245:, carefully examined the device and even removed the back cover for this. A few days later, in the absence of Leibniz, Hooke criticized the German scientist's machine, saying that he could make a simpler model. Leibniz, who learned about this, returned to Paris and categorically rejected Hooke's claim in a letter to Oldenburg and formulated principles of correct scientific behaviour: "We know that respectable and modest people prefer it when they think of something that is consistent with what someone's done other discoveries, ascribe their own improvements and additions to the discoverer, so as not to arouse suspicions of intellectual dishonesty, and the desire for true generosity should pursue them, instead of the lying thirst for dishonest profit." To illustrate the proper behaviour, Leibniz gives an example of
587:. The problem was formulated in not very clear terms, and only later it became clear that it was required to find a general, and not a particular, as Newton understood, solution. After the British side published their decision, Leibniz published his, more general, and, thus, formally won this competition. For his part, Newton stubbornly sought to destroy his opponent. Not having achieved this with the "Report", he continued his painstaking research, spending hundreds of hours on it. His next study, entitled "Observations upon the preceding Epistle", was inspired by a letter from Leibniz to Conti in March 1716, which criticized Newton's philosophical views; no new facts were given in this document. With Leibniz's death in November 1716, the controversy gradually subsided. According to
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into the whole dispute in 1711, he picked out this manuscript as the one which had probably somehow fallen into
Leibniz's hands. At that time there was no direct evidence that Leibniz had seen Newton's manuscript before it was printed in 1704; hence Newton's conjecture was not published. But Gerhardt's discovery of a copy made by Leibniz tends to confirm its accuracy. Those who question Leibniz's good faith allege that to a man of his ability, the manuscript, especially if supplemented by the letter of 10 December 1672, sufficed to give him a clue as to the methods of the calculus. Since Newton's work at issue did employ the fluxional notation, anyone building on that work would have to invent a notation, but some deny this.
516:, a review implying that Newton had borrowed the idea of the fluxional calculus from Leibniz, that any responsible mathematician doubted that Leibniz had invented the calculus independently of Newton. With respect to the review of Newton's quadrature work, all admit that there was no justification or authority for the statements made therein, which were rightly attributed to Leibniz. But the subsequent discussion led to a critical examination of the whole question, and doubts emerged. Had Leibniz derived the fundamental idea of the calculus from Newton? The case against Leibniz, as it appeared to Newton's friends, was summed up in the
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remarks, Newton's claimed reasons for why he took part in the controversy. He said, "I have never grasped at fame among foreign nations, but I am very desirous to preserve my character for honesty, which the author of that epistle, as if by the authority of a great judge, had endeavoured to wrest from me. Now that I am old, I have little pleasure in mathematical studies, and I have never tried to propagate my opinions over the world, but I have rather taken care not to involve myself in disputes on account of them."
237:, Leibniz answered the next day. In a letter to Oldenburg, he wrote that, having looked at Mouton's book, he admits Pell was right, but in his defense, he can provide his draft notes, which contain nuances not found by Renault and Mouton. Thus, the integrity of Leibniz was proved, but in this case, he was recalled later. On the same visit to London, Leibniz was in the opposite position. February 1, 1673, at a meeting of the Royal Society of London, he demonstrated his
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566:, of which Isaac Newton was president at the time, set up a committee to pronounce on the priority dispute, in response to a letter it had received from Leibniz. That committee never asked Leibniz to give his version of the events. The report of the committee, finding in favour of Newton, was written and published as "Commercium Epistolicum" (mentioned above) by Newton early in 1713. But Leibniz did not see it until the autumn of 1714.
423:, which he saw as a generalization of the summation of infinite series, whereas Newton began from derivatives. However, to view the development of calculus as entirely independent between the work of Newton and Leibniz misses the point that both had some knowledge of the methods of the other (though Newton did develop most fundamentals before Leibniz started) and in fact worked together on a few aspects, in particular
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published in conjunction with its use in a particularly valuable context, this might take priority over an earlier discoverer's work, which had no obvious application. Further, a mathematician's claim could be undermined by counter-claims that he had not truly invented an idea, but merely improved on someone else's idea, an improvement that required little skill, and was based on facts that were already known.
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87:") in 1666, at the age of 23, but did not publish it except as a minor annotation in the back of one of his publications decades later (a relevant Newton manuscript of October 1666 is now published among his mathematical papers). Gottfried Leibniz began working on his variant of calculus in 1674, and in 1684 published his first paper employing it, "
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results of 1677 until 1684 and since differential notation was his invention, that
Leibniz minimized, 30 years later, any benefit he might have enjoyed from reading Newton's manuscript. Moreover, he may have seen the question of who originated the calculus as immaterial when set against the expressive power of his notation.
