1168:
primarily defined by their isolation within an ecosystem. In the case of an island, the area referred to as the matrix is usually the body of water surrounding it. The mainland is often the nearest non-island piece of land. Similarly, in an ILS the “mainland” is the source of immigrating species, however the matrix is far more varied. By imagining how different types of isolated ecosystems, for example a pond that is surrounded by land, are similar to an island ecosystems it can be understood how theories and phenomena that are true of island ecosystems can be applied to ILS. However, the overall immigration and extinction patterns that are outlined in the theory of island biogeography as they play out on islands, also play out between ecosystems on the mainland.
780:
820:
789:
890:
limited and therefore easier to keep track of. It is expected that as the area and species richness relationship are directly proportional to one another. For example, as the area of a series of islands increase, there is a direct relationship to the increasing species richness of primary producers. It is important to consider that island species area relationships will behave somewhat differently than mainland species area relationships, however the connections between the two can still prove to be useful.
47:
933:
2137:
602:
589:
747:
1240:), and that these reserves could lose species as they 'relaxed towards equilibrium' (that is they would lose species as they achieved their new equilibrium number, known as ecosystem decay) caused a great deal of concern. This is particularly true when conserving larger species which tend to have larger ranges. A study by William Newmark, published in the journal
1273:
as "ecology's own genteel version of trench warfare". In the years after the publication of Wilson and
Simberloff's papers ecologists had found more examples of the species-area relationship, and conservation planning was taking the view that the one large reserve could hold more species than several
889:
show the relationship between a given area and the species richness within that area. This concept comes from the theory of island biogeography, and is well illustrated on islands because they are relatively isolated. Thus, the immigrating species and the species going extinct from an island are more
783:
This diagram shows the effect of an island's distance from the mainland on the amount of species richness. The sizes of the two islands are approximately the same. Island 1 receives more random dispersion of organisms, while island number two, since it is farther away, receives less random dispersion
1171:
The concepts of area of an island and the level of isolation from a mainland as presented in the theory of island biogeography, apply to ILS. The main difference is in the dynamics of area and isolation. For example, an ILS may have a changing area because of seasons, which may impact its degree of
750:
This diagram shows the influence that the size of an island and its distance from the mainland has on the amount of immigration and species richness of the island. It can be seen that a larger island close to the mainland has the most species richness and a smaller one far from the mainland has the
802:
In addition to having an effect on immigration rates, isolation can also affect extinction rates. Populations on islands that are less isolated are less likely to go extinct because individuals from the source population and other islands can immigrate and "rescue" the population from extinction;
810:
In addition to having an effect on extinction, island size can also affect immigration rates. Species may actively target larger islands for their greater number of resources and available niches; or, larger islands may accumulate more species by chance just because they are larger. This is the
710:—a mass of land surrounded by water—the term may also be applied to many nontraditional "islands", such as the peaks of mountains, isolated springs or lakes, and non-contiguous woodlands. The concept is often applied to natural habitats surrounded by human-altered landscapes, such as expanses of
1289:
as a conservation tool to increase connectivity between habitat islands. Wildlife corridors can increase the movement of species between parks and reserves and therefore increase the number of species that can be supported, but they can also allow for the spread of disease and pathogens between
1150:
communities. Following fumigation, the immigration of species onto the islands was monitored. Within a year the islands had been recolonized to pre-fumigation levels. However, Simberloff and Wilson contended this final species richness was oscillating in quasi-equilibrium. Islands closer to the
1167:
The theory of island biogeography was originally used to study oceanic islands, but those concepts can be extrapolated to other areas of study. Island species dynamics give information about how species move and interact within Island Like
Systems (ILS). Rather than an actual island, ILS are
792:
This diagram shows the effect of an island's size on the amount of species richness. The diagram shows two islands equidistant from the mainland. Island 1 receives less random dispersion of organisms. While island 2 receives more of the arrows and therefore more random dispersion of
1282:. This led to concern by other ecologists, including Dan Simberloff, who considered this to be an unproven over-simplification that would damage conservation efforts. Habitat diversity was as or more important than size in determining the number of species protected.
1112:
The theory can be studied through the fossils, which provide a record of life on Earth. 300 million years ago, Europe and North
America lay on the equator and were covered by steamy tropical rainforests. Climate change devastated these tropical rainforests during the
1172:
isolation. Resource availability plays an important role in the conditions that an island is under. This is another factor that changes in ILS in comparison to real islands, since generally there is a greater resource availability in some ILS than true islands.
714:
surrounded by highways or housing tracts, and national parks. Additionally, what is an insular for one organism may not be so for others, some organisms located on mountaintops may also be found in the valleys, while others may be restricted to the peaks.
1117:
Period and as the climate grew drier, rainforests fragmented. Shrunken islands of forest were uninhabitable for amphibians but were well suited to reptiles, which became more diverse and even varied their diet in the rapidly changing environment; this
1450:
Hall, Dianne; Willig, Michael; Moorhead, Daryl L.; Robert W. Sites, Robert W.; Fish, Ernest B.; Mollhagen, Tony R. (March 2004). "Aquatic
Macroinvertebrate Diversity of Playa Wetlands: The Role of Landscape and Island Biogeographic Characteristics".
1175:
Species-area relationships, as described above, can be applied to Island Like
Systems (ILS) as well. It is typically observed that as the area of an ecosystem increases, the species richness is directly proportional. One major difference is that
1301:, the idea of different species arising from one ancestral species in the same area. Interbreeding between the two differently adapted species would prevent speciation, but in some species, sympatric speciation appears to have occurred.
1158:
has yielded a large number of publications concerning the ecological changes following the formation of islands, such as the local extinction of large predators and the subsequent changes in prey populations.
1103:
This expression of the function allows for the function to be drawn as a linear function. However, the core meaning of the function is the same: the area of the island dictates the species area relationship.
705:
For biogeographical purposes, an insular environment or "island" is any area of habitat suitable for a specific ecosystem, surrounded by an expanse of unsuitable habitat. While this may be a traditional
1374:
The present paper compares the distribution of boreal birds and mammals among the isolated mountain ranges of the Great Basin and relates those patterns to the developing theory of insular biogeography.
