("the Benefactor") succeeded his father in 246 BC. He abandoned his predecessors' policy of keeping out of the wars of the other Macedonian successor kingdoms, and began the
1409:
to the empire of Alexander. His first objective was to hold his position in Egypt securely, and secondly to increase his domain. Within a few years he had gained control of
3301:
The city enjoyed a calm political history under the Ptolemies. It passed, with the rest of Egypt, into Roman hands in 30 BC, and became the second city of the Roman Empire.
2476:
the hands of the Lagid (Ptolemaic) Dynasty; they built Greek cities across their empire and gave land grants across Egypt to the veterans of their many military conflicts.
1789:, a weak king whose rule precipitated the decline of the Ptolemaic Kingdom. His reign was inaugurated by the murder of his mother, and he was always under the influence of
4061:(October 2004) Source: The Rise of Macedonia and the Conquests of Alexander the Great | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art
2646:
Because the monarchy remained staunchly Hellenistic, despite otherwise co-opting Egyptian faith traditions, religion during this period was highly syncretic. The wife of
2578:
constructed in Upper Egypt in 180–47 BC by the Ptolemies and modified by the Romans. It is a double temple with two sets of structures dedicated to two separate deities.
1465:. He had instead taken the opportunity to secure Coele-Syria and Palestine, in breach of the agreement assigning it to Seleucus, thereby setting the scene for the future
2595:
Egyptian in style though resources were oftentimes provided by foreign powers. Temples were models of the cosmic world with basic plans retaining the pylon, open court,
3424:
Outside of Egypt, the Ptolemies exercised control over Greek cities in Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and on the coasts and islands of the Aegean, but they were smaller than Greek
3067:
maintained his father's policy of making Egypt the preeminent naval power in the region; during his reign (283 to 246 BC), the Ptolemaic navy became the largest in the
3409:, founded before 600 BC (in the interval of Egyptian independence after the expulsion of the Assyrians and before the coming of the Persians), and the two new cities,
2433:
345:
3343:
and the Egyptian sky, here a Greek city arose, with its public buildings and temples and theatre, no doubt exhibiting the regular architectural forms associated with
3278:—whose work now represents the best of Hellenistic literature. Among other thinkers associated with the Library or other Alexandrian patronage were the mathematician
3259:
for its unsurpassed height (perhaps 140 metres or 460 ft); it was a square, fenestrated tower, topped with a metal fire basket and a statue of Zeus the Savior.
1550:, from where raiding parties containing hundreds of men searched for war elephants. Hellenistic culture would acquire an important influence on Kush at this time.
6135:
2751:
3397:
by the thousands for being renowned fighters, also establishing an important community. Other foreign groups settled from across the ancient world, usually as
2826:
Ptolemaic Egypt produced extensive series of coinage in gold, silver and bronze. These included issues of large coins in all three metals, most notably gold
2053:
2643:, who became the state god of the Ptolemaic kingdom. Many rulers also promoted individual cults of personality, including celebrations at Egyptian temples.
6096:
6087:
6077:
6073:
4766:
2779:
As before, peasant farmers remained the vast majority of the population, while agricultural land and produce were owned directly by the state, temple, or
4048:(October 2004) Source: The Achaemenid Persian Empire (550–330 B.C.) | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art
3011:
The Ptolemaic Kingdom was considered a major naval power in the eastern Mediterranean. Some modern historians characterize Egypt during this period as a
5186:
Arthur MacCartney Shepard, Sea Power in Ancient History: The Story of the Navies of Classic Greece and Rome (Boston: Little, Brown, and Co., 1924), 128.
2800:(221–205 BC), when a succession of native self-proclaimed "pharaoh" gained control over one district. This was only curtailed nineteen years later when
5151:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971) estimated that a family could live on 5 arouras; see P.Tebt. I 56 (Kerkeosiris, late second century BC).
7101:
6118:
6070:
6068:
1020:
founded by Alexander, became the capital city and a major center of Greek culture, learning, and trade for the next several centuries. Following the
6110:
6103:
6099:
6095:
6090:
6084:
4104:
1898:
727:
6122:
6121:
5788:
A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period. Volume 2 – The Coming of the Greeks: The Early Hellenistic Period (335 – 175 BC)
3464:, the Greek translation of the Jewish scriptures, was written by seventy-two Jewish translators for Ptolemy II. That is confirmed by historian
2697:
Memphis, while no longer the center of power, became the second city after Alexandria, and enjoyed considerable influence; its High Priests of
57:
7950:
3079:(274–271 BC), succeeding in repelling both Seleucid and Macedonian control of the eastern Mediterranean and the Aegean. During the subsequent
2151:
ascended the Egyptian throne on 22 March 51 BC upon the death of her father, Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos. She reigned as queen "philopator" and
2020:) was installed as king by the Ptolemaic court in Alexandria. When Antiochus withdrew, the brothers agreed to reign jointly with their sister
7358:
2804:(205–181 BC) succeeded in subduing them, though underlying grievances were never extinguished, and riots erupted again later in the dynasty.
6113:
6111:
6101:
6093:
6086:
6082:
4741:
3042:
Like the army, the origins and traditions of the Ptolemaic navy were rooted in the wars following the death of Alexander in 320 BC. Various
1992:
6165:
6069:
4995:
4279:
6109:
2728:). This portrayal refers to the myth of Horus triumphing over dangerous animals in the marshes of Khemmis with magic power (also known as
1695:
more liberally: he left larger traces among the Egyptian monuments. In this his reign marks the gradual Egyptianisation of the Ptolemies.
9106:
3039:. The Ptolemaic navy also protected the kingdom's lucrative maritime trade and engaged in antipiracy measures, including along the Nile.
2173:
6124:
5591:, Philadelphia, 1968, p. 45: "The third generation... understood very little, if any, Hebrew or Aramaic. Their native tongue was Greek."
3820:
3696:
2997:, the presence of Ptolemy was reportedly critical in maintaining and boosting the fighting spirit of both Greek and Egyptian soldiers.
1342:. They built magnificent new temples for the Egyptian gods and soon adopted the outward display of the pharaohs of old. Rulers such as
841:
6074:
6064:
6062:
9146:
5608:
5588:
2740:
6120:
6114:
6078:
6072:
6065:
6063:
6015:
5447:
5041:
63 (2013): 209–236, 222–223; P.Tebt. I 121, with Andrew Monson, "Late Ptolemaic Capitation Taxes and the Poll Tax in Roman Egypt,"
2967:, lower ranking infantry usually of Egyptian origin, who received smaller lots comparable to traditional land allotments in Egypt.
2669:
2959:
or residences, which were sometimes in the home of local inhabitants; men who settled in Egypt through these grants were known as
2255:
9126:
9101:
2524:
Two depictions of Arsinoe II. The left is in the more traditional Egyptian style, and the right is in a more Hellenistic style.
1351:, farthest from the centre of government, was less immediately affected, even though Ptolemy I established the Greek colony of
8903:
8285:
6116:
6115:
6067:
5795:
5776:
5530:
5015:
4965:
4445:
4299:
4241:
4008:
3957:
3932:
3871:
2640:
128:
6071:
6066:
3497:, and mentioned their jobs as police officers in charge of "ten person units", and some others were mentioned as shepherds.
2231:. In 45 BC, Cleopatra and Caesarion left Alexandria for Rome, where they stayed in a palace built by Caesar in their honor.
1985:. Once he reached adulthood Epiphanes became a tyrant, before his early death in 180 BC. He was succeeded by his infant son
9091:
3501:
in Ptolemaic Egypt and Syria raided and attacked both sides of the conflict between the Ptolemaic Kingdom and its enemies.
2204:
and the king was killed in the conflict, reportedly drowning in the Nile while attempting to flee with his remaining army.
1981:
from Ptolemaic to Seleucid control. After this defeat Egypt formed an alliance with the rising power in the Mediterranean,
1793:, who controlled the government. Nevertheless, his ministers were able to make serious preparations to meet the attacks of
8809:
6119:
5420:
2975:
of land, equal to about 178,920 square metres, and as much as 100 arouras; infantrymen could expect 30 or 25 arouras and
497:
2887:(low ranking native soldiers) were sometimes recruited as guards for officials, or even to help enforce tax collection.
1872:. He proclaimed himself Pharaoh in 205 BC, and ruled upper Egypt until his death in 199 BC. He was succeeded by his son
8955:
7955:
6042:
5745:
5254:
4807:
4701:
3256:
2951:
were mainly recruited within Egypt, notably among the Egyptian population. Soldiers were also given land grants called
2016:
invaded Egypt and captured Philometor, installing him at Memphis as a puppet king. Philometor's younger brother (later
764:
717:
517:
477:
1918:
Sophilos (signature) in about 200 BC, now in the Greco-Roman Museum in Alexandria, Egypt; the woman depicted is Queen
7599:
5936:
5899:
5891:
5879:
5871:
5814:
5557:
5457:
5430:
5403:
5378:
5308:
5264:
5093:
4887:
4636:
4396:
4032:
3844:
3764:
3674:
17:
6129:
5503:
2539:
2227:, where Cleopatra was being worshiped as pharaoh, an honor beyond Caesar's reach. They became lovers and had a son,
6158:
3816:
2348:
was quick to declare war on Antony and Cleopatra while public opinion of Antony was low. Their naval forces met at
1664:, and her son were murdered in a dynastic dispute. Ptolemy marched into the heart of the Seleucid realm, as far as
5368:
5225:
2701:, an ancient Egyptian creator god, held considerable sway among the priesthood and even with the Ptolemaic kings.
2080:. In 88 BC Ptolemy IX again returned to the throne, and retained it until his death in 80 BC. He was succeeded by
1953:, son of Philopator and Arsinoë, was a child when he came to the throne, and a series of regents ran the kingdom.
9136:
8581:
6126:
6104:
6085:
6076:
5981:
3657:
R. C. C. Law (1979). "North Africa in the Hellenistic and Roman Periods, 323 BC to AD 305". In J. D. Fage (ed.).
1452:
In 311 BC, a peace was concluded between the combatants, but in 309 BC war broke out again, and Ptolemy occupied
1289:
All the male rulers of the dynasty took the name Ptolemy, while princesses and female rulers preferred the names
430:
7743:
2868:(246 to 222 BC), its role was more imperialistic, helping extend Ptolemaic control or influence over Cyrenaica,
2402:
7282:
7174:
6107:
4105:
https://egyptianexpedition.org/articles/ptolemy-ii-philadelphus-and-the-dionysiac-model-of-political-authority/
3099:
2724:
cippi during the Ptolemaic Period generally featured the child form of the Egyptian god Horus, Horpakhered (or
2189:
influence over the young king. Fleeing into exile, Cleopatra attempted to raise an army to reclaim the throne.
1687:
and Greece. After this triumph Ptolemy no longer engaged actively in war, although he supported the enemies of
1570:
1211:, but he appointed Macedonians to virtually all the senior posts in the country, and founded a new Greek city,
834:
7363:
6102:
6094:
6079:
1047:
To legitimize their rule and gain recognition from native Egyptians, the Ptolemies adopted the local title of
9019:
7423:
7409:
7277:
7262:
6417:
6083:
6005:
3220:
3138:. Accordingly, naval forces were divided into four fleets: the Alexandrian, Aegean, Red Sea, and Nile River.
2104:
1324:
1189:
993:
977:
457:
5683:
3201:; he strengthened the great block of chambers in the Temenos, and re-established them. At the time when Sir
2031:
Throughout the 160s and 150s BC, Ptolemy VI has also reasserted Ptolemaic control over the northern part of
1592:, an account of Egyptian history, perhaps intended to make Egyptian culture intelligible to its new rulers.
9014:
8898:
7567:
7272:
7257:
7232:
7209:
7189:
6125:
6123:
6100:
6092:
6091:
5737:
4548:
3578:
2592:
2076:. The young king was driven out by his mother in 107 BC, who reigned jointly with Euergetes's youngest son
527:
350:
6106:
6105:
6097:
6088:
4800:
Hellenizing art in ancient Nubia, 300 BC-AD 250, and its Egyptian models : a study in "acculturation"
3417:
in Upper Egypt. Alexander and his Seleucid successors founded many Greek cities all over their dominions.
1746:
Ptolemy III financed construction projects at temples across Egypt. The most significant of these was the
1510:
9151:
9086:
9024:
8061:
7471:
7456:
7267:
7252:
7237:
7222:
7179:
7151:
6362:
6151:
5995:
5162:
The Hellenistic World from Alexander to the Roman Conquest: A Selection of Ancient Sources in Translation
3614:
3452:. Within a few generations the Jews spoke Greek, the dominant language of Egypt at the time, and not the
3036:
2197:
2095:, nicknamed Auletes, the flute-player. By now Rome was the arbiter of Egyptian affairs, and annexed both
2065:
1688:
1177:
981:
794:
6108:
3091:
1433:, tried to reunite Alexander's empire, Ptolemy joined the coalition against him. In 312 BC, allied with
9111:
9081:
7287:
7242:
7217:
7194:
7164:
6985:
5688:
5656:
5520:
4121:
3056:
2764:
2709:. The city's temples and communities prosperous, while a new Ptolemaic style of cemeteries were built.
2584:
2304:
2201:
2025:
1939:
1653:
1457:
959:
190:
5929:
Imperialer Wandel und ptolemäischer Imperialismus in Syrien: Konnektivität, Konkurrenz und Kooperation
3335:, where there was a native village called Psoï, in the nome called after the ancient Egyptian city of
1732:
8982:
8130:
7694:
7199:
7184:
7087:
7044:
6870:
6623:
6267:
6131:
6098:
6089:
6081:
3309:
2943:
daily. This attracted recruits from across the eastern Mediterranean, who were sometimes referred to
2910:
2397:
2295:
1822:
in 217 BC, after the victory celebrations of the Fourth Syrian War. The result of this synod was the
1692:
1661:
1426:
1265:
1208:
1082:
827:
391:
142:
6080:
6075:
5197:
Novel Ptolemaic naval power: Arsinoë II, Ptolemy II, and Cleopatra VII's innovative thalassocracies,
1480:. Ptolemy I died in 283 BC at the age of 84. He left a stable and well-governed kingdom to his son.
