996:
28:
818:, under IAEA safeguards. The Libyan nuclear program repeatedly suffered under mismanagement and loss of academic generation. The Tajura facility was run under the Soviet experts and staffed by a small number of inexperienced Libyan specialists and technicians. Known as the Tajura Nuclear Research Facility (TNRF), Libya conducted illegal uranium conversion experiments there. An unnamed nuclear weapon state, whose name has been kept secret by the IAEA, also allegedly assisted Libya in these experiments. Nuclear expert
464:
1053:
157:
566:. In October 2014, Libya asked for foreign assistance to transport its 850 tonne stockpile of precursor chemicals for making nerve gas out of Libya for destruction. In February 2015, Libyan military sources told media that unidentified armed men had captured large amounts of Libya’s chemical weapons, including mustard gas and sarin. Destruction of Libya's chemical weapon precursors was completed in November 2017.
932:(OPCW) supervised the destruction of Libya's chemical weapons caches through February 2011, when it was forced to suspend its operations due to the uprising against Gaddafi and the resulting deterioration of the country's stability. By then, Libya had destroyed 40% of its precursor materials and 55% of its mustard gas, as well as 3,500 chemical weapon munitions. In early September 2011, OPCW Director-General
562:, as well as 3,563 unloaded chemical weapon munitions (aerial bombs). The OPCW set January 2014 as the deadline for the full destruction of Libya's chemical weapons. Libya began destroying its chemical stockpiles and munitions later in 2004, but it missed deadlines for converting one chemical weapons production facility to peaceful use and for destroying its stockpile of
732:, uranium conversion facilities, and enrichment techniques that together would have enabled Libya to produce weapons-grade uranium. The approach failed in 1979, and in 1980 Libya decided to pursue a plutonium-based pathway to nuclear weapons. Libya imported 1,200 tons of uranium ore concentrate from French-controlled mines in Niger without declaring it to the
958:
cooperated with the OPCW in the destruction of the remaining chemical weapons. After assessing the chemical stockpiles, the OPCW set a deadline for the destruction of the weapons by the Libyan government. As of
September 2013, 1.6 metric tons of mustard blister agent loaded in artillery rounds, 2.5
789:
from various sources, as Libya had made a strategic decision to start the program with a new attitude. Libya employed a large number of black market network, first reeving the 20 pre-assembled centrifuges and components for an additional 200 centrifuges and related parts from foreign suppliers. The
986:
later reported that chemical weapons were stolen by armed men who stormed the chemical factory in the Jufra district where the weapons were stored. Military sources reportedly stated that among the chemical weapons are mustard gas and sarin. On 31 August 2016, the last stockpile of ingredients for
936:
said reports he had received indicated that the remaining weapons were secure and had not fallen into the hands of militant groups. A stockpile of mustard gas, which the OPCW reported the regime may have attempted to hide from inspectors overseeing the chemical weapons program's dismantlement, was
829:
In 1984, Libya negotiated with the Soviet Union for a supply of nuclear power plants, but its out-of-date technology dissatisfied
Colonel Gaddafi. Gaddafi negotiated with Belgium but the talks failed. In 1984, Libya negotiated with Japan for a pilot-scale uranium conversion facility. A Japanese
793:
In 2000, Libya accelerated its efforts, still headed by Tinner. Libya received many documents on the design and operation of centrifuges, but the program suffered many setbacks in evaluating these designs as they were too difficult to interpret and bring into operation. Libya ultimately told IAEA
969:
In
September 2014, OPCW said Libya still had around 850 tonnes of industrial chemicals that could be used to produce chemical weapons. In October 2014, Libya asked for foreign assistance to transport that stockpile of raw materials for making nerve gas out of Libya for destruction. On 5 February
623:
uranium enrichment,” which can enrich uranium for use in nuclear reactors as well as for fissile material in nuclear weapons. However, at the time its nuclear program was rolled back by
Gaddafi (with assistance from the United States and the IAEA), Libya's nuclear program remained in very early
723:
visiting Libya in 1984, a nuclear energy pact was signed by Libya and India, but it is unclear how much interaction and cooperation took place. Throughout the 1980s, Libyan efforts continued to push for acquiring nuclear weapons from various sources. In an ingenious persuasion to
966:, in February 2014, the remnants of Libya's chemical weapons had been discreetly destroyed by the United States and Libya, using a transportable oven technology to destroy hundreds of bombs and artillery rounds filled with deadly mustard agent.
