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923:). The ascetic nature of these religions inclined their followers to live in natural caves and grottos in the hillsides, away from the cities, and these became enhanced and embellished over time. Although many temples, monasteries, and stupas had been destroyed, by contrast, cave temples are very well preserved as they are both less visible and therefore less vulnerable to vandalism as well as made of more durable material than wood and masonry. There are around 1200 cave temples still in existence, most of which are Buddhist. The residences of monks were called
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413:. Relics found in these caves suggest a connection between the religious and the commercial. Buddhist missionaries are known to have accompanied traders on the busy international trading routes through India. Some of the more sumptuous cave temples, commissioned by wealthy traders, included pillars, arches, and elaborate facades. They were made during the period when maritime trade boomed between the Roman Empire and south-east Asia.
1541:
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636:, generally dated to the 2ndâ4th centuries CE, nevertheless share a broad structure reminiscent of the caves of Barabar and some small areas of irregular polish, which leads some authors to suggest that they may actually be contemporary to, and even earlier than, the Barabar caves, and would conveniently create a precedent and an evolutionary step to the Barabar Caves.
1488:. There are 34 caves built at this site, but the other 33 caves, Hindu, Buddhist, and Jain, were carved into the side of the plateau rock. The effect of the Kailash Temple is that of a free-standing temple surrounded by smaller cave shrines carved out of the same black rock. The Kailash Temple is carved with figures of gods and goddesses from the Hindu
878:. As mercantile and royal endowments grew, cave interiors became more elaborate, with interior walls decorated in paintings, reliefs, and intricate carvings. Numerous donors provided the funds for the building of these caves and left donatory inscriptions, including laity, members of the clergy, government officials, and even foreigners such as
775:(5th century CE) do not have any polishing either. This may be due to the fact that Mauryan caves were dedicated and sponsored by the Mauryan Imperial government, allowing for huge resources and efforts to be spent, whereas later caves where essentially the result of donations by commoners, who could not afford as high a level of spending.
1577:, reappearing around the 5th century CE, and then constructed until relatively recent times, with some still in use. Many have walls lined with stone brought from elsewhere for the purpose, but many are truly rock-cut. The most elaborate are highly decorated. They are mostly found in drier states such as
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There is no timeline that divides the creation of rock-cut temples and free-standing temples built with cut stone as they developed in parallel. The building of free-standing structures, especially
Buddhist temples, began in the 3rd century BCE, whereas Hindu temples started to be built from the 5th
372:
In India, caves have long been regarded as sacred places. Caves that were enlarged or entirely man-made were believed to be as sacred as natural caves. The sanctuary in all Indian religious structures, even free-standing ones, was designed to have the same cave-like feeling, as it is generally small
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There are more than 1,500 known rock-cut structures in India. Many of these structures contain artwork of global importance, and most are adorned with exquisite stone carvings. These ancient and medieval structures represent significant achievements of structural engineering and craftsmanship. The
1261:
At Ellora, on the hill to the northeast of the main complex of caves, is a Jain cave temple containing a 16-foot (4.9 m) rock-carved image of Lord
Parshvanath with an inscription dated 1234/5 CE. This well preserved image is flanked by Dharaıendra and Padmavati, is still under active
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is considered to be the peak of this type construction. Although cave temples continued to be built until the 12th century, rock-cut architecture became almost totally structural in nature. That is, rocks were cut into bricks and used to build free-standing structures. Kailash was the last
896:). Over the centuries, simple caves began to resemble free-standing buildings, needing to be formally designed and requiring highly skilled artisans and craftsmen to complete. These artisans had not forgotten their timber roots and imitated the nuances of a wooden structure and the
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South-West Group: Now termed
Trishalagiri. The group is the first one encountered when driving to the Urvai Gate, just outside the fortifications. There are the oldest Jain monuments in Gwalior from the post-Gupta period. Archaeologist L.B. Singh dates them to 6th to 8th cent AD.
364:
is the practice of creating a structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. Rock that is not part of the structure is removed until the only rock left makes up the architectural elements of the excavated interior. Indian rock-cut architecture is mostly religious in nature.
1460:, is singular in that it was excavated from the top down rather than by the usual practice of carving into the scarp of a hillside. The Kailash Temple was created through a single, huge top-down excavation 100 feet deep down into the volcanic
1506:
874:, which were occupied continuously by Buddhist monks from 200 BCE to 650 AD. As the Buddhist ideology encouraged involvement in trade, monasteries often became stopovers for inland traders and provided lodging houses along
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mountains. Like all the locations of
Buddhist caves, this one is located near main trade routes and spans six centuries beginning in the 2nd or 1st century B.C. A period of intense building activity at this site occurred under the
462:
The earliest caves used by humans were natural caves that they occupied or used for a variety of purposes, such as shrines and shelters. Evidence suggests that the caves were first occupied and slightly altered during the
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After the
Barabar Caves, huge efforts were made at building religious caves in Western India until the 6th century CE. However, the polishing of cave walls was abandoned, never to be revived. Such grandiose caves as
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sculptures carved into rock faces, have been found outside caves or at other sites. New discoveries of relatively small rock-cut sites, mostly
Buddhist, continue to be made in the 21st century, especially in the
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Historically, artisans carried forward design elements from wood in their rock-cut temples: skilled craftsmen carved rock to imitate timber texture, grain, and structure. The earliest cave temples include the
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Although free-standing structural temples were being built by the 5th century, rock-cut cave temples continued to be built in parallel. Later rock-cut cave architecture became more sophisticated, as in the
1294:, who visited Gwalior in AD 1527, ordered the Gwalior statues to be destroyed. However, only the faces of many of colossal Jain images were destroyed, some of them were later repaired by the local Jains.
1151:, that contain carved architectural elements such as decorative pillars and brackets as well as finely carved sculpture and richly etched ceiling panels. Nearby are many small Buddhist cave shrines.
815:, thus shifting the cave-building effort to western India: an enormous effort at creating religious caves (usually Buddhist or Jain) continued there until the 2nd century CE, culminating with the
1192:
622:, also dated of the Maurya empire. It is smaller than the Barabar caves, measuring only 4.91x3.43m, with a ceiling height of 2.01m. The entrance is also trapezoidal, as for the Barabar caves.