284:. Unable to rigorously prove this claim, he reported it to Newton. Without further entering into correspondence with Hooke, Newton solved this problem, as well as the inverse to it, proving that the law of inverse-squares follows from the ellipticity of the orbits. This discovery was set forth in his famous work
457:) in Leibniz's handwriting, the existence of which had been previously unsuspected, along with notes re-expressing the content of these extracts in Leibniz's differential notation. Hence when these extracts were made becomes all-important. It is known that a copy of Newton's manuscript had been sent to
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Whether
Leibniz made use of the manuscript from which he had copied extracts, or whether he had previously invented the calculus, are questions on which no direct evidence is available at present. It is, however, worth noting that the unpublished Portsmouth Papers show that when Newton went carefully
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To Newton's staunch supporters this was a case of
Leibniz's word against a number of contrary, suspicious details. His unacknowledged possession of a copy of part of one of Newton's manuscripts may be explicable; but it appears that on more than one occasion, Leibniz deliberately altered or added to
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No attempt was made to rebut #4, which was not known at the time, but which provides the strongest of the evidence that
Leibniz came to the calculus independently from Newton. This evidence, however, is still questionable based on the discovery, in the inquest and after, that Leibniz both back-dated
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In order to respond point by point to all the work published against me, I would have to go into much minutiae that occurred thirty, forty years ago, of which I remember little: I would have to search my old letters, of which many are lost. Moreover, in most cases, I did not keep a copy, and when I
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with
Collins and Oldenburg. It is probable that they would have then shown him the manuscript of Newton on that subject, a copy of which one or both of them surely possessed. On the other hand, it may be supposed that Leibniz made the extracts from the printed copy in or after 1704. Shortly before
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of 1687. Newton employed fluxions as early as 1666, but did not publish an account of his notation until 1693. The earliest use of differentials in
Leibniz's notebooks may be traced to 1675. He employed this notation in a 1677 letter to Newton. The differential notation also appeared in Leibniz's
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Considering
Leibniz's intellectual prowess, as demonstrated by his other accomplishments, he had more than the requisite ability to invent the calculus. What he is alleged to have received was a number of suggestions rather than an account of calculus; it is possible, since he did not publish his
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dated 24 October 1676, where Newton remarks that
Leibniz had developed a number of methods, one of which was new to him. Both Leibniz and Newton could see by this exchange of letters that the other was far along towards the calculus (Leibniz in particular mentions it) but only Leibniz was prodded
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attempted to indirectly weaken the evidence by attacking the personal character of Newton in a letter dated 7 June 1713. When pressed for an explanation, Bernoulli most solemnly denied having written the letter. In accepting the denial, Newton added in a private letter to
Bernoulli the following
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for English, had practically the status of a published article. The discoverer could "time-stamp" the moment of his discovery, and prove that he knew of it at the point the letter was sealed, and had not copied it from anything subsequently published. Nevertheless, where an idea was subsequently
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when Leibniz began working on the differential calculus, yet there was seemingly no proof beyond Newton's word. He had published a calculation of a tangent with the note: "This is only a special case of a general method whereby I can calculate curves and determine maxima, minima, and centers of
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The quarrel was a retrospective affair. In 1696, already some years later than the events that became the subject of the quarrel, the position still looked potentially peaceful: Newton and Leibniz had each made limited acknowledgements of the other's work, and L'Hôpital's 1696 book about the
648:, explaining "the method of first and last ratios", a geometrical form of infinitesimal calculus, as recognized both in Newton's time and in modern times – see citations above by L'Hospital (1696), Truesdell (1968) and Whiteside (1970) – is available online in its English translation of 1729,
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Leibniz never agreed to acknowledge Newton's priority in inventing calculus. He also tried to write his own version of the history of differential calculus, but, as in the case of the history of the rulers of Braunschweig, he did not complete the matter. At the end of 1715, Leibniz accepted
476:, that in 1676 Collins had shown him some of Newton's papers, but Leibniz also implied that they were of little or no value. Presumably he was referring to Newton's letters of 13 June and 24 October 1676, and to the letter of 10 December 1672, on the method of
367:, Newton, and others, over whether Leibniz had discovered calculus independently of Newton, or whether he had merely invented another notation for ideas that were fundamentally Newton's. No participant doubted that Newton had already developed his method of
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and changed fundamentals of his "original" notes, not only in this intellectual conflict, but in several others. He also published "anonymous" slanders of Newton regarding their controversy which he tried, initially, to claim he was not author of.
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The prevailing opinion in the 18th century was against Leibniz (in Britain, not in the German-speaking world). Today the consensus is that Leibniz and Newton independently invented and described the calculus in Europe in the 17th century.
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A series of high-profile disputes about the scientific priority of the 17th century—the era that the American science historian D. Meli called "the golden age of the mud-slinging priority disputes"—is associated with the name
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the Newtonian and Leibnizian schools shared a common mathematical method. They adopted two algorithms, the analytical method of fluxions, and the differential and integral calculus, which were translatable one into the
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did, the copy is buried in a great heap of papers, which I could sort through only with time and patience. I have enjoyed little leisure, being so weighted down of late with occupations of a totally different nature.
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Newton's unpublished ideas. Leibniz died in 1716, shortly after the Royal Society, of which Newton was a member, found in Newton's favor. The modern consensus is that the two men developed their ideas independently.
294:, to whom the manuscript was handed over for editing and publication, the phrase was included in the text that the compliance of Kepler's first law with the law of inverse squares was "independently approved by
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in May 1675, a time when he and Leibniz were collaborating; it is not impossible that these extracts were made then. It is also possible that they may have been made in 1676, when Leibniz discussed analysis by
75:. The question was a major intellectual controversy, which began simmering in 1699 and broke out in full force in 1711. Leibniz had published his work first, but Newton's supporters accused Leibniz of
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had just begun to appear, and the generally accepted mechanism for fixing priority by publishing information about the discovery had not yet been formed. Among the methods used by scientists were
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Newton, although he privately had accused Leibniz of plagiarism twice in letters to Christiaan Huygens in 1692. It was not until the 1704 publication of an anonymous review of Newton's tract on
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On the other hand, other authors have emphasized the equivalences and mutual translatability of the methods: here N Guicciardini (2003) appears to confirm L'Hôpital (1696) (already cited):
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gravity." How this was done he explained to a pupil a full 20 years later, when Leibniz's articles were already well-read. Newton's manuscripts came to light only after his death.