524:
would voluntarily eliminate all materials, equipment and programs that could lead to internationally proscribed weapons. This included weapons of mass destruction (nuclear, chemical and biological weapons) and long-range ballistic missiles.
794:
investigators that it had no national personnel competent to evaluate these designs at that time, and due to its extreme difficulty, Libya would have had to ask the supplier for help if it had decided to pursue a nuclear weapon.
979:
reported that an anonymous Libyan army official stated extremists had seized large amounts of
Gaddafi’s chemical weapons from multiple locations. The official warned that the targeted caches included mustard gas and sarin.
987:
chemical weapons in the country was removed to
Germany to avoid it falling into the hands of militants and was slated for destruction. Destruction of Libya's chemical weapon precursors was completed in November 2017.
2156:
853:
in Libya. Other reports also suggested that
Russian scientists had been hired to work on a covert Libyan nuclear program. In March 1998, Russia and Libya signed a contract with the Russian consortium, the
759:
were imposed by the United States in the 1980s, further hampering the nuclear program. Work was completed by Tinner in 1992, but Libya remained unable to produce an operating centrifuge. After the
1771:
Joseph
Cirincione with Jon B. Wolfsthal and Miriam Rajkumar, Deadly Arsenals: Tracking Weapons of Mass Destruction (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2002), p. 307.
947:
that a major ammunition complex, including chemical-weapons-capable artillery shells, was unguarded and open to looting. In
December 2012 a senior Spanish intelligence official said that
1180:, Implementation of the NPT Safeguards Agreement of the Socialist People's Libyan Arab Jamahiriya, Report by the Director General, International Atomic Energy Agency, 20 February 2004.
850:
709:
who intercepted and arrested these Libyan agents. Investigators have found that nuclear weapons designs obtained by Libya through a
Pakistani smuggling network originated in China.
540:(IAEA) in 1980. The United States and the United Kingdom assisted Libya in removing equipment and material from its nuclear weapons program, with independent verification by IAEA.
1342:
1865:
1595:
1195:
619:, to start developing the nuclear weapons. The IAEA reported that, in July 1995, Libya had made a “strategic decision to reinvigorate its nuclear activities, including
790:
pre-assembled rotors for centrifuges were used to install a completed single centrifuge at the Al Hashan site, which was first successfully tested in October 2000.
970:
2015, the Libyan Minister of Foreign Affairs and the Director-General of OPCW agreed on the need to complete the destruction of the remaining precursor chemicals.
450:
755:. Tinner's work on centrifuges took place at the TNRF aimed at producing gas centrifuges for uranium enrichment. By the late 1980s, financial constraints and
653:, Gaddafi unsuccessfully attempted to convince Zhou to sell him a nuclear bomb. Gaddafi's justification for seeking nuclear weapons was his concern over the
493:
1400:
736:, as required by its safeguards agreement. In 1982, Libya attempted to enter into an agreement with Belgium for purchasing a small plant for manufacturing
1952:
929:
2164:
2060:
2040:
1563:
1377:
582:
1692:
823:
716:
in 1978, and Gaddafi reached a mutual understanding with India for civil nuclear cooperation, as part of India's Atoms for Peace program. With the
951:"probably also has non-conventional arms, basically chemical, as a result of the loss of control of arsenals", with Libya the most likely source.
2259:
1978:
1502:
2080:
394:
195:
1110:
1218:
399:
1992:
647:
570:
446:
354:
349:
1472:
830:
company supplied Libya with the technology, and the sale was apparently arranged directly with the Japanese instead of through middlemen.
1759:
jack Kelley, "Russian Nuke Experts Wooed," USA Today, 8 January 1992; "Libya Denies Offers to Soviets," Washington Post, 11 January 1992.
