Paranthropus robustus

2030: 118: 4599: 4483: 3750: 2804: 4468: 4757: 4161: 4918: 3201: 2955: 3944:. They were found across the entire depth of Member 3, so fire was a regular event throughout its deposition. Based on colour and structural changes, they found that 46 were heated to below 300 °C (572 °F), 52 to 300–400 °C (572–752 °F), 45 to 400–500 °C (752–932 °F), and 127 above this. They concluded that these bones were, "the earliest direct evidence of fire use in the fossil record," and compared the temperatures with those achieved by experimental campfires burning 3538: 140: 4003:

contrast markedly with the modern human average of 5.8 years. The 1st permanent molar of SK 63, which may have died at 3.4–3.7 years of age, possibly erupted at 2.9–3.2 years. In modern apes (including humans), dental development trajectory is strongly correlated with life history and overall growth rate, but it is possible that early hominins simply had a faster dental trajectory but a slower life history due to environmental factors, such as early weaning age as is exemplified in modern

1552: 10868: 3995: 10892: 10880: 3936:, and horn cores have also been found. They were not manufactured or purposefully shaped for a task, but since they display no weathering, and there is a preference displayed for certain bones, raw materials were likely specifically hand picked. This contrasts with East African bone tools which appear to have been modified and directly cut into specific shapes before using. 2795: 485:, with males substantially larger and more robust than females. Based on 3 specimens, males may have been 132 cm (4 ft 4 in) tall and females 110 cm (3 ft 7 in). Based on 4 specimens, males averaged 40 kg (88 lb) in weight and females 30 kg (66 lb). The brain volume of the specimen SK 1585 is estimated to have been 476 3244:(curvature of the lumbar vertebrae) and thus bipedalism. The anatomy of the sacrum and the first lumbar vertebra (at least the vertebral arch), preserved in DNH 43, are similar to those of other australopithecines. The pelvis seems to indicate a more-or-less humanlike hip joint consistent with bipedalism, though differences in overall pelvic anatomy may indicate 5350: 4082:, is about 6 mm (0.24 in). In contrast, those of other hominins reach 5–6 mm (0.20–0.24 in) after the tooth has emerged not only from the gums (a later stage of dental development). SK 62's growth trajectory is more similar to that of gorillas, whose roots typically measure 7 mm (0.28 in) when emerging from the gums. 3181:, the juvenile SK 853. Conversely, SK 3981 is more similar to those of healthy humans, which could be explained as: SK 3981 is abnormal, the vertebrae took on a more humanlike condition with maturity, or one of these specimens is assigned to the wrong species. The shape of the lumbar vertebrae is much more similar to that of 3193:) and humans than other australopithecines. The pedicles (which jut out diagonally from the vertebra) of the lower lumbar vertebra are much more robust than in other australopithecines and are within the range of humans, and the transverse processes (which jut out to the sides of the vertebra) indicate powerful 4392:, as there are no australopithecine sites that were below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) in elevation at the time of deposition. This would mean that, like chimps, they often inhabited areas with an average diurnal temperature of 25 °C (77 °F), dropping to 10 or 5 °C (50 or 41 °F) at night. 1776:"). This scheme was widely criticised for being too liberal in demarcating species. Further, the remains were not firmly dated, and it was debated if there were indeed multiple hominin lineages or if there was only a single one leading to humans. Most prominently, Broom and South African palaeontologist 3801:

preferred a savanna habitat, a multi-male society would have been more conducive in defending the troop from predators in the more exposed environment, much like baboons which live in the savanna. Even in a multi-male society, it is still possible that males were more likely to be evicted, explaining

3605:

suggest hard food was infrequently consumed, and therefore the heavy build of the skull was only relevant when eating less desirable fallback foods. Such a strategy is similar to that used by modern gorillas, which can sustain themselves entirely on lower quality fallback foods year-round, as opposed

3494:

In 2001, palaeoanthropologist Randall L. Susman and colleagues, using two recently discovered proximal femoral fragments from Swartkrans, estimated an average of 42 kg (93 lb) for males and 30 kg (66 lb) for females. If these four proximal femur specimens—SK 82, SK 97, SKW 19, and

4850:

The site is thought to be roughly 2–1.5 million years old based on animal remains which have also been recovered from Swartkrans Member 1. The animal assemblage is broadly similar to that of Cooper's Cave, meaning they probably are about the same age. In 2020, DNH 152 was palaeomagnetically dated to

4127:

In 1972, after estimating a foetal size of 1,230–1,390 g (2.7–3.1 lb) based on an adult female weight of 50 kg (110 lb), anthropologist Walter Leutenegger estimated foetal head size at about 110–160 cc (6.7–9.8 cu in), similar to a chimp. In 1973, using this and an