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effort expended often astonishes visitors, but seen from one aspect, a rock-cut structure is a decorated rock quarry; most of the stone removed was typically put to economic use elsewhere.
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rains, for use in the dry season. The steps allow access to the water whatever level it is at. They have a history of around 4,000 years in India, first appearing in the Bronze Age
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architects started the carving of rock for the creation of monolithic copies of structural temples. A feature of the rock-cut cave temple distribution until the time of the early
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667:. They have a number of finely and ornately carved caves built during 2nd century BCE. It is believed that most of these caves were carved out as residential blocks for
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Lisa Nadine Owen, Beyond
Buddhist and Brahmanical Activity: The Place of the Jain Rock-Cut Excavations at Ellora, PhD thesis 2006, University of Texas at Austin p. 255
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3001:
1103:, a World Heritage Site, are 30 rock-cut cave Buddhist temples carved into the sheer vertical side of a gorge near a waterfall-fed pool located in the hills of the
1439:, the traditional southern boundary between north and south. Also, good granite exposures for rock-cut structures were generally not available south of the river.
888:) representing about 8% of all inscriptions. Facades were added to the exteriors while the interiors became designated for specific uses, such as monasteries (
1132:) in construction and grain and intricate decorative carving, although such architectural elements were ornamental and not functional in the classical sense.
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kings from southern India patronize many cave temples dedicated to Hindu gods and goddesses. One such prominent example of cave temple architecture are the
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A rock cut temple is carved from a large rock and excavated and cut to imitate a wooden or masonry temple with wall decorations and works of art.
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periods, up to about 6000 BC. These changes are not classified as architecture. Early examples included decorating overhanging rock with
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The stepwell is a large hole in the ground with steps at one or more sides. They are used in India to collect and conserve water from the
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In the 3rd century BCE Indian rock-cut architecture began to develop, starting with the already highly sophisticated and state-sponsored
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for meditation, starting a tradition of using caves, natural or man-made, as religious retreats, that would last for over a millennium.
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1492:, along with mystical beings like the heavenly nymphs and musicians and figures of good fortune and fertility. Ellora Caves is also a
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is that they did not move further south than
Arakandanallur, with the solitary exception of Tiruchitrapalli on the south bank of the
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in India, dating from 200 to 400 CE. Subsequently, the construction of wells at Dhank (550â625 CE) and stepped ponds at
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The final wave of Indian rock-cut cave construction occurred at
Gwalior with five clusters of rock-cut monuments surrounding the
385:; these are mostly Buddhist shrines and monasteries, dating between 100 BC and 170 AD. Originally, there were probably
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missionaries arrived, they naturally gravitated to caves for use as temples and abodes, in accord with their religious ideas of
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There is another cave with the structure and polishing qualities of the
Barabar caves, but without any inscription. This is the
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is more various and found in greater abundance in that country than any other form of rock-cut architecture around the world.
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capital, carved out in the 6th century. There are four cave temples hewn from the sides of cliffs, three Hindu and one
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worship. The inscription mentions the site as Charana Hill, a holy site. This was the last excavation at Ellora. The
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is an example of monolith Indian rock cut architecture dating from the late 7th century located at Mamallapuram, a
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1076:. The building of rock-cut caves would revive briefly in the 6th century CE, with the magnificent achievements of
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circa 250 BCE. These artificial caves exhibit an amazing level of technical proficiency, the extremely hard
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506:(c. 563/480 or c. 483/400 BCE), Buddhist monks were also in the habit of using natural caves, such as the
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1288:, North-West group and North-East group were all excavated during the Tomar rule during 1440â1473 AD.
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were dug into the hard rock and polished to a mirror effect circa 250 BCE, date of the inscriptions of
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1273:, two centuries after the Ellora Parshvantha cave temple. They contain many monumental Jain images.
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2565:"Architecture of the Indian Subcontinent â Classification of Indian Architecture through the Ages"
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king Harisena between 460 and 478. A profuse variety of decorative sculpture, intricately carved
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518:. Many believe it to be the site in which Buddha spent some time before his death, and where the
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381:, which were built around the 3rd century BC. Other early cave temples are found in the western
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937:, similar to free-standing ones later, had an inner circular chamber with pillars to create a
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Gwalior Fort: Rock Sculptures, A Cunningham, Archaeological Survey of India, pp. 364â370
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and took more than 100 years to complete. The Kailash Temple, or cave 16 as it is known at
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The construction of caves would wane after the 2nd century CE, possibly due to the rise of
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century CE. Meanwhile, rock cut temples continued to be excavated until the 12th century.
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Land and People of Indian States and Union Territories: In 36 Volumes. Orissa, Volume 21
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659:. The caves are situated on two adjacent hills, Udayagiri and Khandagiri, mentioned as
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2013:
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and dark, without natural light. The oldest rock-cut architecture is found in the
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Chakrabartia, Dilip K (1976). "RÄjagriha: An early historic site in East India".
2316:
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1742:
1530:, is one of the largest rock reliefs in Asia and features in several Hindu myths.
675:. Udayagiri means "Sunrise Hill" and has 18 caves while Khandagiri has 15 caves.
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Entrance of Rockcut cave temple (Similar style as Barabar Caves) at Guntupalle,
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New York Times article 'Rock-cut temple of the many faced God', August 19, 1984
2319:, Maha-Parinibbana Sutta, Last Days of the Buddha, Buddhist Publication Society
1970:
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The creation of structures, buildings, and sculptures by excavating solid rock
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Buddhism and the associated intense architectural and artistic production in
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rock being cut in geometrical fashion and polished to a mirror-like finish.
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2829:, (Photographs by Morna Livingston), 2002, Princeton Architectural Press,
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South-East Group (Popularly referred to as Ek Patthar Ki Bawadi group or "
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and decorative rock paintings made by humans in the area's many caves and
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structures associated with them, which would have deteriorated over time.
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1128:. Skilled artisans crafted living rock to imitate timbered wood (such as
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647:, partly natural and partly artificial caves were built near the city of
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2086:
Newly Discovered Buddhist Rock-cut Caves of Maharashtra: An Appraisal
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in the sub-continent, and stand-alone temples became more prevalent.
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162:
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and an outer rectangular hall for the congregation of the devotees.
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2393:
Buddhist Architecture, Lee Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009, pp. 97â99
2062:. Mumbai, India: Somaily Publications. pp. 9â10, 23, 160â161.
