233:
224:
651:, a 50 Mt (210 PJ) hydrogen bomb which derived almost 97% of its energy from fusion rather than fission—its uranium tamper was replaced with one of lead shortly before firing, in an effort to prevent excessive nuclear fallout. Had it been fired in its "full" form, it would have yielded at around 100 Mt (420 PJ). The weapon was technically deployable (it was tested by dropping it from a specially modified bomber), but militarily impractical, and was developed and tested primarily as a show of Soviet strength. It is the largest nuclear weapon developed and tested by any country.
739:, said that India's assertion of having detonated a staged thermonuclear bomb was believable. The British seismologist Roger Clarke argued that seismic magnitudes suggested a combined yield of up to 60 kilotonnes, consistent with the Indian announced total yield of 56 kilotonnes. Professor Jack Evernden, a US seismologist, has always maintained that for correct estimation of yields, one should "account properly for geological and seismological differences between test sites." His estimation of the yields of the Indian tests concur with those of India.
363:"). However, compression alone would not have been enough and the other crucial idea, staging the bomb by separating the primary and secondary, seems to have been exclusively contributed by Ulam. The elegance of the design impressed many scientists, to the point that some who previously wondered if it were feasible suddenly believed it was inevitable and that it would be created by both the US and the Soviet Union. Even Oppenheimer, who was originally opposed to the project, called the idea "technically sweet." The "George" shot of
66:
187:, argued that such a development was inevitable, and to deny such protection to the people of the United States—especially when the Soviet Union was likely to create such a weapon itself—was itself an immoral and unwise act. Still others, such as Oppenheimer, simply thought that the existing stockpile of fissile material was better spent in attempting to develop a large arsenal of tactical atomic weapons rather than potentially squandered on the development of a few massive "Supers".
284:
642:, which became an international incident involving Japan, told Sakharov that the US design was much better than theirs, and he decided that they must have exploded a separate fission bomb and somehow used its energy to compress the lithium deuteride. He then turned his focus to finding a way for an explosion to one side to be used to compress the ball of fusion fuel within 5% of symmetry, which he realised could be achieved by focusing the X-rays.
817:
1036:
known with any great confidence. The difficulty which a number of nations had in developing the Teller–Ulam design (even when they understood the design, such as with the United
Kingdom) makes it somewhat unlikely that the simple information alone is what provides the ability to manufacture thermonuclear weapons. Nevertheless, the ideas put forward by Morland in 1979 have been the basis for all current speculation on the Teller–Ulam design.
673:" test, which yielded 1.8 Mt. The British development of the Teller–Ulam design was apparently independent, but it was allowed to share in some US fallout data which may have been useful. After the successful detonation of a megaton-range device and thus its practical understanding of the Teller–Ulam design "secret," the United States agreed to exchange some of its nuclear designs with the United Kingdom, which led to the
610:
438:). The dry lithium mixture performed much better than had been expected, and the "Castle Bravo" device that was detonated in 1954 had a yield two-and-a-half times greater than had been expected (at 15 Mt (63 PJ), it was also the most powerful bomb ever detonated by the United States). Because much of the yield came from the final fission stage of its
105:, where he guided discussion towards the idea of creating his "Super" bomb, which would hypothetically be many times more powerful than the yet-undeveloped fission weapon. Teller assumed creating the fission bomb would be nothing more than an engineering problem, and that the "Super" provided a much more interesting theoretical challenge.
605:
short-lived isotopes formed in the course of thermonuclear reactions could have made it possible to judge the degree of compression of the thermonuclear fuel, but knowing the degree of compression would not have allowed Soviet scientists to conclude exactly how the exploded device had been made, and it would not have revealed its design.
980:
magazine, was sent to the DOE after it had fallen into the hands of a professor who was opposed to
Morland's goal, the DOE requested that the article not be published and pressed for a temporary injunction. After a short court hearing in which the DOE argued that Morland's information was (1). likely
166:
scientists at Los Alamos were surprised by how devastating the effects of the weapon had been. Many of the scientists rebelled against the notion of creating a weapon thousands of times more powerful than the first atomic bombs. For the scientists the question was in part technical—the weapon design
895:
was declassified in 1991: "Fact that fissile and/or fissionable materials are present in some secondaries, material unidentified, location unspecified, use unspecified, and weapons undesignated." In 1998, the DOE declassified the statement that "The fact that materials may be present in channels and
321:
Teller became known in the press as the "father of the hydrogen bomb", a title which he did not seek to discourage. Many of Teller's colleagues were irritated that he seemed to enjoy taking full credit for something he had only a part in, and in response, with encouragement from Enrico Fermi, Teller
287:
A view of the "Sausage" device casing, with its instrumentation and cryogenic equipment attached. The long pipes were for measurement purposes; their function was to transmit the first radiation from the "primary" and "secondary" stages (known as "Teller light") to instruments just as the device was
190:
In any case, work slowed greatly at Los Alamos, as some 5,500 of the 7,100 scientists and related staff who had been there at the conclusion of the war left to go back to their previous positions at universities and laboratories. A conference was held at Los Alamos in 1946 to examine the feasibility
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Because the DOE sought to censor
Morland's work, one of the few times that it violated its usual approach of not acknowledging "secret" material that had been released, it is interpreted as being at least partially correct, but to what degree it lacks information or has incorrect information is not
346:
The Teller–Ulam breakthrough—the details of which are still classified—was apparently the separation of the fission and fusion components of the weapons, and to use the radiation produced by the fission bomb to first compress the fusion fuel before igniting it. Some sources have suggested that Ulam
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In 1972, the DOE declassified a statement that "The fact that in thermonuclear (TN) weapons, a fission 'primary' is used to trigger a TN reaction in thermonuclear fuel referred to as a 'secondary'", and in 1979, it added: "The fact that, in thermonuclear weapons, radiation from a fission explosive
540:
device did, however, have the advantage of being a weapon which could actually be delivered to a military target, unlike the "Ivy Mike" device, though it was never widely deployed. Teller had proposed a similar design as early as 1946, dubbed the "Alarm Clock" (meant to "wake up" research into the
326:
magazine in
February 1955, emphasizing that he was not alone in the weapon's development (he would later write in his memoirs that he had told a "white lie" in the 1955 article, and would imply that he should receive full credit for the weapon's invention). Hans Bethe, who also participated in the
251:
The exact history of the Teller–Ulam breakthrough is not completely known, partly because of numerous conflicting personal accounts and also by the continued classification of documents that would reveal which was closer to the truth. Previous models of the "Super" had apparently placed the fusion
141:
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had speculated that North Korea might be trying to develop a "hydrogen bomb" and such a device might be North Korea's next weapons test. In
January 2016, North Korea claimed to have successfully tested a hydrogen bomb, but only a magnitude 5.1 seismic event was detected at the time of the test, a
604:
At that time, Soviet research was not organized on a sufficiently high level, and useful results were not obtained, although radiochemical analyses of samples of fallout could have provided some useful information about the materials used to produce the explosion. The relationship between certain
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design to achieve megaton-range results proved unfeasible in the Soviet Union as it had in the calculations done in the US, but its value as a practical weapon since it was 20 times more powerful than their first fission bomb, should not be underestimated. The Soviet physicists calculated that at
292:
The issue is controversial. Bethe in his “Memorandum on the
History of the Thermonuclear Program” (1952) cited Teller as the discoverer of an “entirely new approach to thermonuclear reactions”, which “was a matter of inspiration” and was “therefore, unpredictable” and “largely accidental.” At the
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scientists (including Teller and Ulam, though neither gave him any useful information), and used a variety of interpersonal strategies to encourage informational responses from them (such as by asking questions such as "Do they still use sparkplugs?" even if he was unaware what the latter term
278:
I contributed; Ulam did not. I'm sorry I had to answer it in this abrupt way. Ulam was rightly dissatisfied with an old approach. He came to me with a part of an idea which I already had worked out and difficulty getting people to listen to. He was willing to sign a paper. When it then came to
252:
fuel either surrounding the fission "trigger" (in a spherical formation) or at the heart of it (similar to a "boosted" weapon) in the hopes that the closer the fuel was to the fission explosion, the higher the chance it would ignite the fusion fuel by the sheer force of the heat generated.