374:
359:
319:
309:
304:
404:
1819:
1352:
1925:
781:
In 1995, Gaddafi renewed calls for nuclear weapons and pursued new avenues for nuclear technology procurement, while publicizing the
486:
219:
214:
1784:
1254:
329:
314:
229:
389:
334:
299:
254:
209:
204:
1876:
1192:
384:
369:
339:
324:
294:
274:
249:
234:
224:
1706:
379:
284:
259:
244:
239:
1033:
of 2011, but the weapons missed their targets. Several more Scuds, with launchers, were found by anti-Gaddafi fighters near
2254:
2212:
479:
467:
269:
264:
1887:
2244:
1237:
668:
596:
of its clandestine nuclear program from late 2003, Libya had a nuclear weapons program, allegedly to counter the covert
2020:
1900:
537:
2126:
959:
metric tons of congealed mustard agent, and 846 metric tons of chemical weapons ingredients remained to be destroyed.
643:
made an unsuccessful attempt to convince China to sell tactical nuclear weapons to Libya. In a bilateral meeting with
2264:
1682:
Joshua Sinai, "Libya's Pursuit of Weapons of Mass Destruction," Nonproliferation Review 4, Spring-Summer 1997, p. 97.
909:, which was ostensibly decommissioned in the 2000s and early 2010s as Gaddafi sought to normalise relations with the
343:
699:
had distrusted and strongly disliked Gaddafi. On immediate effects, Libyans were asked to leave the country and the
533:
131:
1848:
948:
894:
279:
2186:
1956:
1796:
768:
955:
644:
544:
420:
703:
made attempts to infiltrate Pakistan's high-powered research institutes, but such attempts were thwarted by
27:
834:
782:
756:
688:
589:
517:
1014:
914:
679:, in 1974. In 1977, Libyan technicians left for Pakistan but by the time Libyans joined the program, the
551:
430:
1671:
2249:
1066:
875:
684:
661:
148:
995:
849:
in Moscow claimed that Libya had unsuccessfully tried to recruit two of his colleagues to work at the
1844:
1780:
1573:
1177:
1107:
700:
1215:
1153:
1321:
1296:
1273:
1117:, Chronology of Key Events, (December 2003 - September 2008), International Atomic Energy Agency.
654:
637:
604:
agreement with the IAEA in 1980. In 1981, the Soviet Union completed a 10 MW research reactor at
597:
1522:(2010). "Colonel Gaddafi's Libya and his Nuclear ambitions". Nazir Nazi and Jang Group of Media.
1997:
1480:
1030:
632:
Gaddafi‘s most famous buying foray for nuclear weapons was in 1970, when Libyan leaders paid a
1540:
1382:
982:
941:
by anti-Gaddafi fighters less than two weeks later. In late September it was reported by the
748:
741:
737:
717:
713:
692:
612:
536:(NPT) in 1968 and Gaddafi ratified it in 1975, and concluded a safeguards agreement with the
425:
869:
775:
593:
186:
1470:
933:
8:
1401:"OPCW Director-General Praises Complete Destruction of Libya's Chemical Weapon Stockpile"
943:
846:
680:
664:
1095:
2065:
1071:
842:
696:
640:
1972:
1702:
1622:
1527:
1496:
1442:
2100:
1378:"Libya: Unidentified armed men attack chemical factory, flee with chemical weapons"
906:
886:
752:
725:
616:
171:
751:
sources. The centrifuges materials and expertise were provided by Swiss national,
2134:
1860:
1696:
1648:
1600:
1568:
1559:
1347:
1222:
1199:
1114:
975:
855:
807:
786:
760:
601:
586:
514:
176:
1691:
608:. Libya purchased more than 2,000 tons of lightly processed uranium from Niger.
2061:"Libyan Army official tells Arab paper that militias captured chemical weapons"
1034:
938:
819:
704:
620:
563:
529:
364:
181:
2238:
1021:
surface-to-surface missiles at areas in revolt against the regime, including
910:
720:
675:, Libya negotiated and was delegated to participate in its nuclear program,
615:
networks and various black market sources, including Swiss nuclear engineer
2085:
1058:
890:
882:
878:
845:, expertise, and materials. In 1992, it was reported by an official of the
838:
811:
803:
771:
1729:
1519:
1008:
1004:
918:
729:
676:
633:
555:
1202:, Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons, 2 February 2004.