579:'s offer to organize another mathematician competition, in which different approaches had to prove their worth. This time the problem was taken from the area later called the
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By the time of Newton and Leibniz, European mathematicians had already made a significant contribution to the formation of the ideas of mathematical analysis. The Dutchman
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Niccolò Guicciardini, "Reading the Principia: The Debate on Newton's Mathematical Methods for Natural Philosophy from 1687 to 1736", (Cambridge University Press, 2003),
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According to Leibniz's detractors, the fact that Leibniz's claim went unchallenged for some years is immaterial. To rebut this case it is sufficient to show that he:
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of 1687 was "nearly all about this calculus"). Meanwhile, Newton, though he explained his (geometrical) form of calculus in Section I of Book I of the
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has been called "a book dense with the theory and application of the infinitesimal calculus" also in modern times: see Clifford Truesdell,
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calculus from a Leibnizian point of view had also acknowledged Newton's published work of the 1680s as "nearly all about this calculus" ("
221:. The first of them occurred at the beginning of 1673, during his first visit to London, when in the presence of the famous mathematician
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The manuscript, written mostly in Latin, is numbered Add. 3977.4; it is contained in the library at the University of Cambridge. See
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261:, respectively. Learning that they did not make their discoveries first, French scientists passed on their data to the discoverers.
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demonstrated in his private papers his development of the ideas of calculus in a manner independent of the path taken by Newton.
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M. Palomo, p. 32; Palomo, Miguel (2021), New Insight Into the Origins of the Calculus War, Annals of Science 78:1, pages 22–40
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Huygens and Barrow, Newton and Hooke: Pioneers in mathematical analysis and catastrophe theory from evolvents to quasicrystals
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calculus and elaborated it into a widely extensible algorithm, whose potentialities he fully understood; of equal certainty,
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Oldenburg's report on this incident is contained in Newton's papers, but it is not known that he attached importance to it.
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G. V. Coyne, p. 112; Rupert Hall, Philosophers at War, pages 106–107; David Brewster, The Life of Sir Isaac Newton, p. 185
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Despite ... points of resemblance, the methods are profoundly different, so making the priority row a nonsense.
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Sämtliche Schriften und Briefe, Reihe VII: Mathematische Schriften, vol. 5: Infinitesimalmathematik 1674-1676
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Equivalence and Priority: Newton versus Leibniz: Including Leibniz's Unpublished Manuscripts on the Principia
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Equivalence and Priority: Newton versus Leibniz: Including Leibniz's Unpublished Manuscripts on the Principia
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always alluded to the discovery as being his own invention (this statement went unchallenged for some years),
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If good faith is nevertheless assumed, however, Leibniz's notes as presented to the inquest came first to
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Isaac Newton, "Newton's Waste Book (Part 3) (Normalized Version)": 16 May 1666 entry (The Newton Project)
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The claim that Leibniz invented the calculus independently of Newton rests on the basis that Leibniz:
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Whiteside, D. T. (1970). "The mathematical principles underlying Newton's Principia Mathematica".
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The infinitesimal calculus can be expressed either in the notation of fluxions or in that of
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of 1712, which referenced all allegations. This document was thoroughly machined by Newton.
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made the assumption that motion under such conditions should occur along orbits similar to
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but also previously circulated among mathematicians starting with Newton giving a copy to
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One author has identified the dispute as being about "profoundly different" methods:
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published a text on Leibniz's calculus in 1696 (in which he recognized that Newton's
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Tangled origins of the Leibnitzian Calculus: A case study of mathematical revolution
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In any event, a bias favouring Newton tainted the whole affair from the outset. The
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The Calculus Wars: Newton, Leibniz, and the Greatest Mathematical Clash of All Time
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Leibniz explained his silence as follows, in a letter to Conti dated 9 April 1716:
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saw some of Newton's papers on the subject in or before 1675 or at least 1677, and
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Public dispute between Isaac Newton and Gottfried Leibniz (beginning 1699)
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Newton said he had begun working on a form of calculus (which he called "
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was of great importance to scientists. However, during this period,
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without indicating the name Hooke. At the insistence of astronomer
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as applied to the dynamics of bodies moving under the influence of
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This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the
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obtained the fundamental ideas of the calculus from those papers.
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enjoyed the strong presumption that he acted in good faith, and
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Possibility of transmission of Kerala School results to Europe
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In the 17th century, as at the present time, the question of
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important documents (e.g., the letter of 7 June 1713 in the
344:(1571–1630) were engaged in the development of the ancient "
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Philosophers at War: The Quarrel between Newton and Leibniz
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The History of the Calculus and its conceptual development
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It was certainly Isaac Newton who first devised a new
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De Analysi per Equationes Numero Terminorum Infinitas
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1999:Statal Institute of Higher Education Isaac Newton
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241:. The curator of the experiments of the Society,
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314:Invention of differential and integral calculus
889:"The Calculus Wars reviewed by Brian E. Blank"
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1099:A Short Account of the History of Mathematics
1028:A Short Account of the History of Mathematics
957:https://doi.org/10.1080/00033790.2020.1794038
897:Notices of the American Mathematical Society
1171:. Cambridge University Press. p. 356.
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3186:Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era
1707:Newton's theorem of revolving orbits
1304:
1210:
1163:
1076:. Translated by Primrose, Eric J.F.
1003:
991:
979:
835:
823:
689:(2): 116–138, especially at p. 120.
683:Journal for the History of Astronomy
606:List of scientific priority disputes
91:Nova Methodus pro Maximis et Minimis
1655:Leibniz–Newton calculus controversy
1396:standing on the shoulders of giants
1109:. New York: Thunder's Mouth Press.
227:approximating series by differences
13:
677:Essays in the History of Mechanics
570:Leibniz's death and end of dispute
549:, and that of 8 April 1716 in the
459:Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus
445:(published in 1704 as part of the
85:the method of fluxions and fluents
14:
3378:
2262:New Essays on Human Understanding
2203:Transcendental law of homogeneity
1230:
1193:From the Big Bang to Black Holes.
453:in 1669 and Barrow sending it to
3296:
3295:
2696:
2695:
2305:
2304:
1984:Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes
1269:Sir Isaac Newton's Two Treatises
1215:. Clarendon Press. p. 318.
1014:
2004:Newton International Fellowship
1685:generalized Gauss–Newton method
1598:Newton's method in optimization
949:
940:
921:
908:
247:Nicolas-Claude Fabri de Peiresc
1105:Bardi, Jason Socrates (2006).