669:
occurring in oceanic islands. Under either name it is now used in reference to any ecosystem (present or past) that is isolated due to being surrounded by unlike ecosystems, and has been extended to
1101:
743:). Usually this source is the mainland, but it can also be other islands. Islands that are more isolated are less likely to receive immigrants than islands that are less isolated.
697:
in their inaugural contribution to
Princeton's Monograph in Population Biology series, which attempted to predict the number of species that would exist on a newly created island.
759:
or effect. Larger islands contain larger habitat areas and opportunities for more different varieties of habitat. Larger habitat size reduces the probability of extinction due to
2063:
1151:
mainland recovered faster as predicted by the Theory of Island
Biogeography. The effect of island size was not tested, since all islands were of approximately equal size.
927:
1663:
Chadwick, O.A.; Derry, L.A.; Vitousek, P.M.; Huebert, B.J.; Hedin, L.O. (1999). "Changing sources of nutrients during four million years of ecosystem development".
318:
1214:
1194:
1018:
998:
978:
958:
1297:. Allopatric speciation is where new gene pools arise out of natural selection in isolated gene pools. Island biogeography is also useful in considering
2920:
2173:
723:
The theory of insular biogeography proposes that the number of species found in an undisturbed insular environment ("island") is determined by
633:
1391:
Sahney, S.; Benton, M. J.; Falcon-Lang, H. J. (2010). "Rainforest
Collapse Triggered Pennsylvanian Tetrapod Diversification in Euramerica".
2030:
241:
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552:
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360:
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66:
2010:
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731:. And further, that the isolated populations may follow different evolutionary routes, as shown by Darwin's observation of
494:
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17:
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2754:
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Over time, the countervailing forces of extinction and immigration result in an equilibrium level of species richness.
626:
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186:
2426:
1958:
1434:
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88:
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313:
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567:
350:
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3199:
3154:
2906:
2159:
886:
666:
619:
606:
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1358:
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The rate of extinction once a species manages to colonize an island is affected by island size; this is the
3032:
1026:
537:
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2280:
1707:
593:
3735:
3454:
3174:
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1752:
763:
93:
3635:
3247:
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1142:. Species richness on several small mangroves islands were surveyed. The islands were fumigated with
459:
434:
414:
394:
71:
2151:
3730:
3625:
3620:
3590:
3394:
2857:
2739:
1320:
739:. Immigration and emigration are affected by the distance of an island from a source of colonists (
665:
of isolated natural communities. The theory was originally developed to explain the pattern of the
449:
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340:
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323:
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3332:
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409:
370:
171:
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3357:
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3227:
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2577:
2285:
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2122:
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populations, complicating the simple proscription of connectivity being good for biodiversity.
474:
429:
251:
146:
1224:
Within a few years of the publishing of the theory, its potential application to the field of
896:
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3052:
3042:
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2557:
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2140:
2112:
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1871:
1310:
1294:
1237:
1155:
865:
Location relative to ocean currents (influences nutrient, fish, bird, and seed flow patterns)
662:
572:
454:
399:
365:
278:
1130:
The theory of island biogeography was experimentally tested by E. O. Wilson and his student
3645:
3610:
3605:
3529:
3524:
3479:
3377:
3347:
3194:
3057:
3047:
2592:
2431:
2220:
1672:
1617:
1543:
1529:"A Land-bridge Island Perspective on Mammalian Extinctions in Western North American Parks"
1400:
1298:
1225:
424:
196:
81:
38:
960:
represents the measure of diversity of a species (for example, the number of species) and
8:
3695:
3670:
3534:
3504:
3449:
3362:
3252:
3237:
3184:
3017:
2952:
2834:
2764:
2696:
2295:
2107:
1912:
858:
846:
Initial plant and animal composition if previously attached to a larger land mass (e.g.
732:
514:
504:
439:
404:
288:
191:
116:
51:
1676:
1621:
1547:
1404:
823:
Total number of reptilian and amphibian species on seven small and large islands in the
3706:
3655:
3650:
3459:
3422:
3164:
3120:
3085:
2942:
2867:
2769:
2701:
2691:
2625:
2572:
2383:
2328:
2290:
2215:
1932:
1888:
1869:(1974). "Populations and Local Extinctions of Birds on Barro Colorado Island, Panama".
1848:
1840:
1772:
1719:
1688:
1640:
1603:
1577:
1468:
1246:
1199:
1179:
1003:
983:
963:
943:
756:
557:
489:
273:
201:
166:
1974:
Lomolino, Mark V. (January 2000). "A Call for a New
Paradigm of Island Biogeography".
1821:(March 1969). "Experimental Zoogeography of islands - colonization of empty islands".
3595:
3564:
3352:
3179:
2987:
2852:
2829:
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2343:
2255:
2240:
2225:
2205:
2006:
1987:
1823:
1814:
1768:
1723:
1645:
1569:
1509:
1504:
1487:
1359:"The Theory of Insular Biogeography and the Distribution of Boreal Birds and Mammals"
1286:
1131:
736:
258:
136:
126:
121:
1936:
1852:
1776:
1472:
3549:
3412:
3404:
3322:
3204:
3189:
3125:
3105:
3022:
3012:
3007:
2972:
2804:
2744:
2615:
2416:
2358:
2270:
2230:
1983:
1950:
1924:
1913:"Are island-like systems biologically similar to islands? A review of the evidence"
1880:
1832:
1764:
1715:
1680:
1635:
1625:
1581:
1559:
1551:
1499:
1460:
1426:
1408:
1241:
686:
682:
658:
293:
1692:
819:
779:
3685:
3544:
3514:
3509:
3499:
3432:
3417:
3297:
3277:
3159:
3027:
2933:
2824:
2734:
2676:
2260:
2186:
2117:
1630:
246:
236:
98:
3665:
3489:
3442:
3372:
3367:
3262:
3129:
3002:
2809:
2799:
2779:
2582:
2547:
2486:
2363:
2318:
2210:
2102:
2092:
1330:
1325:
1315:
1275:
1143:
740:
328:
231:
788:
46:
3719:
3690:
2666:
2640:
2597:
2587:
2542:
2509:
2401:
2235:
2190:
1513:
1279:
1266:
1255:
1233:
1114:
804:
770:
479:
151:
3675:
3660:
3317:
3287:
3232:
3115:
3080:
2957:
2456:
2097:
2079:
1954:
1818:
1649:
1430:
1262:
1139:
773:
increases the number of species that will be successful after immigration.