3745:

specimens are male (or at least presumed male), males seem to have had a higher mortality rate than females. In a harem society, males are more likely to be evicted from the group given higher male–male competition over females, and lone males may have been put at a higher risk of predation. By this

3472:

using the specimens SK 82 and SK 97. In 1991, McHenry expanded his sample size, and also estimated the living size of Swartkrans specimens by scaling down the dimensions of an average modern human to meet a preserved leg or foot element (he considered the arm measurements too variable among hominins

3792:

society due to heightened male–male competition. Males did not seem to have ventured very far from the valley, which could either indicate small home ranges, or that they preferred dolomitic landscapes due to perhaps cave abundance or factors related to vegetation growth. Similarly, in 2016, Polish

5017:

populations possibly contracted to certain wooded refuge zones over 21,000-year cycles, becoming regionally extinct in certain areas until the wet cycle whereupon it would repopulate those zones. The continual prolonging of dry cycles may have caused its extinction, with the last occurrence in the

4257:

may have often consumed high-sugar cavity-causing foods. PEH may have also increased susceptibility to cavities. A molar from Drimolen showed a cavity on the tooth root, a rare occurrence in fossil great apes. In order for cavity-creating bacteria to reach this area, the individual would have also

3523:

as much bigger at 55 kg (121 lb). In 2012, American anthropologist Trenton Holliday, using the same equation as McHenry on three specimens, reported an average of 37 kg (82 lb) with a range of 30–43 kg (66–95 lb). In 2015, biological anthropologist Mark Grabowski and

3486:

specimens (male SK 82, male SK 97, and female or subadult SK 3155), by scaling down an average human to meet the estimated size of the preserved femur, as 126 cm (4 ft 2 in), 137 cm (4 ft 6 in), and 110 cm (3 ft 7 in), respectively. Based on just these

3428:

was a heavily built species with a height of 140–150 cm (4 ft 7 in – 4 ft 11 in) and a weight of 68–91 kg (150–201 lb). Consequently, Robinson had described its locomotory habits as, "a compromise between erectness and facility for quadrupedal climbing." In

4061:

experienced more anterior face rotation than modern humans and apes. Growth was most marked between the eruptions of the first and second permanent molars, most notably in terms of the distance from the back of the mouth to the front of the mouth, probably to make room for the massive postcanine

4002:

Australopithecines are generally considered to have had a faster, apelike growth rate than modern humans largely due to dental development trends. Broadly speaking, the emergence of the first permanent molar in early hominins has been variously estimated anywhere from 2.5 to 4.5 years, which all

4151:

cc and weight of 1.9 kg (4.2 lb), gestation 7.6 months, weaning after 30.1 months of age, maturation age 9.7 years, breeding age 11.4 years, birth interval 45 months, and lifespan 43.3 years. These roughly aligned with other australopithecines and chimps. However, for chimps, he got

4305:

had a higher cervical height (the slightly narrowed area where the crown meets the root) in which case these two species had the same rate of tooth-attachment loss. If the former is correct, then the difference may be due to different dietary habits, chewing strategies, more pathogenic mouth

3164:

series) preserved belongs to the juvenile SKW 14002, and either represents the 1st to the 4th lumbar vertebrae, or the 2nd to the 5th. SK 3981 preserves a 12th thoracic vertebra (the last in the series), and a lower lumbar vertebra. The 12th thoracic vertebra is relatively elongated, and the

3316:

are smaller than in humans. The intermediate phalanges are stout and straight like humans, but have stouter bases and better developed flexor impressions. The distal phalanges seem to be essentially humanlike. These could indicate a decreased climbing capacity compared to non-human apes and

4325:. He considered this evidence that another individual had killed TM 1517 by launching the rock as a projectile in either defense or attack, but the most parsimonious explanation is that the rock was deposited during the fossilisation process after TM 1517 had died. In 1961, science writer 4718:

activity. The biostratigraphic dating of Kromdraai B is less clear as there are no animal species which are known to have existed in a narrow time interval, and many non-hominin specimens have not been assigned to a species (left at genus level). About 75% of mammalian remains other than

3879:

dating to 3–2.6 million years ago. These bones are no longer considered to have been tools, and the existence of this culture is not supported. The first probable bone tool was reported by Robinson in 1959 at Sterkfontein Member 5. Excavations led by South African palaeontologist

4090:). Similarly, male gorillas complete dental development about the same time as females, but continue growing for up to 5 or 6 years; and male mandrills complete dental development before females, but continue growing for several years more. It is debated whether or not 4123:

was reached at approximately 11 years because it is about halfway between the averages for chimps (9 years) and humans (13). Based on this, he concluded babies were birthed at intervals of 3 to 4 years using a statistical test to maximise the number of children born.