9096:
8940:
8915:
8765:
8424:
8419:
7514:
7446:
7432:
7427:
7418:
7404:
7390:
7380:
7247:
7169:
7097:
7082:
7049:
7039:
6915:
6628:
6133:
5335:
Novel Ptolemaic naval power: Arsinoë II, Ptolemy II, and Cleopatra VII's innovative thalassocracies
3535:
3248:
2477:
2353:
1603:, was the mother of his legitimate children. After her repudiation he followed Egyptian custom and
1125:
1121:
1088:
From the mid third century BC, Ptolemaic Egypt was the wealthiest and most powerful of Alexander's
600:
448:
6130:
6128:
9007:
8888:
8429:
8382:
8325:
8024:
7968:
7716:
7494:
7461:
7414:
7400:
7292:
7159:
7106:
7072:
7064:
7013:
7008:
6694:
6518:
6397:
6331:
6239:
6206:
5109:
Table IV, 155–159; Edmond Van 't Dack, "Sur l'évolution des institutions militaires lagides," in
5037:
Christelle Fischer-Bovet, "Egyptian Warriors: The Machimoi of Herodotus and the Ptolemaic Army,"
4955:
3788:
3486:
2721:
2647:
2263:
2081:
1954:
1794:
1747:
1499:
1252:
1124:
in 641 AD. Alexandria remained one of the leading cities of the Mediterranean well into the late
1070:
755:
487:
6132:
5638:
Arabs in Antiquity: Their History from the Assyrians to the Umayyads, Prof. Jan Retso, Page: 301
5111:
Armées et fiscalité dans le monde antique. Actes du colloque national, Paris, 14–16 octobre 1976
4747:. Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics. Archived from the original on 22 September 2015
2512:
903:
9029:
8930:
8925:
8613:
8561:
8481:
8414:
8318:
8303:
8196:
7963:
7917:
7758:
7645:
7529:
7395:
7227:
7116:
7111:
7077:
7034:
7003:
6875:
6800:
6737:
6714:
6633:
6618:
6608:
6603:
6588:
6528:
6523:
6508:
6377:
6282:
6272:
6234:
6127:
6035:
3583:
2485:
2322:
2283:
2163:
2108:
2069:
2013:
1965:
made a compact to seize the Ptolemaic possessions. Philip seized several islands and places in
1707:
1680:
1442:
1220:
1085:. New temples were built, older ones restored, and royal patronage lavished on the priesthood.
148:
6020:
4429:
4421:
4291:
1868:
Misrule by the Pharaoh in Alexandria led to a nearly successful revolt, led by a priest named
8960:
8920:
8733:
8608:
7672:
7662:
7621:
7592:
7555:
7550:
7534:
7504:
7370:
7136:
7092:
7029:
6825:
6815:
6762:
6757:
6613:
6593:
6583:
6578:
6563:
6553:
6513:
6392:
6387:
6367:
6357:
6341:
6336:
6201:
5669:
5652:
4082:
3617:; to resolve the issue, the year 305/4 was counted as the first year of Ptolemaic Kingdom in
3554:
2865:
2797:
2756:
2458:
2454:
2223:, Cleopatra embarked with Caesar for a two-month trip along the Nile. Together, they visited
2077:
2021:
1997:
1986:
1923:
1893:
1786:
1699:
1649:
1642:
1632:
1616:
1554:
1308:
1248:
1101:
8848:
6112:
5230:
edited by Kostas Buraselis, Mary Stefanou, Dorothy J. Thompson, Cambridge University Press,
5007:
4099:
Goyette, M. (2010). Ptolemy II Philadelphus and the dionysiac model of political authority.
2496:
2207:
1691:
in Greek politics. His domestic policy differed from his father's in that he patronised the
1537:. However, some of these territories were lost near the end of his reign as a result of the
958:
VII in 30 BC. Reigning for nearly three centuries, the Ptolemies were the longest and final
9053:
8883:
8853:
8728:
8659:
8630:
8549:
7883:
7721:
7711:
7540:
7519:
7322:
7141:
6993:
6568:
6548:
6465:
6455:
6422:
6372:
6277:
6249:
6229:
6191:
3573:
3271:
2600:
2588:
2092:
2017:
1919:
1863:
1831:
1803:
1751:
1579:
1566:
1402:
1328:
1316:
1312:
1007:
963:
507:
467:
132:
8833:
5086:
Vom hellenistischen Osten zum römischen Westen: Ausgewählte Schriften zur Alten Geschichte
3736:... the Ptolemies were inaugurated as basileus in Alexandria and as pharaoh in Memphis ...
3468:, who writes that Ptolemy, desirous to collect every book in the habitable earth, applied
8:
8745:
8625:
8591:
8493:
8313:
8308:
8120:
7839:
7775:
7650:
7635:
7489:
7441:
7436:
7327:
7131:
7024:
7018:
6880:
6598:
6533:
6475:
6402:
6382:
6346:
6292:
6287:
6196:
5961:
Rome and the Ptolemies of Egypt. The development of their political relations 273-80 B.C.
5838:
4660:
4581:
4519:
4491:
4437:
3489:
were discovered, which contained at least 19 references to Arabs in the area between the
3469:
3236:
2935:, "Ptolemy is the best paymaster a free man could have". Mercenaries were paid a salary (
2801:
2662:, the last of the Ptolemaic line, was often depicted with characteristics of the goddess
2247:
2073:
2056:, founded two new cities, named Philometris and Cleopatra in honour of the royal couple.
1962:
1950:
1889:
1740:
1604:
1506:
1473:
1472:
Feeling the kingdom was now secure, Ptolemy shared rule with his son Ptolemy II by Queen
1332:
1173:
1116:
became one of Rome's richest provinces and a center of Greek culture. Greek remained the
1003:
973:
939:
697:
241:
8461:
8451:
6000:
2372:, though others state that she used poison, or that Octavian ordered her death himself.
8858:
8838:
8821:
8772:
8637:
8446:
8397:
8330:
8248:
8189:
8184:
8179:
8135:
8105:
7997:
7895:
7763:
7738:
7509:
6940:
6792:
6503:
6493:
6460:
6297:
6216:
6174:
5113:(Paris: Editions du Centre national de la recherche scientifique, 1977): 87 and note 1.
4936:
4928:
4391:(Rev. ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 10, 231.
4233:
Between Two Worlds: The Frontier Region Between Ancient Nubia and Egypt, 3700 BC-AD 500
3997:
Bagnall, Director of the Institute for the Study of the Ancient World Roger S. (2004).
3727:
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3563:
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2989:
2686:
2575:
2446:
2418:
2180:, father of Cleopatra VII, making offerings to Egyptian Gods, in the Temple of Hathor,
1698:
Ptolemy III continued his predecessor's sponsorship of scholarship and literature. The
1434:
1137:
1109:
1089:
989:
955:
935:
774:
737:
609:
174:
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Greeks in Ptolemaic Egypt: Case Studies in the Social History of the Hellenistic World
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8794:
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8620:
8335:
8263:
8258:
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8012:
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7524:
7479:
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6900:
6538:
6498:
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5932:
5923:. Shire Egyptology 17, ser. ed. Barbara G. Adams. Aylesbury: Shire Publications, ltd.
5895:
5887:
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3593:
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3179:
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2939:) of cash and grain rations; an infantryman in the third century BC earned about one
2821:
1943:
1827:
1538:
1469:. Thereafter Ptolemy tried to stay out of land wars, but he retook Cyprus in 295 BC.
1352:
1283:
1185:
1153:
985:
951:
659:
649:
629:
619:
421:
336:
112:
5452:. Berkeley, California, United States.: University of California Press. p. 52.
4865:
4058:
4045:
4000:
Egypt from Alexander to the Early Christians: An Archaeological and Historical Guide
3170:
new conquered peoples or reinforce the area. Egypt had only three main Greek cities—
1264:
321 BC, and consolidated his position in Egypt and the surrounding areas during the
8816:
8603:
8598:
8554:
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8471:
8439:
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8298:
8293:
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8169:
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8019:
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7888:
7871:
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6656:
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5135:
5003:
4920:
4606:
4433:
4287:
3808:
3719:
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3465:
3102:, but once again suffered a defeat that culminated with the end of Ptolemaic rule.
3095:
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by the early third century BC. Egyptian nationalism reached a peak in the reign of
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class and not a governor from the Senatorial order, to prevent interference by the
2251:
1974:
1835:
1798:
1074:
861:
784:
679:
400:
4882:(Rev. ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 244.
4631:(Rev. ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. p. 236.
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3666:
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to create a new province of cultivatable land. They also introduced crops such as
9131:
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6666:
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6485:
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6442:
6321:
5766:
5731:
5600:
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5507:
5501:"The Great Library of Alexandria?". Library Philosophy and Practice, August 2010
4231:
4086:
4074:
Becoming Kleopatra: Ptolemaic Royal Marriage, Incest, and the Path to Female Rule
3998:
3924:
Greco-Egyptian Interactions: Literature, Translation, and Culture, 500 BCE-300 CE
3922:
3896:
3861:
3834:
3759:. Hellenistic Culture and Society. Vol. 37. University of California Press.
3754:
3449:
3379:
3225:
3202:
2947:— literally "foreigners paid with a salary". By the second and first century BC,
2940:
2901:
2864:
claimants and rival Hellenistic states like the Seleucid Empire. By the reign of
2678:
2624:
2407:
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1958:
1915:
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81:
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3006:
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2159:
2158:
The demise of the Ptolemies' power coincided with the growing dominance of the
2044:
1982:
1819:
1736:
1379:
1255:, who had not been born at the time of his father's death. Perdiccas appointed
1247:
ruled the empire as regent for Alexander's half-brother Arrhidaeus, who became
1193:
1136:
The Ptolemaic reign in Egypt is one of the best-documented time periods of the
1093:
924:
582:
552:
136:
4661:"Statuette of Arsinoe II for her Posthumous Cult | Ptolemaic Period | The Met"
4072:
2811:
Example of a large Ptolemaic bronze coin minted during the reign of Ptolemy V.
9075:
9058:
8945:
8740:
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8686:
8664:
8642:
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7343:
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6830:
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4897:
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4646:
4520:"Faience amulet of Mut with double crown | Egyptian, Ptolemaic | Hellenistic"
4406:
3715:
3348:
3344:
3123:
3075:. The navy reached its height following the victory of Ptolemy II during the
3072:
3012:
2768:
2760:
2464:
2414:
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2314:
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2212:
2192:
2148:
2125:
2096:
2005:
1877:
1823:
1410:
1320:
1300:
1117:
1097:
1066:
931:
707:
63:
8486:
8466:
5907:
Egypt After the Pharaohs: 332 BC–AD 642; From Alexander to the Arab Conquest
5567:
5549:
Egypt in the age of Cleopatra : history and society under the Ptolemies
3146:
3046:
competed for naval supremacy over the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean, and
1553:
Ptolemy II was an eager patron of scholarship, funding the expansion of the
8950:
8691:
8681:
8647:
8576:
8571:
8498:
8288:
8270:
8231:
8226:
8206:
8201:
8073:
8066:
8056:
8051:
8046:
7940:
7878:
7859:
7844:
7780:
7385:
7348:
7312:
6965:
6950:
6865:
6805:
6767:
6747:
6732:
6407:
5949:, edited by Ian Shaw. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. 395–421
3437:
3366:
3287:
3255:, built c. 280 BC. Now vanished, the lighthouse was reckoned as one of the
3135:
2422:
2385:
2318:
2235:
1728:
1304:
1164:
817:
1846:
who avenges his father by defeating the forces of disorder led by the god
1809:
Like his predecessors, Ptolemy IV presented himself as a typical Egyptian
8669:
8654:
8503:
8216:
8125:
8115:
8041:
7689:
7684:
6925:
6920:
6860:
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6704:
6699:
6674:
6412:
5500:
5334:
5204:
4492:"Bronze statuette of Horus | Egyptian, Ptolemaic | Hellenistic | The Met"
3952:(Revised ed.). United States: Harvard University Press. p. 10.
3588:
3518:
3340:
3304:
3267:
3068:
3031:, the Ptolemies required a large navy to defend against enemies like the
2984:
2877:
2869:
2839:
2725:
2332:
2239:
2220:
2177:
2167:
2088:
protectorate of Rome, which had by now absorbed most of the Greek world.
1978:
1869:
1847:
1839:
1826:, issued on 15 November 217 BC and preserved in three copies. Like other
1777:
1755:
1612:
1558:
1513:
made the Ptolemies masters of the eastern Mediterranean, controlling the
1466:
1414:
1348:
1149:
1113:
1105:
1078:
1061:
1021:
572:
363:
158:
106:
2955:, whose size varied according to the military rank and unit, as well as
2559:
Relief from the temple of Kom Ombo depicting Ptolemy VIII receiving the
1942:, symbols of the Ptolemaic Kingdom's naval prowess and successes in the
1926:) as the personification of Alexandria, with her crown showing a ship's
1227:
to control Egypt in his absence. Alexander would never return to Egypt.
8696:
8513:
8387:
8347:
8280:
7484:
7451:
7317:
6975:
6835:
6722:
6689:
6651:
6643:
3723:
3510:
3461:
3432:
3410:
3360:
3283:
3275:
3252:
3232:
3231:
A major Mediterranean port of Egypt, in ancient times and still today,
3215:
3171:
3119:
3111:
3064:
3052:
3024:
2932:
2651:
2503:
1772:
1669:
1620:
1608:
1600:
1588:
1562:
1547:
1514:
1489:
1338:
The early Ptolemies did not disturb the religion or the customs of the
1212:
1201:
1032:
state, the Ptolemaic Kingdom expanded its territory to include eastern
1011:
967:
93:
80:
Ptolemaic Egypt circa 235 BC. The areas in green were lost to the
5914:
Egypt in the Age of Cleopatra: History and Society under the Ptolemies
5522:
Counting the People in Hellenistic Egypt: Volume 2, Historical Studies
4932:
3063:
in the Aegean and eastern Mediterranean for the next several decades.
1683:
kept his throne, but Egyptian fleets controlled most of the coasts of
8586:
8357:
8241:
8211:
7992:
7866:
7657:
7353:
7337:
6970:
6960:
6935:
6905:
6810:
6752:
6684:
6679:
6432:
6427:
6302:
6224:
6143:
4696:(Rev. ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
3406:
3383:
3370:
soldier. It is a characteristic example of the "Romanization" of the
3191:
3175:
3167:
3047:
3032:
2807:
2659:
2655:
2632:
2596:
2555:
2472:
2468:
2228:
1873:
1754:, while the reliefs on the great pylon were finished in the reign of
1719:
1715:
1711:
1665:
1596:
1526:
1446:
1438:
1398:
1374:
1339:
1290:
1244:
1216:
1100:, who sought to restore Ptolemaic power, Egypt became entangled in a
411:
224:
5711:
5710:
von Reden, Sitta (2006). "The Ancient Economy and Ptolemaic Egypt".
5547:
5474:
5394:
Muhs, Brian (2 August 2016). "7:The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BCE)".
5299:
Muhs, Brian (2 August 2016). "7:The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BCE)".
3378:
The Ptolemaic Kingdom was diverse and cosmopolitan. Beginning under
3087:
Macedonia and containing its imperial ambitions to mainland Greece.
2364:
Knowing that she would be taken to Rome to be paraded in Octavian's
1251:, and then as regent for both Philip III and Alexander's infant son
7987:
7770:
7728:
7667:
6930:
6855:
6840:
6051:
5215:
Thucydides, The History of the Peloponnesian War, 5.34.6–7 & 9.