690:
654:
499:
484:
268:
263:
181:
1573:
936:
An example of what a species-area relationship may look like when graphed.
932:
2967:
2514:
2476:
2451:
2441:
2406:
2353:
2333:
1564:
1251:
871:
824:
724:
509:
226:
176:
1602:
Franzén, Markus; Schweiger, Oliver; Betzholtz, Per-Eric (January 2012).
1216:
values also vary between true islands and ILS, and within types of ILS.
3680:
3257:
3222:
2862:
2814:
2759:
2729:
2635:
2552:
2496:
2373:
2323:
2029:
Schoenherr, Allan A.; Feldmeth, C. Robert; Emerson, Michael J. (2003).
1928:
1892:
1844:
1335:
847:
760:
728:
670:
283:
206:
161:
141:
55:
1000:
represents the area of the island or space that is being examined and
843:
Climate (tropical versus arctic, humid versus arid, variability, etc.)
3585:
3539:
3267:
2711:
2681:
2481:
2436:
2411:
2348:
2338:
2313:
2305:
2250:
2181:
1555:
1412:
1196:-values are generally lower for ILSs than true islands. Furthermore,
1147:
711:
674:
542:
156:
76:
1884:
1836:
3640:
3569:
3100:
2928:
2607:
2519:
2466:
2421:
1608:
1135:
851:
532:
131:
2003:
The Song of the Dodo: Island
Biogeography in an Age of Extinctions
1684:
837:
Size of island (larger area usually facilitates greater diversity)
681:, fragmented forests, and even natural habitats isolated by human
3630:
3437:
3307:
3302:
2929:
2877:
2537:
2182:
2040:
Heatwole, Harold. "History of Insular Ecology and Biogeography".
1595:
1449:
1274:
smaller reserves, and that larger reserves should be the norm in
1229:
831:
Degree of isolation (distance to nearest neighbour, and mainland)
767:
2048:
1488:"Landscape modification and habitat fragmentation: a synthesis"
1023:
This function can also be expressed as a logarithmic function:
707:
588:
1753:"On the general dynamic model of oceanic island biogeography"
1708:"Chapter 15 - Estimating Extinction Risk from Climate Change"
1604:"Species–Area Relationships Are Controlled by Species Traits"
746:
678:
1943:
1662:
1386:
1384:
1382:
1162:
1465:
10.1672/0277-5212(2004)024[0077:AMDOPW]2.0.CO;2
1419:
1285:
Island biogeography theory also led to the development of
2028:
1601:
1379:
1293:
In species diversity, island biogeography most describes
1154:
Research conducted at the rainforest research station on
685:. The field was started in the 1960s by the ecologists
1390:
1219:
1228:
had been realised and was being vigorously debated in
1122:
event triggered an evolutionary burst among reptiles.
1202:
1182:
1029:
1006:
986:
966:
946:
899:
868:
Location relative to dust blow (influences nutrients)
1963:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
1439:. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
1258:
National Park and the number of species of mammals.
1485:
1208:
1188:
1095:
1012:
992:
972:
952:
921:
3717:
1813:
1236:formed islands inside human-altered landscapes (
1949:
1425:
1486:Fischer, Joern; Lindenmayer, David B. (2007).
2914:
2167:
2064:
1706:Hannah, Lee (2022-01-01), Hannah, Lee (ed.),
881:
627:
2032:Natural History of the Islands of California
1791:"Essentials of Ecology, 4th Edition | Wiley"
1352:
1350:
1278:. This view was in particular championed by
980:is a constant representing the y-intercept.
1520:
893:The species-area relationship equation is:
3135:Latitudinal gradients in species diversity
2921:
2907:
2174:
2160:
2071:
2057:
1807:
657:that examines the factors that affect the
634:
620:
1750:
1639:
1629:
1563:
1503:
1347:
1163:Applications to Island Like Systems (ILS)
27:Study of the ecology of isolated habitats
3033:Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations
2672:Tritrophic interactions in plant defense
1973:
1020:represents the slope of the area curve.
931:
840:The habitat suitability which includes:
818:
787:
778:
745:
3065:Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model
2044:. Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems.
2000:
1994:
1526:
1125:
14:
3718:
2873:Herbivore adaptations to plant defense
1910:
1865:
1712:Climate Change Biology (Third Edition)
1705:
814:
2902:
2155:
2052:
2042:Oceans and Aquatic Ecosystems, Vol II
1906:
1904:
1902:
1746:
1744:
1356:
1232:circles. The idea that reserves and
1096:{\displaystyle log(S)=log(c)+zlog(A)}
2888:Predator avoidance in schooling fish
2039:
1714:, Academic Press, pp. 323–339,
1220:Applications in conservation biology
1107:
3338:Intermediate disturbance hypothesis
24:
3091:Ecological effects of biodiversity
2022:
1899:
1741:
1720:10.1016/b978-0-08-102975-6.00015-7
1527:Newmark, W. D. (29 January 1987).
25:
3747:
2427:Generalist and specialist species
2035:. University of California Press.
1960:The Theory of Island Biogeography
1436:The Theory of Island Biogeography
1372:: 209–227. SA Code A78BRO01IDUS.
1120:Carboniferous rainforest collapse
3150:Occupancy–abundance relationship
2136:
2135:
2078:
1988:10.1046/j.1365-2699.2000.00185.x
1769:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02083.x
1505:10.1111/j.1466-8238.2007.00287.x
1261:This led to the debate known as
1254:between the size of a protected
874:(the impacts of chance arrivals)
797:
601:
600:
587:
45:
3170:Relative abundance distribution
2883:Plant defense against herbivory
2750:Competitive exclusion principle
2462:Mesopredator release hypothesis
1976:Global Ecology and Biogeography
1967:
1859:
1783:
1751:Fattorini, Simone (June 2009).
1492:Global Ecology and Biogeography
594:Evolutionary biology portal
2755:Consumer–resource interactions
1699:
1656:
1479:
1443:
1366:Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs
1090:
1084:
1066:
1060:
1045:
1039:
700:
553:Creation–evolution controversy
307:History of evolutionary theory
13:
1:
3601:Biological data visualization
3428:Environmental niche modelling
3155:Population viability analysis
1341:
1265:(SLOSS), described by writer
1263:single large or several small
3086:Density-dependent inhibition
1631:10.1371/journal.pone.0037359
538:Evolution as fact and theory
7:
3555:Liebig's law of the minimum
3390:Resource selection function
2281:Metabolic theory of ecology
1911:Itescu, Yuval (July 2019).