3367:, seems to have habitually been placed in highly flexed positions based on the wearing patterns, which would be consistent with frequent climbing activity. It is unclear if frequent squatting could be a valid alternative interpretation. The textural complexity of the 3842:

likely did not do this as the canines are comparatively small), though it is also possible that the crest is only so prominent in male gorillas and orangutans because they require larger temporalis muscles to achieve a wider gape to better display the canines.

3569:

teeth are 4–5 times the size of modern human teeth. Because the chewing muscles are arranged the same way, Walker postulated that the heavy build was instead an adaptation to chew a large quantity of food at the same time. He also found that microwearing on 20

2990:

on one side is known, brain volume cannot be accurately measured for this specimen. In 2001, Polish anthropologist Katarzyna Kaszycka said that Broom quite often artificially inflated brain size in early hominins, and the true value was probably much lower.

4575:

reports intervals of 3.21–0.45 million years ago for Member 1 (a very large error range), 1.65–1.07 million years ago for Member 2, and 1.04–0.62 million years ago for Member 3, though more likely the younger side of the estimate; this could mean

3895:

stone tools. Thus, there are 108 bone tool specimens from the region in total, and possibly an additional two from Kromdraai B. The two stone tools (either "Developed Oldowan" or "Early Acheulean") from Kromdraai B could possibly be attributed to

3477:

leg or foot specimens were the same size as those in a 28 kg (62 lb) human, 22% in a 43 kg (95 lb) human, and the remaining 43% bigger than the former but less than a 54 kg (119 lb) human except for KNM‐ER 1464 (an

3961:

were found in the cave, they were unsure which species to attribute the fire to. As an alternative to hominin activity, because the bones were not burnt inside the cave, it is possible that they were naturally burnt in cyclically occurring

4266:; or super-eruption of the tooth which occurs when it becomes worn down and has to erupt a bit more in order to maintain a proper bite, exposing the root in the process. The latter is most likely, and the exposed root seems to have caused 4747:

could potentially mean Member 3 is older than Sterkfontein Member 5 and Swartkrans Member 1; which, if correct, would invalidate the results from palaeomagnetism, and make these specimens among the oldest representatives of the species.

4962:. Brain was unsure if these predators actively sought them out and brought them back to the cave den to eat, or inhabited deeper recesses of caves and ambushed them when they entered. Modern-day baboons in this region often shelter in 3939:

In 1988, Brain and South African archaeologist A. Sillent analysed the 59,488 bone fragments from Swartkrans Member 3, and found that 270 had been burnt, mainly belonging to medium-sized antelope, but also zebra, warthog, baboon, and

1737:) based on a subadult jaw, SK 6, because Swartkrans and Kromdraai clearly dated to different time intervals based on the diverging animal assemblages in these caves. At this point in time, humans and allies were classified into the 4329:

noted two small holes about 2.5 cm (an inch) apart on the child skullcap SK 54, and believed this individual had been killed by being struck twice on the head in an assault; in 1970, Brain reinterpreted this as evidence of a

4190:(all three inhabited the Cradle of Humankind at different points in time). In contrast, chimpanzees have an incidence rate of 47%, and gorillas as much as 90%, probably due to a diet with a much higher content of tough plants. 4106:

specimens from Swartkrans into different ages, and found an average of 17.2 years at death (they did not necessarily die from old age), and the oldest specimen was 30–35 years old. He also reported an average of 22.2 years for

3419:

by using the presumed female humerus of STS 7 and comparing it with the presumed male femur of STS 14. He also had to estimate the length of the humerus using the femur assuming a similar degree of sexual dimorphism between

2858:

thickness on the cheek teeth is relatively on par with that of modern humans, though australopithecine cheek tooth enamel thickens especially at the tips of the cusps, whereas in humans it thickens at the base of the cusps.

565:, with adult females more likely to leave the group than males, but males may have been more likely to be evicted as indicated by higher male mortality rates and assumed increased risk of predation to solitary individuals. 4669:, and several grazing antelope in Member 5 indicates the predominance of open grasslands, but sediment analysis indicates the cave opening was moist during deposition, which could point to a well-watered wooded grassland. 3948:

which commonly grows near the cave. Though some bones had cut marks consistent with butchery, they said it was also possible hominins were making fire to scare away predators or for warmth instead of cooking. Because both

3805:

In 2017, anthropologist Katharine Balolia and colleagues postulated that, because male non-human great apes have a larger sagittal crest than females (particularly gorillas and orangutans), the crest may be influenced by

4085:

Females may have reached skeletal maturity by the time the third molar erupted, but males appear to have continued growing after reaching dental maturity, during which time they become markedly more robust than females

4021:

is depository (so it grows) whereas the sides are resorptive (so they recede). For comparison, chimp jaws are generally depository reflecting prognathism, and modern humans resorptive reflecting a flat face. In

3606:

to lighter built chimpanzees (and presumably gracile australopithecines) which require steady access to high quality foods. In 1980, anthropologists Tom Hatley and John Kappelman suggested that early hominins (

3717:

Given the marked anatomical and physical differences with modern great apes, there may be no modern analogue for australopithecine societies, so comparisons drawn with modern primates are highly speculative.