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and allow citizens to feel empowered to question official statements on the importance of nuclear weapons and nuclear secrecy. Most of
Morland's ideas about how the weapon worked were compiled from highly-accessible sources; the drawings that most inspired his approach came from the
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case was moot, dropped its suit, and allowed the magazine to publish, which it did in
November 1979. Morland had by then, however, changed his opinion of how the bomb worked to suggesting that a foam medium (the polystyrene) rather than radiation pressure was used to compress the
198:" by the US) in August 1949, it caught Western analysts off guard, and over the next several months there was an intense debate within the US government, military, and scientific communities on whether to proceed with the far-more-powerful Super. On January 31, 1950, US President
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had only been at Los Alamos at a very early stage of the hydrogen bomb design (before the Teller–Ulam configuration had been completed), none of his espionage information was of much use, and the Soviet physicists working on the project had to develop their weapon independently.
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best the design might yield a single megaton of energy if it was pushed to its limits. After the US tested the "Ivy Mike" device in 1952, proving that a multimegaton bomb could be created, the Soviet Union searched for an additional design and continued to work on improving the
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similar magnitude to the 2013 test of a 6–9 kt atomic bomb. Those seismic recordings have scientists worldwide doubting North Korea's claim that a hydrogen bomb was tested and suggest it was a non-fusion nuclear test. On
September 9, 2016, North Korea conducted their
129:. The "Super", however, proved elusive, and the calculations were incredibly difficult to perform, especially since there was no existing way to run small-scale tests of the principles involved (in comparison, the properties of fission could be more easily probed with
1002:
Through a variety of more complicated circumstances, the DOE case began to wane, as it became clear that some of the data it attempted to claim as "secret" had been published in a students' encyclopedia a few years earlier. After another hydrogen bomb speculator,
776:
North Korea claimed to have tested its miniaturised thermonuclear bomb on
January 6, 2016. North Korea's first three nuclear tests (2006, 2009 and 2013) had a relatively low yield and do not appear to have been of a thermonuclear weapon design. In 2013, the
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hydrogen bomb project, once said, "For the sake of history, I think it is more precise to say that Ulam is the father, because he provided the seed, and Teller is the mother, because he remained with the child. As for me, I guess I am the midwife."
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from fireball radius scaling laws, one would expect the fireball to reach down and engulf the ground ... In fact, the shock wave reaches the ground ... and bounces upward, striking the bottom of the fireball, ... preventing actual contact with the
902:
Whether the statements vindicate some or all of the models presented above is up for interpretation, and official US government releases about the technical details of nuclear weapons have been purposely equivocating in the past (such as the
167:
was still quite uncertain and unworkable—and in part moral: such a weapon, they argued, could only be used against large civilian populations, and could thus only be used as a weapon of genocide. Many scientists, such as Teller's colleague
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634:(the Soviet weapons laboratory) had mistakenly poured the concentrate down the drain before it could be analyzed. Only in the fall of 1952 did the Soviet Union set up an organized system for monitoring fallout data. Nonetheless, the
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The details of the development of the Teller–Ulam design in other countries are less well known. In any event, the United Kingdom initially had difficulty in its development of it and failed in its first attempt in May 1957 (its
108:
For the remainder of the war the effort was focused on first developing fission weapons. Nevertheless, Teller continued to pursue the "Super", to the point of neglecting work assigned to him for the fission weapon at the secret
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can be contained and used to transfer energy to compress and ignite a physically separate component containing thermonuclear fuel." To the latter sentence, it specified, "Any elaboration of this statement will be classified."
553:(the "First Idea"). The "Second Idea", as Sakharov referred to it in his memoirs, was a previous proposal by Ginzburg in November 1948 to use lithium deuteride in the bomb, which would, by the bombardment by neutrons, produce
52:. The design – the details of which are military secrets and known to only a handful of major nations – is believed to be used in virtually all modern nuclear weapons that make up the arsenals of the major nuclear powers.
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equipment, as its fusion fuel, and it had a mass of around 80 short tons (73 tonnes) altogether. An initial press blackout was attempted, but it was soon announced that the US had detonated a megaton-range hydrogen bomb.
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860:
The general principles of the "classical Super" design were public knowledge even before thermonuclear weapons were first tested. After Truman ordered the crash program to develop the hydrogen bomb in January 1950, the
851:
Here is a short discussion of the events that led to the formation of the "public" models of the Teller–Ulam design, with some discussions as to their differences and disagreements with those principles outlined above.
314:, writes that Teller sought to "conceal the role" of Ulam, and that only "radiation implosion" was Teller's idea. Teller went as far as refusing to sign the patent application because it would need Ulam's signature.
993:, Morland and his lawyers disagreed on all points, but the injunction was granted, as the judge in the case thought that it was safer to grant the injunction and allow Morland, et al., to appeal, which they did in
209:
alone from the fission bomb would be used to ignite the fusion material, but that proved to be impossible. For a while, many scientists thought (and hoped) that the weapon itself would be impossible to construct.