808:
795:
755:
741:. Clarendon Press. p. 4.
730:
717:
638:
618:
487:
328:Pascal's differential triangle
174:Guicciardini 2003, at page 250
1:
2291:Leibniz–Clarke correspondence
669:Analyse des Infiniment Petits
611:
427:, as is shown in a letter to
308:
1625:Newton's theorem about ovals
887:Blank, Brian E. (May 2009).
633:at page 400, in 2008 reprint
71:over who had first invented
7:
3108:Cosmic microwave background
2111:Characteristica universalis
2093:Best of all possible worlds
1994:Sir Isaac Newton Sixth Form
1650:Corpuscular theory of light
1576:Schrödinger–Newton equation
1236:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz,
644:Section I of Book I of the
594:
301:According to the remark of
225:he presented his method of
10:
3383:
3327:18th-century controversies
3322:17th-century controversies
2132:Identity of indiscernibles
1403:Notes on the Jewish Temple
1128:. Dover Publications, inc.
1036:
1025:Ball, W. W. Rouse (1908).
934:Routledge & Kegan Paul
703:10.1177/002182867000100203
432:thereby into publication.
317:
276:and his own calculations,
272:. Based on an analysis of
198:French Academy of Sciences
159:Grattan-Guinness 1997: 247
3342:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
3291:
3230:
3194:
3151:
3100:
3064:
2908:
2754:
2691:
2653:
2622:
2581:
2555:
2361:
2302:
2233:
2076:
2070:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
2012:
1949:
1904:
1827:
1769:
1524:
1444:
1379:
1312:
506:Nicolas Fatio de Duillier
495:presque tout de ce calcul
336:(1548–1620), the Italian
118:notation for the calculus
69:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
3367:Plagiarism controversies
2252:Discourse on Metaphysics
1554:post-Newtonian expansion
1434:Corruptions of Scripture
1426:Ancient Kingdoms Amended
1271:, James Bettenham, 1745.
1132:Richard C. Brown (2012)
340:(1553–1618), the German
3337:18th century in science
3332:17th century in science
3243:Chandrasekhar–Eddington
3169:Golden age of cosmology
3101:On specific discoveries
3049:Lorentz transformations
2225:Well-founded phenomenon
2176:Pre-established harmony
2088:Alternating series test
1744:Absolute space and time
1608:truncated Newton method
1581:Newton's laws of motion
1544:Newton's law of cooling
1191:A Brief History of Time
474:Antonio Schinella Conti
206:Royal Society of London
3174:Medieval Islamic world
2917:Computational physics
2859:Variational principles
2786:Electrical engineering
2614:Medieval Islamic world
2350:History of mathematics
1979:Isaac Newton Telescope
1969:Isaac Newton Institute
1739:Newton–Puiseux theorem
1734:Parallelogram of force
1722:kissing number problem
1712:Newton–Euler equations
1615:Gauss–Newton algorithm
1564:gravitational constant
1031:. New York: MacMillan.
581:calculus of variations
540:
519:Commercium Epistolicum
447:De Quadratura Curvarum
354:method of indivisibles
329:
177:
162:
148:
109:
101:
89:
51:
30:
3164:Golden age of physics
3159:Copernican Revolution
2683:Future of mathematics
2660:Women in mathematics
2104:Calculus ratiocinator
1933:Isaac Newton Gargoyle
1843: (nephew-in-law)
1819:Copernican Revolution
1814:Scientific Revolution
1675:Newton–Cotes formulas
1539:Newton's inequalities
1516:Structural coloration
1256:(English translation)
1150:Ivor Grattan-Guinness
1124:Boyer, C. B. (1949).
928:Gjertsen, D. (1986).
535:
358:Bonaventura Cavalieri
327:
298:, Hooke and Halley."
239:mechanical calculator
166:
152:
126:
24:
3267:Relativity priority
3122:Subatomic particles
3082:Loop quantum gravity
3071:Quantum information
3020:Quantum field theory
2820:Gravitational theory
2635:Over Cantor's theory
2242:De Arte Combinatoria
2170:Mathesis universalis
2098:Calculus controversy
1940:Astronomers Monument
1630:Newton–Pepys problem
1603:Apollonius's problem
1571:Newton–Cartan theory
1484:Newton–Okounkov body
1417:hypotheses non fingo
1406: (c. 1680)
1211:Meli, D. B. (1993).
1201:Kandaswamy, Anand.
665:Marquis de l'Hôpital
346:method of exhaustion
39:calculus controversy
3347:History of calculus
3231:Scientific disputes
3217:Via Panisperna boys
3118:Gravitational waves
3065:Recent developments
2796:Maxwell's equations
2671:Approximations of π
2582:By ancient cultures
1749:Luminiferous aether
1697:Newton's identities
1670:Newton's cannonball
1645:Classical mechanics
1635:Newtonian potential
1496:Newtonian telescope
994:, pp. 231–234.
982:, pp. 216–221.
930:The Newton Handbook
737:Meli D. B. (1993).
695:1970JHA.....1..116W
671:(Paris, 1696). The
320:History of calculus
190:scientific journals
186:scientific priority
35:history of calculus
3357:Scientific rivalry
3276:General relativity
3271:Special relativity
3212:Oxford Calculators
3039:Special relativity
2958:General relativity
2743:History of physics
2474:Information theory
2157:Leibniz's notation
1974:Isaac Newton Medal
1779: (birthplace)
1593:Newtonian dynamics
1491:Newton's reflector
874:, pp. 99–112.