4771:(G14018), a partial left gracile australopithecine first or second molar (GDA-1), and a robust australopithecine second molar (GDA-2). The first hominin specimen (G14018) was found by German palaeontologist 1868:

In 1949, also in Swartkrans Cave, Broom and Robinson found a mandible which they preliminary described as "intermediate between one of the ape-men and true man," classifying it as a new genus and species

4590:

geochronology has reported much more constrained dates of 2.2–1.8 million years ago for Member 1, and 0.96 million years ago for Member 3. No suitable section of Member 2 could be identified to date.

3920:

and modern humans, which could possibly mean it did not have to regularly bite off mouthfuls of a large food item due to preparation with simple tools. The bone tools were typically sourced from the

3970:

or plant accumulation in the cave may have left it susceptible to such a scenario), and then washed into what would become Member 3. The now-earliest claim of fire usage is 1.7 million years ago at

3344:, is flattened anteroposteriorly (on the front and back side). This may indicate a walking gait more similar to early hominins than to modern humans (less efficient gait). Four femora assigned to 5772: 3561:. Subsequent researchers reinforced this model studying the musculature of the face, dental wearing patterns, and primate ecology. In 1981, English anthropologist Alan Walker, while studying the 3565:

skulls KNM-ER 406 and 729, pointed out that bite force is a measure of not only the total pressure exerted but also the surface area of the tooth over which the pressure is being exerted, and

4930: 4070:

followed a human or non-human ape dental development timeframe, the premolars and molars would have had an accelerated growth rate to achieve their massive size. In contrast, the presence of

3355:(at the hip joint) structure, which could indicate reduced mobility of the hip joint compared to non-human apes, and the ability to produce forces consistent with humanlike bipedalism. The 3741:

is comparable to gorillas (based on facial dimensions), and younger males were less robust than older males (delayed maturity is also exhibited in gorillas). Because the majority of sexed

2252:

are difficult to gauge with accuracy. The jaws are the main argument for monophyly, but jaw anatomy is strongly influenced by diet and environment, and could have evolved independently in

3482:). At Member 3, all individuals were consistent with a 45 kg (99 lb) human. Smaller adults thus seem to have been more common. McHenry also estimated the living height of three 6931:

Macchiarelli R, Bondioli L, Galichon V, Tobias PV (February 1999). "Hip bone trabecular architecture shows uniquely distinctive locomotor behaviour in South African australopithecines".

4685:

fossils discovered in the cave have been recovered from Member 3 (out of 5 members). A total of 31 specimens representing at least 17 individuals have been recovered. The only potential

4111:. Using these, he argued these hominins had a humanlike prolonged childhood. In response, in 1971, biologist Kelton McKinley repeated Mann's process with more specimens, and (including 4779:

and excavator L. Dihasu. GDA-2—measuring 18.8 mm × 18.1 mm (0.74 in × 0.71 in), an area of 340 mm (0.53 sq in)—is exceptionally large for

4640:, though the Sterkfontein hominins are known to have an exceedingly wide range of variation, and it is debated whether or not the materials represent multiple species instead of just 3081:

instead of the anterior branch as in earlier hominins, and considered this a derived characteristic due to increased brain capacity. It has since been demonstrated that, at least for

2920:. The brows of the former also are rounded off rather than squared, and the sagittal crest of the presumed-male DNH 155 is more posteriorly (towards the back of the head) positioned. 1578:, South Africa, by local schoolboy Gert Terblanche. He gave the remains to South African conservationist Charles Sydney Barlow, who then relayed them to South African palaeontologist 1705:

was only definitively identified at Kromdraai and Swartkrans until around the turn of the century when the species was reported elsewhere in the Cradle of Humankind at Sterkfontein,

3681:

likely also commonly cracked hard foods such as seeds or nuts, as it had a moderate tooth-chipping rate (about 12% in a sample of 239 individuals, as opposed to little to none for

4701:

better align with the more ancient StW 53 from Sterkfontein Member 4 with undetermined species designation. KB 6067, therefore, may possibly be basal to (more ancient than) other

4010:. In TM 1517, fusion of the elements of the distal humerus (at the elbow joint) occurred before the fusion of the elements in the distal big toe phalanx, much like in chimps and 4132:. In response, Leutenegger pointed out that apes have highly variable foetal growth rates, and "estimates on gestation periods based on this rate and birth weight are useless." 4985:

as well as other early hominins which lived in open environments did so also, given they are typically associated with an abundance of medium-to-large bovid and horse remains.