4924:
3364:
A stele of Dioskourides, dated 2nd century BC, showing a Ptolemaic
2883:
2873:
2780:
2358:
2345:
2243:
2130:
1684:
1295:
1270:
1240:
1145:
1056:
998:
947:
639:
185:
177:
5716:. Vol. 12 of Pragmateiai Series. Edipuglia. pp. 161–177.
5373:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. pp. 58–59.
4582:"Marble head of a Ptolemaic queen | Greek | Hellenistic | The Met"
2971:
grants could be extensive: a cavalryman could receive at least 70
2413:
Under Roman rule, Egypt was governed by a prefect selected by the
1818:. Ptolemy IV continued this tradition by holding his own synod at
7900:
7829:
7785:
7640:
7499:
6895:
3645:
The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power.
3494:
3457:
3263:
3198:
3131:
2963:. At least from about 230 BC, these land grants were provided to
2702:
2628:
2224:
2181:
2152:
2001:
1815:
1810:
1703:
1583:
1522:
1453:
1275:
1236:
1224:
1207:
Alexander conciliated the Egyptians by the respect he showed for
1049:
1006:
who was one of Alexander's most trusted generals and confidants,
153:
7701:
5945:
Lloyd, Alan Brian. 2000. "The Ptolemaic Period (332–30 BC)". In
5422:
Aegean Interactions: Delos and Its Networks in the Third Century
5226:
The Ptolemies, the Sea and the Nile: Studies in Waterborne Power
2144:, lit. "the younger goddess", one of Cleopatra's adopted titles.
1883:
7733:
7608:
6910:
6050:
5629:
The Antiquities of the Jews, Flavius Josephus, Book 12;chapter2
3621:
3514:
3513:
and land reclamation. The Ptolemies drained the marshes of the
3453:
3448:
The Jews who lived in Egypt had originally immigrated from the
3336:
3295:
3279:
3163:
3115:
3028:
3016:
2829:
2784:
2729:
2717:
2706:
2674:
2438:
2349:
2336:
2279:
2134:
Coin of Cleopatra VII, with her image and a Greek inscription "
2100:
2040:
1970:
1935:
1931:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1723:
1673:
1575:
1477:
1422:
1391:
1356:
1260:
1181:
1141:
927:
6061:
5916:. Translated by David Lorton. Ithaca: Cornell University Press
4832:"Egyptian Art During the Ptolemaic Period of Egyptian History"
3327:
The second Greek city founded after the conquest of Egypt was
8367:
5886:. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2007 (hardcover,
4190:
3897:"Ancient Egypt – Macedonian and Ptolemaic Egypt (332–30 bce)"
3523:
3498:
3394:
3155:
3020:
2906:
2713:
2275:
2135:
2032:
1966:
1843:
1534:
1530:
1430:
1418:
1041:
1033:
1016:
5954:
Seeing Double. Intercultural Poetics in Ptolemaic Alexandria
3756:
Seeing double: intercultural poetics in Ptolemaic Alexandria
3526:
were planted in Egypt in an attempt to produce Greek wines.
3401:
who had been granted land in exchange for military service.
2615:
2480:
continued to thrive even after Rome annexed Egypt after the
1731:, most noted for his remarkably accurate calculation of the
1637:
9122:
States and territories disestablished in the 1st century BC
3490:
3390:
3332:
3127:
2698:
2673:
Bronze allegorical group of a Ptolemy (identifiable by his
2663:
2571:
2219:
In the summer of 47 BC, having married her younger brother
2036:
1927:
1197:
885:
7577:
5866:. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2007 (hardcover,
5164:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2006) #283, l. 20.
3118:. The navy operated throughout the eastern Mediterranean,
2035:. This achievement is heavily advertised at the Temple of
1319:
did co-rule, but it was with another female, Berenice IV.
1065:
gradually accrued power in the bureaucracy, provided they
870:
5122:
Christelle Fischer-Bovet (2013), "Egyptian warriors: the
4326:
4174:
4172:
3071:
world and had some of the largest warships ever built in
2619:
Gold coin with visage of Arsinoe II wearing divine diadem
1785:
In 221 BC, Ptolemy III died and was succeeded by his son
1781:
Ptolemaic Empire in 200 BC, alongside neighboring powers.
1073:, the Ptolemies began to adopt Egyptian customs, such as
914:
891:
876:
9117:
States and territories established in the 4th century BC
5620:
Flavius Josephus "Antiquities of the Jews" Book 12 Ch. 2
5425:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 48.
5149:
Kerkeosiris: An Egyptian village in the Ptolemaic period
5056:
Les institutions militaires de l'Egypte sous les Lagides
4465:. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 34–35.
3509:
The early Ptolemies increased cultivatable land through
3460:
of the first immigrants. According to Jewish legend the
2200:. Ptolemy XIII's forces were ultimately defeated at the
1303:
or female Pharaohs to officially rule on their own were
5968:
The Last Pharaohs: Egypt Under the Ptolemies, 305–30 BC
5067:
Roger S. Bagnall, "The Origins of Ptolemaic Cleruchs,"
4742:"Army and Egyptian Temple Building Under the Ptolemies"
4611:
Women in Hellenistic Egypt: From Alexander to Cleopatra
3106:
resources of the kingdom. The main naval bases were at
1679:
This victory marked the zenith of the Ptolemaic power.
5884:
Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture
5519:
Clarysse, Willy; Thompson, Dorothy J. (12 June 2006).
4957:
Hellenistic Egypt: Monarchy, Society, Economy, Culture
4199:
4169:
2654:, was often depicted in the form of the Greek goddess
2445:
wine vessel from Hellenistic Egypt, dated 200–150 BC,
1735:. Other prominent scholars include the mathematicians
996:
of the Macedonian Empire amid competing claims by the
894:
864:
5256:
Judaea and Mediterranean Politics: 219 to 161 B.C.E.
5173:
Nick Sekunda, "Military Forces. A. Land Forces," in
4613:. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 29.
4314:
3775:
to the Greek population; pharaoh to the Egyptian ...
3544:
873:
867:
4911:Seele, Keith C. (1947). "Horus on the Crocodiles".
4864:. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000–.
4665:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum
4586:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum
4524:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum
4496:
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, i.e. The Met Museum
4463:
The Historical Understanding of the Ptolemaic State
4236:. Leiden, New York, Köln: Brill. pp. 400–404.
3978:
3966:
2238:. With his death, Rome split between supporters of
1456:and other parts of Greece, although he lost Cyprus
1268:(322–301 BC). In 305 BC, Ptolemy took the title of
1168:
Ptolemy as Pharaoh of Egypt, British Museum, London
882:
879:
5909:. 2nd ed. Berkeley: University of California Press
5398:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
5303:. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.
4860:Hill, Marsha. "Egypt in the Ptolemaic Period." In
3059:in 306 BC, the Ptolemaic navy became the dominant
3055:. Notwithstanding an early crushing defeat at the
2627:made himself king of Egypt, he created a new god,
1797:on Coele-Syria, and the great Egyptian victory of
1706:was supplemented by a second library built in the
5418:
5043:Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrologists
4866:http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/ptol/hd_ptol.htm
4059:http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/alex/hd_alex.htm
4046:http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/acha/hd_acha.htm
2716:that appears during the Ptolemaic Dynasty is the
2406:Bust of Roman Nobleman, c. 30 BC – 50 AD, 54.51,
2234:In 44 BC, Caesar was murdered in Rome by several
2091:Ptolemy XI was succeeded by a son of Ptolemy IX,
1204:. The oracle declared him to be the son of Amun.
1002:, his closest friends and companions. Ptolemy, a
9073:
5768:Cleopatra the Great: The Woman Behind the Legend
5518:
5175:The Cambridge History of Greek and Roman Warfare
4989:
4987:
4985:
4983:
4981:
4979:
4977:
4765:: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (
4622:
4620:
1557:and patronising scientific research. Poets like
1069:. Beginning with Ptolemy I's son and successor,
27:Hellenistic-era Greek state in Egypt (305–30 BC)
4788:Citation error. See inline comment how to fix.
4779:Citation error. See inline comment how to fix.
4101:Journal of Ancient Egyptian Interconnections, 2
3748:
3746:
3744:
3436:Ptolemaic Era bust of a man, circa 300–250 BC,
3166:settlements throughout their Empire, to either
2155:with various male co-regents from 51 to 30 BC.
1259:, one of Alexander's closest companions, to be
5069:Bulletin of the American Society of Papyrology
4960:. University of California Press. p. 12.
4278:Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (22 December 2015),
4070:
2327:Right: bust of Cleopatra VII, dated 40–30 BC,
7593:
6159:
6036:
5449:Berenike and the Ancient Maritime Spice Route
5366:
5177:(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007)
4993:
4974:
4739:
4617:
4480:. London: Phaidon Press Limited. p. 384.
4358:
4356:
4343:
4341:
4277:
4220:, pp. 246–247, image plates and captions
1884:Ptolemy V Epiphanes and Ptolemy VI Philometor
1286:that was to rule Egypt for nearly 300 years.
835:
9050:"Empire" as a description of foreign policy
4687:
4685:
4683:
4681:
4514:
4512:
3786:
3741:
3656:
2043:, which was granted the tax revenues of the
1806:, but was ruled by his mistress Agathoclea.
5730:Burstein, Stanley Meyer (1 December 2007).
5525:. Cambridge University Press. p. 140.
5000:Oxford Handbook Topics in Classical Studies
3690:
3688:
3686:
3661:. Cambridge University Press. p. 154.
3529:
3481:In 1990, more than 2,000 papyri written by
2783:that owned the land. Macedonians and other
2759:, found in Ptolemaic Period excavations at
2331:, showing her with a 'melon' hairstyle and
2111:, who reigned jointly as husband and wife.
2048:period. In order to secure the region, the
1180:, conquered Egypt, which at the time was a
888:
7600:
7586:
6166:
6152:
6043:
6029:
5828:. Translated by Saavedra, Tina. Routledge.
5445:
5259:Leiden, Netherlands.: BRILL. p. 211.
4994:Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (4 March 2015).
4353:
4338:
3920:
3866:. Greenhaven Publishing LLC. p. 162.
1857:
1582:. Ptolemy is thought to have commissioned
1541:. In the 270s BC, Ptolemy II defeated the
1335:, but effectively, she ruled Egypt alone.
842:
828:
74:
5926:
5709:
5609:The Jewish Publication Society of America
5589:The Jewish Publication Society of America
5396:The Ancient Egyptian economy, 3000–30 BCE
5301:The Ancient Egyptian economy, 3000–30 BCE
4678:
4509:
3694:
3647:, (Cambridge University Press, 2013), 10.
1445:, the son of Antigonus, in the battle of
1355:to be its capital. But within a century,
5804:
5761:
5729:
5552:. Cornell University Press. p. 34.
5545:
4256:
4217:
4163:
4159:
4157:
4155:
4149:. Mahlon H. Smith. Retrieved 2010-06-13.
3789:"Estimating Population in Ancient Egypt"
3752:
3683:
3431:
3359:
3303:
3219:
3145:
2900:
2806:
2750:
2747:torso of a king, for an applique on wood
2739:
2668:
2614:
2570:
2554:
2538:
2432:
2401:
2206:
2172:
2129:
1991:
1897:
1776:
1636:
1626:
1493:
1378:
1163:
8874:
5713:Ancient Economies, Modern Methodologies
5353:
5351:
5349:
5082:Heer und Gesellschaft im Ptolemäerreich
4724:
4605:
4460:
4292:10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.1672
3996:
3659:The Cambridge History of Africa, Vol. 2
3286:(287 BC – c. 212 BC), and the polymath
1243:erupted among his generals. Initially,
14:
9074:
6173:
5845:
5832:
5785:
5205:https://arminda.whitman.edu/theses/415
5126:of Herodotus and the Ptolemaic Army".
4953:
4877:
4691:
4626:
4386:
4374:
4362:
4347:
4134:
4003:. Getty Publications. pp. 11–21.
3984:
3947:
1140:, due to the discovery of a wealth of
7581:
7098:Mithridates IV Philopator Philadephos
6147:
6024:
5823:
5481:. Cambridge University Press: 172–185
5472:
5008:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935390.013.75
4910:
4856:
4854:
4852:
4797:
4576:
4574:
4572:
4549:"Ptolemaic and Roman Faience Vessels"
4542:
4540:
4475:
4419:
4332:
4320:
4229:
4205:
4178:
4152:
3972:
3859:
3832:
3643:Buraselis, Stefanou and Thompson ed;
2266:ceremony in autumn of 34 BC in which
2215:and Caesarion, Dendera Temple, Egypt.
1672:made fresh conquests as far north as
962:, heralding a distinctly new era for
7566:Hellenistic rulers were preceded by
6016:Map of Ptolemaic Egypt, circa 270 BC
5681:
5393:
5346:
5298:
5282:
5252:
5027:– via Oxford Handbooks Online.
4250:
3891:
3889:
3887:
3885:
3883:
3150:Detailed map of the Ptolemaic Egypt.
2453:Ptolemy I, perhaps with advice from
1922:(who ruled jointly with her husband
1008:won control of Egypt from his rivals
970:between Greek and Egyptian culture.
5947:The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt
5419:Constantakopoulou, Christy (2017).
5370:Army and Society in Ptolemaic Egypt
4428:. Oxford University Press. p.
4426:The Oxford History of Ancient Egypt
4147:Ptolemy II Philadelphus [308–246 BC
3771:... their role continue to be dual—
3312:, showing Ptolemaic Egypt c. 100 BC
24:
9107:Offshoots of the Macedonian Empire
6052:The division of Alexander's empire
5855:
5367:Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (2014).
4849:
4740:Fischer-Bovet, Christelle (2007).
4733:
4569:
4546:
4537:
4438:10.1093/oso/9780198150343.003.0013
4422:"The Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)"
4380:
4027:. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 5.
3083:, the Ptolemaic navy succeeded in
2506:, depicted as an Egyptian divinity
2059:
938:. It was founded in 305 BC by the
25:
9163:
5975:
5826:A History of the Ptolemaic Empire
4862:Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History
3880:
3836:A history of the Ptolemaic empire
3331:, 400 miles (640 km) up the
2881:Members of the army, such as the
1196:, and travelled to the oracle of
9147:1st-century BC disestablishments
5684:"The Economy of Ptolemaic Egypt"
3547:
3224:Alexander the Great, 356–323 BC
2518:Marble Head of a Ptolemaic Queen
2511:
2495:
2303:
2294:
2119:
1230:
1118:language of government and trade
1010:and declared himself its ruler.
948:companion of Alexander the Great
860:
811:
410:
368:
343:
329:
56:
5931:. Paderborn: Brill, Schöningh.