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1706:
View of large Rock cut stone Stupas at Lingalakonda, Andhra Pradesh
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were excavated in the 1st and 2nd centuries B.C., as were those at
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866:, was suited to their cultural inclinations. The earliest of the
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Group of Monuments at Mahabalipuram UNESCO World Heritage Site
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2012:. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago. pp. 69, 82.
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Early examples of rock-cut architecture are the Buddhist and
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557:, dated to approximately 250 BCE, displaying the first known
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India rock cut Temples Study Project and Photos of Sculpture
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Rock-cut architecture also developed with the apparition of
1759:
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904:
779:
First wave of construction (2nd century BCEâ4th century CE)
668:
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2728:. Mumbai, India: Somaily Publications. pp. 9â10, 23.
931:, were for congregational worship. The earliest rock-cut
534:
Artificial caves of Eastern India (3rdâ2nd centuries BCE)
499:, the earliest paintings dating to circa 8,000 BCE.
835:, and a rectangular plan with surrounding cells for the
2443:
2265:
World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction
2208:
After the Ice: A Global Human History, 20,000 - 5000 BC
2235:
World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India
1992:"10 most amazing ancient rock cut structures in India"
1464:
cliff rock. It was commissioned in the 8th century by
2813:
Le Huu Phuoc, Buddhist Architecture, pp. 233â235
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Buddhist architecture, Lee Huu Phuoc, Grafikol 2009,
1257:
Final wave of cave construction (6thâ15th century CE)
1048:
Second wave of cave construction (5thâ6th century CE)
807:, it is thought that many Buddhists relocated to the
2618:. Singapore: Periplus Editions. pp. 36â37, 51.
743:
2467:
1202:, with its square hall surrounded by monks' cells.
2328:
2232:Javid, Ali; JÄvÄ«d, Ê»AlÄ«; Javeed, Tabassum (2008).
803:and the subsequent persecutions of Buddhism under
799:Probably owing to the 2nd century BCE fall of the
3090:Articles on Early and Later Western Indian Caves
3044:UNESCO World Heritage: Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka
2682:"à€à„à€Șà€Ÿà€à€Č à€à€Ÿ à€€à„à€°à€żà€¶à€Čà€à€żà€°à€ż à€žà€źà„à€č | Webdunia Hindi"
1171:Buddhist cave monument built under the Vakatakas.
426:spectacular rock-cut excavated temple. Numerous
3859:
2927:
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2231:
2037:. New York: Grove Press. pp. 103, 124â127.
2928:Krishan, Yuvraj; Tadikonda, Kalpana K. (1996),
1967:"Indian Rock-cut Architecture by Ashish Nangia"
1919:"History of Architecture â Early civilizations"
2827:Steps to Water: The Ancient Stepwells of India
2436:
2434:
1890:List of archaeological sites sorted by country
1711:
1378:
1266:caves are thought to be from the same period.
3616:
3116:
2257:
2255:
338:
2931:The Buddha Image: Its Origin and Development
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2431:
2402:Ashoka in Ancient India by Nayanjot Lahiri
2322:
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1422:monolith rock-cut temples, late 7th century
491:outcrops. Researchers have found primitive
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3123:
3109:
3039:Elephanta Caves UNESCO World Heritage Site
3029:Lycian Influence to the IndianCave Temples
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2557:
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2420:
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487:, where dramatic erosion has left massive
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2485:Le Huu Phuoc, Buddhist architecture, p.99
2003:
2001:
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1120:are found, including exquisitely carved
1051:
782:
526:). The Buddha himself had also used the
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3024:Ellora Caves UNESCO World Heritage Site
2717:
2653:
2552:
2415:
2389:
2387:
2385:
2383:
2381:
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2289:Jules Barthélemy Saint-Hilaire (1914).
2162:Riddles of Indian Rockshelter Paintings
2131:
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2007:
1932:
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2440:Gupta, The roots of Indian Art, p.194-
2204:
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1998:
442:
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3086:The rock-cut temples of western India
2723:
2607:
2138:. Abhinav Publications. p. 220.
2057:
1958:
1941:"Introduction to Indian Architecture"
3012:St. Olaf College Art Course Handouts
2496:"World Heritage Site â Ajanta Caves"
2376:
2032:
1555:, is one of the deepest and largest
823:. These caves generally followed an
703:Polished interior of Sudama, in the
2795:"Ellora UNESCO World Heritage Site"
2616:Introduction to Indian Architecture
2335:. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 66.
2179:
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981:built in the 2nd century CE by the
13:
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1964:
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1895:List of colossal sculpture in situ
81:
14:
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2705:L. B. Singh, Puratattva, May 2005
2567:. www.indoart.org. Archived from
2238:. Algora Publishing. p. 19.
2165:. Sarup & Sons. p. 189.
2135:Prehistoric Painting Of Bhimbetka
2076:
1875:List of rock-cut temples in India
1664:Rock cut stair leading to Kanheri
854:topography, with its flat-topped
744:Artificial caves of Western India
483:, are located on the edge of the
3738:Gopachal rock cut Jain monuments
2962:. Somaiya Publications: Mumbai.
1969:. www.boloji.com. Archived from
1766:Gopachal rock cut Jain monuments
1699:
1684:
1669:
1657:
1638:
1623:
1611:
1505:
1412:
1400:
1385:
1364:
1349:
1329:
1314:
1299:
1211:
1191:
1176:
1156:
1028:
1009:
990:
970:
954:
728:
712:
696:
680:
569:
542:
522:was held after the Buddha died (
50:
28:
2850:
2816:
2807:
2787:
2762:
2708:
2699:
2665:
2632:
2582:
2533:
2508:
2488:
2479:
2349:
2303:
2282:
1994:. Wondermondo. 10 October 2011.
671:monks during the reign of King
576:The quasi-perfect walls of the
3794:Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
1984:
1943:. indoarch.org. Archived from
1911:
1885:New Seven Wonders of the World
1253:(850â950 CE) took place.
1084:, before finally subsiding as
736:Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
645:Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves
1:
3249:Junagadh Buddhist Cave Groups
2980:Photos of rock-cut Bhaja cave
2958:Rajan, K.V. Soundara (1998).