9517:

Gibbon, R. J.; Pickering, T.; Sutton, M. B.; Heaton, J. L. (2014). "Comogenic nuclide burial dating of hominin-bearing Pleistocene cave deposits at Swartkrans, South Africa".

4714:

The animal remains of Kromdraai A suggest deposition occurred anywhere between 1.89 and 1.63 million years ago, and the presence of Oldowan or Achulean tools indicates early

3884:

at Swartkrans in the late 1980s and early 1990s recovered 84 similar bone tools, and excavations led by Keyser at Drimolen recovered 23. These tools were all found alongside

2881:

important in biting. The cheeks project so far from the face that, when in top-view, the nose appears to sit at the bottom of a concavity (a dished face). This displaced the

4823:

The animal remains in the hominin-bearing deposit are similar to those of Swartkrans and Kromdraai A, so the Cooper's Cave deposits may date to 1.87–1.56 million years ago.

2771:

In 2023, fragmentary genetic material belonging to this species was reported from 2 million year-old teeth, being the oldest genetic evidence to be retrieved from a human.

5044:

chimpanzee 2.6 million km (1 million sq mi). Therefore, fossil distribution very unlikely represents the true range of the species; consequently,

3464:. McHenry plotted body size vs. the cross sectional area of the femoral head for a sample of just humans and a sample with all great apes including humans, and calculated 2974:

cc, and he, along with South African anthropologist Gerrit Willem Hendrik Schepers, revised this to 575–680 cc in 1946. For comparison, the brain volume of contemporary

7464:(1988). "New estimates of body weight in early hominids and their significance to encephalization and megadontia in robust australopithecines". In Grine, F. E. (ed.). 3709:

coatings, or both. It is also possible juveniles were instead less capable of removing grit from dug-up food rather than purposefully seeking out more abrasive foods.

2916:). The Drimolen material, being more basal, is comparatively more gracile and consequently probably had a smaller bite force than the younger Swartkrans and Kromdraii 9213:"Macromammalian faunas, biochronology and palaeoecology of the early Pleistocene Main Quarry hominin-bearing deposits of the Drimolen Palaeocave System, South Africa" 585:

bones probably accumulated in caves due to big cat predation. It is typically found in what were mixed open and wooded environments, and may have gone extinct in the

4950:

specialised on killing australopithecines, but carbon isotope analysis indicates these species predominantly ate large grazers, while the leopard, the sabertoothed

4839:

skulls: the presumed female DNH-7 (which also preserved articulated jawbone with almost all the teeth), and presumed male DNH 155. It was also associated with the

4152:

strongly inaccurate results when compared to actual data for newborn brain size, weaning age, and birth interval, and for humans all metrics except birth interval.

4376: 4928:

Australopithecine bones may have accumulated in caves due to large carnivores dragging in carcasses, which was first explored in detail by Brain in his 1981 book

4128:

equation between foetal head size and gestation (assuming foetal growth rate of 0.6 for all mammals), biologist John Frazer estimated a gestation of 300 days for

9626:

Menter, C. G.; Kuykendall, K. L.; Keyser, A. W.; Conroy, G. C. (1999). "First record of hominid teeth from the Plio-Pleistocene site of Gondolin, South Africa".

4074:

on the incisors and canines (growth lines which typically are worn away after eruption) could indicate these teeth had a reduced growth rate. The tooth roots of

3557:

extinction for the latter half of the 20th century was that they were unable to adapt to the volatile climate of the Pleistocene, unlike the much more adaptable

9591:

Bragá, J.; Thackeray, J. F.; Dumoncel, J.; et al. (2013). "A new partial temporal bone of a juvenile hominin from the site of Kromdraai B (South Africa)".

4902: 507:

limb anatomy is similar to that of other australopithecines, which may indicate a less efficient walking ability than modern humans, and perhaps some degree of

4321:

encapsulating TM 1517, Schepers noted a large rock, which would have weighed 75 g (2.6 oz), which had driven itself into the braincase through the

3383:

is not dextrous, which indicates a humanlike foot posture and range of motion, but the more distal ankle joint would have inhibited the modern human toe-off

9386: 6517: 5022:

possibly was able to survive by inhabiting a much larger geographical range, more likely to find a suitable refuge area during unfavourable climate swings.