268:" is not definitively known in the public domain—the degree of credit assigned to Teller by his contemporaries is almost exactly commensurate with how well they thought of Teller in general. In an interview with
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535:
than a Teller–Ulam weapon (though using an order of magnitude more fusion fuel than a boosted weapon). Detonated in 1953 with a yield equivalent to 400 kt (1,700 TJ) (only 15%–20% from fusion), the
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would have touched the ground were it not for the shock wave from the explosion reflecting off the ground and striking the bottom of the fireball, and nearly reached as high as the altitude of the deploying
2328:
259:
was seized upon by Teller and developed into the first workable design for a megaton-range hydrogen bomb. This concept, now called "staged implosion" was first proposed in a classified scientific paper,
844:(DOE) has always been not to acknowledge when "leaks" occur since doing such would acknowledge the accuracy of the supposed leaked information. Aside from images of the warhead casing but never of the "
304:
was clear about assigning credit for the basic staging and compression ideas to Ulam, while giving Teller the credit for recognizing the critical role of radiation as opposed to hydrodynamic pressure.
2292:
689:"), a mere 32 months after detonating its first fission weapon (the shortest fission-to-fusion development yet known), with a yield of 3.3 Mt. Little is known about the Chinese thermonuclear program.
293:
Oppenheimer hearing, in 1954, Bethe spoke of Teller's “stroke of genius” in the invention of the H-bomb. And finally in 1997 Bethe stated that “the crucial invention was made in 1951, by Teller.”
2898:"Infamy and Honor at the Atomic Café: Father of the hydrogen bomb, "Star Wars" missile defense and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Edward Teller has no regrets about his contentious career"
1342:"Infamy and Honor at the Atomic Café: Father of the hydrogen bomb, "Star Wars" missile defense and Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Edward Teller has no regrets about his contentious career"
836:
The Teller–Ulam design was for many years considered one of the top nuclear secrets, and even today, it is not discussed in any detail by official publications with origins "behind the fence" of
527:(this was later dubbed Sakharov's "First Idea"). Though nuclear fusion was technically achieved, it did not have the scaling property of a "staged" weapon, and their first "hydrogen bomb" test, "
630:
Sakharov stated in his memoirs that though he and Davidenko had fallout dust in cardboard boxes several days after the "Mike" test with the hope of analyzing it for information, a chemist at
22:
728:
readings, have suggested that it might not be the case by pointing at the low yield of the test, which they say is close to 30 kilotons (as opposed to 45 kilotons announced by India).
410:," producing a much higher yield than originally estimated (11 megatons instead of 4), making it the third largest test ever conducted by the US. The Romeo "shrimp" device derived its
422:
The elaborate refrigeration plant necessary to keep its fusion fuel in a liquid state meant that the "Ivy Mike" device was too heavy and too complex to be of practical use. The first
318:
writes that "of course the bomb designers all knew the truth, and many considered Teller the lowest, most contemptible kind of offender in the world of science, a stealer of credit".
2315:"North Korea's Punggye-ri Nuclear Test Site: Satellite Imagery Shows Post-Test Effects and New Activity in Alternate Tunnel Portal Areas - 38 North: Informed Analysis of North Korea"
631:
596:, a key part of the Teller–Ulam device, and perhaps that the fusion fuel had been subjected to high amounts of compression before detonation. One of the key Soviet bomb designers,
471:
After an initial period focused on making multi-megaton hydrogen bombs, efforts in the United States shifted towards developing miniaturized Teller–Ulam weapons which could outfit
479:. The last major design breakthrough in this respect was accomplished by the mid-1970s, when versions of the Teller–Ulam design were created which could fit on the end of a small
205:
Many scientists returned to Los Alamos to work on the "Super" program, but the initial attempts still seemed highly unworkable. In the "classical Super," it was thought that the
2260:
874:
The fact that a large proportion of the yield of a thermonuclear device stems from the fission of a uranium 238 tamper (fission-fusion-fission principle) was revealed when the
462:, which caused one of the worst nuclear accidents in US history after unforeseen weather patterns blew it over populated areas of the atoll and Japanese fishermen on board the
179:), urged that the United States should not develop such weapons and set an example towards the Soviet Union. Promoters of the weapon, including Teller and Berkeley physicists
2362:
588:
If the Soviet Union had been able to analyze the fallout data from either the "Ivy Mike" or "Castle Bravo" tests, they could have been able to discern that the fission
581:
before fusion ("radiation implosion"), in the spring of 1954. Sakharov's "Third Idea", as the Teller–Ulam design was known in the Soviet Union, was tested in the shot "
2202:
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atoll, with a yield of 10.4 megatons of TNT (44 PJ) (over 450 times more powerful than the bomb dropped on Nagasaki during World War II). The device, dubbed the
932:
in 1979 on the "secret of the hydrogen bomb." In 1978, Morland had decided that discovering and exposing the "last remaining secret" would focus attention onto the
1326:
This is the original classified paper by Teller and Ulam proposing staged implosion. This declassified version is heavily redacted, leaving only a few paragraphs.
669:" test failed to ignite as planned, but much of its energy came from fusion in its secondary). However, it succeeded in its second attempt in its November 1957 "
1086:
The term "heterocatalytic" was Teller and Ulam's jargon for their new idea; using an atomic explosion to ignite a secondary explosion in a mass of fuel located
869:
Artist's conception of how H-bomb might work using atomic bomb as a mere "trigger" to generate enough heat to set up the H-bomb's "thermonuclear fusion" process
1801:
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were released. Initial estimates in first few days were between 70 and 160 kilotons and were raised over a week later to range of 250 to over 300 kilotons.
907:). Other information, such as the types of fuel used in some of the early weapons, has been declassified, but precise technical information has not been.
848:" itself, most information in the public domain about the design is relegated to a few terse statements and the work of a few individual investigators.
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232:
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estimated, based mainly on visual analysis of propaganda pictures, that the bomb might weigh between 250 and 360 kg (550 and 790 lb).
519:, after a Russian layered puff pastry, and was not of the Teller–Ulam configuration, but rather used alternating layers of fissile material and
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by Teller and Ulam on March 9, 1951. The exact amount of contribution provided respectively from Ulam and Teller to what became known as the "
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on the basis of those tests. Another cited reason for the low yields was that radioactivity released from yields significantly more than 45
338:" shot demonstrated that the Teller–Ulam design could be made deployable, but also that the final fission stage created large amounts of
1463:
531:" is no longer considered to be a "true" hydrogen bomb, and is rather considered a hybrid fission/fusion device more similar to a large
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704:
Very little is known about the French development of the Teller–Ulam design beyond the fact that it detonated a 2.6 Mt device in the "
163:
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of fissile material as well. He published the changes, based in part on the proceedings of the appeals trial, as a short erratum in
995:
783:
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in 1951 tested the basic concept for the first time on a very small scale (and the next shot in the series, "Item," was the first
1303:
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1947:"Pokhran – II tests were fully successful; given India capability to build nuclear deterrence: Dr. Kakodkar and Dr. Chidambaram"
981:
derived from classified sources, (2). if not derived from classified sources, itself counted as "secret" information under the "
2369:
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The Soviet Union demonstrated the power of the "staging" concept in October 1961 when they detonated the massive and unwieldy
2796:
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29:
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1007:, had his own ideas about the "secret" (quite different from Morland's) published in a Wisconsin newspaper, the DOE claimed
742:
Indian scientists have argued that some international estimations of the yields of India's nuclear tests are unscientific.