1698:
SIPRI Yearbook 2005: Armaments, Disarmament, and International Security
885:, maintained that the negotiations and diplomatic efforts rolling back
650:
1866:
Al Qaeda may have chemical weapons, Spain's counter-terror chief warns
1096:
Chronology of Libya's Disarmament and Relations with the United States
925:, as well as 3,563 unloaded chemical weapon munitions (aerial bombs).
747:
In 1980, Libya began to build its nuclear infrastructure from various
740:. At the time, Libya had no declared nuclear facilities that required
1000:
1424:
1026:
917:
with effect on 5 February 2004, and declared 24.7 metric tonnes of
785:. In 1997, Libya received technical documentation and materials on
764:
683:
had come in effect against Bhutto in response to end the political
2045:
1785:
Senate Delegation Positive About Security of Libyan WMD Materials
1672:
The Iraq War did not Force Gadaffi's Hand | Brookings Institution
1653:. Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. pp. 14–15
1022:
815:
2157:"Libyan Rebels Advance on Sirte Amid Protests Over Appointments"
2081:"Libya hands over last stockpile of chemical weapon ingredients"
1471:
The Risk Report Volume 1 Number 10 (December 1995) Page 1, 3-4.
1255:"Libya Completes Destruction of Its Category 1 Chemical Weapons"
156:
1892:
860:
for a partial overhaul of the Tajoura Nuclear Research Center.
826:
said the Soviet Union and China were the most likely suspects.
691:
succeeded, Libya had been taken out of the equation as the new
672:
657:, and publicly expressed his desire to obtain nuclear weapons.
605:
121:
1477:
The Risk Report Volume 1 Number 10 (December 1995) Page 1, 3-4
1038:
922:
802:
In 1979, Libya pursued peaceful nuclear cooperation with the
559:
521:
19:
1953:"Libya destroys last of Gaddafi's chemical weapons – France"
1901:"Destruction of Libyan Chemical-Loaded Arms Remains on Hold"
1466:
1464:
2025:
1797:"Libya: Chemical Weapons Secure According To U.N. Watchdog"
1274:"Destroying Libya's Chemical Weapons: Deadlines and Delays"
1018:
833:
In 1991, Libya tried to exploit the chaos generated by the
733:
2041:"Report: Chemical weapons in Libya 'seized by extremists'"
1993:"Libya asks chemical weapons watchdog to remove stockpile"
1297:"Uprising in Libya: The False Specter of Chemical Warfare"
1193:
The Chemical Weapons Convention Enters Into Force in Libya
592:
and had ambitions to acquire nuclear weapons. Before the
1626:
1461:
712:
With relations severed with Pakistan, Gaddafi normalized
2101:"Libya conflict: Gaddafi forces 'launched Scud missile'"
1343:"Libya militias capture chemical weapons: army official"
1299:. James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies (CNS)
1276:. James Martin Center for Nonproliferation Studies (CNS)
921:, 1,390 metric tonnes of chemical precursors for making
558:, 1,390 metric tonnes of chemical precursors for making
611:
During the 1980s, Gaddafi had reportedly used illicit
2213:"Scud missile battery sits unguarded outside Tripoli"
1877:
Libya's NTC pledges to destroy chemical weapons: OPCW
2021:"Libyan Minister of Foreign Affairs Visits the OPCW"
1767:
1765:
1473:"Libya Has Trouble Building the Most Deadly Weapons"
1048:
930:
Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons
1820:"Libyan rebels discover Gaddafi's chemical weapons"
1395:
1393:
1372:
1370:
600:. Gaddafi ratified NPT in 1975, and concluded the
2127:"Gadhafi's Forces Fired 3 Scuds at Misrata: NATO"
1762:
1017:forces loyal to Gaddafi reportedly fired several
814:agreed to build a 10 MW research reactor at
2236:
1693:Stockholm International Peace Research Institute
1147:
1145:
1143:
824:Institute for Science and International Security
728:in 1978, Libya made an effort to gain access to
1849:Libyan Weapons Depot Unguarded, Open to Looters
1554:
1552:
1550:
1390:
1367:
1141:
1139:
1137:
1135:
1133:
1131:
1129:
1127:
1125:
1123:
573:on 20 September 2017, but has not ratified it.