2003:) and speculated it had some cultural and hunting abilities, being a member of the human lineage, which "paranthropines" lacked. With the popularisation of 6733: 3634:

relied on USOs as a fallback or possibly primary food source, and noted that there may be a correlation between high USO abundance and hominin occupation.

2029: 3085:, the parietal branch could originate from either the anterior or posterior branches, sometimes both in a single specimen on opposite sides of the skull. 4847:

skull DNH 134. The Drimolen material preserves several basal characteristics relative to the Swartkrans and Kromdraai remains (meaning it may be older).

4735: 9041: 3248:

used different muscles to generate force and perhaps had a different mechanism to direct force up the spine. This is similar to the condition seen in

8560:

Gowlett, J. A. J.; Wrangham, R. W. (2013). "Earliest fire in Africa: towards the convergence of archaeological evidence and the cooking hypothesis".

7694:

Grabowski, M.; Hatala, K. G.; Jungers, W. L.; Richmond, B. G. (2015). "Body mass estimates of hominin fossils and the evolution of human body size".

4689:

specimen from Member 3 is KB 5223, but its classification is debated. The ear bones of the juvenile KB 6067 from Member 3 is consistent with that of

3177:

than healthy humans. Early hominin vertebrae are similar to those of a pathological human, including the only other 12th thoracic vertebra known for

10737: 4078:

molars may have grown at a faster rate than gracile australopithecines; the root length of SK 62's 1st molar, which was reaching emergence from the

4282: 3582:

were not specialist feeders, the predominant consensus in favour of Robinson's initial model did not change for the remainder of the 20th century.

4711:

suggests Member 3 may date to 1.78–1.6 million years ago, Member 2 to before 1.78 million years ago, and Member 1 to 2.11–1.95 million years ago.

10997: 10765: 6307:; Bruxelles, L.; et al. (2019). "The bony labyrinth of StW 573 ("Little Foot"): Implications for early hominin evolution and paleobiology". 3456:, who guessed from the available skeletal elements a weight of about 40.5 kg (89 lb). Similarly, in 1988, American anthropologist 9109:

Towle, I.; Irish, J. D.; et al. (2019). "Dental caries in human evolution: frequency of carious lesions in South African fossil hominins".

6070:

Martin, J. M.; Leece, A. B.; Neubauer, S.; et al. (2020). "Drimolen cranium DNH 155 documents microevolution in an early hominin species".

2264:

to be ancestral to the other two species, or closely related to the ancestor. Proponents of paraphyly allocate these three species to the genus

3296:) seems to have been quite capable of maintaining stability when the forearm was flexed like non-human apes. It is possible this reflects some 5148: 4997:

was a rather hardy species with a tolerance for environmental variability, it seems to have preferred wooded environments, and similarly most

3746:

hypothesis, a female moving out of her birth group may have spent little time alone and transferred immediately to another established group.

7831:(2005). "The rise of the hominids as an adaptive shift in fallback foods: Plant underground storage organs (USOs) and australopith origins". 2151:

was at the time the oldest known hominin species at roughly 3.5 million years old. Now, the earliest-known South African australopithecine ("

8139:

Copeland, S. R.; Sponheimmer, M.; de Ruiter, D. J.; Lee-Thorp, J. (2011). "Strontium isotope evidence for landscape use by early hominins".

6791:"3D shape analyses of extant primate and fossil hominin vertebrae support the ancestral shape hypothesis for intervertebral disc herniation" 7866:

Hatley, T.; Kappelman, J. (1980). "Bears, pigs, and Plio-Pleistocene hominids: A case for the exploitation of belowground food resources".

2947:(sense of balance). The posterior semicircular canals of modern humans are thought to aid in stabilisation while running, which could mean 3908:(moved into the layer after the inhabitants had died). Bone tools may have been used to cut or process vegetation, process fruits (namely 3441:) to have been 1.2–1.4 m (4–4.5 ft) tall and 18–27 kg (40–60 lb) in weight, and to have also been completely bipedal. 7315:"The SKX 1084 hominin patella from Swartkrans Member 2, South Africa: An integrated analysis of its outer morphology and inner structure" 4804:, which means the tooth must be 1.9–1.5 million years old. Using this and palaeomagnetism, it may date to roughly 1.8 million years ago. 10613: 5937: 4143:

came up with equations relating body size to life history events for primates, which McHenry applied to australopithecines in 1994. For

3622:(USOs), such as roots and tubers. Since then, hominin exploitation of USOs has gained more support. In 2005, biological anthropologists 3268:

falls within the variation of both modern humans and chimps, as the distal humerus is quite similar between humans and chimpanzees. The

1881:", whose remains were already abundantly found in the cave. In 1957, though, Italian biologist Alberto Simonetta moved it to the genus " 8345:"The first bone tools from Kromdraai and stone tools from Drimolen, and the place of bone tools in the South African Earlier Stone Age" 3524:

colleagues, using nine specimens, estimated an average of 32.3 kg (71 lb) for males and 24 kg (53 lb) for females.