5703:
5675:
5662:
5641:
5632:
5623:
5614:
5594:
5574:
5539:
5512:
5493:
5466:
5439:
5412:
5387:
5360:
5326:
5317:
5292:
5273:
5246:
5237:
5218:
5209:
5189:
5180:
5167:
5154:
5141:
5116:
5099:
5074:
5061:
5048:
5031:
4947:
4913:Journal of Near Eastern Studies
4904:
4871:
4824:
4791:
4782:
4773:
4718:
4653:
4599:
4484:
4469:
4454:
4413:
4368:
4271:
4262:
4223:
4211:
4184:
4140:
4128:
4109:
4093:
4064:
4051:
4038:
4017:
3990:
3941:
3914:
3839:. Psychology Press. p. 1.
3607:
3393:were imported from neighboring
3355:
3100:final war of the Roman Republic
2325:, Roman artwork, 1st century BC
1521:) and the coastal districts of
1235:Following Alexander's death in
5682:King, Arienne (25 July 2018).
5446:Sidebotham, Steven E. (2019).
4727:Discovering Ancient Egyptology
4071:Sewell-Lasater, T. L. (2020).
3853:
3826:
3802:
3787:Steven Snape (16 March 2019).
3780:
3650:
3637:
3504:
3092:Second Syrian War (260–253 BC)
2677:) overcoming an adversary, in
2484:and did not decline until the
2114:
2074:Ptolemy IX Philometor Soter II
1830:, the decree was inscribed in
1401:'s reign was dominated by the
1104:, which ultimately led to its
13:
1:
9127:4th-century BC establishments
9102:Imperialism in ancient Greece
7570:in most of their territories.
6368:Cleopatra II Philometor Soter
5058:(Paris: Ernest Leroux, 1911);
3697:"The Hellenistic royal court"
3667:10.1017/CHOL9780521215923.005
3631:
3209:
2641:cult of the deified Alexander
2391:
2105:Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator
1766:
1483:
1390:, 3rd century BC, now in the
1325:Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator
1159:
1054:alongside the Greek title of
6006:Resources in other libraries
5738:University of Oklahoma Press
5653:Sir Harold Alfred MacMichael
3860:Nardo, Don (13 March 2009).
3579:Dryton and Apollonia Archive
3316:
3185:
1368:
1282:("Saviour"), he founded the
915:
351:Late Period of ancient Egypt
7:
9092:Countries in ancient Africa
7607:
6363:Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
5833:Peters, F. E. (1970).
5809:. Brill. pp. 281–328.
5088:. Steiner, Stuttgart 2006,
4286:, Oxford University Press,
4284:Oxford Classical Dictionary
4194:Commentary on the Epidemics
3927:. Oxford University Press.
3615:ancient Macedonian calendar
3540:
3130:, patrolling as far as the
2854:
2610:
2066:Ptolemy VII Neos Philopator
129:Cult of Alexander the Great
10:
9168:
5805:Grainger, John D. (2010).
5723:
5689:World History Encyclopedia
5657:Cambridge University Press
5138::10.1017/S000983881200064X
4280:"Cleopatra VII, 69–30 BCE"
4122:World History Encyclopedia
3533:
3320:
3282:(c. 300 BC), the inventor
3257:Seven Wonders of the World
3213:
3189:
3004:
2894:
2819:
2815:
2765:trade relations with India
2735:
2428:
2395:
2211:Relief of Ptolemaic Queen
2136:
2123:
1887:
1861:
1770:
1761:
1733:circumference of the world
1668:, while his fleets in the
1630:
1487:
1372:
1131:
992:in 323 BC was followed by
907:
9043:
8995:
8512:
7916:
7615:
7564:
7470:
7301:
7208:
7150:
7063:
6984:
6791:
6713:
6665:
6642:
6484:
6441:
6312:
6268:Antigonus I Monophthalmus
6258:
6215:
6182:
6058:
6001:Resources in your library
5905:Bowman, Alan Keir. 1996.
5670:Sir John Pentland Mahaffy
5546:Chauveau, Michel (2000).
5332:James Harrison McKinney,
5195:James Harrison McKinney,
3310:Nile mosaic of Palestrina
3235:was founded in 331 BC by
3141:
2911:Nile mosaic of Palestrina
2398:Aegyptus (Roman province)
2093:Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos
1914:), Egypt, created by the
1498:A bust depicting Pharaoh
1323:officially co-ruled with
573:Roman and Byzantine Egypt
308:
298:
294:
284:
280:
275:
271:
261:
251:
247:
237:
233:
218:
203:
199:
183:
170:
133:Greco-Egyptian syncretism
121:
99:
89:
73:
53:
48:
34:
6629:Antiochus XIII Asiaticus
6428:Cleopatra VII Philopator
5912:Chauveau, Michel. 2000.
5846:Rawles, Richard (2019).
5835:The Harvest of Hellenism
5045:51 (2014): 127–160, 134.
4880:The art of ancient Egypt
4694:The art of ancient Egypt
4629:The art of ancient Egypt
4389:The art of ancient Egypt
4023:Lewis, Naphtali (1986).
3950:The Art of Ancient Egypt
3921:Rutherford, Ian (2016).
3753:Stephens, S. A. (2003).
3716:10.1163/156852509X340291
3600:
3536:List of Ptolemaic rulers
3530:List of Ptolemaic rulers
3476:
2909:, 100 BC, detail of the
2905:Hellenistic soldiers in
2478:Hellenistic civilization
2354:Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa
1693:native Egyptian religion
1347:throughout the country.
1108:as the last independent
978:Persian-controlled Egypt
960:dynasty of ancient Egypt
84:thirty five years later.
7426:'s attempted rule with
7107:Mithridates V Euergetes
6519:Antiochus III the Great
6332:Ptolemy II Philadelphus
6273:Demetrius I Poliorcetes
6197:Alexander III the Great
5927:Johannsen, Ole (2023).
5824:Hölbl, Günther (2000).
5128:The Classical Quarterly
4725:Rosalie, David (1993).
4476:Malek, Jaromir (1999).
3901:Encyclopedia Britannica
3487:Ptolemy II Philadelphus
3443:
3000:
2890:
2722:Horus on the Crocodiles
2264:donations of Alexandria
2082:Ptolemy XI Alexander II
1955:Antiochus III the Great
1858:Rebellions in the South
1795:Antiochus III the Great
1748:Temple of Horus at Edfu
1641:Coin depicting Pharaoh
1507:Ptolemy II Philadelphus
1500:Ptolemy II Philadelphus
1363:
1253:Alexander IV of Macedon
1083:Egyptian religious life
1075:marrying their siblings
1071:Ptolemy II Philadelphus
518:3rd Intermediate Period
498:2nd Intermediate Period
478:1st Intermediate Period
9137:300s BC establishments
7210:Monarchs of Cappadocia
7112:Mithridates VI Eupator
6634:Philip II Philoromaeus
6619:Antiochus XII Dionysus
6609:Demetrius III Eucaerus
6604:Antiochus XI Epiphanes
6589:Antiochus IX Cyzicenus
6529:Antiochus IV Epiphanes
6524:Seleucus IV Philopator
6509:Seleucus II Callinicus
6408:Cleopatra VI Tryphaena
6283:Demetrius II Aetolicus
5919:Ellis, Simon P. 1992.
5850:. Bloomsbury Academic.
5786:Grabbe, L. L. (2008).
5733:The Reign of Cleopatra
5499:Phillips, Heather A.,
5473:Kruse, Thomas (2013).
5071:21 (1984): 7–20, 16–18
4798:Török, László (2011).
4461:Manning, J.G. (2010).
4424:. In Shaw, Ian (ed.).
4230:Török, László (2009).
4081:(Thesis). p. 16.
3695:Strootman, R. (2009).
3584:Greco-Bactrian Kingdom
3440:
3375:
3313:
3228:
3151:
2914:
2812:
2772:
2763:. This is a marker of
2755:Characteristic Indian
2748:
2690:
2685:early 2nd century BC (
2620:
2579:
2564:
2544:
2530:
2450:
2410:
2352:, where the forces of
2323:Antikensammlung Berlin
2216:
2185:
2145:
2014:Antiochus IV Epiphanes
2009:
1977:in 200 BC transferred
1947:
1930:, while she sports an
1782:
1681:Seleucus II Callinicus
1656:(246–241 BC) with the
1646:
1595:Ptolemy's first wife,
1503:
1394:
1221:Cleomenes of Naucratis
1169:
263:• Disestablished
9020:Medieval great powers
7152:Monarchs of Commagene
7073:Mithridates I Ctistes
6614:Philip I Philadelphus
6594:Seleucus VI Epiphanes
6584:Antiochus VIII Grypus
6579:Seleucus V Philometor
6564:Antiochus VII Sidetes
6554:Antiochus VI Dionysus
6514:Seleucus III Ceraunus
6413:Berenice IV Epiphanea
6358:Ptolemy VI Philometor
6342:Ptolemy IV Philopator
6337:Ptolemy III Euergetes
6202:Philip III Arrhidaeus
5605:A History of the Jews
5585:A History of the Jews
5147:Dorothy J. Crawford,
4954:Bingen, Jean (2007).
4079:University of Houston
3813:Bibliotheca historica
3555:Ancient Greece portal
3435:
3363:
3307:
3223:
3149:
2904:
2810:
2798:Ptolemy IV Philopator
2757:etched carnelian bead
2754:
2743:
2672:
2618:
2574:
2558:
2542:
2459:Library of Alexandria
2455:Demetrius of Phalerum
2436:
2405:
2210:
2198:battles in Alexandria
2176:
2133:
2078:Ptolemy X Alexander I
1998:Ptolemy VI Philometor
1995:
1987:Ptolemy VI Philometor
1924:Ptolemy III Euergetes
1901:
1894:Ptolemy VI Philometor
1787:Ptolemy IV Philopator
1780:
1650:Ptolemy III Euergetes
1643:Ptolemy III Euergetes
1640:
1633:Ptolemy III Euergetes
1627:Ptolemy III Euergetes
1617:Library of Alexandria
1555:Library of Alexandria
1497:
1382:
1249:Philip III of Macedon
1188:later called Egypt's
1167:
1081:and participating in
458:Early Dynastic Period
100:Common languages
9030:European colonialism
9015:Ancient great powers
6986:Monarchs of Bithynia
6569:Alexander II Zabinas
6549:Demetrius II Nicator
6466:Ptolemy VIII Physcon
6433:Ptolemy XV Caesarion
6398:Ptolemy XI Alexander
6373:Ptolemy VIII Physcon
6278:Antigonus II Gonatas
5839:Simon & Schuster
5771:, New York: Harper,
4996:"The Ptolemaic Army"
4878:Robins, Gay (2008).
4692:Robins, Gay (2008).
4627:Robins, Gay (2008).
4420:Lloyd, Alan (2003).
4387:Robins, Gay (2008).
3948:Robins, Gay (2008).
3574:Cup of the Ptolemies
3272:Apollonius of Rhodes
2449:of Alexandria, Egypt
2256:Ptolemy Philadelphos
2018:Ptolemy VIII Physcon
1864:Rosetta Stone decree
1645:. Ptolemaic Kingdom.
1567:Apollonius of Rhodes
1458:after a naval battle
1405:between the various
1403:Wars of the Diadochi
1266:Wars of the Diadochi
1190:Thirty-first Dynasty
728:Muhammad Ali dynasty
9025:Modern great powers
7568:Hellenistic satraps
6599:Antiochus X Eusebes
6534:Antiochus V Eupator
6476:Cleopatra Selene II
6403:Ptolemy XII Auletes
6388:Ptolemy X Alexander
6383:Ptolemy IX Lathyros
6347:Ptolemy V Epiphanes
6288:Antigonus III Doson
5279:Robinson. pp.79-94.
5243:Robinson. pp.79–94.
5039:Classical Quarterly
4836:Antiquities Experts
4335:, p. 231, 248.
4117:"Ptolemaic Dynasty"
3470:Demetrius Phalereus
3237:Alexander the Great
3090:Beginning with the
2802:Ptolemy V Epiphanes
2502:Head Attributed to
2254:, and another son,
1963:Philip V of Macedon
1951:Ptolemy V Epiphanes
1890:Ptolemy V Epiphanes
1741:Apollonius of Perge
1578:and the astronomer
1174:Alexander the Great
974:Alexander the Great
950:, and ruled by the
916:Ptolemaïkḕ basileía
908:Πτολεμαϊκὴ βασιλεία
563:Ptolemaic dynasties
253:• Established
242:Classical antiquity
143:Egyptian polytheism
67:on a Ptolemaic coin
42:Ptolemaïkḕ basileía
39:Πτολεμαϊκὴ βασιλεία
9152:Former theocracies
9087:Hellenistic states
7472:Monarchs of Epirus
7305:Cimmerian Bosporus
7065:Monarchs of Pontus
6624:Cleopatra Selene I
6504:Antiochus II Theos
6494:Seleucus I Nicator
6461:Demetrius the Fair
6443:Monarchs of Cyrene
5970:(Princeton, 2009).
5921:Graeco-Roman Egypt
5668:History of Egypt,
5506:2012-04-18 at the
5253:Gera, Dov (1998).
5160:Michel M. Austin,
4556:The British Museum
4115:Wasson, Donald L.
3833:Hölbl, G. (2001).
3564:Antipatrid dynasty
3441:
3376:
3314:
3229:
3152:
2990:Macedonian phalanx
2945:misthophoroi xenoi
2915:
2876:in the Delta, and
2849:pentakaidecadrachm
2813:
2773:
2749:
2691:
2687:Walters Art Museum
2621:
2580:
2576:Temple of Kom Ombo
2565:
2563:symbol from Horus.
2545:
2451:
2447:Greco-Roman Museum
2411:
2339:worn over her head
2217:
2202:Battle of the Nile
2186:
2146:
2010:
1948:
1916:Hellenistic artist
1852:Theoi Philopatores
1783:
1647:
1605:married his sister
1504:
1397:The first part of
1395:
1170:
956:death of Cleopatra
936:Hellenistic period
775:Sultanate of Egypt
765:British occupation
738:Khedivate of Egypt
610:Rashidun caliphate
431:Predynastic Period
205:• 305–283 BC
163:Local beliefs
9112:Hellenistic Egypt
9082:Ptolemaic Kingdom
9069:
9068:
8991:
8990:
8956:Polish–Lithuanian
8131:Gurjara-Pratihara
7575:
7574:
7055:Socrates Chrestus
6544:Alexander I Balas
6539:Demetrius I Soter
6499:Antiochus I Soter
6245:Antipater Etesias
6141:
6140:
5987:Ptolemaic Kingdom
5982:Library resources
5963:(Helsinki, 1998).
5956:(Berkeley, 2002).
5864:Hellenistic Egypt
5797:978-0-567-03396-3
5790:. T&T Clark.