476:
77:
The idea of using the energy from a fission device to begin a fusion reaction was first proposed by the Italian physicist
674:
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test "ran away," producing a much higher yield than originally estimated and creating large amounts of nuclear fallout.
760:
Even low-yield tests can have a bearing on thermonuclear capability, as they can provide information on the behavior of
745:
India says that the yield of its tests were deliberately kept low to avoid civilian damage and that it can build staged
541:"Super"), though it was calculated to be ultimately not worth the effort and no prototype was ever developed or tested.
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1032:, about his experience, describing in detail the train of thought which led him to his conclusions about the "secret."
472:
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the term 'channel filler,' with no elaboration," which may refer to the polystyrene foam (or an analogous substance).
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parts of the bombs in separate pieces ("staging"). The next breakthrough was discovered and developed by Sakharov and
255:
In 1951, after many years of fruitless labor on the "Super", a breakthrough idea from the Polish émigré mathematician
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300:) have claimed that Teller would have never gotten any closer without the idea of Ulam. The nuclear weapons designer
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of building a Super; it concluded that it was feasible, but there were a number of dissenters to that conclusion.
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in which they proposed the staged implosion (Teller–Ulam) design. This declassified version is heavily redacted.
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617:(RDS-220), the largest weapon ever detonated (1961). Dropped from over 10 km and detonated at 4 km high, its
49:
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1988:
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Most of the current ideas of the Teller–Ulam design came into public awareness after the DOE attempted to
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bomber. The RDS-220 test demonstrated how "staging" could be used to develop arbitrarily powerful weapons.
805:
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fuel of the "Ivy Mike" device would be replaced with a dry fuel of lithium deuteride and tested in the "
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2014:
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2275:"US Intelligence: North Korea's Sixth Test Was a 140 Kiloton 'Advanced Nuclear' Device – The Diplomat"
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2289:"The nuclear explosion in North Korea on 3 September 2017: A revised magnitude assessment - NORSAR"
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defending that paper and really putting work into it, he refused. He said, "I don't believe in it."
2251:"North Korean nuke test put at 160 kilotons as Ishiba urges debate on deploying U.S. atomic bombs"
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2628:(1 January 1989). "In Any Light: Scientists and the Decision to Build the Superbomb, 1952-1954".
2228:
1892:
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1249:(1 January 1989). "In Any Light: Scientists and the Decision to Build the Superbomb, 1952-1954".
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The People's Republic of China detonated its first device using a Teller–Ulam design June 1967 ("
172:
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Braun, Reiner; Hinde, Robert; Krieger, David; Kroto, Harold; Milne, Sally, eds. (17 July 2007).
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2678:(31 October 1996). "American and Soviet H-bomb development programmes: historical background".
2329:"North Korea nuclear test may have been twice as strong as first thought - The Washington Post"
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121:.) Teller was given some resources with which to study the "Super", and contacted his friend
45:
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In the Shadow of the Bomb: Oppenheimer, Bethe, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist
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In the Shadow of the Bomb: Oppenheimer, Bethe, and the Moral Responsibility of the Scientist
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2225:"North Korea's 3 September 2017 Nuclear Test Location and Yield: Seismic Results from USTC"
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detonated, before being destroyed in the explosion. The man seated lower right shows scale.
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3070:; Smirnov, Yuri; Rothstein, Linda; Leskov, Sergei (1 May 1993). "The Khariton Version".
1885:"We have an adequate scientific database for designing ... a credible nuclear deterrent"
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1680:; Smirnov, Yuri; Rothstein, Linda; Leskov, Sergei (1 May 1993). "The Khariton Version".
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was for many years the chief force lobbying for research into developing fusion weapons.
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nuclear warhead, allow for some speculation as to the relative size and shapes of the
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1802:"India Sets 3 Nuclear Blasts, Defying a Worldwide Ban; Tests Bring a Sharp Outcry"
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2166:
1922:"Press Statement by Dr. Anil Kakodkar and Dr. R. Chidambaram on Pokhran-II tests"
1852:"Nuclear Anxiety: The Overview; India Detonated a Hydrogen Bomb, Experts Confirm"
1620:
1547:
1518:
1436:
1423:
National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America Biographical Memoirs
1224:
1151:
976:
925:
867:
published a cutaway description of a hypothetical hydrogen bomb with the caption
845:
732:
512:
508:
459:
411:
339:
199:
180:
148:
134:
65:
2314:
499:
also ran into difficulties in developing a megaton-range fusion weapon. Because
426:
Teller–Ulam weapon in the US would not be developed until 1954, when the liquid
3198:
3160:
3067:
2780:
2518:
2126:
2086:
1677:
1113:
1066:
1061:
929:
750:
297:
256:
151:
94:
33:
3280:– "The H-Bomb Secret: How we got it, why we're telling" (entire issue online).
3043:
2950:
1655:
1220:
113:
where he worked. (Much of the work Teller declined to do was given instead to
3287:
3178:
3125:
3109:
3101:
3051:
3022:
De Geer, Lars-Erik (1991). "The radioactive signature of the hydrogen bomb".
2993:
2975:
2912:
2872:
2814:
2764:
2709:
2701:
2659:
2651:
2621:
2576:
2554:
2427:
2145:"South Korea says North's nuclear capability 'speeding up', calls for action"
2105:"South Korea says North's nuclear capability 'speeding up', calls for action"
1863:
1813:
1735:
1719:
1711:
1663:
1616:
1543:
1356:
1280:
1272:
1242:
1147:
716:
On 11 May 1998, India announced that it has detonated a hydrogen bomb in its
623:
515:
in 1949 (before the Soviet Union had a working fission bomb), was dubbed the
315:
82:
70:
3059:
3001:
2958:
2929:
Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb
2830:
2725:
2601:
2562:
2499:
1228:
1199:
Super Bomb: Organizational Conflict and the Development of the Hydrogen Bomb
1163:
3240:
3232:
3206:
3186:
2880:
2822:
2772:
2609:
2528:
2510:
1624:
1555:
1551:
1304:
On Heterocatalytic Detonations I. Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors
1155:
1004:
974:
before igniting it. When an early draft of the article, to be published in
904:
875:
639:
492:
431:
403:
355:
generated by the primary and that it was Teller who then realized that the
335:
262:
On Heterocatalytic Detonations I. Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors
243:
On Heterocatalytic Detonations I: Hydrodynamic Lenses and Radiation Mirrors
118:
101:'s 1942 summer conference on the development of a fission bomb held at the
90:
78:
21:
3268:
283:
982:
794:
725:
500:
440:
371:), raising expectations to a near certainty that the concept would work.