3495:

SK 3121—are representative of the entire species, they said that this degree of sexual dimorphism is greater than what is exhibited in

1372: 4831:

Drimolen Cave was first discovered to have yielded hominin remains by Keyser in 1992, who, in eight years, oversaw the recovery of 79

10001: 9961: 7912:

Sponheimer, M.; Passey, B. H.; de Ruiter, D. J.; et al. (2006). "Isotopic Evidence for Dietary Variability in the Early Hominin

6704:(1988). "Enlarged occipital/marginal sinuses and emissary foramina: Their significance in hominid evolution". In Grine, F. E. (ed.). 1242: 11084: 10984: 10853: 10697: 10011: 4820:. Specimens include a crushed partial right face (COB 101), three isolated teeth, a juvenile jawbone, and several skull fragments. 3169:-shaped. The T12 is more compressed in height than that of other australopithecines and modern apes. Modern humans who suffer from 1262: 631: 4894: 4446:

until about 2 million years ago with the beginning of major climatic variability and volatility, and potentially competition with

1594:

bone of the big toe, all of which he assigned to TM 1517. He also identified a distal toe phalanx which he believed belonged to a

4411: 2904:

The well-defined sagittal crest and inflated cheeks are absent in the presumed-female skull DNH-7, so Keyser suggested that male

4871: 11089: 11064: 10755: 10006: 2893:

on the premolars. The ramus of the jawbone, which connects the lower jaw to the upper jaw, is tall, which would have increased

1222: 5013:

contracted towards the equator, subsequently causing the retreat of wetland and woodland environments. Before the transition,

10760: 10638: 10016: 9892: 9873: 9854: 9678: 7473: 6713: 6198: 6015: 4883: 3468:

for each one. Based on the average of these two regressions, he reported an average weight of 47.1 kg (104 lb) for

1947: 8595:

Beaumont, P. B. (2011). "The Edge: More on Fire-Making by about 1.7 Million Years Ago at Wonderwerk Cave in South Africa".

4180:, which forms to repair tooth damage caused by excessive wearing or dental cavities. This is similar to what was found for 3661:

depending on the season, which could indicate either seasonal shifts in diet or seasonal migration from forest to savanna.

3403:

Broom had noted that the ankle bone and humerus of the holotype TM 1517 were about the same dimensions as that of a modern

7044:

Susman, R. L. (1989). "New hominid fossils from the Swartkrans formation (1979–1986 excavations): Postcranial specimens".

4891: 4888: 1690:

from which they and modern humans descended, and consistent with several hominin taxa existing alongside human ancestors.

10717: 5036:(with the smallest range of any African ape) inhabits 70,000 km (27,000 sq mi), the critically endangered 4289:

specimens, three exhibited no pathologies of the alveolar bone. Measuring the distance between the alveolar bone and the

3132:, which relaxed as bipedalism became more developed. In 1988, Falk and Tobias demonstrated that early hominins (at least 1598:, but has since been associated with TM 1517. Broom noted the Kromdraai remains were especially robust compared to other 4895: 3300:

activity (movement in the trees) as is controversially postulated in other australopithecines. SKX 3602 exhibits robust

3140:) could have both an occipital/marginal and transverse/sigmoid systems concurrently or on opposite halves of the skull. 10826: 4620:, coming from the "Oldowan infill" dating to 2–1.7 million years ago in a section of Member 5. Earlier members yielded 4094:

had a defined growth spurt in terms of overall height during adolescence, an event unique to humans among modern apes.

3121: 2924: 11094: 10692: 5168: 4381: 4380:. Overall, the animal assemblage of the region broadly indicates a mixed, open-to-closed landscape featuring perhaps 3550: 4898: 4897: 4896: 4543:

Bed I (2.03–1.75 million years ago) and Lower Bed II (1.75–1.70 million years ago), Member 1 preserved the antelope

4234:, and have the same severity across individuals, the PEH may have been a genetic condition. It is possible that the 4208:

and 14% of adult teeth were affected, in comparison to about 6.7% and 4.3%, respectively, for the combined teeth of

10952: 10884: 4049:, as to be expected from its incredible robustness in adulthood. By the time the first permanent molar erupts, the 3309: 1202: 9921: 5001:

remains date to a wet period in South Africa 2–1.75 million years ago conducive to such biomes. The extinction of

2885:

forward somewhat, causing a weak brow ridge and receding forehead. The inflated cheeks also would have pushed the

10836: 10732: 9409: 6556: 4893: 4886: 4884: 4775:

in 1979, and the other two specimens were recovered in 1997 by, respectively, South African palaeoanthropologist

3701:

exposure on juvenile teeth could indicate early weaning, or a more abrasive diet than adults which wore away the

3128:, and was thus related to the reorganisation of the blood vessels supplying the head as an immediate response to 1412: 9056: 6772: 5601: 4532:

specimens representing over 130 individuals, predominantly isolated teeth, have been recovered from Swartkrans.