5778:978-0-06-058558-7
5532:978-0-521-83839-9
5339:Whitman College,
5199:Whitman College,
5017:978-0-19-993539-0
4967:978-0-520-25141-0
4802:. Leiden: Brill.
4447:978-0-19-280458-7
4301:978-0-19-938113-5
4268:Cleopatra: A Life
4243:978-90-04-17197-8
4208:, pp. 162–4.
4010:978-0-89236-796-2
3959:978-0-674-03065-7
3934:978-0-19-965612-7
3873:978-0-7377-4624-2
3594:Kingdom of Pontus
3569:Antigonid dynasty
3485:from the time of
3323:Ptolemais Hermiou
3160:Ptolemaic Dynasty
3057:Battle of Salamis
2822:Ptolemaic coinage
2679:Hellenistic style
2585:Thirtieth Dynasty
2486:Islamic conquests
2026:Battle of Antioch
1944:Mediterranean Sea
1828:Ptolemaic decrees
1660:when his sister,
1539:Second Syrian War
1353:Ptolemais Hermiou
1284:Ptolemaic dynasty
1241:succession crisis
1186:Achaemenid Empire
1110:Hellenistic state
986:Achaemenid Empire
980:in 332 BC during
952:Ptolemaic dynasty
913:
856:Ptolemaic Kingdom
852:
851:
803:
802:
756:Late Modern Egypt
746:
745:
718:French occupation
688:
687:
650:Ikhshidid dynasty
620:Umayyad caliphate
591:
590:
545:Greco-Roman Egypt
536:
535:
439:
438:
422:Prehistoric Egypt
384:
383:
380:
379:
376:
375:
356:
355:
337:Macedonian Empire
36:Ptolemaic Kingdom
18:Hellenistic Egypt
16:(Redirected from
9159:
8872:
8871:
8537:Austro-Hungarian
8237:Chagatai Khanate
7602:
7595:
7588:
7579:
7578:
7367:
7283:Ariobarzanes III
6657:Ptolemy Epigonos
6559:Diodotus Tryphon
6352:Cleopatra I Syra
6327:Ptolemy Keraunos
6168:
6161:
6154:
6145:
6144:
6045:
6038:
6031:
6022:
6021:
5952:Susan Stephens,
5942:
5851:
5842:
5829:
5820:
5801:
5782:
5758:
5756:
5754:
5718:
5717:
5707:
5701:
5700:
5698:
5696:
5679:
5673:
5666:
5660:
5645:
5639:
5636:
5630:
5627:
5621:
5618:
5612:
5598:
5592:
5578:
5572:
5571:
5543:
5537:
5536:
5516:
5510:
5497:
5491:
5490:
5488:
5486:
5470:
5464:
5463:
5443:
5437:
5436:
5416:
5410:
5409:
5391:
5385:
5384:
5364:
5358:
5355:
5344:
5330:
5324:
5321:
5315:
5314:
5296:
5290:
5286:
5280:
5277:
5271:
5270:
5250:
5244:
5241:
5235:
5222:
5216:
5213:
5207:
5193:
5187:
5184:
5178:
5171:
5165:
5158:
5152:
5145:
5139:
5120:
5114:
5103:
5097:
5078:
5072:
5065:
5059:
5052:
5046:
5035:
5029:
5028:
5026:
5024:
4991:
4972:
4971:
4951:
4945:
4944:
4908:
4902:
4901:
4875:
4869:
4858:
4847:
4846:
4844:
4842:
4828:
4822:
4821:
4795:
4789:
4786:
4780:
4777:
4771:
4770:
4764:
4756:
4754:
4752:
4746:
4737:
4731:
4730:
4722:
4716:
4715:
4689:
4676:
4675:
4673:
4671:
4657:
4651:
4650:
4624:
4615:
4614:
4603:
4597:
4596:
4594:
4592:
4578:
4567:
4566:
4564:
4562:
4553:
4544:
4535:
4534:
4532:
4530:
4516:
4507:
4506:
4504:
4502:
4488:
4482:
4481:
4473:
4467:
4466:
4458:
4452:
4451:
4417:
4411:
4410:
4384:
4378:
4372:
4366:
4360:
4351:
4345:
4336:
4330:
4324:
4318:
4312:
4311:
4310:
4308:
4275:
4269:
4266:
4260:
4254:
4248:
4247:
4227:
4221:
4215:
4209:
4203:
4197:
4188:
4182:
4181:, p. 63-65.
4176:
4167:
4161:
4150:
4144:
4138:
4132:
4126:
4113:
4107:
4097:
4091:
4090:
4068:
4062:
4055:
4049:
4042:
4036:
4021:
4015:
4014:
3994:
3988:
3982:
3976:
3970:
3964:
3963:
3945:
3939:
3938:
3918:
3912:
3911:
3909:
3907:
3893:
3878:
3877:
3857:
3851:
3850:
3830:
3824:
3809:Diodorus Siculus
3806:
3800:
3799:
3797:
3795:
3784:
3778:
3777:
3750:
3739:
3738:
3701:
3692:
3681:
3680:
3654:
3648:
3641:
3625:
3611:
3557:
3552:
3551:
3550:
3466:Flavius Josephus
3413:by the sea, and
3308:A detail of the
3126:, and along the
3096:battle of Actium
3081:Chremonidean War
3077:First Syrian War
2995:battle of Raphia
2745:Egyptian faience
2515:
2499:
2482:battle of Actium
2307:
2298:
2252:Alexander Helios
2248:Cleopatra Selene
2139:
2138:
2052:of Upper Egypt,
1975:battle of Panium
1791:royal favourites
1654:Third Syrian War
1615:, keeper of the
1511:First Syrian War
1407:successor states
1384:Hellenistic bust
1106:conquest by Rome
1090:successor states
994:rapid unraveling
921:Ptolemaic Empire
918:
912:romanized:
911:
909:
901:
900:
897:
896:
893:
890:
887:
884:
881:
878:
875:
872:
869:
866:
844:
837:
830:
818:Egypt portal
816:
815:
814:
785:Kingdom of Egypt
761:
760:
704:
703:
606:
605:
549:
548:
454:
453:
427:
426:
414:
404:
386:
385:
372:
371:
360:
359:
347:
346:
333:
332:
326:
325:
310:
309:
229:
220:• 51–30 BC
214:
149:Greek polytheism
78:
60:
32:
31:
21:
9167:
9166:
9162:
9161:
9160:
9158:
9157:
9156:
9097:Former kingdoms
9072:
9071:
9070:
9065:
9054:American Empire
9039:
9035:African empires
8987:
8870:
8562:Central African
8508:
8326:Romano-Germanic
7912:
7646:Middle Assyrian
7619:
7611:
7606:
7576:
7571:
7560:
7466:
7457:Mithridates III
7361:
7304:
7303:Monarchs of the
7297:
7278:Ariobarzanes II
7263:Ariarathes VIII
7204:
7190:Mithridates III
7146:
7088:Mithridates III
7059:
6980:
6787:
6715:Greco-Bactrians
6709:
6661:
6638:
6480:
6437:
6322:Ptolemy I Soter
6308:
6254:
6211:
6178:
6172:
6142:
6137:
6136:
6134:
6054:
6049:
6012:
6011:
6010:
5990:
5989:
5985:
5978:
5973:
5966:J. G. Manning,
5939:
5858:
5856:Further reading
5817:
5807:The Syrian Wars
5798:
5779:
5763:Fletcher, Joann
5752:
5750:
5748:
5726:
5721:
5708:
5704:
5694:
5692:
5680:
5676:
5667:
5663:
5659:, 1922, Page: 7
5646:
5642:
5637:
5633:
5628:
5624:
5619:
5615:
5601:Solomon Grayzel
5599:
5595:
5581:Solomon Grayzel
5579:
5575:
5560:
5544:
5540:
5533:
5517:
5513:
5508:Wayback Machine
5498:
5494:
5484:
5482:
5471:
5467:
5460:
5444:
5440:
5433:
5417:
5413:
5406:
5392:
5388:
5381:
5365:
5361:
5356:
5347:
5331:
5327:
5322:
5318:
5311:
5297:
5293:
5287:
5283:
5278:
5274:
5267:
5251:
5247:
5242:
5238:
5223:
5219:
5214:
5210:
5194:
5190:
5185:
5181:
5172:
5168:
5159:
5155:
5146:
5142:
5121:
5117:
5104:
5100:
5079:
5075:
5066:
5062:
5054:Sean Lesquier,
5053:
5049:
5036:
5032:
5022:
5020:
5018:
4992:
4975:
4968:
4952:
4948:
4909:
4905:
4890:
4876:
4872:
4859:
4850:
4840:
4838:
4830:
4829:
4825:
4810:
4796:
4792:
4787:
4783:
4778:
4774:
4758:
4757:
4750:
4748:
4744:
4738:
4734:
4723:
4719:
4704:
4690:
4679:
4669:
4667:
4659:
4658:
4654:
4639:
4625:
4618:
4604:
4600:
4590:
4588:
4580:
4579:
4570:
4560:
4558:
4551:
4545:
4538:
4528:
4526:
4518:
4517:
4510:
4500:
4498:
4490:
4489:
4485:
4474:
4470:
4459:
4455:
4448:
4418:
4414:
4399:
4385:
4381:
4373:
4369:
4361:
4354:
4346:
4339:
4331:
4327:
4319:
4315:
4306:
4304:
4302:
4276:
4272:
4267:
4263:
4255:
4251:
4244:
4228:
4224:
4216:
4212:
4204:
4200:
4189:
4185:
4177:
4170:
4164:Burstein (2007)
4162:
4153:
4145:
4141:
4133:
4129:
4125:, 4 April 2021.
4114:
4110:
4098:
4094:
4069:
4065:
4056:
4052:
4043:
4039:
4022:
4018:
4011:
3995:
3991:
3983:
3979:
3971:
3967:
3960:
3946:
3942:
3935:
3919:
3915:
3905:
3903:
3895:
3894:
3881:
3874:
3858:
3854:
3847:
3831:
3827:
3807:
3803:
3793:
3791:
3785:
3781:
3767:
3751:
3742:
3699:
3693:
3684:
3677:
3655:
3651:
3642:
3638:
3634:
3629:
3628:
3612:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3553:
3548:
3546:
3543:
3538:
3532:
3507:
3479:
3450:Southern Levant
3446:
3380:Ptolemy I Soter
3358:
3325:
3319:
3226:Brooklyn Museum
3218:
3212:
3203:Flinders Petrie
3194:
3188:
3144:
3009:
3003:
2899:
2893:
2857:
2824:
2818:
2738:
2625:Ptolemy I Soter
2613:
2597:hypostyle halls
2533:
2528:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2521:
2520:
2519:
2516:
2508:
2507:
2500:
2431:
2408:Brooklyn Museum
2400:
2394:
2343:
2342:
2341:
2340:
2329:Vatican Museums
2326:
2310:
2309:
2308:
2300:
2299:
2128:
2122:
2117:
2062:
2060:Later Ptolemies
1959:Seleucid Empire
1896:
1888:Main articles:
1886:
1866:
1860:
1775:
1769:
1764:
1658:Seleucid Empire
1635:
1629:
1586:to compose his
1543:Kingdom of Kush
1519:Nesiotic League
1492:
1486:
1437:, the ruler of
1388:Ptolemy I Soter
1377:
1371:
1366:
1344:Ptolemy I Soter
1280:Ptolemy I Soter
1233:
1162:
1138:Hellenistic era
1134:
1122:Muslim conquest
1102:Roman civil war
1040:, and northern
1026:Seleucid Empire
944:Ptolemy I Soter
863:
859:
848:
812:
810:
805:
804:
758:
748:
747:
701:
690:
689:
670:Ayyubid dynasty
660:Fatimid dynasty
640:Tulunid dynasty
630:Abbasid dynasty
603:
593:
592:
546:
538:
537:
451:
441:
440:
424:
402:
395:
369:
344:
330:
290:4.9–7.5 million
287:
264:
254:
227:
221:
212:
210:Ptolemy I Soter
206:
166:
117:
85:
82:Seleucid Empire
69:
68:
66:
61:
44:
40:
37:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
9165:
9155:
9154:
9149:
9144:
9139:
9134:
9129:
9124:
9119:
9114:
9109:
9104:
9099:
9094:
9089:
9084:
9067:
9066:
9064:
9063:
9062:
9061:
9056:
9047:
9045:
9041:
9040:
9038:
9037:
9032:
9027:
9022:
9017:
9012:
9011:
9010:
8999:
8997:
8993:
8992:
8989:
8988:
8986:
8985:
8980:
8975:
8970:
8965:
8964:
8963:
8953:
8948:
8943:
8938:
8933:
8928:
8923:
8918:
8913:
8908:
8907:
8906:
8901:
8891:
8886:
8880:
8878:
8869:
8868:
8867:
8866:
8861:
8856:
8851:
8846:
8836:
8831:
8830:
8829:
8819:
8814:
8813:
8812:
8807:
8802:
8792:
8787:
8786:
8785:
8780:
8770:
8769:
8768:
8763:
8758:
8753:
8748:
8738:
8737:
8736:
8731:
8721:
8716:
8711:
8706:
8705:
8704:
8699:
8694:
8689:
8684:
8674:
8673:
8672:
8667:
8657:
8652:
8651:
8650:
8645:
8635:
8634:
8633:
8628:
8618:
8617:
8616:
8611:
8601:
8596:
8595:
8594:
8589:
8584:
8579:
8574:
8564:
8559:
8558:
8557:
8552:
8544:
8539:
8534:
8529:
8524:
8518:
8516:
8510:
8509:
8507:
8506:
8501:
8496:
8491:
8490:
8489:
8484:
8479:
8474:
8469:
8464:
8459:
8449:
8444:
8443:
8442:
8437:
8432:
8427:
8422:
8417:
8407:
8406:
8405:
8400:
8395:
8390:
8380:
8375:
8370:
8365:
8360:
8355:
8350:
8345:
8340:
8339:
8338:
8333:
8323:
8322:
8321:
8316:
8311:
8306:
8301:
8296:
8283:
8278:
8273:
8268:
8267:
8266:
8261:
8256:
8246:
8245:
8244:
8239:
8234:
8229:
8219:
8214:
8209:
8204:
8199:
8194:
8193:
8192:
8187:
8182:
8177:
8167:
8166:
8165:
8160:
8155:
8150:
8140:
8139:
8138:
8133:
8128:
8118:
8113:
8108:
8103:
8098:
8097:
8096:
8091:
8086:
8076:
8071:
8070:
8069:
8064:
8059:
8054:
8049:
8044:
8034:
8033:
8032:
8027:
8017:
8016:
8015:
8010:
8005:
8000:
7990:
7985:
7984:
7983:
7973:
7972:
7971:
7966:
7958:
7953:
7948:
7943:
7938:
7933:
7928:
7922:
7920:
7918:Post-classical
7914:
7913:
7911:
7910:
7909:
7908:
7898:
7893:
7892:
7891:
7886:
7876:
7875:
7874:
7864:
7863:
7862:
7857:
7852:
7847:
7842:
7837:
7827:
7822:
7817:
7816:
7815:
7810:
7805:
7800:
7790:
7789:
7788:
7783:
7773:
7768:
7767:
7766:
7761:
7756:
7751:
7746:
7736:
7731:
7726:
7725:
7724:
7719:
7717:Middle Kingdom
7714:
7704:
7699:
7698:
7697:
7692:
7687:
7677:
7676:
7675:
7673:Neo-Babylonian
7670:
7665:
7663:Old Babylonian
7655:
7654:
7653:
7648:
7638:
7633:
7627:
7625:
7613:
7612:
7605:
7604:
7597:
7590:
7582:
7573:
7572:
7565:
7562:
7561:
7559:
7558:
7553:
7548:
7543:
7538:
7532:
7527:
7522:
7517:
7515:Neoptolemus II
7512:
7507:
7502:
7497:
7492:
7487:
7482:
7476:
7474:
7468:
7467:
7465:
7464:
7459:
7454:
7449:
7444:
7439:
7430:
7421:
7412:
7410:Mithridates II
7407:
7398:
7393:
7388:
7383:
7378:
7376:Paerisades III
7373:
7368:
7356:
7351:
7346:
7341:
7335:
7330:
7325:
7320:
7315:
7309:
7307:
7299:
7298:
7296:
7295:
7290:
7285:
7280:
7275:
7273:Ariobarzanes I
7270:
7265:
7260:
7258:Ariarathes VII
7255:
7250:
7245:
7240:
7235:
7233:Ariarathes III
7230:
7225:
7220:
7214:
7212:
7206:
7205:
7203:
7202:
7197:
7192:
7187:
7182:
7180:Mithridates II
7177:
7172:
7167:
7162:
7156:
7154:
7148:
7147:
7145:
7144:
7139:
7134:
7129:
7124:
7119:
7114:
7109:
7104:
7095:
7090:
7085:
7083:Mithridates II
7080:
7075:
7069:
7067:
7061:
7060:
7058:
7057:
7052:
7047:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7027:
7022:
7016:
7011:
7006:
7001:
6996:
6990:
6988:
6982:
6981:
6979:
6978:
6973:
6968:
6963:
6958:
6953:
6948:
6946:Apollodotus II
6943:
6938:
6933:
6928:
6923:
6918:
6913:
6908:
6903:
6898:
6893:
6888:
6883:
6878:
6873:
6868:
6863:
6858:
6853:
6848:
6843:
6838:
6833:
6828:
6823:
6818:
6813:
6808:
6803:
6797:
6795:
6789:
6788:
6786:
6785:
6780:
6775:
6770:
6765:
6760:
6755:
6750:
6745:
6740:
6735:
6730:
6725:
6719:
6717:
6711:
6710:
6708:
6707:
6702:
6697:
6692:
6687:
6682:
6677:
6671:
6669:
6663:
6662:
6660:
6659:
6654:
6648:
6646:
6640:
6639:
6637:
6636:
6631:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6591:
6586:
6581:
6576:
6574:Cleopatra Thea
6571:
6566:
6561:
6556:
6551:
6546:
6541:
6536:
6531:
6526:
6521:
6516:
6511:
6506:
6501:
6496:
6490:
6488:
6482:
6481:
6479:
6478:
6473:
6468:
6463:
6458:
6453:
6447:
6445:
6439:
6438:
6436:
6435:
6430:
6425:
6420:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6390:
6385:
6380:
6375:
6370:
6365:
6360:
6355:
6349:
6344:
6339:
6334:
6329:
6324:
6318:
6316:
6310:
6309:
6307:
6306:
6300:
6295:
6290:
6285:
6280:
6275:
6270:
6264:
6262:
6256:
6255:
6253:
6252:
6247:
6242:
6237:
6232:
6227:
6221:
6219:
6213:
6212:
6210:
6209:
6204:
6199:
6194:
6188:
6186:
6180:
6179:
6171:
6170:
6163:
6156:
6148:
6139:
6138:
6060:
6059:
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5980:
5979:
5977:
5976:External links
5974:
5972:
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5910:
5903:
5862:Bingen, Jean.