1304:
10:
3752:
3455:Niche apportionment models
3175:Relative species abundance
2379:Primary nutritional groups
2276:List of feeding behaviours
887:Species–area relationships
882:Species-area relationships
834:Length of isolation (time)
573:Nature-nurture controversy
3704:
3636:Ecosystem based fisheries
3578:
3478:
3403:
3276:
3248:Interspecific competition
3213:
3140:Minimum viable population
3073:
2998:Maximum sustainable yield
2983:Intraspecific competition
2978:Effective population size
2941:
2858:Anti-predator adaptations
2843:
2722:
2649:
2606:
2528:
2495:
2392:
2369:Photosynthetic efficiency
2304:
2198:
2131:
2088:
2005:. Scribner. p. 446.
718:
667:species–area relationship
460:Evolutionary neuroscience
435:Evolutionary epistemology
415:Evolutionary anthropology
395:Applications of evolution
3626:Ecological stoichiometry
3591:Alternative stable state
1357:Brown, James H. (1978).
1321:Mammals of the Caribbean
922:{\displaystyle S=cA^{z}}
450:Evolutionary linguistics
445:Evolutionary game theory
420:Evolutionary computation
3470:Ontogenetic niche shift
3333:Ideal free distribution
3243:Ecological facilitation
2993:Malthusian growth model
2963:Consumer-resource model
2820:Paradox of the plankton
2785:Energy systems language
2505:Chemoorganoheterotrophy
2472:Optimal foraging theory
2447:Heterotrophic nutrition
2001:Quammen, David (1996).
1757:Journal of Biogeography
563:Objections to evolution
470:Evolutionary psychology
465:Evolutionary physiology
410:Evolutionary aesthetics
389:Fields and applications
371:History of paleontology
3616:Ecological forecasting
3560:Marginal value theorem
3358:Landscape epidemiology
3293:Cross-boundary subsidy
3228:Biological interaction
2578:Microbial intelligence
2266:Green world hypothesis
2123:Microbial biogeography
1210:
1190:
1097:
1014:
994:
974:
954:
937:
923:
827:
794:
785:
752:
693:, who coined the term
495:Speciation experiments
475:Experimental evolution
430:Evolutionary economics
252:Recent human evolution
110:Processes and outcomes
3621:Ecological humanities
3520:Ecological energetics
3465:Niche differentiation
3328:Habitat fragmentation
3096:Ecological extinction
3043:Small population size
2795:Feed conversion ratio
2775:Ecological succession
2707:San Francisco Estuary
2621:Ecological efficiency
2563:Microbial cooperation
1872:Ecological Monographs
1311:Disturbance (ecology)
1295:allopatric speciation
1238:habitat fragmentation
1211:
1191:
1156:Barro Colorado Island
1098:
1015:
995:
975:
955:
935:
924:
822:
803:this is known as the
791:
782:
749:
455:Evolutionary medicine
400:Biosocial criminology
366:History of speciation
279:Evolutionary taxonomy
242:Timeline of evolution
3646:Evolutionary ecology
3611:Ecological footprint
3606:Ecological economics
3530:Ecological threshold
3525:Ecological indicator
3395:Source–sink dynamics
3348:Land change modeling
3343:Insular biogeography
3195:Species distribution
2934:Modelling ecosystems
2593:Microbial metabolism
2432:Intraguild predation
2221:Biogeochemical cycle
2187:Modelling ecosystems
1951:MacArthur, Robert H.
1427:MacArthur, Robert H.
1299:sympatric speciation
1271:The Song of the Dodo
1226:conservation biology
1200:
1180:
1126:Research experiments
1027:
1004:
984:
964:
944:
897:
647:Insular biogeography
425:Evolutionary ecology
39:Evolutionary biology
3696:Theoretical ecology
3671:Natural environment
3535:Ecosystem diversity
3505:Ecological collapse
3495:Bateman's principle
3450:Limiting similarity
3363:Landscape limnology
3185:Species homogeneity
3023:Population modeling
3018:Population dynamics
2835:Trophic state index
2108:Island biogeography
1677:1999Natur.397..491C
1622:2012PLoSO...737359F
1548:1987Natur.325..430N
1405:2010Geo....38.1079S
859:species composition
815:Influencing factors
695:island biogeography
687:Robert H. MacArthur
651:island biogeography
527:Social implications
515:Universal Darwinism
505:Island biogeography
440:Evolutionary ethics
405:Ecological genetics
351:Molecular evolution
289:Transitional fossil
117:Population genetics
33:Part of a series on
18:Island biogeography
3707:Outline of ecology
3656:Industrial ecology
3651:Functional ecology
3515:Ecological deficit
3460:Niche construction
3423:Ecosystem engineer
3200:Species–area curve
3121:Introduced species
2936:: Other components
2868:Deimatic behaviour
2770:Ecological network
2702:North Pacific Gyre
2687:hydrothermal vents
2626:Ecological pyramid
2573:Microbial food web
2384:Primary production
2329:Foundation species
2113:Palaeobiogeography
1929:10.1111/ecog.03951
1815:Simberloff, Daniel
1591:on 26 August 2014.
1287:wildlife corridors
1250:, showed a strong
1247:The New York Times
1206:
1186:
1093:
1010:
990:
970:
950:
940:In this equation,
938:
919:
828:
795:
786:
757:species-area curve
753:
653:is a field within
558:Theistic evolution
490:Selective breeding
202:Parallel evolution
167:Adaptive radiation
3736:Landscape ecology
3713:
3712:
3596:Balance of nature
3353:Landscape ecology
3238:Community ecology
3180:Species diversity
3116:Indicator species
3111:Gradient analysis
2988:Logistic function
2896:
2895:
2853:Animal coloration
2830:Trophic mutualism
2568:Microbial ecology
2359:Photoheterotrophs
2344:Myco-heterotrophy
2256:Ecosystem ecology
2241:Carrying capacity
2206:Abiotic component
2149:
2148:
2012:978-0-684-80083-7
1819:Wilson, Edward O.