769:on 3 February 2017
499:Leibniz's notation
330:
266:inverse-square law
31:
3309:
3308:
3283:Transfermium Wars
3202:Harvard Computers
3027:Subatomic physics
3000:Quantum mechanics
2936:Superconductivity
2927:Condensed matter
2756:Classical physics
2709:
2708:
2545:Separation axioms
2316:
2315:
2294:(1715–1716)
2213:Universal science
2186:Sufficient reason
2142:Law of continuity
2036:
2035:
1928: (sculpture)
1895:Abraham de Moivre
1849: (professor)
1777:Woolsthorpe Manor
1729:Newton's quotient
1702:Newton polynomial
1660:Newton's notation
1391: (1661–1665)
1116:978-1-56025-992-3
1078:Birkhäuser Verlag
918:for more details.
850:, pp. 16–20.
801:Nicholas Jolley,
259:Johannes Hevelius
138:integral calculus
62:
3374:
3299:
3298:
3222:Women in physics
2974:Nuclear physics
2898:Perpetual motion
2832:Material science
2776:Electromagnetism
2736:
2729:
2722:
2713:
2712:
2699:
2698:
2419:Category theory
2343:
2336:
2329:
2320:
2319:
2308:
2307:
2295:
2287:
2277:
2267:
2257:
2247:
2163:Lingua generalis
2063:
2056:
2049:
2040:
2039:
2024:
1919: (monotype)
1883:William Stukeley
1879: (disciple)
1859:Benjamin Pulleyn
1835:Catherine Barton
1754:Newtonian series
1665:Rotating spheres
1411:General Scholium
1306:Sir Isaac Newton
1299:
1292:
1285:
1276:
1275:
1253:(Latin original)
1226:
1182:
1138:World Scientific
1129:
1120:
1095:W. W. Rouse Ball
1091:
1070:Arnold, Vladimir
1065:
1032:
1018:
1017:
1007:
1001:
995:
989:
983:
977:
971:
965:
959:
953:
947:
944:
938:
937:
925:
919:
912:
906:
905:
893:
884:
875:
869:
863:
857:
851:
845:
839:
833:
827:
821:
815:
812:
806:
799:
793:
792:
786:
778:
776:
774:
765:. Archived from
759:
753:
752:
734:
728:
721:
715:
714:
662:
653:
642:
636:
622:
577:Johann Bernoulli
527:Johann Bernoulli
384:memoir of 1684.
175:
160:
146:
112:
106:
94:
57:
53:Prioritätsstreit
46:
3382:
3381:
3377:
3376:
3375:
3373:
3372:
3371:
3312:
3311:
3310:
3305:
3287:
3258:Joule–von Mayer
3226:
3190:
3147:
3096:
3060:
2951:Big Bang theory
2904:
2803:Fluid mechanics
2750:
2740:
2710:
2705:
2687:
2649:
2630:Brouwer–Hilbert
2618:
2577:
2556:Numeral systems
2551:
2413:Grandi's series
2357:
2347:
2317:
2312:
2298:
2293:
2285:
2275:
2265:
2255:
2245:
2229:
2081:
2079:
2078:Mathematics and
2072:
2067:
2037:
2032:
2031:
2030:
2029:
2028:
2021:
2008:
1964:Newton's cradle
1945:
1900:
1873: (student)
1871:William Whiston
1867: (student)
1823:
1804:Religious views
1765:
1680:Newton's method
1640:Newtonian fluid
1534:Bucket argument
1520:
1440:
1375:
1308:
1303:
1233:
1223:
1186:Stephen Hawking
1179:
1117:
1088:
1062:
1039:
1024:
1015:
1011:
1010:
1002:
998:
990:
986:
978:
974:
966:
962:
954:
950:
945:
941:
926:
922:
913:
909:
891:
885:
878:
870:
866:
858:
854:
846:
842:
838:, pp. 5–6.
834:
830:
822:
818:
813:
809:
800:
796:
780:
779:
772:
770:
763:"Archived copy"
761:
760:
756:
749:
735:
731:
722:
718:
663:
656:
643:
639:
625:D. T. Whiteside
623:
619:
614:
597:
572:
552:Acta Eruditorum
490:
464:infinite series
429:Henry Oldenburg
356:" developed by
350:Galileo Galilei
342:Johannes Kepler
322:
316:
311:
303:Vladimir Arnold
255:Galileo Galilei
251:Pierre Gassendi
210:Henry Oldenburg
182:
176:
173:
161:
158:
147:
144:
42:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3380:
3370:
3369:
3364:
3359:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3329:
3324:
3307:
3306:
3304:
3303:
3292:
3289:
3288:
3286:
3285:
3280:
3279:
3278:
3273:
3265:
3263:Shapley–Curtis
3260:
3255:
3253:Leibniz–Newton
3250:
3248:Galileo affair
3245:
3240:
3234:
3232:
3228:
3227:
3225:
3224:
3219:
3214:
3209:
3204:
3198:
3196:
3192:
3191:
3189:
3188:
3183:
3182:
3181:
3171:
3166:
3161:
3155:
3153:
3149:
3148:
3146:
3145:
3143:Speed of light
3140:
3139:
3138:
3133:
3128:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3104:
3102:
3098:
3097:
3095:
3094:
3089:
3087:Nanotechnology
3084:
3079:
3078:
3077:
3068:
3066:
3062:
3061:
3059:
3058:
3057:
3056:
3051:
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3012:
3007:
2997:
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2995:
2990:
2985:
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2966:
2965:
2955:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2940:
2939:
2938:
2933:
2925:
2924:
2923:
2914:
2912:
2910:Modern physics
2906:
2905:
2903:
2902:
2901:
2900:
2895:
2890:
2885:
2878:Thermodynamics
2875:
2874:
2873:
2863:
2862:
2861:
2856:
2846:
2845:
2844:
2839:
2829:
2828:
2827:
2817:
2816:
2815:
2810:
2800:
2799:
2798:
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2773:
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2760:
2758:
2752:
2751:
2739:
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2724:
2716:
2707:
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2703:
2692:
2689:
2688:
2686:
2685:
2680:
2679:
2678:
2668:
2667:
2666:
2657:
2655:
2651:
2650:
2648:
2647:
2642:
2640:Leibniz–Newton
2637:
2632:
2626:
2624:
2620:
2619:
2617:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2599:Ancient Greece
2596:
2591:
2585:
2583:
2579:
2578:
2576:
2575:
2570:
2565:
2559:
2557:
2553:
2552:
2550:
2549:
2548:
2547:
2542:
2541:
2540:
2527:
2526:
2525:
2520:
2510:
2509:
2508:
2502:Number theory
2500:
2495:
2494:
2493:
2483:
2482:
2481:
2471:
2466:
2465:
2464:
2459:
2449:
2448:
2447:
2437:
2432:
2431:
2430:
2425:
2417:
2416:
2415:
2410:
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2387:
2386:
2378:
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2365:
2363:
2359:
2358:
2346:
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2314:
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2303:
2300:
2299:
2297:
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2278:
2268:
2258:
2248:
2237:
2235:
2231:
2230:
2228:
2227:
2222:
2215:
2210:
2205:
2200:
2195:
2192:Salva veritate
2188:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2166:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2134:
2129:
2124:
2119:
2117:Compossibility
2114:
2107:
2100:
2095:
2090:
2084:
2082:
2077:
2074:
2073:
2066:
2065:
2058:
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2020:
2019:
2017:
2016:
2014:
2010:
2009:
2007:
2006:
2001:
1996:
1991:
1986:
1981:
1976:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1955:
1953:
1947:
1946:
1944:
1943:
1936:
1929:
1920:
1910:
1908:
1902:
1901:
1899:
1898:
1897: (friend)
1892:
1891: (friend)
1886:
1885: (friend)
1880:
1874:
1868:
1862:
1856:
1855: (mentor)
1853:William Clarke
1850:
1844:
1838:
1831:
1829:
1825:
1824:
1822:
1821:
1816:
1811:
1809:Occult studies
1806:
1801:
1796:
1791:
1786:
1780:
1773:
1771:
1767:
1766:
1764:
1763:
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1741:
1736:
1731:
1726:
1725:
1724:
1714:
1709:
1704:
1699:
1694:
1692:Newton fractal
1689:
1688:
1687:
1677:
1672:
1667:
1662:
1657:
1652:
1647:
1642:
1637:
1632:
1627:
1622:
1620:Newton's rings
1617:
1612:
1611:
1610:
1605:
1595:
1590:
1589:
1588:
1578:
1573:
1568:
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1556:
1546:
1541:
1536:
1530:
1528:
1522:
1521:
1519:
1518:
1513:
1508:
1506:Newton's metal
1503:
1498:
1493:
1488:
1487:
1486:
1479:Newton polygon
1476:
1471:
1466:
1461:
1460:
1459:
1448:
1446:
1442:
1441:
1439:
1438:
1430:
1422:
1413:" (1713;
1407:
1399:
1392:
1383:
1381:
1380:Other writings
1377:
1376:
1374:
1373:
1365:
1357:
1349:
1341:
1333:
1325:
1316:
1314:
1310:
1309:
1302:
1301:
1294:
1287:
1279:
1273:
1272:
1263:Isaac Newton,
1261:
1258:
1249:
1232:
1231:External links
1229:
1228:
1227:
1221:
1208:
1199:
1183:
1177:
1161:
1147:
1130:
1121:
1115:
1102:
1092:
1086:
1066:
1060:
1054:. p. 98.
1044:Арнольд, В. И.
1038:
1035:
1034:
1033:
1009:
1008:
1006:, p. 241.
996:
984:
972:
970:, p. 221.
960:
948:
939:
936:. p. 149.
920:
907:
876:
864:
852:
840:
828:
816:
807:
805:(2005), p. 17.
794:
754:
747:
729:
716:
654:
637:
616:
615:
613:
610:
609:
608:
603:
596:
593:
589:A. Rupert Hall
571:
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489:
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437:C. I. Gerhardt
413:
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402:
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318:Main article:
315:
312:
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235:Gabriel Mouton
202:Marin Mersenne
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2:
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3259:
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3238:Bohr–Einstein
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3092:String theory
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3076:
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2907:
2899:
2896:
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2876:
2872:
2869:
2868:
2867:
2864:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2851:
2850:
2847:
2843:
2842:Metamaterials
2840:
2838:
2835:
2834:
2833:
2830:
2826:
2823:
2822:
2821:
2818:
2814:
2811:
2809:
2806:
2805:
2804:
2801:
2797:
2794:
2792:
2789:
2787:
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2779:
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2770:
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2748:
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2723:
2718:
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2694:
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2684:
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2677:
2674:
2673:
2672:
2669:
2665:
2662:
2661:
2659:
2658:
2656:
2652:
2646:
2645:Hobbes–Wallis
2643:
2641:
2638:
2636:
2633:
2631:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2623:Controversies
2621:
2615:
2612:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2594:Ancient Egypt
2592:
2590:
2587:
2586:
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2524:
2521:
2519:
2516:
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2514:
2511:
2507:
2504:
2503:
2501:
2499:
2498:Math notation
2496:
2492:
2489:
2488:
2487:
2484:
2480:
2477:
2476:
2475:
2472:
2470:
2467:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:
2454:
2453:
2450:
2446:
2443:
2442:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2435:Combinatorics
2433:
2429:
2426:
2424:
2421:
2420:
2418:
2414:
2411:
2409:
2406:
2405:
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2311:
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2259:
2254:
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2249:
2244:
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2239:
2238:
2236:
2232:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2220:
2216:
2214:
2211:
2209:
2206:
2204:
2201:
2199:
2196:
2194:
2193:
2189:
2187:
2184:
2182:
2179:
2177:
2174:
2172:
2171:
2167:
2165:
2164:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2152:Leibniz's gap
2150:
2148:
2147:Leibniz wheel
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2137:Individuation
2135:
2133:
2130:
2128:
2125:
2123:
2120:
2118:
2115:
2113:
2112:
2108:
2106:
2105:
2101:
2099:
2096:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2085:
2083:
2075:
2071:
2064:
2059:
2057:
2052:
2050:
2045:
2044:
2041:
2027:
2023:
2015:
2011:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1980:
1977:
1975:
1972:
1970:
1967:
1965:
1962:
1960:
1959:Newton (unit)
1957:
1956:
1954:
1952:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1937:
1935:
1934:
1930:
1927:
1925:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1912:
1911:
1909:
1907:
1903:
1896:
1893:
1890:
1889:William Jones
1887:
1884:
1881:
1878:
1875:
1872:
1869:
1866:
1863:
1861: (tutor)
1860:
1857:
1854:
1851:
1848:
1845:
1842:
1841:John Conduitt
1839:
1837: (niece)
1836:
1833:
1832:
1830:
1826:
1820:
1817:
1815:
1812:
1810:
1807:
1805:
1802:
1800:
1797:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1787:
1784:
1783:Cranbury Park
1781:
1778:
1775:
1774:
1772:
1770:Personal life
1768:
1760:
1757:
1756:
1755:
1752:
1750:
1747:
1745:
1742:
1740:
1737:
1735:
1732:
1730:
1727:
1723:
1720:
1719:
1718:
1717:Newton number
1715:
1713:
1710:
1708:
1705:
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1693:
1690:
1686:
1683:
1682:
1681:
1678:
1676:
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1661:
1658:
1656:
1653:
1651:
1648:
1646:
1643:
1641:
1638:
1636:
1633:
1631:
1628:
1626:
1623:
1621:
1618:
1616:
1613:
1609:
1606:
1604:
1601:
1600:
1599:
1596:
1594:
1591:
1587:
1586:Kepler's laws
1584:
1583:
1582:
1579:
1577:
1574:
1572:
1569:
1565:
1562:
1560:
1559:parameterized
1557:
1555:
1552:
1551:
1550:
1547:
1545:
1542:
1540:
1537:
1535:
1532:
1531:
1529:
1527:
1523:
1517:
1514:
1512:
1509:
1507:
1504:
1502:
1499:
1497:
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1489:
1485:
1482:
1481:
1480:
1477:
1475:
1472:
1470:
1467:
1465:
1462:
1458:
1455:
1454:
1453:
1450:
1449:
1447:
1445:Contributions
1443:
1436:
1435:
1431:
1428:
1427:
1423:
1420:
1418:
1412:
1408:
1405:
1404:
1400:
1398:" (1675)
1397:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1385:
1384:
1382:
1378:
1371:
1370:
1366:
1363:
1362:
1358:
1355:
1354:
1350:
1347:
1346:
1342:
1339:
1338:
1334:
1331:
1330:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1318:
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1311:
1307:
1300:
1295:
1293:
1288:
1286:
1281:
1280:
1277:
1270:
1266:
1262:
1259:
1257:
1254:
1250:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1234:
1224:
1222:0-19-850143-9
1218:
1214:
1209:
1206:
1205:
1200:
1197:
1194:
1192:
1187:
1184:
1180:
1178:0-521-22732-1
1174:
1170:
1166:
1162:
1159:
1155:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1145:9789814390804
1142:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1122:
1118:
1112:
1108:
1103:
1100:
1096:
1093:
1089:
1087:3-7643-2383-3
1083:
1079:
1075:
1071:
1067:
1063:
1061:5-02-013935-1
1057:
1053:
1049:
1045:
1041:
1040:
1030:
1029:
1022:
1021:public domain
1013:
1012:
1005:
1000:
993:
988:
981:
976:
969:
964:
958:
952:
943:
935:
931:
924:
917:
911:
904:(5): 602–610.
903:
899:
898:
890:
883:
881:
873:
868:
862:, p. 33.
861:
856:
849:
844:
837:
832:
826:, p. 55.
825:
820:
811:
804:
798:
790:
784:
768:
764:
758:
750:
748:0-19-850143-9
744:
740:
733:
726:
720:
712:
708:
704:
700:
696:
692:
688:
684:
678:
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670:
666:
661:
659:
651:
647:
641:
634:
630:
626:
621:
617:
607:
604:
602:
599:
598:
592:
590:
586:
582:
578:
567:
565:
564:Royal Society
560:
556:
554:
553:
548:
547:
546:Charta Volans
539:
534:
531:
528:
523:
521:
520:
515:
511:
507:
502:
500:
496:
485:
481:
479:
475:
472:
471:
465:
460:
456:
452:
448:
444:
443:
438:
433:
430:
426:
422:
417:
410:
407:
406:
405:
399:
396:
393:
390:
389:
388:
385:
382:
378:
377:differentials
373:
370:
366:
361:
360:(1598–1647).