5859:
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5783:
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5080:Heinz Heinen,
5073:
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5030:
5016:
4973:
4966:
4946:
4925:10.1086/370811
4903:
4888:
4870:
4868:(October 2016)
4848:
4823:
4809:978-9004211285
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4790:
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4772:
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4717:
4703:978-0674030657
4702:
4677:
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4637:
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4607:Pomeroy, Sarah
4598:
4568:
4547:Thomas, Ross.
4536:
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4412:
4397:
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4377:, p. 195f
4367:
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3531:
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3483:Zeno of Caunus
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3372:Ptolemaic army
3357:
3354:
3321:Main article:
3318:
3315:
3241:Hellenic world
3214:Main article:
3211:
3208:
3190:Main article:
3187:
3184:
3143:
3140:
3061:maritime force
3007:Ptolemaic navy
3005:Main article:
3002:
2999:
2941:silver drachma
2897:Ptolemaic army
2895:Main article:
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2820:Main article:
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2124:Main article:
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2045:Dodecaschoenus
1885:
1882:
1862:Main article:
1859:
1856:
1771:Main article:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1737:Conon of Samos
1662:Queen Berenice
1631:Main article:
1628:
1625:
1599:, daughter of
1488:Main article:
1485:
1482:
1441:, he defeated
1373:Main article:
1370:
1367:
1365:
1362:
1360:Greek cities.
1232:
1229:
1223:as the ruling
1209:their religion
1161:
1158:
1133:
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1094:Roman Republic
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680:Mamluk dynasty
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583:Sasanian Egypt
579:
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553:Argead dynasty
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286:• 150 BC
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8383:Turco-Persian
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8364:
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8137:
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8119:
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7678:
7674:
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7642:
7639:
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7521:
7518:
7516:
7513:
7511:
7508:
7506:
7503:
7501:
7498:
7496:
7495:Neoptolemus I
7493:
7491:
7488:
7486:
7483:
7481:
7478:
7477:
7475:
7473:
7469:
7463:
7460:
7458:
7455:
7453:
7450:
7448:
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7443:
7440:
7438:
7434:
7431:
7429:
7425:
7422:
7420:
7416:
7413:
7411:
7408:
7406:
7402:
7399:
7397:
7394:
7392:
7391:Mithridates I
7389:
7387:
7384:
7382:
7381:Paerisades IV
7379:
7377:
7374:
7372:
7369:
7365:
7360:
7357:
7355:
7352:
7350:
7347:
7345:
7344:Paerisades II
7342:
7339:
7336:
7334:
7333:Spartokos III
7331:
7329:
7326:
7324:
7321:
7319:
7316:
7314:
7311:
7310:
7308:
7306:
7300:
7294:
7291:
7289:
7286:
7284:
7281:
7279:
7276:
7274:
7271:
7269:
7268:Ariarathes IX
7266:
7264:
7261:
7259:
7256:
7254:
7253:Ariarathes VI
7251:
7249:
7246:
7244:
7241:
7239:
7238:Ariarathes IV
7236:
7234:
7231:
7229:
7226:
7224:
7223:Ariarathes II
7221:
7219:
7216:
7215:
7213:
7211:
7207:
7201:
7198:
7196:
7195:Antiochus III
7193:
7191:
7188:
7186:
7183:
7181:
7178:
7176:
7173:
7171:
7170:Mithridates I
7168:
7166:
7163:
7161:
7158:
7157:
7155:
7153:
7149:
7143:
7140:
7138:
7135:
7133:
7130:
7128:
7125:
7123:
7120:
7118:
7115:
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7110:
7108:
7105:
7103:
7099:
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7086:
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7079:
7076:
7074:
7071:
7070:
7068:
7066:
7062:
7056:
7053:
7051:
7048:
7046:
7045:Nicomedes III
7043:
7041:
7038:
7036:
7033:
7031:
7028:
7026:
7023:
7020:
7017:
7015:
7012:
7010:
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7002:
7000:
6997:
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6991:
6989:
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6899:
6897:
6894:
6892:
6889:
6887:
6884:
6882:
6879:
6877:
6876:Demetrius III
6874:
6872:
6869:
6867:
6864:
6862:
6859:
6857:
6854:
6852:
6849:
6847:
6844:
6842:
6839:
6837:
6834:
6832:
6831:Antimachus II
6829:
6827:
6824:
6822:
6821:Apollodotus I
6819:
6817:
6814:
6812:
6809:
6807:
6804:
6802:
6799:
6798:
6796:
6794:
6790:
6784:
6781:
6779:
6778:Eucratides II
6776:
6774:
6771:
6769:
6766:
6764:
6761:
6759:
6756:
6754:
6751:
6749:
6746:
6744:
6743:Euthydemus II
6741:
6739:
6736:
6734:
6731:
6729:
6726:
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6721:
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6718:
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6510:
6507:
6505:
6502:
6500:
6497:
6495:
6492:
6491:
6489:
6487:
6483:
6477:
6474:
6472:
6471:Ptolemy Apion
6469:
6467:
6464:
6462:
6459:
6457:
6454:
6452:
6449:
6448:
6446:
6444:
6440:
6434:
6431:
6429:
6426:
6424:
6421:
6419:
6416:
6414:
6411:
6409:
6406:
6404:
6401:
6399:
6396:
6394:
6391:
6389:
6386:
6384:
6381:
6379:
6378:Cleopatra III
6376:
6374:
6371:
6369:
6366:
6364:
6361:
6359:
6356:
6353:
6350:
6348:
6345:
6343:
6340:
6338:
6335:
6333:
6330:
6328:
6325:
6323:
6320:
6319:
6317:
6315:
6311:
6304:
6301:
6299:
6296:
6294:
6291:
6289:
6286:
6284:
6281:
6279:
6276:
6274:
6271:
6269:
6266:
6265:
6263:
6261:
6257:
6251:
6248:
6246:
6243:
6241:
6238:
6236:
6233:
6231:
6228:
6226:
6223:
6222:
6220:
6218:
6214:
6208:
6205:
6203:
6200:
6198:
6195:
6193:
6190:
6189:
6187:
6185:
6181:
6176:
6169:
6164:
6162:
6157:
6155:
6150:
6149:
6146:
6057:
6053:
6046:
6041:
6039:
6034:
6032:
6027:
6026:
6023:
6017:
6014:
6013:
6007:
6004:
6002:
5999:
5997:
5994:
5993:
5988:
5983:
5969:
5965:
5962:
5958:
5955:
5951:
5948:
5944:
5940:
5938:9783506790378
5934:
5930:
5925:
5922:
5918:
5915:
5911:
5908:
5904:
5901:
5900:0-520-25142-3
5897:
5894:; paperback,
5893:
5892:0-520-25141-5
5889:
5885:
5881:
5880:0-7486-1579-2
5877:
5874:; paperback,
5873:
5872:0-7486-1578-4
5869:
5865:
5861:
5860:
5849:
5844:
5840:
5836:
5831:
5827:
5822:
5818:
5816:9789004180505
5812:
5808:
5803:
5799:
5793:
5789:
5784:
5780:
5774:
5770:
5769:
5764:
5760:
5749:
5743:
5739:
5735:
5734:
5728:
5727:
5715:
5714:
5706:
5691:
5690:
5685:
5678:
5671:
5665:
5658:
5654:
5650:
5644:
5635:
5626:
5617:
5610:
5606:
5602:
5597:
5590:
5586:
5582:
5577:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5559:0-8014-3597-8
5555:
5551:
5550:
5542:
5534:
5528:
5524:
5523:
5515:
5509:
5505:
5502:
5496:
5480:
5476:
5469:
5461:
5459:9780520303386
5455:
5451:
5450:
5442:
5434:
5432:9780198787273
5428:
5424:
5423:
5415:
5407:
5405:9781107113367
5401:
5397:
5390:
5382:
5380:9781107007758
5376:
5372:
5371:
5363:
5354:
5352:
5350:
5342:
5338:
5336:
5329:
5320:
5312:
5310:9781107113367
5306:
5302:
5295:
5285:
5276:
5268:
5266:9789004094413
5262:
5258:
5257:
5249:
5240:
5233:
5229:
5227:
5221:
5212:
5206:
5202:
5198:
5192:
5183:
5176:
5170:
5163:
5157:
5150:
5144:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5119:
5112:
5108:
5102:
5095:
5094:3-515-08740-0
5091:
5087:
5083:
5077:
5070:
5064:
5057:
5051:
5044:
5040:
5034:
5019:
5013:
5009:
5005:
5001:
4997:
4990:
4988:
4986:
4984:
4982:
4980:
4978:
4969:
4963:
4959:
4958:
4950:
4942:
4938:
4934:
4930:
4926:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4907:
4899:
4895:
4891:
4889:9780674030657
4885:
4881:
4874:
4867:
4863:
4857:
4855:
4853:
4837:
4833:
4827:
4819:
4815:
4811:
4805:
4801:
4794:
4785:
4776:
4768:
4762:
4743:
4736:
4729:. p. 99.
4728:
4721:
4713:
4709:
4705:
4699:
4695:
4688:
4686:
4684:
4682:
4666:
4662:
4656:
4648:
4644:
4640:
4638:9780674030657
4634:
4630:
4623:
4621:
4612:
4608:
4602:
4587:
4583:
4577:
4575:
4573:
4557:
4550:
4543:
4541:
4525:
4521:
4515:
4513:
4497:
4493:
4487:
4479:
4472:
4464:
4457:
4449:
4443:
4439:
4435:
4431:
4427:
4423:
4416:
4408:
4404:
4400:
4398:9780674030657
4394:
4390:
4383:
4376:
4375:Peters (1970)
4371:
4365:, p. 194
4364:
4363:Peters (1970)
4359:
4357:
4350:, p. 193
4349:
4348:Peters (1970)
4344:
4342:
4334:
4329:
4322:
4317:
4303:
4297:
4293:
4289:
4285:
4281:
4274:
4265:
4259:, p. 325
4258:
4257:Grainger 2010
4253:
4245:
4239:
4235:
4234:
4226:
4219:
4218:Fletcher 2008
4214:
4207:
4202:
4195:
4192:
4187:
4180:
4175:
4173:
4165:
4160:
4158:
4156:
4148:
4143:
4136:
4131:
4124:
4123:
4118:
4112:
4106:
4102:
4096:
4088:
4084:
4080:
4076:
4075:
4067:
4060:
4054:
4047:
4041:
4034:
4033:0-19-814867-4
4030:
4026:
4020:
4012:
4006:
4002:
4001:
3993:
3986:
3981:
3975:, p. 22.