2920:The Rock-Cut Temples of India
2905:. Thames and Hudson: London.
2874:
2724:Rajan, K.V. Soundara (1998).
2662:Livingston & Beach, xxiii
2370:10.1080/00438243.1976.9979639
2058:Rajan, K.V. Soundara (1998).
927:and the cave shrines, called
687:Entrance of the Gopika cave,
479:, now designated as a UNESCO
3883:Indian architectural history
3868:Indian rock-cut architecture
3076:Pallava Art and Architecture
2997:History of Architecture Site
2954:, Indian Philatelists' Forum
2948:Pandya, Prashant H. (2014),
2462:Krishan & Tadikonda 1996
1585:. Famous examples include:
1535:
811:under the protection of the
358:Indian rock-cut architecture
22:Indian rock-cut architecture
7:
3873:Indian architectural styles
2903:Early Buddhist Rock Temples
2881:Bhargava, Gopal K. (2006).
2640:"Badami (Western Chalukya)"
2332:Lord MahÄvÄ«ra and His Times
2329:Kailash Chand Jain (1991).
2292:The Buddha and His Religion
2262:Paul Gwynne (30 May 2017).
2194:. UNESCO. 2003. p. 16.
2159:Tiwari, Shiv Kumar (2000).
2132:Mathpal, Yashodhar (1984).
1858:
1712:Rock-cut monuments in India
1379:Monolithic rock-cut temples
850:and the monastic life. The
618:, 10 km south-west of
10:
3904:
3415:Ghorawadi/Shelarwadi Caves
3071:Kerala Temple Architecture
3054:In the Holy Caves of India
2934:, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan,
2428:, EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica.
2188:Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka
1836:Guntupalle Buddhist Site,
1676:Guntupalle Rockcut Caves,
1604:
1562:
1448:UNESCO World Heritage Site
747:
719:Visvakarma cave entrance,
599:, personally dedicated by
549:The famous carved door of
477:Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka
3807:
3784:
3751:
3723:
3700:
3672:
3654:
3636:
3570:
3355:
3327:
3299:
3234:
3201:
3138:
2917:Fergusson, James (1864).
2887:. Gyan Publishing House.
2860:. EncyclopĂŠdia Britannica
2770:"Kailash Rock Cut Temple"
2642:. art-and-archaeology.com
2268:. Wiley. pp. 51â52.
2114:. art-and-archaeology.com
1691:Rock cut Buddha statues,
1575:Indus Valley civilization
787:The Great Chaitya in the
3837:Tirumalai (Jain complex)
3766:Nashik Caves/Pandav Leni
3585:Hathiagor Buddhist Caves
3580:Binnayaga Buddhist Caves
3521:Kondivite/Mahakali Caves
2424:Chandra, Pramod (2008),
2008:Michael, George (1988).
1905:
1900:List of megalithic sites
1824:Masroor Temple at Kangra
1321:Jain Tirthankar statue,
1282:Gopachal Atishya Kshetra
771:(1st century CE) or the
3405:Mahad/Gandharpale Caves
3059:Kailesh Rock Cut Temple
3049:Indian rock cut temples
2951:Indian Philately Digest
2726:Rock-cut Temple Styles'
2205:Mithen, Steven (2011).
2060:Rock-cut Temple Styles'
1645:Advanced beds in early
977:Gautamiputra vihara at
900:in working with stone.
665:Hathigumpha inscription
502:During the time of the
3450:Nasik/Pandavleni Caves
2960:Rock-Cut Temple Styles
2923:. John Murray, London.
2614:Thapar, Binda (2004).
2211:. Orion. p. 524.
2112:"Prehistoric Rock Art"
1870:List of Caves in India
1865:Cave research in India
1560:
1407:Jain cave 30 at Ellora
1061:
892:) and worship halls (
796:
520:first Buddhist council
459:
86:
3888:Rock-cut architecture
3822:Kalugumalai Jain Beds
3178:Pandavula Metta Caves
3132:Indian Buddhist caves
1543:
1519:Descent of the Ganges
1372:Kalugumalai Jain Beds
1143:at Badami, the early
1055:
786:
450:
362:Rock-cut architecture
211:Rock-cut architecture
85:
3878:Architectural styles
3480:Nadsur/Thanale Caves
3173:Kotturu Dhanadibbalu
3002:Architectural Styles
2901:Dehejia, V. (1972).
2750:"Monuments of India"
2295:. TrĂŒbner. pp.
1849:Gommateshwara statue
1595:Step-well of Ambapur
1484:temple dedicated to
1456:cave temple 16, the
1060:, circa 480 CE.
831:in the back for the
639:To the southeast of
216:Ancient architecture
3710:Badami cave temples
3631:Jain Caves in India
3314:Badami cave temples
3254:Khapra Kodiya Caves
2033:Keay, John (2000).
1733:Badami Cave Temples
1599:Dada Harir Stepwell
1494:World Heritage Site
1141:Badami Cave Temples
762:Badami cave temples
481:World Heritage Site
454:, a retreat of the
443:Early natural caves
3526:Mandapeshwar Caves
3271:Kadia Dungar Caves
3064:2007-01-18 at the
3017:2007-09-29 at the
2990:2010-12-31 at the
2844:2022-11-23 at the
2686:hindi.webdunia.com
2546:2022-11-23 at the
2409:2022-11-23 at the
2315:2018-08-31 at the
2083:Ganvir, Shrikant.
1921:. historyworld.net
1816:Varaha Cave Temple
1561:
1393:Varaha Cave Temple
1284:"), Urvahi group (
1062:
983:Satavahana dynasty
797:
793:Maharashtra, India
738:, 2nd century BCE.
723:, 3rd century BCE.
707:, 3rd century BCE.
691:, 3rd century BCE.
614:, 20 km from
460:
409:, and some of the
317:Visual arts portal
87:
75:Art forms of India
3855:
3854:
3827:Sittanavasal Cave
3664:Son Bhandar Caves
3598:
3597:
3455:Panhalakaji Caves
3410:Ghatotkacha Caves
3276:Khambhalida Caves
3081:Cave architecture
2837:, 9781568983240,
2596:on April 21, 2000
2358:World Archaeology
2342:978-81-208-0805-8
2275:978-1-118-97228-1
1004:, 2nd century CE.