1729:978-0-08-102975-6
1542:(6103): 430–432.
1399:(12): 1079–1082.
1209:{\displaystyle c}
1189:{\displaystyle z}
1132:Daniel Simberloff
1108:Historical record
1013:{\displaystyle z}
993:{\displaystyle A}
973:{\displaystyle c}
953:{\displaystyle S}
737:Galapagos Islands
644:
643:
335:Origin of Species
137:Natural selection
16:(Redirected from
3743:
3413:Ecological niche
3385:selection theory
3205:Umbrella species
3190:Species richness
3126:Invasive species
3106:Flagship species
3013:Population cycle
3008:Overexploitation
2973:Ecological yield
2923:
2916:
2909:
2900:
2899:
2805:Mesotrophic soil
2745:Climax community
2677:Marine food webs
2616:Biomagnification
2417:Chemoorganotroph
2271:Keystone species
2231:Biotic component
2176:
2169:
2162:
2153:
2152:
2139:
2138:
2082:
2073:
2066:
2059:
2050:
2049:
2045:
2036:
2017:
2016:
1998:
1992:
1991:
1971:
1965:
1964:
1947:
1941:
1940:
1923:(7): 1298–1314.
1908:
1897:
1896:
1867:Willis, Edwin O.
1863:
1857:
1856:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1801:
1787:
1781:
1780:
1763:(6): 1100–1110.
1748:
1739:
1738:
1737:
1736:
1703:
1697:
1696:
1660:
1654:
1653:
1643:
1633:
1599:
1593:
1592:
1590:
1584:. Archived from
1567:
1556:10.1038/325430a0
1533:
1524:
1518:
1517:
1507:
1483:
1477:
1476:
1447:
1441:
1440:
1423:
1417:
1416:
1413:10.1130/G31182.1
1388:
1377:
1376:
1363:
1354:
1244:and reported in
1215:
1213:
1212:
1207:
1195:
1193:
1192:
1187:
1102:
1100:
1099:
1094:
1019:
1017:
1016:
1011:
999:
997:
996:
991:
979:
977:
976:
971:
959:
957:
956:
951:
928:
926:
925:
920:
918:
917:
683:land development
659:species richness
636:
629:
622:
609:
604:
603:
596:
592:
591:
568:Level of support
361:Current research
346:Modern synthesis
341:Before synthesis
294:Extinction event
52:Darwin's finches
49:
30:
29:
21:
3751:
3750:
3746:
3745:
3744:
3742:
3741:
3740:
3731:Insular ecology
3716:
3715:
3714:
3709:
3700:
3686:Systems ecology
3574:
3545:Extinction debt
3510:Ecological debt
3500:Bioluminescence
3481:
3474:
3443:marine habitats
3418:Ecological trap
3399:
3279:
3272:
3215:
3209:
3165:Rapoport's rule
3160:Priority effect
3101:Endemic species
3069:
3028:Population size
2944:
2937:
2927:
2897:
2892:
2845:
2839:
2825:Trophic cascade
2735:Bioaccumulation
2718:
2645:
2602:
2524:
2491:
2388:
2300:
2261:Ecosystem model
2194:
2180:
2150:
2145:
2127:
2118:Panbiogeography
2084:
2080:
2077:
2025:
2023:Further reading
2020:
2013:
1999:
1995:
1972:
1968:
1948:
1944:
1909:
1900:
1885:10.2307/1942309
1864:
1860:
1837:10.2307/1934856
1812:
1808:
1799:
1797:
1789:
1788:
1784:
1749:
1742:
1734:
1732:
1730:
1704:
1700:
1661:
1657:
1600:
1596:
1588:
1531:
1525:
1521:
1484:
1480:
1448:
1444:
1424:
1420:
1389:
1380:
1361:
1355:
1348:
1344:
1307:
1222:
1201:
1198:
1197:
1181:
1178:
1177:
1165:
1146:to clear their
1138:islands in the
1128:
1110:
1028:
1025:
1024:
1005:
1002:
1001:
985:
982:
981:
965:
962:
961:
945:
942:
941:
913:
909:
898:
895:
894:
884:
817:
811:target effect.
800:
741:distance effect
721:
703:
663:diversification
640:
599:
586:
585:
578:
577:
528:
520:
519:
390:
382:
381:
380:
308:
300:
299:
298:
247:Human evolution
237:History of life
221:
220:Natural history
213:
212:
211:
111:
103:
58:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
3749:
3739:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3711:
3710:
3705:
3702:
3701:
3699:
3698:
3693:
3688:
3683:
3678:
3673:
3668:
3666:Microecosystem
3663:
3658:
3653:
3648:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3618:
3613:
3608:
3603:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3582:
3580:
3576:
3575:
3573:
3572:
3567:
3565:Thorson's rule
3562:
3557:
3552:
3547:
3542:
3537:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3512:
3507:
3502:
3497:
3492:
3490:Assembly rules
3486:
3484:
3476:
3475:
3473:
3472:
3467:
3462:
3457:
3452:
3447:
3446:
3445:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3409:
3407:
3401:
3400:
3398:
3397:
3392:
3387:
3375:
3373:Patch dynamics
3370:
3368:Metapopulation
3365:
3360:
3355:
3350:
3345:
3340:
3335:
3330:
3325:
3320:
3315:
3310:
3305:
3300:
3295:
3290:
3284:
3282:
3274:
3273:
3271:
3270:
3265:
3263:Storage effect
3260:
3255:
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3219:
3217:
3211:
3210:
3208:
3207:
3202:
3197:
3192:
3187:
3182:
3177:
3172:
3167:
3162:
3157:
3152:
3147:
3145:Neutral theory
3142:
3137:
3132:
3130:Native species
3123:
3118:
3113:
3108:
3103:
3098:
3093:
3088:
3083:
3077:
3075:
3071:
3070:
3068:
3067:
3062:
3061:
3060:
3055:
3045:
3040:
3035:
3030:
3025:
3020:
3015:
3010:
3005:
3003:Overpopulation
3000:
2995:
2990:
2985:
2980:
2975:
2970:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2949:
2947:
2939:
2938:
2926:
2925:
2918:
2911:
2903:
2894:
2893:
2891:
2890:
2885:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2865:
2860:
2855:
2849:
2847:
2841:
2840:
2838:
2837:
2832:
2827:
2822:
2817:
2812:
2810:Nutrient cycle
2807:
2802:
2800:Feeding frenzy
2797:
2792:
2787:
2782:
2780:Energy quality
2777:
2772:
2767:
2762:
2757:
2752:
2747:
2742:
2740:Cascade effect
2737:
2732:
2726:
2724:
2720:
2719:
2717:
2716:
2715:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2659:
2653:
2651:
2647:
2646:
2644:
2643:
2638:
2633:
2628:
2623:
2618:
2612:
2610:
2604:
2603:
2601:
2600:
2595:
2590:
2585:
2583:Microbial loop
2580:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2560:
2555:
2550:
2548:Lithoautotroph
2545:
2540:
2534:
2532:
2530:Microorganisms
2526:
2525:
2523:
2522:
2517:
2512:
2507:
2501:
2499:
2493:
2492:
2490:
2489:
2487:Prey switching
2484:
2479:
2474:
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
2424:
2419:
2414:
2409:
2404:
2398:
2396:
2390:
2389:
2387:
2386:
2381:
2376:
2371:
2366:
2364:Photosynthesis
2361:
2356:
2351:
2346:
2341:
2336:
2331:
2326:
2321:
2319:Chemosynthesis
2316:
2310:
2308:
2302:
2301:
2299:
2298:
2293:
2288:
2283:
2278:
2273:
2268:
2263:
2258:
2253:
2248:
2243:
2238:
2233:
2228:
2223:
2218:
2213:
2211:Abiotic stress
2208:
2202:
2200:
2196:
2195:
2179:
2178:
2171:
2164:
2156:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2143:
2132:
2129:
2128:
2126:
2125:
2120:
2115:
2110:
2105:
2103:Phytogeography
2100:
2095:
2093:Phylogeography
2089:
2086:
2085:
2076:
2075:
2068:
2061:
2053:
2047:
2046:
2037:
2024:
2021:
2019:
2018:
2011:
1993:
1966:
1942:
1898:
1879:(2): 153–169.
1858:
1831:(2): 278–296.
1806:
1782:
1740:
1728:
1698:
1655:
1594:
1519:
1498:(3): 265–280.
1478:
1442:
1418:
1378:
1345:
1343:
1340:
1339:
1338:
1333:
1331:Distance decay
1328:
1326:Patch dynamics
1323:
1318:
1316:Island ecology
1313:
1306:
1303:
1276:reserve design
1234:national parks
1221:
1218:
1205:
1185:
1164:
1161:
1144:methyl bromide
1127:
1124:
1109:
1106:
1092:
1089:
1086:
1083:
1080:
1077:
1074:
1071:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1059:
1056:
1053:
1050:
1047:
1044:
1041:
1038:
1035:
1032:
1009:
989:
969:
949:
916:
912:
908:
905:
902:
883:
880:
879:
878:
877:Human activity
875:
869:
866:
863:
862:
861:
855:
844:
838:
835:
832:
816:
813:
799:
796:
720:
717:
702:
699:
671:mountain peaks
642:
641:
639:
638:
631:
624:
616:
613:
612:
611:
610:
597:
580:
579:
576:
575:
570:
565:
560:
555:
550:
548:Social effects
545:
540:
535:
529:
526:
525:
522:
521:
518:
517:
512:
507:
502:
497:
492:
487:
482:
477:
472:
467:
462:
457:
452:
447:
442:
437:
432:
427:
422:
417:
412:
407:
402:
397:
391:
388:
387:
384:
383:
379:
378:
368:
363:
358:
353:
348:
343:
338:
331:
326:
321:
316:
310:
309:
306:
305:
302:
301:
297:
296:
291:
286:
281:
276:
274:Classification
271:
266:
261:
256:
255:
254:
244:
239:
234:
232:Common descent
229:
227:Origin of life
223:
222:
219:
218:
215:
214:
210:
209:
204:
199:
194:
189:
184:
179:
174:
169:
164:
159:
154:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
113:
112:
109:
108:
105:
104:
102:
101:
96:
91:
85:
84:
79:
74:
69:
63:
60:
59:
50:
42:
41:
35:
34:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3748:
3737:
3734:
3732:
3729:
3727:
3724:
3723:
3721:
3708:
3703:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3691:Urban ecology
3689:
3687:
3684:
3682:
3679:
3677:
3674:
3672:
3669:
3667:
3664:
3662:
3659:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3622:
3619:
3617:
3614:
3612:
3609:
3607:
3604:
3602:
3599:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3583:
3581:
3577:
3571:
3568:
3566:
3563:
3561:
3558:
3556:
3553:
3551:
3550:Kleiber's law
3548:
3546:
3543:
3541:
3538:
3536:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3511:
3508:
3506:
3503:
3501:
3498:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3487:
3485:
3483:
3477:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3461:
3458:
3456:
3453:
3451:
3448:
3444:
3441:
3440:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3410:
3408:
3406:
3402:
3396:
3393:
3391:
3388:
3386:
3384:
3380:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3364:
3361:
3359:
3356:
3354:
3351:
3349:
3346:
3344:
3341:
3339:
3336:
3334:
3331:
3329:
3326:
3324:
3323:Foster's rule
3321:
3319:
3316:
3314:
3311:
3309:
3306:
3304:
3301:
3299:
3296:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3283:
3281:
3275:
3269:
3266:
3264:
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3224:
3221:
3220:
3218:
3212:
3206:
3203:
3201:
3198:
3196:
3193:
3191:
3188:
3186:
3183:
3181:
3178:
3176:
3173:
3171:
3168:
3166:
3163:
3161:
3158:
3156:
3153:
3151:
3148:
3146:
3143:
3141:
3138:
3136:
3133:
3131:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3107:
3104:
3102:
3099:
3097:
3094:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3082:
3079:
3078:
3076:
3072:
3066:
3063:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3050:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3004:
3001:
2999:
2996:
2994:
2991:
2989:
2986:
2984:
2981:
2979:
2976:
2974:
2971:
2969:
2966:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2950:
2948:
2946:
2940:
2935:
2931:
2924:
2919:
2917:
2912:
2910:
2905:
2904:
2901:
2889:
2886:
2884:
2881:
2879:
2876:
2874:
2871:
2869:
2866:
2864:
2861:
2859:
2856:
2854:
2851:
2850:
2848:
2842:
2836:
2833:
2831:
2828:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2761:
2758:
2756:
2753:
2751:
2748:
2746:
2743:
2741:
2738:
2736:
2733:
2731:
2728:
2727:
2725:
2721:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2700:
2698:
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2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2683:
2680:
2679:
2678:
2675:
2673:
2670:
2668:
2665:
2663:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2652:
2648:
2642:
2641:Trophic level
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2609:
2605:
2599:
2598:Phage ecology
2596:
2594:
2591:
2589:
2588:Microbial mat
2586:
2584:
2581:
2579:
2576:
2574:
2571:
2569:
2566:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2554:
2551:
2549:
2546:
2544:
2543:Bacteriophage
2541:
2539:
2536:
2535:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2511:
2510:Decomposition
2508:
2506:
2503:
2502:
2500:
2498:
2494:
2488:
2485:
2483:
2480:
2478:
2475:
2473:
2470:
2468:
2465:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2457:Mesopredators
2455:
2453:
2450:
2448:
2445:
2443:
2440:
2438:
2435:
2433:
2430:
2428:
2425:
2423:
2420:
2418:
2415:
2413:
2410:
2408:
2405:
2403:
2402:Apex predator
2400:
2399:
2397:
2395:
2391:
2385:
2382:
2380:
2377:
2375:
2372:
2370:
2367:
2365:
2362:
2360:
2357:
2355:
2352:
2350:
2347:
2345:
2342:
2340:
2337:
2335:
2332:
2330:
2327:
2325:
2322:
2320:
2317:
2315:
2312:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2303:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2282:
2279:
2277:
2274:
2272:
2269:
2267:
2264:
2262:
2259:
2257:
2254:
2252:
2249:
2247:
2244:
2242:
2239:
2237:
2236:Biotic stress
2234:
2232:
2229:
2227:
2224:
2222:
2219:
2217:
2214:
2212:
2209:
2207:
2204:
2203:
2201:
2197:
2192:
2188:
2184:
2177:
2172:
2170:
2165:
2163:
2158:
2157:
2154:
2142:
2134:
2133:
2130:
2124:
2121:
2119:
2116:
2114:
2111:
2109:
2106:
2104:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2090:
2087:
2083:
2074:
2069:
2067:
2062:
2060:
2055:
2054:
2051:
2043:
2038:
2034:
2033:
2027:
2026:
2014:
2008:
2004:
1997:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1977:
1970:
1962:
1961:
1956:
1955:Wilson, E. O.
1952:
1946:
1938:
1934:
1930:
1926:
1922:
1918:
1914:
1907:
1905:
1903:
1894:
1890:
1886:
1882:
1878:
1874:
1873:
1868:
1862:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1842:
1838:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1825:
1820:
1816:
1810:
1796:
1792:
1786:
1778:
1774:
1770:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1754:
1747:
1745:
1731:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1702:
1694:
1690:
1686:
1685:10.1038/17276
1682:
1678:
1674:
1671:(6719): 491.
1670:
1666:
1659:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1616:(5): e37359.
1615:
1611:
1610:
1605:
1598:
1587:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1571:
1566:
1565:2027.42/62554
1561:
1557:
1553:
1549:
1545:
1541:
1537:
1530:
1523:
1515:
1511:
1506:
1501:
1497:
1493:
1489:
1482:
1474:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1446:
1438:
1437:
1432:
1431:Wilson, E. O.
1428:
1422:
1414:
1410:
1406:
1402:
1398:
1394:
1387:
1385:
1383:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1360:
1353:
1351:
1346:
1337:
1334:
1332:
1329:
1327:
1324:
1322:
1319:
1317:
1314:
1312:
1309:
1308:
1302:
1300:
1296:
1291:
1288:
1283:
1281:
1280:Jared Diamond
1277:
1272:
1268:
1267:David Quammen
1264:
1259:
1257:
1253:
1249:
1248:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1231:
1227:
1217:
1203:
1183:
1173:
1169:
1160:
1157:
1152:
1149:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1123:
1121:
1116:
1115:Carboniferous
1105:
1087:
1081:
1078:
1075:
1072:
1069:
1063:
1057:
1054:
1051:
1048:
1042:
1036:
1033:
1030:
1021:
1007:
987:
967:
947:
934:
930:
914:
910:
906:
903:
900:
891:
888:
876:
873:
870:
867:
864:
860:
856:
853:
849:
845:
842:
841:
839:
836:
833:
830:
829:
826:
821:
812:
808:
806:
805:rescue effect
798:Modifications
790:
784:of organisms.
781:
777:
774:
772:
771:heterogeneity
769:
765:
762:
758:
748:
744:
742:
738:
734:
730:
726:
716:
713:
709:
698:
696:
692:
688:
684:
680:
676:
672:
668:
664:
660:
656:
652:
648:
637:
632:
630:
625:
623:
618:
617:
615:
614:
608:
598:
595:
590:
584:
583:
582:
581:
574:
571:
569:
566:
564:
561:
559:
556:
554:
551:
549:
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541:
539:
536:
534:
531:
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524:
523:
516:
513:
511:
508:
506:
503:
501:
498:
496:
493:
491:
488:
486:
483:
481:
480:Phylogenetics
478:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
461:
458:
456:
453:
451:
448:
446:
443:
441:
438:
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428:
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403:
401:
398:
396:
393:
392:
386:
385:
376:
372:
369:
367:
364:
362:
359:
357:
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
337:
336:
332:
330:
327:
325:
324:Before Darwin
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
311:
304:
303:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
253:
250:
249:
248:
245:
243:
240:
238:
235:
233:
230:
228:
225:
224:
217:
216:
208:
205:
203:
200:
198:
195:
193:
190:
188:
185:
183:
180:
178:
175:
173:
170:
168:
165:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
152:Genetic drift
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
114:
107:
106:
100:
97:
95:
92:
90:
87:
86:
83:
80:
78:
75:
73:
70:
68:
65:
64:
62:
61:
57:
53:
48:
44:
43:
40:
37:
36:
32:
31:
19:
3726:Biogeography
3676:Regime shift
3661:Macroecology
3382:
3378:
3342:
3318:Edge effects
3288:Biogeography
3233:Commensalism
3081:Biodiversity
2958:Allee effect
2697:kelp forests
2650:Example webs
2515:Detritivores
2354:Organotrophs
2334:Kinetotrophs
2286:Productivity
2098:Zoogeography
2081:Biogeography
2041:
2031:
2002:
1996:
1979:
1975:
1969:
1959:
1945:
1920:
1916:
1876:
1870:
1861:
1828:
1822:
1809:
1798:. Retrieved
1794:
1785:
1760:
1756:
1733:, retrieved
1711:
1701:
1668:
1664:
1658:
1613:
1607:
1597:
1586:the original
1539:
1535:
1522:
1495:
1491:
1481:
1459:(1): 77–91.