3974:
3969:
3961:
3955:
3951:
3944:
3936:
3930:
3926:
3925:
3917:
3902:
3898:
3892:
3890:
3888:
3886:
3884:
3875:
3869:
3865:
3864:
3856:
3848:
3846:9780415234894
3842:
3838:
3837:
3829:
3822:
3818:
3814:
3810:
3805:
3790:
3783:
3776:
3774:
3768:
3766:9780520927384
3762:
3758:
3757:
3749:
3747:
3745:
3737:
3733:
3729:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3705:
3698:
3691:
3689:
3687:
3678:
3676:9781139054560
3672:
3668:
3664:
3660:
3653:
3646:
3640:
3636:
3623:
3620:
3616:
3610:
3606:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3565:
3562:
3561:
3556:
3545:
3537:
3527:
3525:
3520:
3516:
3512:
3502:
3500:
3496:
3492:
3488:
3484:
3474:
3471:
3467:
3463:
3459:
3455:
3451:
3439:
3434:
3430:
3427:
3422:
3418:
3416:
3412:
3408:
3402:
3400:
3396:
3392:
3387:
3385:
3381:
3373:
3369:
3368:
3362:
3353:
3350:
3346:
3345:Greek culture
3342:
3338:
3334:
3330:
3324:
3311:
3306:
3302:
3299:
3297:
3291:
3290:(c. 225 BC).
3289:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3273:
3269:
3265:
3260:
3258:
3254:
3250:
3244:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3207:
3204:
3200:
3193:
3183:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3169:
3165:
3161:
3157:
3154:While ruling
3148:
3139:
3137:
3133:
3129:
3125:
3124:Levantine Sea
3121:
3117:
3113:
3109:
3103:
3101:
3097:
3093:
3088:
3086:
3082:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3049:
3045:
3040:
3038:
3034:
3030:
3027:islands, and
3026:
3022:
3018:
3014:
3013:thalassocracy
3008:
2998:
2996:
2991:
2986:
2981:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2958:
2954:
2950:
2946:
2942:
2938:
2934:
2928:
2924:
2921:
2912:
2908:
2903:
2898:
2888:
2886:
2885:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2863:
2852:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2841:
2837:, and silver
2836:
2832:
2831:
2823:
2809:
2805:
2803:
2799:
2793:
2789:
2786:
2782:
2777:
2770:
2769:Petrie Museum
2766:
2762:
2761:Saft el Henna
2758:
2753:
2746:
2742:
2733:
2731:
2727:
2723:
2719:
2715:
2710:
2708:
2704:
2700:
2695:
2688:
2684:
2680:
2676:
2671:
2667:
2665:
2661:
2660:Cleopatra VII
2657:
2653:
2649:
2644:
2642:
2636:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2617:
2608:
2604:
2602:
2598:
2594:
2590:
2586:
2577:
2573:
2569:
2562:
2557:
2553:
2549:
2541:
2537:
2514:
2505:
2498:
2489:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2474:
2470:
2466:
2465:Greek culture
2462:
2460:
2456:
2448:
2444:
2441:of a dog and
2440:
2435:
2426:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2409:
2404:
2399:
2389:
2387:
2381:
2379:
2378:Octavia Minor
2373:
2371:
2367:
2362:
2360:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2338:
2334:
2330:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2315:Cleopatra VII
2306:
2297:
2288:
2285:
2281:
2277:
2273:
2269:
2265:
2259:
2257:
2253:
2249:
2245:
2241:
2237:
2232:
2230:
2226:
2222:
2214:
2213:Cleopatra VII
2209:
2205:
2203:
2199:
2194:
2193:Julius Caesar
2190:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2171:
2169:
2165:
2161:
2156:
2154:
2150:
2149:Cleopatra VII
2143:
2132:
2127:
2126:Cleopatra VII
2120:Cleopatra VII
2112:
2110:
2109:Cleopatra VII
2106:
2102:
2098:
2094:
2089:
2087:
2083:
2079:
2075:
2071:
2070:Cleopatra III
2067:
2057:
2055:
2051:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2007:
2006:Louvre Museum
2003:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1988:
1984:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1909:
1905:
1900:
1895:
1891:
1881:
1879:
1878:Rosetta Stone
1875:
1871:
1865:
1855:
1853:
1849:
1845:
1841:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1824:Raphia Decree
1821:
1817:
1812:
1807:
1805:
1800:
1796:
1792:
1788:
1779:
1774:
1759:
1757:
1753:
1749:
1744:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1730:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1700:Great Library
1696:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1682:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1667:
1663:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1644:
1639:
1634:
1624:
1622:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1591:
1590:
1585:
1581:
1577:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1556:
1551:
1549:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1532:
1528:
1524:
1520:
1517:islands (the
1516:
1512:
1508:
1501:
1496:
1491:
1481:
1479:
1475:
1470:
1468:
1464:
1459:
1455:
1450:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1436:
1432:
1428:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1404:
1400:
1393:
1389:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1361:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1345:
1341:
1336:
1334:
1330:
1326:
1322:
1321:Cleopatra VII
1318:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1297:
1292:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1272:
1267:
1262:
1258:
1254:
1250:
1246:
1242:
1239:in 323 BC, a
1238:
1231:Establishment
1228:
1226:
1222:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1205:
1203:
1199:
1195:
1192:. He visited
1191:
1187:
1183:
1179:
1175:
1166:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1129:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1107:
1103:
1099:
1098:Cleopatra VII
1095:
1091:
1086:
1084:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1063:
1059:
1058:
1053:
1051:
1045:
1043:
1039:
1035:
1031:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1018:
1013:
1009:
1005:
1001:
1000:
995:
991:
987:
983:
982:his campaigns
979:
975:
971:
969:
966:and cultural
965:
961:
957:
953:
949:
945:
941:
937:
933:
929:
926:
925:Ancient Greek
922:
917:
905:
899:
857:
845:
840:
838:
833:
831:
826:
825:
823:
822:
819:
809:
808:
798:
796:
793:
792:
788:
786:
783:
782:
778:
776:
773:
772:
768:
766:
763:
762:
757:
752:
751:
741:
739:
736:
735:
731:
729:
726:
725:
721:
719:
716:
715:
711:
709:
708:Ottoman Egypt
706:
705:
699:
694:
693:
683:
681:
678:
677:
673:
671:
668:
667:
663:
661:
658:
657:
653:
651:
648:
647:
643:
641:
638:
637:
633:
631:
628:
627:
623:
621:
618:
617:
613:
611:
608:
607:
602:
597:
596:
586:
584:
581:
580:
576:
574:
571:
570:
566:
564:
561:
560:
556:
554:
551:
550:
542:
541:
531:
529:
526:
525:
521:
519:
516:
515:
511:
509:
506:
505:
501:
499:
496:
495:
491:
489:
486:
485:
481:
479:
476:
475:
471:
469:
466:
465:
461:
459:
456:
455:
450:
449:Ancient Egypt
445:
444:
434:
432:
429:
428:
423:
418:
417:
413:
409:
408:
405:
399:
398:
393:
388:
387:
367:
365:
362:
361:
358:
352:
349:
342:
341:
338:
335:
328:
327:
324:
323:
320:
317:
315:
312:
311:
307:
304:
303:Greek Drachma
301:
297:
293:
289:
283:
279:
274:
270:
266:
260:
256:
250:
246:
243:
240:
236:
232:
226:
225:Cleopatra VII
223:
217:
211:
208:
202:
198:
194:
192:
188:
187:
182:
179:
176:
173:
169:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
150:
147:
144:
141:
138:
134:
130:
127:
126:
124:
120:
114:
111:
108:
105:
104:
102:
98:
95:
92:
88:
83:
77:
72:
65:
64:Eagle of Zeus
59:
52:
47:
43:
33:
30:
19:
8810:Contemporary
8660:Indo-Persian
8648:Nazi Germany
8592:Contemporary
8494:Vijayanagara
8393:Great Seljuk
8304:Thessalonica
8232:Golden Horde
7872:Carthaginian
7753:
7651:Neo-Assyrian
7636:Neo-Sumerian
7530:Alexander II
7386:Paerisades V
7349:Spartokos IV
7313:Paerisades I
7288:Ariarathes X
7243:Ariarathes V
7218:Ariarathes I
7200:Antiochus IV
7185:Antiochus II
7117:Pharnaces II
7078:Ariobarzanes
7050:Nicomedes IV
7040:Nicomedes II
6966:Apollophanes
6951:Hippostratos
6866:Heliokles II
6826:Demetrius II
6806:Antimachus I
6768:Eucratides I
6763:Demetrius II
6748:Antimachus I
6733:Euthydemus I
6418:Ptolemy XIII
6393:Berenice III
6313:
6240:Antipater II
6207:Alexander IV
5996:Online books
5986:
5967:
5960:
5959:A. Lampela,
5953:
5946:
5928:
5920:
5913:
5906:
5883:
5863:
5847:
5837:. New York:
5834:
5825:
5806:
5787:
5767:
5751:. Retrieved
5732:
5712:
5705:
5693:. Retrieved
5687:
5677:
5664:
5647:
5643:
5634:
5625:
5616:
5604:
5596:
5584:
5576:
5548:
5541:
5521:
5514:
5495:
5483:. Retrieved
5479:academia.edu
5478:
5468:
5448:
5441:
5421:
5414:
5395:
5389:
5369:
5362:
5340:
5333:
5328:
5319:
5300:
5294:
5284:
5275:
5255:
5248:
5239:
5231:
5224:
5220:
5211:
5200:
5196:
5191:
5182:
5174:
5169:
5161:
5156:
5148:
5143:
5131:
5127:
5123:
5118:
5110:
5107:Kerkeosiris,
5106:
5101:
5085:
5081:
5076:
5068:
5063:
5055:
5050:
5042:
5038:
5033:
5021:. Retrieved
4999:
4956:
4949:
4919:(1): 43–52.
4916:
4912:
4906:
4879:
4873:
4861:
4839:. Retrieved
4835:
4826:
4799:
4793:
4784:
4775:
4749:. Retrieved
4735:
4726:
4720:
4693:
4668:. Retrieved
4664:
4655:
4628:
4610:
4601:
4589:. Retrieved
4585:
4559:. Retrieved
4555:
4527:. Retrieved
4523:
4499:. Retrieved
4495:
4486:
4478:Egyptian Art
4477:
4471:
4462:
4456:
4425:
4415:
4388:
4382:
4370:
4328:
4316:
4305:, retrieved
4283:
4273:
4264:
4252:
4232:
4225:
4213:
4201:
4193:
4186:
4142:
4130:
4120:
4111:
4100:
4095:
4078:
4073:
4066:
4053:
4040:
4024:
4019:
3999:
3992:
3987:, p. 4.
3980:
3968:
3949:
3943:
3923:
3916:
3904:. Retrieved
3900:
3862:
3855:
3835:
3828:
3812:
3804:
3792:. Retrieved
3782:
3772:
3770:
3755:
3735:
3707:
3703:
3658:
3652:
3644:
3639:
3609:
3508:
3480:
3447:
3438:Altes Museum
3425:
3423:
3419:
3403:
3398:
3388:
3377:
3367:thureophoros
3365:
3356:Demographics
3326:
3300:
3292:
3288:Eratosthenes
3261:
3245:
3230:
3195:
3153:
3136:Indian Ocean
3134:towards the
3104:
3089:
3043:
3041:
3010:
2983:As in other
2982:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2949:misthophoroi
2948:
2944:
2936:
2929:
2925:
2919:
2916:
2882:
2861:
2858:
2848:
2844:
2838:
2834:
2827:
2825:
2794:
2790:
2781:noble family
2778:
2774:
2711:
2696:
2692:
2682:
2645:
2637:
2622:
2605:
2581:
2566:
2560:
2550:
2546:
2534:
2463:
2452:
2442:
2423:Roman Senate
2412:
2386:Roman Empire
2382:
2374:
2363:
2344:
2319:Altes Museum
2317:bust in the
2313:Left image:
2260:
2233:
2218:
2191:
2187:
2157:
2147:
2142:thea neotera
2141:
2090:
2085:
2072:and her son
2063:
2049:
2030:
2022:Cleopatra II
2011:
2000:as Egyptian
1973:, while the
1949:
1867:
1851:
1808:
1784:
1752:Ptolemy VIII
1745:
1729:Eratosthenes
1697:
1678:
1648:
1594:
1587:
1552:
1505:
1471:
1451:
1396:
1337:
1309:Berenice III
1305:Cleopatra II
1294:
1288:
1269:
1234:
1206:
1171:
1135:
1087:
1055:
1048:
1046:
1015:
997:
984:against the
972:
920:
855:
853:
799:1953–present
698:Early modern
577:30 BC–641 AD
562:
512:1550–1069 BC
502:1650–1550 BC
492:2055–1650 BC
482:2181–2055 BC
472:2686–2181 BC
462:3150–2686 BC
435:6000–3000 BC
319:Succeeded by
318:
313:
184:
49:305 BC–30 BC
41:
29:
8398:Khwarezmian
8331:Carolingian
8136:Rashtrakuta
7840:Shaishunaga
7739:Hellenistic
7722:New Kingdom
7712:Old Kingdom
7551:Pyrrhus III
7535:Olympias II
7505:Alexander I
7362: [
7359:Spartokos V
7228:Ariamnes II
7175:Antiochus I
7137:Pythodorida
7093:Pharnaces I
7014:Zipoetes II
7009:Nicomedes I
6926:Artemidoros
6921:Menander II
6861:Antialcidas
6846:Agathokleia
6801:Demetrius I
6793:Indo-Greeks
6783:Heliocles I
6738:Demetrius I
6728:Diodotus II
6705:Eumenes III
6700:Attalus III
6675:Philetaerus
6644:Lysimachids
6456:Berenice II
6423:Ptolemy XIV
6305:(pretender)
6235:Alexander V
6217:Antipatrids
6175:Hellenistic
5848:Callimachus
5096:, pp. 61–84
4166:, p. 7
4135:Grabbe 2008
4103:(1), 1–13.