965:, 1st century BCE
963:Sittanavasal Cave
805:Pushyamitra Sunga
795:, 1st-century CE.
630:Son Bhandar Caves
510:, southwest from
421:. The monolithic
355:
354:
3895:
3733:Siddhachal Caves
3682:Bava Pyara Caves
3625:
3618:
3611:
3602:
3601:
3516:Jogeshwari Caves
3375:Aurangabad Caves
3259:Bava Pyara Caves
3226:Lomas Rishi Cave
3168:Guntupalli Caves
3125:
3118:
3111:
3102:
3101:
2955:
2944:
2924:
2898:
2869:
2868:
2866:
2865:
2854:
2848:
2820:
2814:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2802:
2801:
2791:
2785:
2784:
2782:
2781:
2772:. Archived from
2766:
2760:
2759:
2757:
2756:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2721:
2715:
2712:
2706:
2703:
2697:
2696:
2694:
2693:
2678:
2672:
2669:
2663:
2660:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2611:
2605:
2604:
2602:
2601:
2592:. Archived from
2586:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2576:
2561:
2550:
2537:
2531:
2530:
2528:
2527:
2518:. Archived from
2512:
2506:
2505:
2503:
2502:
2492:
2486:
2483:
2477:
2471:
2465:
2459:
2453:
2447:
2441:
2438:
2429:
2426:South Asian arts
2422:
2413:
2400:
2394:
2391:
2374:
2373:
2353:
2347:
2346:
2326:
2320:
2307:
2301:
2300:
2286:
2280:
2279:
2259:
2250:
2249:
2229:
2223:
2222:
2202:
2196:
2195:
2193:
2183:
2177:
2176:
2156:
2150:
2149:
2129:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2108:
2102:
2101:
2099:
2098:
2089:. Archived from
2080:
2074:
2073:
2055:
2049:
2048:
2035:India: A History
2030:
2024:
2023:
2010:The Hindu Temple
2005:
1996:
1995:
1988:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1978:
1965:Nangia, Ashish.
1962:
1956:
1955:
1953:
1952:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1927:
1926:
1915:
1853:Shravanabelagola
1845:, Andhra Pradesh
1797:Pandavleni Caves
1728:Aurangabad Caves
1703:
1688:
1673:
1661:
1642:
1627:
1618:Jain Badami cave
1615:
1547:, Abhaneri near
1524:Arjuna's Penance
1522:, also known as
1509:
1416:
1404:
1389:
1368:
1353:
1333:
1318:
1308:Siddhachal Caves
1303:
1286:Siddhachal Caves
1215:
1198:A monastery, or
1195:
1180:
1160:
1040:Pandavleni Caves
1032:
1013:
994:
979:Pandavleni Caves
974:
958:
939:circumambulatory
821:Pandavleni Caves
732:
716:
700:
684:
573:
546:
473:rock-cut designs
347:
340:
333:
84:
71:
70:
54:
39:, a 5th-century
32:
3903:
3902:
3898:
3897:
3896:
3894:
3893:
3892:
3858:
3857:
3856:
3851:
3803:
3780:
3776:Dharashiv Caves
3747:
3743:Udayagiri Caves
3719:
3696:
3668:
3650:
3646:Undavalli Caves
3632:
3629:
3599:
3594:
3566:
3511:Elephanta Caves
3395:Dharashiv Caves
3351:
3323:
3295:
3230:
3221:Saptaparni Cave
3197:
3193:Undavalli Caves
3163:Erravaram Caves
3134:
3129:
3066:Wayback Machine
3019:Wayback Machine
2992:Wayback Machine
2976:
2942:
2895:
2877:
2872:
2863:
2861:
2856:
2855:
2851:
2846:Wayback Machine
2821:
2817:
2812:
2808:
2799:
2797:
2793:
2792:
2788:
2779:
2777:
2768:
2767:
2763:
2754:
2752:
2748:
2747:
2743:
2736:
2722:
2718:
2713:
2709:
2704:
2700:
2691:
2689:
2680:
2679:
2675:
2670:
2666:
2661:
2654:
2645:
2643:
2638:
2637:
2633:
2626:
2612:
2608:
2599:
2597:
2588:
2587:
2583:
2574:
2572:
2563:
2562:
2553:
2548:Wayback Machine
2538:
2534:
2525:
2523:
2514:
2513:
2509:
2500:
2498:
2494:
2493:
2489:
2484:
2480:
2472:
2468:
2460:
2456:
2448:
2444:
2439:
2432:
2423:
2416:
2411:Wayback Machine
2401:
2397:
2392:
2377:
2354:
2350:
2343:
2327:
2323:
2317:Wayback Machine
2310:Digha Nikaya 16
2308:
2304:
2287:
2283:
2276:
2260:
2253:
2246:
2230:
2226:
2219:
2203:
2199:
2191:
2185:
2184:
2180:
2173:
2157:
2153:
2146:
2130:
2126:
2117:
2115:
2110:
2109:
2105:
2096:
2094:
2081:
2077:
2070:
2056:
2052:
2045:
2031:
2027:
2020:
2006:
1999:
1990:
1989:
1985:
1976:
1974:
1963:
1959:
1950:
1948:
1939:Kamiya, Takeo.