1944:
1888:Chemical weapons inspectors to return to Libya
1730:"Japan firm sold Libya key nuclear technology"
1665:
1646:
1322:"NBC Weapons: Libya Needs Help To Be Gas Free"
1950:
487:
1755:
1753:
1751:
1547:
1514:
1512:
1120:
1091:
1089:
1087:
571:Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons
520:until he announced on 19 December 2003 that
1977:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1926:"Libya's Cache of Toxic Arms All Destroyed"
1501:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
1479:. Wisconsin Project reports. Archived from
1337:
1335:
1188:
1186:
1596:"Libyan Arms Designs Traced Back to China"
905:Libya under Gaddafi actively maintained a
494:
480:
155:
1748:
1509:
1084:
889:nuclear program were started as early as
1701:. Oxford University Press. p. 640.
1435:
1332:
1183:
994:
774:to uplift the sanctions by allowing the
1799:. The Huffington Post. 7 September 2011
1558:
1294:
1271:
1247:
509:pursued programs to develop or acquire
2260:Weapons of mass destruction by country
2237:
1898:
1647:V. R. Micallef, Joseph (August 1981).
1210:
1208:
1817:
1316:
1314:
1295:Zanders, Jean Pascal (May 19, 2011).
1232:
1230:
990:
627:
554:, and declared 24.7 metric tonnes of
112:; the program was dismantled in 2003.
2187:"Gaddafi missiles could be scrapped"
1518:
1272:Zanders, Jean Pascal (19 May 2011).
1151:
1899:Barnes, Diane (11 September 2013).
1623:"China 'link' to Libya nuke design"
1205:
1154:"Libya: Nuclear Programme Overview"
900:
13:
1351:. 21 February 2015. Archived from
1311:
1227:
576:
538:International Atomic Energy Agency
26:
14:
2276:
1736:. Associated Press. 12 March 2004
1650:Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists
2163:. 29 August 2011. Archived from
2133:. 23 August 2011. Archived from
1818:Black, Ian (22 September 2011).
1051:
863:
767:, Gaddafi bluntly persuaded the
744:, and the purchase was refused.
534:Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
463:
462:
2205:
2179:
2149:
2119:
2093:
2073:
2053:
2033:
2013:
1985:
1918:
1881:
1870:
1853:
1838:
1811:
1789:
1774:
1722:
1685:
1676:
1640:
1615:
1588:
1572:. pp. 7/13. Archived from
1417:
1288:
1108:News Update on IAEA & Libya
949:Al Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb
851:Tajoura Nuclear Research Center
797:
624:initial, developmental stages.
581:King Idris of Libya signed the
518:seized control of Libya in 1969
1905:Global Security Newswire (NTI)
1265:
1171:
1101:
550:In 2004, Libya acceded to the
1:
1077:
956:National Transitional Council
585:(NPT) in July 1968. In 1969,
545:Biological Weapons Convention
543:In 1982, Libya ratified the
7:
2255:Nuclear technology in Libya
1955:. France 24. Archived from
1098:, Arms Control Association.
1044:
915:Chemical Weapons Convention
552:Chemical Weapons Convention
511:weapons of mass destruction
149:Weapons of mass destruction
10:
2281:
2245:Foreign relations of Libya
1443:"The Program begins: 1968"
1067:Foreign relations of Libya
867:
655:Israeli nuclear capability
636:to China. Gaddafi and his
38:Nuclear program start date
1845:Nuclear Threat Initiative
1781:Nuclear Threat Initiative
1238:"Libya's CW Capabilities"
1158:Nuclear Threat Initiative
130:
116:
105:
95:
85:
75:
65:
55:
46:First nuclear weapon test
45:
37:
25:
18:
2265:Nuclear weapons programs
1216:Libya: Facts and Figures
937:reportedly found in the
907:chemical weapons program
778:of its nuclear program.