352:
114:
2667:
1288:
322:
authored an article titled "The Work of Many People," which appeared in
312:
The Ruin of J. Robert Oppenheimer: And the Birth of the Modern Arms Race
1396:
1370:
686:
647:
614:
168:
3274:
816:
609:
374:
On November 1, 1952, the Teller–Ulam configuration was tested in the "
2920:
2892:
2643:
2473:
1336:
1309:(Report). LAMS-1225. Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. Archived from
1264:
1190:
933:
427:
391:
387:
356:
130:
2524:
Danger and Survival: Choices About the Bomb in the First Fifty Years
140:
93:
effort by the United States and United Kingdom to develop the first
3156:
Born Secret: The H-Bomb, the Progressive Case and National Security
754:
379:
375:
144:
25:
2743:
Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939-1956
2491:
1595:
Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939-1956
801:
554:
524:
415:
3224:
3117:
2806:
2717:
2546:
2199:"Large nuclear test in North Korea on 3 September 2017 - NORSAR"
1727:
1139:
582:
398:
330:
3066:
1676:
585:" in November 1955 with a yield of 1.6 Mt (6.7 PJ).
359:
from the primary would be able to accomplish the task (hence "
194:
When the Soviet Union exploded their own atomic bomb (dubbed "
574:
528:
386:, used an extra-large fission bomb as a "trigger" and liquid
195:
1776:"Yu Min, 'father of China's H-bomb', wins top science award"
954:
Morland eventually concluded that the "secret" was that the
3144:
2421:"The H-Bomb Secret: How we got it and why we're telling it"
2012:
390:, kept in its liquid state by 20 short tons (18 tonnes) of
176:
3265:(with U.S. and USSR bomb designers as well as historians).
2631:
Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences
1252:
Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences
943:. Morland also interviewed, often informally, many former
793:
just a few hours after photographs of North Korean leader
2407:"What If Truman Hadn't Ordered the H-bomb Crash Program?"
2040:"North Korea Claims It Successfully Tested Hydrogen Bomb"
1971:"India's Nuclear Weapons Program: Operation Shakti, 1998
1375:"Memorandum on the History of the Thermonuclear Program"
820:
Photographs of warhead casings, such as this one of the
3269:
Howard Morland on how he discovered the "H-bomb secret"
3256:
PBS: Race for the Superbomb: Interviews and Transcripts
1438:
Turing's Cathedral: The Origins of the Digital Universe
731:
However, some non-Indian experts agree with India. Dr.
2463:
241:
Classified paper by Teller and Ulam on March 9, 1951:
85:
in the fall of 1941 during what would soon become the
2087:"North Korea nuclear H-bomb claims met by scepticism"
561:
achieved the first breakthrough, that of keeping the
154:
tested by the US, yielding 500 kt (November 16, 1952)
1742:
1493:"Edward Teller's Memoirs: a book review by S. Uchii"
213:
16:
History of technical design of modern hydrogen bombs
2167:"Kim inspects 'nuclear warhead': A picture decoded"
1670:
28:, the first full test of the Teller–Ulam design (a
2967:
2896:
2575:
2127:"North Korea claims success in fifth nuclear test"
2013:Kang Seung-woo; Chung Min-uck (February 4, 2013).
1421:* H.A. Bethe, " J. Robert Oppenheimer 1904–1967,"
1401:"Testimony in the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer"
1340:
1028:a month later. In 1981, Morland published a book,
724:", specifically). Some non-Indian analysts, using
296:Other scientists (antagonistic to Teller, such as
1989:"North Korea could be developing a hydrogen bomb"
1302:Teller, Edward; Ulam, Stanislaw (March 9, 1951).
3285:
2620:
2404:
1640:"The radioactive signature of the hydrogen bomb"
1324:– via Nuclear Non-Proliferation Institute.
1241:
1185:
1183:
1181:
1179:
1177:
928:a magazine article by the anti-weapons activist
125:to help with laborious calculations relating to
1235:
117:, who was later discovered to be a spy for the
2919:
1189:
789:On September 3, 2017, North Korea conducted a
202:ordered a program to develop a hydrogen bomb.
2907:. Vol. 281, no. 4. pp. 42–43.
2363:"North Korea bargains with nuclear diplomacy"
1351:. Vol. 281, no. 4. pp. 42–43.
1174:
1108:
1106:
507:The first Soviet fusion design, developed by
60:
2065:M5.1 – 21km ENE of Sungjibaegam, North Korea
1567:
1565:
1986:
1834:"What Are the Real Yields of India's Test?"
1395:
1369:
891:The only statement that may pertain to the
1301:
1103:
786:which yielded between 10 and 30 kilotons.
3134:
2785:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb
2674:
1562:
1118:Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb
989:, and (3). dangerous and would encourage
175:, the nuclear fusion that takes place in
2841:
2740:
1592:
1512:
1506:
1389:
996:United States v. The Progressive, et al.
815:
608:
592:was being kept separate from the fusion
397:
329:
282:
139:
64:
20:
3197:
3021:
2965:
2573:
1773:
1638:De Geer, Lars-Erik (December 1, 1991).
1637:
910:
3286:
2966:Younger, Stephen M. (6 January 2009).
2779:
1573:"Why the H-Bomb Is Now Called the 3-F"
1455:
1441:. Penguin Books Limited. p. 213.
1112:
577:from the fission bomb to compress the
495:, the scientists working on their own
334:The dry-fuel device detonated in the "
2741:Holloway, David (28 September 1994).
2517:
1916:
1914:
1912:
1910:
1849:
1799:
1593:Holloway, David (28 September 1994).
1588:
1586:
1434:
1295:
757:might not have been contained fully.
477:Submarine Launched Ballistic Missiles
434:" shot (the device was codenamed the
274:from 1999, Teller told the reporter:
44:is a technical concept behind modern
3319:Nuclear history of the United States
3014:
2891:
2574:DeGroot, Gerard J. (31 March 2005).
1499:(Philosophy and History of Science,
1425:(1997, vol. 71, pp. 175–218; on 197)
1335:
2468:Joseph Rotblat: Visionary for Peace
2259:. September 6, 2017. Archived from
2151:. September 9, 2016. Archived from
2111:. September 9, 2016. Archived from
1579:. December 5, 1955. pp. 54–55.