1937:
1933:
1924:
1922:
1917:
1916:
1912:
1908:
1861:
1830:Buddhist Site,
1807:Undavalli caves
1743:Elephanta Caves
1714:
1707:
1704:
1695:
1689:
1680:
1674:
1665:
1662:
1653:
1643:
1634:
1628:
1619:
1616:
1607:
1567:
1538:
1533:
1532:
1531:
1515:
1510:
1423:
1417:
1408:
1405:
1396:
1390:
1381:
1374:
1369:
1360:
1354:
1345:
1334:
1325:
1319:
1310:
1304:
1259:
1241:
1221:. Cave 34. The
1216:
1207:
1196:
1187:
1183:Some of the 29
1181:
1172:
1161:
1050:
1043:
1033:
1024:
1014:
1005:
995:
986:
975:
966:
961:Ezhadippattam,
959:
781:
764:
746:
739:
733:
724:
717:
708:
701:
692:
685:
589:
588:
587:
586:
585:
574:
566:
565:
547:
536:
508:Saptaparni Cave
452:Saptaparni Cave
445:
351:
322:
321:
297:
289:
288:
244:
236:
235:
201:
193:
192:
128:
120:
119:
95:
82:
69:
68:
67:
66:
65:
55:
46:
45:
44:
33:
24:
23:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3901:
3891:
3890:
3885:
3880:
3875:
3870:
3853:
3852:
3850:
3849:
3844:
3839:
3834:
3832:Armamalai Cave
3829:
3824:
3819:
3813:
3811:
3805:
3804:
3802:
3801:
3796:
3790:
3788:
3782:
3781:
3779:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3757:
3755:
3749:
3748:
3746:
3745:
3740:
3735:
3729:
3727:
3725:Madhya Pradesh
3721:
3720:
3718:
3717:
3712:
3706:
3704:
3698:
3697:
3695:
3694:
3689:
3684:
3678:
3676:
3670:
3669:
3667:
3666:
3660:
3658:
3652:
3651:
3649:
3648:
3642:
3640:
3638:Andhra Pradesh
3634:
3633:
3628:
3627:
3620:
3613:
3605:
3596:
3595:
3593:
3592:
3587:
3582:
3576:
3574:
3568:
3567:
3565:
3564:
3559:
3557:Shivneri Caves
3554:
3549:
3534:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3498:
3497:
3492:
3487:
3482:
3477:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3445:Nenavali Caves
3442:
3437:
3432:
3427:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3407:
3402:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3382:
3377:
3372:
3370:Ambivali Caves
3367:
3361:
3359:
3353:
3352:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3333:
3331:
3329:Madhya Pradesh
3325:
3324:
3322:
3321:
3316:
3311:
3305:
3303:
3297:
3296:
3294:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3278:
3273:
3268:
3267:
3266:
3261:
3256:
3246:
3240:
3238:
3232:
3231:
3229:
3228:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3211:Indrasala Cave
3207:
3205:
3199:
3198:
3196:
3195:
3190:
3185:
3180:
3175:
3170:
3165:
3160:
3155:
3150:
3144:
3142:
3140:Andhra Pradesh
3136:
3135:
3128:
3127:
3120:
3113:
3105:
3099:
3098:
3096:Part 2 (Later)
3092:Part 1 (Early)
3088:
3083:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3056:
3051:
3046:
3041:
3036:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3009:
3004:
2999:
2994:
2982:
2975:
2974:External links
2972:
2971:
2970:
2956:
2945:
2940:
2925:
2914:
2899:
2893:
2876:
2873:
2871:
2870:
2858:"Ellora Caves"
2849:
2815:
2806:
2786:
2761:
2741:
2734:
2716:
2707:
2698:
2673:
2664:
2652:
2631:
2624:
2606:
2581:
2551:
2532:
2516:"Ajanta Caves"
2507:
2487:
2478:
2466:
2454:
2452:, p. 357.
2442:
2430:
2414:
2395:
2375:
2364:(3): 261â268.
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2341:
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2274:
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2244:
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2197:
2178:
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2043:
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2018:
1997:
1983:
1957:
1931:
1909:
1907:
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1897:
1892:
1887:
1882:
1877:
1872:
1867:
1860:
1857:
1856:
1855:
1846:
1840:
1838:Andhra Pradesh
1834:
1832:Andhra Pradesh
1825:
1822:
1813:
1811:Andhra Pradesh
1804:
1799:
1794:
1789:
1784:
1779:
1777:Lenyadri Caves
1774:
1769:
1763:
1745:
1740:
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1713:
1710:
1709:
1708:
1705:
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1683:
1681:
1678:Andhra Pradesh
1675:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1656:
1654:
1644:
1637:
1635:
1632:Andhra Pradesh
1629:
1622:
1620:
1617:
1610:
1606:
1603:
1563:Main article:
1537:
1534:
1512:
1511:
1504:
1503:
1502:
1478:Deccan Plateau
1466:King Krishna I
1458:Kailash Temple
1425:
1424:
1418:
1411:
1409:
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1313:
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1306:Jain statues,
1305:
1298:
1258:
1255:
1243:
1242:
1217:
1210:
1208:
1197:
1190:
1188:
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1027:
1025:
1015:
1008:
1006:
996:
989:
987:
976:
969:
967:
960:
953:
911:, temples and
813:Andhra dynasty
801:Mauryan Empire
780:
777:
745:
742:
741:
740:
734:
727:
725:
718:
711:
709:
702:
695:
693:
686:
679:
612:Sitamarhi Cave
575:
568:
567:
548:
541:
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528:Indrasala Cave
485:Deccan Plateau
444:
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423:Kailash Temple
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3553:
3552:Manmodi Caves
3550:
3548:
3545:
3544:
3543:
3542:
3540:
3532:
3531:Kanheri Caves
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3514:
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3509:
3508:
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3506:
3504:
3496:
3495:Yerphal Caves
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3485:Vijasan Caves
3483:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3475:Shirwal Caves
3473:
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3446:
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3435:Kondana Caves
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3348:
3345:
3343:
3342:Dhamnar Caves
3340:
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3335:
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3326:
3320:
3319:Pandava Caves
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3298:
3292:
3289:
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3277:
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3265:
3264:Uparkot Caves
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2978:
2977:
2969:
2968:81-7039-218-7
2965:
2961:
2957:
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2952:
2946:
2943:
2941:9788121505659
2937:
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2926:
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2921:
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2911:0-500-69001-4
2908:
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2894:9788178353777
2890:
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2847:
2843:
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2832:
2828:
2824:
2819:
2810:
2796:
2790:
2776:on 2007-01-18
2775:
2771:
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2751:
2745:
2737:
2735:81-7039-218-7
2731:
2727:
2720:
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2641:
2635:
2627:
2625:0-7946-0011-5
2621:
2617:
2610:
2595:
2591:
2585:
2571:on 2006-12-11
2570:
2566:
2560:
2558:
2556:
2549:
2545:
2542:
2536:
2522:on 2007-04-04
2521:
2517:
2511:
2497:
2491:
2482:
2475:
2470:
2464:, p. 23.