359:
355:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
326:
321:
306:
304:
299:
297:
293:
292:Edmund Halley
289:
288:
283:
279:
275:
274:Kepler's laws
271:
267:
262:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
214:
211:
207:
203:
199:
195:
191:
187:
170:
165:
155:
151:
141:
139:
135:
131:
130:infinitesimal
125:
121:
119:
116:
111:
105:
104:
98:
93:
92:
86:
81:
78:
74:
70:
66:
60:
55:
54:
49:
45:
40:
36:
28:
23:
19:
3352:Isaac Newton
3252:
3207:The Martians
2871:Spectroscopy
2813:Aerodynamics
2791:Field theory
2639:
2573:Hindu-Arabic
2469:Group theory
2457:Trigonometry
2428:Topos theory
2280:
2270:
2260:
2250:
2240:
2217:
2190:
2168:
2161:
2109:
2102:
2097:
2026:Isaac Newton
1938:
1931:
1923:
1914:
1847:Isaac Barrow
1785: (home)
1654:
1526:Newtonianism
1501:Newton scale
1464:Impact depth
1437: (1754)
1432:
1429: (1728)
1424:
1414:
1401:
1386:
1372: (1711)
1367:
1364: (1707)
1359:
1356: (1704)
1351:
1348: (1704)
1343:
1340: (1687)
1335:
1332: (1684)
1327:
1324: (1671)
1319:
1313:Publications
1268:
1237:
1212:
1203:
1196:Bantam Books
1189:
1168:
1153:
1133:
1125:
1106:
1098:
1073:
1047:
1027:
999:
987:
975:
963:
951:
942:
929:
923:
910:
901:
895:
867:
860:Арнольд 1989
855:
848:Арнольд 1989
843:
831:
819:
810:
802:
797:
771:. Retrieved
767:the original
757:
738:
732:
719:
686:
682:
676:
672:
668:
645:
640:
628:
620:
573:
561:
557:
550:
544:
541:
536:
532:
524:
518:
510:plagiarizing
503:
494:
491:
482:
468:
455:John Collins
451:Isaac Barrow
446:
440:
434:
425:power series
418:
414:
403:
386:
380:
374:
362:
338:Luca Valerio
334:Simon Stevin
331:
300:
285:
278:Robert Hooke
263:
243:Robert Hooke
215:
183:
167:
163:
153:
149:
145:Hall 1980: 1
134:differential
127:
122:
82:
77:plagiarizing
65:Isaac Newton
52:
38:
32:
18:
3131:Higgs boson
2589:Mesopotamia
2563:Prehistoric
2523:Probability
2380:Algorithms
2208:Rationalism
1926:by Paolozzi
1865:Roger Cotes
1474:Newton disc
1388:Quaestiones
1361:Arithmetica
1165:Hall, A. R.
725:at page 250
585:Abate Conti
488:Development
421:integration
3316:Categories
3152:By periods
2970:Geophysics
2942:Cosmology
2513:Statistics
2445:Logarithms
2391:Arithmetic
2282:Monadology
2122:Difference
2080:philosophy
2013:Categories
1989:XMM-Newton
1906:Depictions
1877:John Keill
1799:Apple tree
1794:Later life
1789:Early life
1369:De Analysi
1158:W W Norton
1101:], 4th ed.
968:Bardi 2006
932:. London:
872:Boyer 1949
650:at page 41
627:(editor),
612:References
514:quadrature
365:John Keill
352:– on the "
309:Background
282:elliptical
3195:By groups
3179:Astronomy
3015:Molecules
2849:Mechanics
2764:Astronomy
2533:Manifolds
2529:Topology
2440:Functions
2272:Théodicée
2181:Plenitude
1828:Relations
1337:Principia
1004:Hall 1980
992:Hall 1980
980:Hall 1980
916:this page
836:Meli 1993
824:Hall 1980
673:Principia
646:Principia
381:Principia
223:John Pell
115:fluxional
110:Principia
103:Principia
97:L'Hôpital
44:‹See Tfd›
29:, collage
3301:Category
3126:timeline
3113:Graphene
3075:timeline
3044:timeline
3032:timeline
3005:timeline
2946:timeline
2931:timeline
2921:timeline
2883:timeline
2854:timeline
2837:timeline
2825:timeline
2808:timeline
2781:timeline
2769:timeline
2747:timeline
2701:Category
2676:timeline
2664:timeline
2538:timeline
2518:timeline
2506:timeline
2491:timeline
2479:timeline
2462:timeline
2452:Geometry
2423:timeline
2408:timeline
2403:Calculus
2396:timeline
2384:timeline
2374:timeline
2362:By topic
2354:timeline
2310:Category
2219:Vis viva
2198:Theodicy
2127:Dynamism
1951:Namesake
1917:by Blake
1511:Spectrum
1452:Calculus
1421: )
1321:Fluxions
1188:(1988)
1167:(1980).
1072:(1990).
1046:(1989).
783:cite web
711:57208572
595:See also
478:tangents
369:fluxions
194:anagrams
172:—
157:—
143:—
73:calculus
3136:Neutron
2993:Weapons
2978:Fission
2893:Entropy
2568:Ancient
2369:Algebra
1469:Inertia
1457:fluxion
1353:Queries
1345:Opticks
1329:De Motu
1246:321–331
1242:288–295
1152:(1997)
1097:(1908)
1037:Sources
1023::
803:Leibniz
691:Bibcode
270:gravity
219:Leibniz
61:
33:In the
2983:Fusion
2888:Energy
2866:Optics
2286:(1714)
2276:(1710)
2266:(1704)
2256:(1686)
2246:(1666)
1924:Newton
1915:Newton
1267:, in:
1219:
1175:
1143:
1113:
1084:
1058:
1050:. М.:
773:31 May
745:
709:
169:other.
48:German
37:, the
3054:tests
3010:Atoms
2988:Power
2963:tests
2654:Other
2609:India
2604:China
2486:Logic
2234:Works
1759:table
1052:Наука
892:(PDF)
707:S2CID
1217:ISBN
1173:ISBN
1141:ISBN
1111:ISBN
1082:ISBN
1056:ISBN
789:link
775:2020
743:ISBN
470:Abbé
296:Wren
257:and
249:and
231:Lyon
136:and
67:and
59:lit.
699:doi
233:by
95:".
3318::
1156:.
1136:,
1080:.
902:56
900:.
894:.
879:^
785:}}
781:{{
705:.
697:.
685:.
657:^
501:.
208:,
200:,
56:,
50::
2749:)
2745:(
2735:e
2728:t
2721:v
2356:)
2352:(
2342:e
2335:t
2328:v
2062:e
2055:t
2048:v
1419:"
1415:"
1409:"
1394:"
1298:e
1291:t
1284:v
1225:.
1207:.
1198:.
1181:.
1160:.
1119:.
1090:.
1064:.
791:)
777:.
751:.
727:.
713:.
701::
693::
687:1
652:.
635:.
41:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