1377:. Federation of American Scientists
1329:
811:
749:of various yields up to around 200
692:Development of the bomb was led by
675:1958 US-UK Mutual Defence Agreement
473:Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles
414:from natural instead of "enriched"
347:initially proposed compressing the
158:Even though they had witnessed the
97:. Teller soon was a participant at
36:of 10.4 megatons (November 1, 1952)
13:
2451:
2405:Alex Wellerstein (June 18, 2012).
1907:
1750:"The Tsar Bomba ("King of Bombs")"
1583:
1461:
855:
654:
486:
103:University of California, Berkeley
14:
3330:
3249:
3153:; Stanford, George (1 May 1981).
3073:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
2015:"North Korea may detonate H-bomb"
1683:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
881:
797:inspecting a device resembling a
659:
214:Ulam's and Teller's contributions
2445:, vol. 43, no. 11, November 1979
1987:Kim Kyu-won (February 7, 2013).
920:United States v. The Progressive
231:
222:
2853:. Princeton Series in Physics.
2694:10.1070/PU1996v039n10ABEH000174
2413:
2387:
2355:
2341:
2321:
2307:
2281:
2267:
2243:
2217:
2191:
2177:
2159:
2137:
2119:
2097:
2079:
2067:(Report). USGS. January 6, 2016
2057:
2032:
2006:
1980:
1964:
1939:
1877:
1850:Burns, John F. (May 18, 1998).
1843:
1827:
1800:Burns, John F. (May 12, 1998).
1793:
1767:
1631:
1524:. Princeton Series in Physics.
1486:
1435:Dyson, George (March 1, 2012).
1428:
3094:10.1080/00963402.1993.11456341
1704:10.1080/00963402.1993.11456341
1415:
1363:
1080:
771:
737:Los Alamos National Laboratory
1:
3024:Science & Global Security
1644:Science & Global Security
1097:
779:South Korean Defense Ministry
764:without the full ignition of
638:also say that the yield from
2456:
1774:Li Jing (January 10, 2015).
962:were kept separate and that
832:in US thermonuclear weapons.
137:, and various other tests).
7:
1039:
948:specifically referred to).
378:" shot at an island in the
10:
3335:
2855:Princeton University Press
2395:"Hail Truman H-Bomb Order"
1526:Princeton University Press
1052:History of nuclear weapons
917:
557:. In late 1953, physicist
458:tamper, it generated much
308:Priscilla Johnson McMillan
55:
3044:10.1080/08929889108426372
2349:"SAR Image of Punggye-ri"
1656:10.1080/08929889108426372
735:, former director of the
699:
640:one of the American tests
3203:The secret that exploded
2933:Cornell University Press
2584:Harvard University Press
1780:South China Morning Post
1503:), no. 52, July 22, 2003
1203:Cornell University Press
1073:
1030:The secret that exploded
806:Jane's Information Group
711:
680:
523:fusion fuel spiked with
164:atomic bombings of Japan
3271:(includes many slides).
3261:March 11, 2017, at the
3036:1991S&GS....2..351D
2970:The Bomb: A New History
842:US Department of Energy
708:" test in August 1968.
173:stellar nucleosynthesis
2433:on September 27, 2007.
2401:: 1. February 1, 1950.
1975:Nuclear Weapon Archive
1889:frontline.thehindu.com
1838:Nuclear Weapon Archive
1057:Nuclear weapons design
940:Encyclopedia Americana
898:(DOE 2001, sect. V.C.)
889:(emphasis in original)
833:
627:
607:
533:boosted fission weapon
419:
369:boosted fission weapon
343:
289:
281:
155:
74:
37:
3294:Nuclear weapon design
3145:De Volpi, Alexander;
2747:Yale University Press
2317:. September 12, 2017.
2295:on September 13, 2017
2263:on September 6, 2017.
2155:on September 9, 2016.
2115:on September 9, 2016.
1599:Yale University Press
1464:"An American Tragedy"
991:nuclear proliferation
985:" clause of the 1954
819:
747:thermonuclear weapons
612:
602:
497:hydrogen bomb project
402:Like the Bravo test,
401:
333:
286:
276:
143:
68:
46:thermonuclear weapons
32:fusion bomb), with a
24:
2927:(15 February 2020).
2925:Schilling, Warner R.
2789:Simon & Schuster
2676:Goncharov, German A.
2626:Bernstein, Barton J.
2521:(28 November 1988).
2231:on September 4, 2017
2205:on September 4, 2017
2185:"Yonhap News Agency"
2173:. September 3, 2017.
2133:. September 9, 2016.
1247:Bernstein, Barton J.
1197:(15 February 2020).
1195:Schilling, Warner R.
1122:Simon & Schuster
1090:the initiating bomb.
840:. The policy of the
799:thermonuclear weapon
573:, that of using the
365:Operation Greenhouse
171:(who had discovered
3278:November 1979 issue
3086:1993BuAtS..49d..20K
2904:Scientific American
2895:(20 October 1999).
2845:(January 7, 2007).
2843:Schweber, Silvan S.
2375:on October 25, 2017
2334:The Washington Post
1895:on October 28, 2019
1696:1993BuAtS..49d..20K
1516:(January 7, 2007).
1514:Schweber, Silvan S.
1468:The New York Review
1348:Scientific American
1339:(20 October 1999).
361:radiation implosion
271:Scientific American
147:, the largest pure
123:Maria Göppert-Mayer
2399:Boston Daily Globe
2093:. January 6, 2016.
1856:The New York Times
1806:The New York Times
964:radiation pressure
864:Boston Daily Globe
834:
791:sixth nuclear test
784:fifth nuclear test
628:
544:Attempts to use a
465:Daigo Fukuryu Maru
420:
344:
290:
266:Teller–Ulam design
156:
99:Robert Oppenheimer
75:
42:Teller–Ulam design
38:
3314:Manhattan Project
3015:Analyzing fallout
2798:978-0-68-480400-2
2783:(1 August 1995).
2688:(10): 1033–1044.
1448:978-0-7181-9450-5
1131:978-0-68-480400-2
1116:(1 August 1995).
1047:Manhattan Project
987:Atomic Energy Act
521:lithium deuteride
412:lithium deuteride
87:Manhattan Project
81:to his colleague
3326:
3244:
3194:
3191:Internet Archive
3159:(1st ed.).
3147:Marsh, Gerald E.
3129:
3063:
3009:
3006:Internet Archive
2974:(1st ed.).
2973:
2962:
2931:(1st ed.).
2916:
2900:
2888:
2885:Internet Archive
2852:
2838:
2835:Internet Archive
2776:
2745:(1st ed.).
2737:
2671:
2644:10.2307/27757627
2617:
2614:Internet Archive
2581:
2578:The Bomb: A Life
2570:
2567:Internet Archive
2527:(1st ed.).