2463:
2458:
2451:
2450:Bhargava 2006
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2245:9780875864846
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2218:9781780222592
2214:
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2209:
2201:
2190:
2189:
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2174:
2172:9788176250863
2168:
2164:
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2155:
2147:
2145:9788170171935
2141:
2137:
2136:
2128:
2113:
2107:
2093:on 2020-04-03
2092:
2088:
2087:
2079:
2071:
2069:81-7039-218-7
2065:
2061:
2054:
2046:
2044:0-8021-3797-0
2040:
2036:
2029:
2021:
2019:0-226-53230-5
2015:
2011:
2004:
2002:
1993:
1987:
1973:on 2010-01-14
1972:
1968:
1961:
1947:on 2006-11-06
1946:
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1843:Ramatheertham
1841:
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1835:
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1829:
1828:Bojjannakonda
1826:
1823:
1821:
1817:
1814:
1812:
1808:
1805:
1803:
1800:
1798:
1795:
1793:
1792:Kazhuku Malai
1790:
1788:
1787:Pancha Rathas
1785:
1783:
1782:Mahabalipuram
1780:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1772:Kanheri Caves
1770:
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1693:Bojjannakonda
1687:
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1651:Kanheri Caves
1648:
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1444:Pancha Rathas
1440:
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1420:Pancha Rathas
1415:
1410:
1403:
1398:
1394:
1388:
1383:
1382:
1373:
1367:
1362:
1358:
1352:
1347:
1344:, 9th century
1343:
1342:Samanar Malai
1339:
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1054:
1041:
1037:
1031:
1026:
1022:
1018:
1012:
1007:
1003:
999:
998:Manmodi Caves
993:
988:
984:
980:
973:
968:
964:
957:
952:
951:
950:
948:
945:) around the
944:
940:
936:
935:
930:
926:
922:
921:chandrashalas
918:
914:
910:
906:
901:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
882:
877:
873:
869:
868:Kanheri Caves
865:
861:
857:
853:
852:Western Ghats
849:
845:
840:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
806:
802:
794:
790:
785:
776:
774:
770:
763:
759:
755:
751:
737:
731:
726:
722:
721:Barabar Caves
715:
710:
706:
705:Barabar Caves
699:
694:
690:
689:Barabar Caves
683:
678:
677:
676:
674:
670:
666:
662:
661:Kumari Parvat
658:
654:
650:
646:
642:
637:
635:
631:
628:
625:Finally, the
623:
621:
617:
613:
608:
606:
602:
598:
594:
593:Barabar caves
583:
579:
578:Barabar Caves
572:
563:
560:
556:
555:Barabar Caves
553:, one of the
552:
545:
531:
529:
525:
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517:
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490:
486:
482:
478:
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470:
466:
457:
453:
449:
440:
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433:
429:
424:
420:
414:
412:
408:
407:Kanheri Caves
404:
400:
396:
390:
388:
384:
380:
376:
375:Barabar caves
370:
366:
363:
359:
348:
343:
341:
336:
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329:
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318:
315:
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310:
308:
305:
303:
300:
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293:
292:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
274:Barabar caves
272:
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189:
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184:
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176:
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161:
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156:
154:
151:
149:
148:Indo-Scythian
146:
144:
141:
139:
136:
134:
131:
130:
124:
123:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
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101:
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91:
90:
80:
79:
76:
73:
72:
63:
59:
53:
42:
38:
31:
3842:Sithanavasal
3761:Ellora Caves
3692:Talaja Caves
3536:
3535:
3500:
3499:
3470:Pohale Caves
3400:Ellora Caves
3380:Bahrot Caves
3365:Ajanta Caves
3291:Talaja Caves
3216:Vulture Peak
3183:Ramateertham
3148:Adapur Caves
2959:
2950:
2930:
2919:
2902:
2883:
2862:. Retrieved
2852:
2839:google books
2826:
2818:
2809:
2798:. Retrieved
2789:
2778:. Retrieved
2774:the original
2764:
2753:. Retrieved
2744:
2725:
2719:
2710:
2701:
2690:. Retrieved
2688:. 2007-08-11
2685:
2676:
2667:
2644:. Retrieved
2634:
2615:
2609:
2598:. Retrieved
2594:the original
2584:
2573:. Retrieved
2569:the original
2535:
2524:. Retrieved
2520:the original
2510:
2499:. Retrieved
2490:
2481:
2476:, p. 6.
2469:
2457:
2445:
2425:
2398:
2361:
2357:
2351:
2331:
2324:
2305:
2291:
2284:
2264:
2234:
2227:
2207:
2200:
2187:
2181:
2161:
2154:
2134:
2127:
2116:. Retrieved
2106:
2095:. Retrieved
2091:the original
2085:
2078:
2059:
2053:
2034:
2028:
2009:
1986:
1975:. Retrieved
1971:the original
1960:
1949:. Retrieved
1945:the original
1934:
1923:. Retrieved
1913:
1820:Mamallapuram
1748:Ellora Caves
1568:
1528:Mamallapuram
1523:
1517:
1498:
1480:, is a huge
1470:Ellora Caves
1452:
1441:
1437:Kaveri River
1426:
1290:
1279:
1275:
1271:Gwalior fort
1268:
1260:
1244:
1219:Ellora Caves
1204:Ajanta Caves
1185:Ajanta Caves
1165:Ajanta Caves
1134:
1097:Ajanta Caves
1094:
1063:
932:
920:
915:, many with
902:
879:
876:trade routes
862:, and sharp
858:hills, deep
841:
827:plan with a
798:
773:Ajanta Caves
765:
758:Ajanta Caves
660:
638:
624:
609:
590:
501:
465:Palaeolithic
461:
428:rock reliefs
419:Ellora Caves
415:
411:Ajanta Caves
391:
371:
367:
357:
356:
221:Architecture
210:
183:Indo-Islamic
133:Indus Valley
3799:Belum Caves
3771:Mangi-Tungi
3753:Maharashtra
3687:Dhank Caves
3590:Kolvi Caves
3562:Tulja Caves
3460:Patan caves
3425:Karad Caves
3420:Karla Caves
3390:Bhaja Caves
3385:Bedse Caves
3357:Maharashtra
3286:Siyot Caves
3244:Dhank Caves
3158:Chandavaram
3153:Belum Caves
2823:Beach, Milo
2474:Pandya 2014
2404:p. 231
1880:Rock relief
1591:Rani ki vav
1587:Chand Baori
1545:Chand Baori
1474:Maharashtra
1472:located at
1395:7th century
1359:cave temple
1135:Later many
1116:and carved
1101:Maharashtra
1056:Cave 26 in
1017:Tulja Caves
943:pradakshina
934:garbhagriha
913:monasteries
817:Karla Caves
789:Karla Caves
769:Karla Caves
754:Karla Caves
750:Nasik Caves
649:Bhubaneswar
551:Lomas Rishi
524:paranirvana
403:Bedse Caves
399:Karla Caves
395:Bhaja Caves
3862:Categories
3809:Tamil Nadu
3465:Pitalkhora
3440:Kuda Caves
3430:Khed Caves
3337:Bagh Caves
3281:Sana Caves
2875:References
2864:2006-12-21
2835:1568983247
2800:2006-12-19
2780:2007-01-26
2755:2006-12-21
2692:2021-07-21
2646:2006-12-21
2600:2006-12-21
2575:2007-06-26
2526:2007-04-12
2501:2007-04-12
2118:2006-10-17
2097:2020-01-17
1977:2009-10-17
1951:2006-12-18
1925:2006-12-18
1802:Pitalkhora
1738:Bagh Caves
1597:, and the
1486:Lord Shiva
1482:monolithic
1264:Ankai Fort
1038:facade at
898:wood grain
848:asceticism
748:See also:
469:Mesolithic
200:Techniques
143:Indo-Greek
3847:Thirakoil
3702:Karnataka
3572:Rajasthan
3490:Wai Caves
3347:Saru Maru
3301:Karnataka
1768:, Gwalior
1583:Rajasthan
1557:stepwells
1553:Rajasthan
1536:Stepwells
1357:Tirumalai
1336:Image of
1247:stepwells
1240:at Ellora
1238:Jain Cave
1088:replaced
1074:Amaravati
917:gavakshas
673:Kharavela
489:sandstone
312:Asian art
284:Khajuraho
249:Bhimbetka
243:Locations
226:Sculpture
94:Religions
35:Cave 19,
3547:Lenyadri
3188:Sankaram
3062:Archived
3015:Archived
2988:Archived
2842:Archived
2590:"Ajanta"
2544:Archived
2407:Archived
2313:Archived
1859:See also
1762:temples.
1752:Buddhist
1565:Stepwell
1559:in India
1549:Bandikui
1462:basaltic
1433:Pallavas
1338:Mahavira
1323:Gopachal
1234:Neminath
1230:yakshini
1223:yakshini
1206:, no. 4.
1169:rock-cut
1145:Chalukya
1126:pilaster
1122:cornices
1110:Vakataka
1105:Sahyadri
1090:Buddhism
1086:Hinduism
1070:Gandhara
1066:Mahayana
929:Chaityas
894:chaityas
844:Buddhist
833:chaityas
296:See also
259:Gandhara
231:Painting
115:Buddhist
3674:Gujarat
3537:In the
3501:In the
3236:Gujarat
2541:p.98-99
1750:has 12
1647:viharas
1605:Gallery
1579:Gujarat
1571:monsoon
1490:Puranas
1476:on the
1429:Pallava
1251:Bhinmal
1167:are 30
1130:lintels
1118:reliefs
1114:columns
1036:Chaitya
925:Viharas
890:viharas
881:Yavanas
860:ravines
837:viharas
825:apsidal
819:or the
663:in the
605:granite
562:reliefs
497:grottos
269:Bharhut
254:Mathura
173:Pallava
168:Pandyan
138:Mauryan
127:Periods
64:cave 16
41:chaitya
3786:Odisha
3715:Aihole
3539:Junnar
3503:Mumbai
3309:Aihole
2966:
2938:
2909:
2891:
2833:
2732:
2622:
2339:
2272:
2242:
2215:
2169:
2142:
2066:
2041:
2016:
1758:and 5
1724:temple
1720:has 3
1718:Aihole
1454:Ellora
1228:, the
1226:Ambika
1200:vihara
1082:Ellora
1078:Ajanta
1058:Ajanta
1021:Junnar
1002:Junnar
941:path (
909:basadi
886:Greeks
872:Ajanta
864:cliffs
856:basalt
809:Deccan
760:, and
653:Odisha
643:, the
634:Rajgir
616:Rajgir
601:Ashoka
582:Ashoka
559:Maurya
512:Rajgir
504:Buddha
475:. The
456:Buddha
437:Deccan
432:relief
405:, the
401:, the
397:, the
387:wooden
383:Deccan
279:Ajanta
264:Sanchi
188:Mughal
158:Kushan
62:Ellora
37:Ajanta
3656:Bihar
3541:area:
3505:area:
3203:Bihar
2299:â377.
2192:(PDF)
1906:Notes
1756:Hindu
1754:, 17
1722:Jaina
1526:, at
1292:Babur
1236:at a
1137:Hindu
947:stupa
907:cave
842:When
829:stupa
657:India
641:Bihar
620:Hisua
597:Bihar
516:Bihar
493:tools
379:Bihar
178:Chola
163:Gupta
100:Hindu
3094:and
2964:ISBN
2936:ISBN
2907:ISBN
2889:ISBN
2831:ISBN
2730:ISBN
2620:ISBN
2337:ISBN
2270:ISBN
2240:ISBN
2213:ISBN
2167:ISBN
2140:ISBN
2064:ISBN
2039:ISBN
2014:ISBN
1760:Jain
1581:and
1516:The
1427:The
1163:The
1149:Jain
1124:and
1095:The
1080:and
1072:and
905:Jain
669:Jain
627:Jain
467:and
110:Jain
105:Sikh
43:hall
2366:doi
2297:376
1818:at
1649:at
1232:of
1099:in
1019:in
1000:in
651:in
632:in
595:in
3864::
2825:,
2684:.
2655:^
2554:^
2433:^
2417:^
2378:^
2360:.
2254:^
2000:^
1851:,
1809:,
1601:.
1593:,
1589:,
1551:,
1496:.
1450:.
1340:,
839:.
791:,
756:,
752:,
655:,
514:,
439:.
430:,
377:,
60:,
3624:e
3617:t
3610:v
3124:e
3117:t
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2175:.
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2100:.
2072:.
2047:.
2022:.
1980:.
1954:.
1928:.
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1023:.
985:.
919:(
884:(
584:.
564:.
458:.
346:e
339:t
332:v
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