583:Non-Proliferation Treaty
56:First fusion weapon test
2161:San Francisco Chronicle
913:. Libya acceded to the
660:After being invited by
598:Israeli nuclear program
590:seized control of Libya
1011:
876:Clinton administration
32:
1783:, 30 September 2011,
1383:The North Africa Post
998:
983:The North Africa Post
973:On 21 February 2015,
718:Indian Prime Minister
613:nuclear proliferation
117:Maximum missile range
30:
1864:, 10 December 2012,
870:Disarmament of Libya
749:nuclear black market
714:relations with India
687:. Before Pakistan's
2193:. 22 September 2011
2167:on 7 September 2011
2089:. 1 September 2016.
2069:. 22 February 2015.
2049:. 21 February 2015.
2001:. 24 September 2014
1951:Text by FRANCE 24.
1564:"Who has the Bomb?"
1386:. 23 February 2015.
944:Wall Street Journal
847:Kurchatov Institute
701:Libyan Intelligence
665:Zulfikar Ali Bhutto
2219:. 5 September 2011
2066:The Jerusalem Post
2029:. 5 February 2015.
1959:on 5 February 2014
1847:, 3 October 2011,
1429:treaties.unoda.org
1328:. 30 October 2014.
1261:. 4 February 2014.
1221:2013-09-27 at the
1198:2018-04-08 at the
1113:2012-03-28 at the
1072:Nuclear technology
1012:
991:Ballistic missiles
964:The New York Times
843:nuclear technology
841:to gain access to
757:economic sanctions
726:uranium enrichment
669:2nd OIC conference
641:Abdessalam Jalloud
628:Foreign assistance
76:Largest yield test
33:
2250:Politics of Libya
1932:. 2 February 2014
1708:978-0-19-928401-6
1535:Missing or empty
857:Atomenergoeksport
569:Libya signed the
504:
503:
143:
142:
106:Current stockpile
66:Last nuclear test
31:Location of Libya
2272:
2229:
2228:
2226:
2224:
2209:
2203:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2183:
2177:
2176:
2174:
2172:
2153:
2147:
2146:
2144:
2142:
2137:on July 29, 2012
2123:
2117:
2116:
2114:
2112:
2107:. 16 August 2011
2097:
2091:
2090:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2057:
2051:
2050:
2037:
2031:
2030:
2017:
2011:
2010:
2008:
2006:
1989:
1983:
1982:
1976:
1968:
1966:
1964:
1948:
1942:
1941:
1939:
1937:
1922:
1916:
1915:
1913:
1911:
1896:
1890:
1885:
1879:
1874:
1868:
1857:
1851:
1842:
1836:
1835:
1833:
1831:
1815:
1809:
1808:
1806:
1804:
1793:
1787:
1778:
1772:
1769:
1760:
1757:
1746:
1745:
1743:
1741:
1726:
1720:
1719:
1717:
1715:
1689:
1683:
1680:
1674:
1669:
1663:
1662:
1660:
1658:
1644:
1638:
1637:
1635:
1634:
1619:
1613:
1612:
1610:
1609:
1592:
1586:
1585:
1583:
1581:
1560:Stengel, Richard
1556:
1545:
1544:
1538:
1533:
1531:
1523:
1520:Nazi, Nazir Naji
1516:
1507:
1506:
1500:
1492:
1490:
1488:
1483:on 20 April 2013
1468:
1459:
1458:
1456:
1454:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1425:"UNODA Treaties"
1421:
1415:
1414:
1412:
1411:
1397:
1388:
1387:
1374:
1365:
1364:
1362:
1360:
1339:
1330:
1329:
1326:StrategyPage.com
1318:
1309:
1308:
1306:
1304:
1292:
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1262:
1251:
1245:
1244:
1242:
1234:
1225:
1212:
1203:
1190:
1181:
1175:
1169:
1168:
1166:
1164:
1152:Rohlfing, Joan.
1149:
1118:
1105:
1099:
1093:
1061:
1056:
1055:
1054:
1031:Libyan Civil War
901:Chemical weapons
753:Friedrich Tinner
617:Friedrich Tinner
496:
489:
482:
466:
465:
447:List of treaties
159:
145:
144:
16:
15:
2280:
2279:
2275:
2274:
2273:
2271:
2270:
2269:
2235:
2234:
2233:
2232:
2222:
2220:
2211:
2210:
2206:
2196:
2194:
2185:
2184:
2180:
2170:
2168:
2155:
2154:
2150:
2140:
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