2514:
2508:
2506:
2471:
2446:
2438:
2434:
2432:
2426:. Archived from
2425:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2402:
2391:
2385:
2384:
2382:
2380:
2374:
2368:. Archived from
2367:
2359:
2353:
2352:
2345:
2339:
2338:
2325:
2319:
2318:
2311:
2305:
2304:
2302:
2300:
2291:. Archived from
2285:
2279:
2278:
2271:
2265:
2264:
2247:
2241:
2240:
2238:
2236:
2227:. Archived from
2221:
2215:
2214:
2212:
2210:
2201:. Archived from
2195:
2189:
2188:
2181:
2175:
2174:
2163:
2157:
2156:
2141:
2135:
2134:
2123:
2117:
2116:
2101:
2095:
2094:
2083:
2077:
2076:
2074:
2072:
2061:
2055:
2054:
2052:
2050:
2036:
2030:
2029:
2027:
2025:
2010:
2004:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1984:
1978:
1968:
1962:
1961:
1959:
1957:
1943:
1937:
1936:
1934:
1932:
1918:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1900:
1891:. Archived from
1881:
1875:
1874:
1872:
1870:
1847:
1841:
1831:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1820:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1788:
1786:
1771:
1765:
1764:
1758:
1756:
1746:
1740:
1739:
1674:
1668:
1667:
1635:
1629:
1628:
1597:(1st ed.).
1590:
1581:
1580:
1569:
1560:
1559:
1523:
1510:
1504:
1501:Kyoto University
1490:
1484:
1483:
1481:
1479:
1470:. Archived from
1462:Powers, Thomas.
1459:
1453:
1452:
1432:
1426:
1419:
1413:
1412:
1410:
1408:
1403:. Atomic Archive
1393:
1387:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1367:
1361:
1360:
1344:
1333:
1327:
1325:
1323:
1321:
1316:on April 4, 2019
1315:
1308:
1299:
1293:
1292:
1265:10.2307/27757627
1239:
1233:
1232:
1201:(1st ed.).
1187:
1172:
1171:
1168:Internet Archive
1110:
1091:
1084:
1016:and that in the
951:
899:
890:
812:Public knowledge
718:Operation Shakti
613:Fireball of the
559:Viktor Davidenko
457:
455:
454:
447:
446:
235:
226:
135:nuclear reactors
133:, newly created
61:Teller's "Super"
48:, also known as
3334:
3333:
3329:
3328:
3327:
3325:
3324:
3323:
3309:Nuclear history
3299:Nuclear secrecy
3284:
3283:
3276:The Progressive
3263:Wayback Machine
3252:
3247:
3217:
3199:Morland, Howard
3171:
3140:
3136:The Progressive
3132:
3017:
3012:
2986:
2943:
2865:
2799:
2781:Rhodes, Richard
2757:
2681:Physics-Uspekhi
2594:
2539:
2519:Bundy, McGeorge
2504:
2502:
2484:
2459:
2454:
2452:Further reading
2449:
2442:The Progressive
2436:
2430:
2423:
2419:
2418:
2414:
2403:– reprinted in
2393:
2392:
2388:
2378:
2376:
2372:
2365:
2361:
2360:
2356:
2347:
2346:
2342:
2327:
2326:
2322:
2313:
2312:
2308:
2298:
2296:
2287:
2286:
2282:
2273:
2272:
2268:
2256:The Japan Times
2249:
2248:
2244:
2234:
2232:
2223:
2222:
2218:
2208:
2206:
2197:
2196:
2192:
2183:
2182:
2178:
2165:
2164:
2160:
2143:
2142:
2138:
2125:
2124:
2120:
2103:
2102:
2098:
2085:
2084:
2080:
2070:
2068:
2063:
2062:
2058:
2048:
2046:
2038:
2037:
2033:
2023:
2021:
2011:
2007:
1997:
1995:
1985:
1981:
1969:
1965:
1955:
1953:
1945:
1944:
1940:
1930:
1928:
1920:
1919:
1908:
1898:
1896:
1883:
1882:
1878:
1868:
1866:
1848:
1844:
1840:, November 2001
1832:
1828:
1818:
1816:
1798:
1794:
1784:
1782:
1772:
1768:
1754:
1752:
1748:
1747:
1743:
1675:
1671:
1636:
1632:
1609:
1591:
1584:
1571:
1570:
1563:
1536:
1511:
1507:
1491:
1487:
1477:
1475:
1474:on May 11, 2021
1460:
1456:
1449:
1433:
1429:
1420:
1416:
1406:
1404:
1394:
1390:
1380:
1378:
1368:
1364:
1334:
1330:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1306:
1300:
1296:
1240:
1236:
1213:
1188:
1175:
1132:
1114:Rhodes, Richard
1111:
1104:
1100:
1095:
1094:
1085:
1081:
1076:
1071:
1042:
1026:The Progressive
1009:The Progressive
977:The Progressive
970:compressed the
949:
922:
916:
912:The Progressive
897:
888:
884:
858:
856:Early knowledge
846:physics package
814:
774:
733:Harold M. Agnew
714:
702:
683:
662:
657:
655:Other countries
571:Yakov Zeldovich
513:Vitaly Ginzburg
509:Andrei Sakharov
489:
487:Soviet research
460:nuclear fallout
453:
451:
450:
449:
445:
443:
442:
441:
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3250:External links
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3215:
3201:(1 May 1981).
3195:
3170:978-0080259956
3169:
3161:Pergamon Press
3141:
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3068:Khariton, Yuli
3064:
3030:(4): 351–363.
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2985:978-0061537196
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2638:(2): 267–347.
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930:Howard Morland
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67:
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3207:Random House
3202:
3189:– via
3155:
3135:
3080:(4): 20–31.
3077:
3071:
3027:
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3004:– via
2969:
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2679:
2635:
2629:
2612:– via
2577:
2565:– via
2529:Random House
2523:
2511:Google Books
2509:– via
2503:. Retrieved
2467:
2440:
2428:the original
2415:
2398:
2389:
2379:November 17,
2377:. Retrieved
2370:the original
2357:
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2299:November 17,
2297:. Retrieved
2293:the original
2283:
2269:
2261:the original
2254:
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2233:. Retrieved
2229:the original
2219:
2209:November 17,
2207:. Retrieved
2203:the original
2193:
2179:
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2161:
2153:the original
2148:
2139:
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2121:
2113:the original
2108:
2099:
2090:
2081:
2069:. Retrieved
2059:
2047:. Retrieved
2043:
2034:
2022:. Retrieved
2018:
2008:
1996:. Retrieved
1992:
1982:
1977:, March 2001
1974:
1966:
1954:. Retrieved
1950:
1941:
1929:. Retrieved
1925:
1897:. Retrieved
1893:the original
1888:
1879:
1867:. Retrieved
1855:
1845:
1837:
1829:
1819:December 24,
1817:. Retrieved
1805:
1795:
1785:February 26,
1783:. Retrieved
1779:
1769:
1760:
1753:. Retrieved
1744:
1690:(4): 20–31.