3985:Rawles 2019
3724:1874/386645
3589:Indo-Greeks
3519:durum wheat
3505:Agriculture
3341:Nile Valley
3268:Callimachus
3162:built many
3098:during the
3069:Hellenistic
3037:Macedonians
2985:Hellenistic
2878:Elephantine
2870:Coele-Syria
2866:Ptolemy III
2840:tetradrachm
2726:Harpocrates
2601:New Kingdom
2593:Late Period
2589:New Kingdom
2473:mercenaries
2333:Hellenistic
2240:Mark Antony
2221:Ptolemy XIV
2178:Ptolemy XII
2168:Berenice IV
2137:θεά νεωτέρα
2115:Final years
2012:In 170 BC,
1979:Coele-Syria
1920:Berenice II
1870:Hugronaphor
1840:Koine Greek
1832:hieroglyphs
1756:Ptolemy XII
1613:Callimachus
1580:Aristarchus
1559:Callimachus
1467:Syrian Wars
1429:, ruler of
1417:(including
1415:Coele-Syria
1349:Upper Egypt
1329:Ptolemy XIV
1317:Cleopatra V
1313:Berenice IV
1172:In 332 BC,
1150:Koine Greek
1148:written in
1126:Middle Ages
1114:Roman Egypt
1079:Osiris myth
1062:bureaucracy
1030:Hellenistic
1022:Syrian Wars
934:during the
904:Koinē Greek
528:Late Period
522:1069–664 BC
508:New Kingdom
468:Old Kingdom
401:History of
364:Roman Egypt
314:Preceded by
175:Hellenistic
159:Hermeticism
9076:Categories
8968:Portuguese
8849:Revival Le
8839:Vietnamese
8482:Later Tran
8452:Vietnamese
8348:Singhasari
8336:Holy Roman
7960:Bulgarian
7896:Satavahana
7867:Phoenician
7803:Achaemenid
7764:Indo-Greek
7744:Macedonian
7658:Babylonian
7541:Pyrrhus II
7520:Alcetas II
7485:Tharrhypas
7452:Gepaepyris
7424:Scribonius
7318:Satyros II
7248:Orophernes
7160:Ptolemaeus
7142:Polemon II
7035:Prusias II
7004:Zipoetes I
6976:Strato III
6901:Theophilos
6881:Philoxenus
6836:Menander I
6816:Agathocles
6758:Agathocles
6723:Diodotus I
6695:Attalus II
6690:Eumenes II
6652:Lysimachus
6260:Antigonids
5672:, p. 20-21
5485:19 October
5289:Australia.
5105:Crawford,
4333:Hölbl 2000
4321:Hölbl 2000
4206:Hölbl 2000
4196:3.17.1.606
4179:Hölbl 2000
4087:2471466915
3973:Hölbl 2000
3710:(1): 168.
3632:References
3511:irrigation
3462:Septuagint
3411:Alexandria
3284:Archimedes
3276:Theocritus
3253:lighthouse
3233:Alexandria
3216:Alexandria
3210:Alexandria
3172:Alexandria
3120:Aegean Sea
3112:Nea Paphos
3108:Alexandria
3085:blockading
3065:Ptolemy II
2933:Theocritus
2845:decadrachm
2835:octadrachm
2652:Arsinoe II
2648:Ptolemy II
2504:Arsinoe II
2437:Ptolemaic
2419:Equestrian
2392:Roman rule
1773:Ptolemy IV
1767:Ptolemy IV
1670:Aegean Sea
1621:Theocritus
1609:Arsinoe II
1601:Lysimachus
1589:Aegyptiaca
1571:Posidippus
1563:Theocritus
1548:Port Sudan
1502:309–246 BC
1490:Ptolemy II
1484:Ptolemy II
1333:Ptolemy XV
1219:. He left
1213:Alexandria
1202:Siwa Oasis
1176:, King of
1160:Background
1120:until the
1067:Hellenized
1028:, a rival
1014:, a Greek
1012:Alexandria
1004:Macedonian
976:conquered
968:syncretism
954:until the
940:Macedonian
557:332–310 BC
532:664–332 BC
276:Population
171:Government
109:(official)
94:Alexandria
8961:Couronian
8599:Ethiopian
8587:Manchukuo
8542:Brazilian
8388:Ghaznavid
8358:Srivijaya
8309:Trebizond
8294:Byzantine
8276:North Sea
8271:Norwegian
8259:Almoravid
8242:Ilkhanate
8212:Majapahit
8185:Muromachi
8094:Solomonic
8079:Ethiopian
7993:Caliphate
7926:Aragonese
7754:Ptolemaic
7525:Pyrrhus I
7490:Alcetas I
7396:Pharnaces
7371:Kamasarye
7354:Leukon II
7338:Hygiainon
7293:Archelaus
7132:Polemon I
7030:Prusias I
6971:Strato II
6961:Zoilos II
6956:Dionysios
6936:Archebius
6906:Peukolaos
6871:Polyxenos
6811:Pantaleon
6753:Pantaleon
6685:Attalus I
6680:Eumenes I
6486:Seleucids
6314:Ptolemies
6303:Philip VI
6250:Sosthenes
6230:Philip IV
6225:Cassander
6192:Philip II
5232:pp. 12–13
5130:63 (01),
4941:161676438
4898:191732570
4818:744946342
4712:191732570
4647:191732570
4407:191732570
3794:5 January
3732:154234093
3704:Mnemosyne
3415:Ptolemais
3407:Naucratis
3384:Egyptians
3329:Ptolemais
3317:Ptolemais
3192:Naucratis
3186:Naucratis
3180:Ptolemais
3176:Naucratis
3168:Hellenize
3073:antiquity
3048:Ptolemy I
3033:Seleucids
2957:stathmoi,
2712:A common
2656:Aphrodite
2633:Asklepios
2469:Naucratis
2417:from the
2229:Caesarion
2164:Tryphaena
2050:strategos
1874:Ankhmakis
1720:Euripides
1716:Sophocles
1712:Aeschylus
1666:Babylonia
1597:Arsinoe I
1527:Pamphylia
1443:Demetrius
1439:Babylonia
1427:Antigonus
1399:Ptolemy I
1375:Ptolemy I
1369:Ptolemy I
1340:Egyptians
1296:basilissa
1291:Cleopatra
1245:Perdiccas
1217:Phoenicia
1024:with the
990:His death
964:religious
930:based in
789:1922–1953
779:1914–1922
769:1882–1922
742:1867–1914
732:1805–1953
722:1798–1801
712:1517–1867
684:1250–1517
674:1171–1250
567:310–30 BC
122:Religion
8941:Japanese
8904:Scottish
8884:American
8876:Colonial
8805:Imperial
8773:Moroccan
8709:Japanese
8687:Afsharid
8546:Burmese
8532:Austrian
8487:Later Le
8462:Early Le
8447:Venetian
8373:Tiwanaku
8286:Hellenic
8249:Moroccan
8180:Kamakura
8170:Japanese
8153:Saffarid
8106:Georgian
8020:Chalukya
7998:Rashidun
7988:Calakmul
7956:Bruneian
7835:Haryanka
7813:Sasanian
7808:Parthian
7759:Bactrian
7749:Seleucid
7729:Goguryeo
7707:Egyptian
7641:Assyrian
7631:Akkadian
7622:Colonies
7556:Deidamia
7537:(regent)
7510:Aeacides
7447:Aspurgus
7340:(regent)
7323:Prytanis
7165:Sames II
7021:(regent)
6994:Boteiras
6941:Telephos
6931:Hermaeus
6886:Diomedes
6856:Strato I
6841:Zoilos I
6667:Attalids
6354:(regent)
6293:Philip V
5765:(2008),
5568:42578681
5504:Archived
5323:Rickard.
5124:Machimoi
4761:cite web
4670:24 April
4609:(1990).
4591:12 April
4561:12 April
4529:17 April
4501:17 April
4083:ProQuest
3821:original
3773:basileus
3541:See also
3493:and the
3405:the old
3399:cleruchs
3044:diadochi
2977:machimoi
2965:machimoi
2961:cleruchs
2884:machimoi
2874:Pelusium
2862:diadochi
2855:Military
2611:Religion
2359:Octavian
2346:Octavian
2244:Octavian
2236:Senators
2086:de facto
1996:Ring of
1938:for her
1934:-shaped
1708:Serapeum
1685:Anatolia
1474:Berenice
1435:Seleucus
1271:basileus
1154:Egyptian
1096:. Under
1077:per the
1057:basileus
999:diadochi
942:general
795:Republic
664:969–1171
392:a series
390:Part of
299:Currency
186:Basileus
178:monarchy
145:(common)
137:official
113:Egyptian
9008:largest
9003:Empires
8983:Swedish
8978:Spanish
8973:Russian
8936:Italian
8911:Chinese
8899:English
8894:British
8889:Belgian
8864:Vietnam
8854:Tay son
8800:Tsarist
8795:Russian
8790:Ottoman
8756:Dzungar
8751:Khoshut
8724:Mexican
8719:Maratha
8702:Pahlavi
8682:Safavid
8677:Iranian
8604:Haitian
8567:Chinese
8527:Ashanti
8499:Wagadou
8425:Eastern
8420:Western
8403:Timurid
8363:Tibetan
8353:Songhai
8343:Serbian
8264:Almohad
8254:Idrisid
8158:Samanid
8148:Tahirid
8143:Iranian
8121:Kannauj
8101:Genoese
8037:Chinese
8030:Eastern
8025:Western
8013:Fatimid
8008:Abbasid
8003:Umayyad
7976:Burmese
7936:Ayyubid
7931:Angevin
7901:Xianbei
7889:Eastern
7884:Western
7830:Magadha
7793:Iranian
7786:Xiongnu
7771:Hittite
7680:Chinese
7668:Kassite
7617:Ancient
7609:Empires
7546:Ptolemy
7500:Arybbas
7480:Admetus
7462:Cotys I
7442:Polemon
7437:Polemon
7433:Dynamis
7428:Dynamis
7419:Dynamis
7415:Asander
7405:Dynamis
7401:Asander
7328:Eumelos
7127:Arsaces
7102:Laodice
7025:Ziaelas
7019:Etazeta
6896:Epander
6891:Amyntas
6298:Perseus
6184:Argeads
5753:6 April
5724:Sources
5695:24 June
4841:17 June
4307:12 June
3817:18.21.9
3619:Demotic
3495:Red Sea
3458:Aramaic
3264:Library
3199:Temenos
3132:Red Sea
2973:arouras
2937:misthos
2920:patris.
2816:Coinage
2736:Society
2703:Saqqara
2629:Serapis
2429:Culture
2415:emperor
2366:triumph
2225:Dendara
2184:, Egypt
2182:Dendera
2153:pharaoh
2054:Boethus
2002:pharaoh
1957:of The
1836:Demotic
1820:Memphis
1816:Canopus
1811:Pharaoh
1804:Arsinoë
1762:Decline
1704:Musaeum
1702:in the
1689:Macedon
1584:Manetho
1523:Cilicia
1454:Corinth
1425:. When
1421:), and
1301:regnant
1276:pharaoh
1257:Ptolemy
1237:Babylon
1225:nomarch
1200:at the
1194:Memphis
1184:of the
1182:satrapy
1178:Macedon
1146:ostraca
1132:History
1050:pharaoh
923:was an
654:935–969
644:868–905
634:750–935
624:661–750
614:641–661
587:619–629
213:(first)
191:Pharaoh
154:Judaism
131:within
90:Capital
9132:305 BC
8946:Mongol
8931:German
8926:French
8916:Danish
8859:Dainam
8834:Tongan
8822:Somali
8817:Sokoto
8783:'Alawi
8761:Kalmyk
8741:Mongol
8734:Second
8714:Korean
8665:Mughal
8655:Indian
8638:German
8631:Second
8621:French
8614:Second
8550:Second
8522:Afghan
8514:Modern
8440:Kyrgyz
8435:Uighur
8430:Second
8410:Turkic
8378:Toltec
8314:Epirus
8299:Nicaea
8222:Mongol
8175:Yamato
8111:Huetar
7969:Second
7906:Rouran
7855:Shunga
7850:Maurya
7825:Kushan
7798:Median
7776:Hunnic
7734:Harsha
7122:Darius
6916:Nicias
6911:Thraso
6851:Lysias
6177:rulers
5984:about
5935:
5898:
5890:
5878:
5870:
5813:
5794:
5775:
5744:
5566:
5556:
5529:
5456:
5429:
5402:
5377:
5307:
5263:
5132:p. 225
5092:
5023:8 June
5014:
4964:
4939:
4933:542233
4931:
4896:
4886:
4816:
4806:
4751:22 May
4710:
4700:
4645:
4635:
4444:
4405:
4395:
4298:
4240:
4085:
4031:
4007:
3956:
3931:
3906:8 June
3870:
3843:
3763:
3730:
3673:
3622:papyri
3515:Faiyum
3454:Hebrew
3426:poleis
3337:Thinis
3296:Greeks
3280:Euclid
3274:, and
3249:Pharos
3178:, and
3158:, the
3142:Cities
3122:, and
3116:Cyprus
3029:Thrace
3025:Aegean
3023:, the
3017:Cyprus
2969:Kleroi
2953:kleroi
2830:drachm
2785:Greeks
2730:Akhmim
2718:cippus
2707:Khonsu
2675:diadem
2439:mosaic
2350:Actium
2337:diadem
2335:royal
2284:Judaea
2282:, and
2280:Cyprus
2272:Cyrene
2268:Tarsus
2101:Cyprus
2041:Philae
1971:Thrace
1936:brooch
1932:anchor
1912:Mendes
1908:Thmuis
1904:mosaic
1838:, and
1799:Raphia
1724:Athens
1718:, and
1674:Thrace
1576:Euclid
1515:Aegean
1478:Arrian
1423:Cyprus
1392:Louvre
1331:, and
1261:satrap
1142:papyri
1036:, the
928:polity
394:on the
257:305 BC
228:(last)
195:
9142:30 BC
8996:Lists
8951:Omani
8921:Dutch
8827:Isaaq
8778:Saadi
8746:Oirat
8729:First
8697:Qajar
8626:First
8609:First
8582:China
8555:Third
8415:First
8368:Tikal
8319:Morea
8289:Roman
8207:Latin
8202:Khmer
8197:Kanem
8163:Buyid
8089:Zagwe
8084:Aksum
8074:Chola
7981:First
7964:First
7951:Bornu
7946:Benin
7941:Aztec
7879:Roman
7860:Gupta
7845:Nanda
7781:White
7435:with
7417:with
7403:with
7366:]
7100:with
6773:Plato
6451:Magas
5357:Muhs.
5341:p. 75
5084:, in
4937:S2CID
4929:JSTOR
4745:(PDF)
4552:(PDF)
4191:Galen
3728:S2CID
3700:(PDF)
3601:Notes
3524:Crete
3499:Arabs
3477:Arabs
3395:Judea
3389:Many
3349:Greek
3164:Greek
3156:Egypt
3021:Crete
2907:tunic
2828:penta
2714:stele
2623:When
2443:askos
2276:Crete
2097:Libya
2033:Nubia
1967:Caria
1940:robes
1906:from
1844:Horus
1722:from
1535:Caria
1531:Lycia
1463:Ipsus
1431:Syria
1419:Judea
1411:Libya
1357:Greek
1278:. As
1042:Nubia
1038:Sinai
1034:Libya
1017:polis
932:Egypt
919:) or
700:Egypt
403:Egypt
267:30 BC
107:Greek
8766:Bogd
8692:Zand
8670:Sikh
8577:Qing
8572:Ming
8504:Wari
8472:Tran
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