1456:
1452:
1445:
1435:
1421:
1396:
1392:
1373:
1369:
1365:
1292:
1284:
1270:
1260:
1245:
1223:
1174:
1170:
1166:
1153:
1140:Florida Keys
1129:
1111:
1022:
939:
892:
885:
857:The current
809:
801:
775:
754:
722:
704:
694:
691:E. O. Wilson
655:biogeography
650:
646:
645:
500:Sociobiology
485:Paleontology
333:
269:Biogeography
264:Biodiversity
182:Coextinction
172:Co-operation
147:Polymorphism
72:Introduction
3313:Disturbance
3216:interaction
3038:Recruitment
2968:Depensation
2760:Copiotrophs
2631:Energy flow
2553:Lithotrophy
2497:Decomposers
2477:Planktivore
2452:Insectivore
2442:Heterotroph
2407:Bacterivore
2374:Phototrophs
2324:Chemotrophs
2296:Restoration
2246:Competition
1252:correlation
872:Serendipity
825:West Indies
725:immigration
701:Definitions
510:Systematics
319:Renaissance
197:Convergence
187:Contingency
177:Coevolution
3720:Categories
3681:Sexecology
3258:Parasitism
3223:Antibiosis
3058:Resistance
3053:Resilience
2943:Population
2863:Camouflage
2815:Oligotroph
2730:Ascendency
2692:intertidal
2682:cold seeps
2636:Food chain
2437:Herbivores
2412:Carnivores
2339:Mixotrophs
2314:Autotrophs
2193:components
1982:(1): 1–6.
1800:2022-11-28
1735:2022-12-13
1342:References
1336:Sky island
1230:ecological
848:marsupials
793:organisms.
729:extinction
284:Cladistics
207:Extinction
192:Divergence
162:Speciation
142:Adaptation
56:John Gould
3586:Allometry
3540:Emergence
3268:Symbiosis
3253:Mutualism
3048:Stability
2953:Abundance
2765:Dominance
2723:Processes
2712:tide pool
2608:Food webs
2482:Predation
2467:Omnivores
2394:Consumers
2349:Mycotroph
2306:Producers
2251:Ecosystem
2216:Behaviour
1917:Ecography
1795:Wiley.com
1514:1466-8238
1148:arthropod
712:grassland
675:seamounts
543:Dysgenics
259:Phylogeny
157:Gene flow
127:Diversity
122:Variation
3641:Endolith
3570:Xerosere
3482:networks
3298:Ecocline
2844:Defense,
2520:Detritus
2422:Foraging
2291:Resource
2141:Category
1957:(1967).
1937:92145076
1853:54929089
1777:86753606
1650:22629384
1609:PLOS ONE
1473:40522206
1453:Wetlands
1433:(1967).
1305:See also
1136:mangrove
852:primates
607:Category
533:Eugenics
375:timeline
356:Evo-devo
314:Overview
132:Mutation
94:Evidence
89:Glossary
3631:Ecopath
3438:Habitat
3308:Ecotype
3303:Ecotone
3280:ecology
3278:Spatial
3214:Species
3074:Species
2945:ecology
2930:Ecology
2878:Mimicry
2846:counter
2790:f-ratio
2538:Archaea
2226:Biomass
2199:General
2191:Trophic
2183:Ecology
1893:1942309
1845:1934856
1824:Ecology
1673:Bibcode
1641:3357413
1618:Bibcode
1582:4310316
1574:3808043
1544:Bibcode
1401:Bibcode
1393:Geology
1134:in the
768:Habitat
735:in the
733:finches
99:History
82:Outline
2662:Rivers
2558:Marine
2009:
1935:
1891:
1851:
1843:
1775:
1726:
1693:379342
1691:
1665:Nature
1648:
1638:
1580:
1572:
1536:Nature
1512:
1471:
1242:Nature
764:events
761:chance
751:least.
719:Theory
708:island
605:
329:Darwin
3579:Other
3480:Other
3433:Guild
3405:Niche
2657:Lakes
1933:S2CID
1889:JSTOR
1849:S2CID
1841:JSTOR
1773:S2CID
1689:S2CID
1589:(PDF)
1578:S2CID
1532:(PDF)
1469:S2CID
1362:(PDF)
679:oases
67:Index
2667:Soil
2007:ISBN
1724:ISBN
1646:PMID
1570:PMID
1510:ISSN
1256:U.S.
727:and
689:and
661:and
77:Main
1984:doi
1925:doi
1881:doi
1833:doi
1765:doi
1716:doi
1681:doi
1669:397
1636:PMC
1626:doi
1560:hdl
1552:doi
1540:325
1500:doi
1461:doi
1409:doi
1269:in
649:or
54:by
3722::
3128:/
2932::
2189::
2185::
1978:.
1953:;
1931:.
1921:42
1919:.
1915:.
1901:^
1887:.
1877:44
1875:.
1847:.
1839:.
1829:50
1827:.
1817:;
1793:.
1771:.
1761:36
1759:.
1755:.
1743:^
1722:,
1710:,
1687:.
1679:.
1667:.
1644:.
1634:.
1624:.
1612:.
1606:.
1576:.
1568:.
1558:.
1550:.
1538:.
1534:.
1508:.
1496:16
1494:.
1490:.
1467:.
1457:24
1455:.
1429:;
1407:.
1397:38
1395:.
1381:^
1368:.
1364:.
1349:^
929:.
850:,
807:.
766:.
677:,
673:,
3383:K
3381:/
3379:r
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2015:.
1990:.
1986::
1980:9
1939:.
1927::
1895:.
1883::
1855:.
1835::
1803:.
1779:.
1767::
1718::
1695:.
1683::
1675::
1652:.
1628::
1620::
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