1687:
1681:
1672:
1647:
1643:
1633:
1594:
1576:
1556:Google Books
1554:– via
1519:
1508:
1496:
1488:
1476:. Retrieved
1472:the original
1467:
1457:
1437:
1430:
1422:
1417:
1407:November 10,
1405:. Retrieved
1391:
1381:December 15,
1379:. Retrieved
1365:
1346:
1331:
1318:. Retrieved
1311:the original
1297:
1256:
1250:
1237:
1198:
1166:– via
1117:
1087:
1082:
1034:
1029:
1025:
1021:
1017:
1013:
1008:
1005:Chuck Hansen
1001:
994:
975:
971:
967:
959:
955:
953:
938:
923:
911:
905:Smyth Report
901:
892:
885:
876:Castle Bravo
873:
868:
862:
859:
850:
835:
829:
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566:
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493:Soviet Union
490:
470:
463:
435:
432:Castle Bravo
423:
421:
404:Castle Romeo
383:
373:
351:through the
348:
345:
336:Castle Bravo
323:
320:
311:
310:in her book
306:
295:
291:
277:
269:
261:
254:
250:
242:
206:
204:
193:
189:
185:Luis Alvarez
162:, after the
160:Trinity test
157:
119:Soviet Union
107:
91:World War II
79:Enrico Fermi
76:
41:
39:
18:
3151:Postol, Ted
2024:February 8,
2019:Korea Times
1998:February 8,
1755:October 10,
1397:Bethe, Hans
1371:Bethe, Hans
983:born secret
830:secondaries
795:Kim Jong-un
772:North Korea
766:secondaries
501:Klaus Fuchs
353:shock waves
115:Klaus Fuchs
3288:Categories
3216:0394512979
2951:1164620354
2921:Young, Ken
2893:Stix, Gary
2831:Q105755363
2505:9 February
2492:2007476036
2071:January 6,
1951:pib.nic.in
1926:pib.nic.in
1337:Stix, Gary
1221:1164620354
1191:Young, Ken
1164:Q105755363
1098:References
945:Los Alamos
687:Test No. 6
648:Tsar Bomba
632:Arzamas-16
615:Tsar Bomba
424:deployable
302:Ted Taylor
169:Hans Bethe
131:cyclotrons
69:Physicist
3179:558172005
3126:470268256
3110:0096-3402
3102:1938-3282
3052:0892-9882
3002:24318509M
2994:310470696
2959:28729278M
2913:0036-8733
2873:868971191
2815:456652278
2765:470165274
2734:250861572
2710:1063-7869
2702:1468-4780
2660:1939-1811
2652:1939-182X
2563:24963545M
2555:610771749
2500:12767868M
2474:Wiley-VCH
1864:0362-4331
1814:0362-4331
1736:470268256
1720:0096-3402
1712:1938-3282
1664:0892-9882
1617:470165274
1544:868971191
1357:0036-8733
1281:1939-1811
1273:1939-182X
1229:28729278M
1148:456652278
1022:sparkplug
1018:secondary
1014:secondary
972:secondary
966:from the
960:secondary
934:arms race
893:sparkplug
826:primaries
762:primaries
671:Grapple X
667:Grapple I
594:secondary
579:secondary
567:secondary
483:missile.
428:deuterium
392:cryogenic
388:deuterium
357:radiation
349:secondary
3259:Archived
3241:4094494M
3225:80006032
3187:7311029M
3118:48034039
3060:15307789
2881:7757230M
2827:Wikidata
2823:7720934M
2807:95011070
2773:1084400M
2726:36334507
2718:93646146
2668:27757627
2610:7671320M
2602:57750742
2547:89040089
2171:BBC News
2131:BBC News
2091:BBC News
2044:ABC News
1956:July 26,
1931:July 26,
1899:July 26,
1869:July 26,
1728:48034039
1625:1084400M
1552:7757230M
1478:July 16,
1399:(1954).
1373:(1952).
1289:27757627
1160:Wikidata
1156:7720934M
1140:95011070
1040:See also
999:(1979).
828:and the
755:kilotons
751:kilotons
722:Shakti I
720:tests ("
619:fireball
565:and the
408:ran away
380:Enewetak
376:Ivy Mike
145:Ivy King
26:Ivy Mike
3233:7196781
3082:Bibcode
3032:Bibcode
2457:History
2149:Reuters
2109:Reuters
2049:May 28,
1762:ground.
1692:Bibcode
1088:outside
968:primary
956:primary
802:warhead
706:Canopus
636:memoirs
590:primary
563:primary
555:tritium
525:tritium
491:In the
416:lithium
384:Sausage
324:Science
149:fission
127:opacity
56:History
3239:
3231:
3223:
3213:
3185:
3177:
3167:
3124:
3116:
3108:
3100:
3058:
3050:
3000:
2992:
2982:
2957:
2949:
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2911:
2879:
2871:
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2771:
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1445:
1355:
1287:
1279:
1271:
1227:
1219:
1209:
1162:
1154:
1146:
1138:
1128:
1020:was a
926:censor
700:France
694:Yu Min
583:RDS-37
575:X-rays
551:Sloika
546:Sloika
538:Sloika
517:Sloika
481:MIRVed
436:Shrimp
89:, the
30:staged
3098:eISSN
2730:S2CID
2698:eISSN
2664:JSTOR
2648:eISSN
2431:(PDF)
2424:(PDF)
2373:(PDF)
2366:(PDF)
1708:eISSN
1314:(PDF)
1307:(PDF)
1285:JSTOR
1269:eISSN
1074:Notes
712:India
681:China
624:Tu-95
529:Joe 4
196:Joe 1
177:stars
34:yield
3229:OCLC
3221:LCCN
3211:ISBN
3175:OCLC
3165:ISBN
3138:Case
3122:OCLC
3114:LCCN
3106:ISSN
3056:OCLC
3048:ISSN
2990:OCLC
2980:ISBN
2947:OCLC
2937:ISBN
2909:ISSN
2869:OCLC
2859:ISBN
2811:OCLC
2803:LCCN
2793:ISBN
2761:OCLC
2751:ISBN
2722:OCLC
2714:LCCN
2706:ISSN
2656:ISSN
2598:OCLC
2588:ISBN
2551:OCLC
2543:LCCN
2533:ISBN
2507:2021
2488:LCCN
2478:ISBN
2381:2017
2301:2017
2237:2017
2211:2017
2073:2016
2051:2021
2026:2013
2000:2013
1958:2019
1933:2019
1901:2019
1871:2019
1860:ISSN
1821:2019
1810:ISSN
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