10831: 10132: 8982: 7563: 7489: 7461: 5009:, and the doubling of glacial cycle duration. During glacial events, with more ice locked up at the poles, the 4977:

As an antipredator behaviour, baboons often associate themselves with medium-to-large herbivores, most notably

4966:

especially on cold winter nights, though Brain proposed that australopithecines seasonally migrated out of the

4253:

is thought to have had a diet high in gritty foods, and gritty foods should decrease cavity incidence rate, so

3975: 3457: 3312:. Like humans, the finger bones are uncurved and have weaker muscle attachment than non-human apes, though the 3233: 8529:"What's new is old: comments on (more) archaeological evidence of one-million-year-old fire from South Africa" 4900: 4899: 4889: 4885: 4881: 11074: 9954: 4787:

278–378 mm (0.431–0.586 sq in), so the discoverers assigned it to an indeterminate species of

9490:

at Swartkrans, South Africa : a review of the evidence and an evaluation of recently proposed morphs".

4598: 3867:

remains. Australopithecine bone technology was first proposed by Dart in the 1950s with what he termed the "

3737:

where one male has exclusive breeding rights to a group of females. Estimated male-female size disparity in

3045:

In 2020, the nearly complete skull DNH 155 was discovered and was measured to have had a brain volume of 450

10702: 10579: 10465: 9933: 8043: 7777: 6605: 5959: 4890: 4887: 4882: 4285:(the wearing away of the bone which supports the teeth due to gum disease). In contrast, in a sample of 10 4057:

elongated, diverging from the modern human trajectory. Because the ramus was so tall, it is suggested that

3851:

Cave sites in the Cradle of Humankind often have stone and bone tools, with the former attributed to early

3793:

anthropologist Katarzyna Kaszycka rebutted that, among primates, delayed maturity is also exhibited in the

3697:

compared to adults in teeth from Swartkrans Cave, which, in the area, was most likely sourced from tubers.

3375:

thickness and thus usage of the knee joint and bipedality, is midway between modern humans and chimps. The

3252:. This could potentially indicate the lower limbs had a wider range of motion than those of modern humans. 2175: 852: 624: 5966:; Harris, J. M.; Brown, F. H. (1986). "2.5-Myr Australopithecus boisei from west of Lake Turkana, Kenya". 4892: 10896: 10800: 10618: 10139: 9993: 4270:

to anchor the tooth in place. The cavity seems to have been healing, possibly due to a change in diet or

1942:

to have been a hominin. Primarily influenced by the mid-century opinions of Jewish German anthropologist

601: 139: 9180:"An Attempt to Reconstruct the Behaviour of Australopithecines: The Evidence for Interpersonal Violence" 7524:"Stretching the time span of hominin evolution at Kromdraai (Gauteng, South Africa): Recent discoveries" 3553:

diet adapted for frequently cracking hard foods such as nuts. Because of this, the predominant model of

11079: 10658: 10589: 10125: 10118: 10111: 9264:"Bipedality and hair loss in human evolution revisited: The impact of altitude and activity scheduling" 5067: 5006: 3329:

which would have made possible the production or usage of tools requiring greater motor functions than

2601: 2475: 2335: 1991:. He also believed that they both had a massive build. In contrast, he reported a very small build for 1654: 1305: 1039: 1031: 1023: 586: 9140:

Ripamonti, U. (1989). "The Hard Evidence of Alveolar Bone Loss in Early Hominids of Southern Africa".

5249:

The TM 1517 odontoskeletal assemblage from Kromdraai B, South Africa, and the maturational pattern of

4259: 10841: 10633: 7364:

Susman, R. L.; Brain, T. M. (1988). "New first metatarsal (SKX 5017) from Swartkrans and the gait of

6397:

F. Spoor; P. Gunz; S. Neubauer; S. Stelzer; N. Scott; A. Kwekason; M. C. Dean (2015). "Reconstructed

4783:, which has a recorded maximum of 290 mm (0.45 sq in). This falls within the range of 4226:. The condition of these holes covering the entire tooth is consistent with the modern human ailment 4197: 3868: 3197:. These could have bearing on the amount of time spent upright compared to other australopithecines. 2889:(important in biting down) forward and pushed the tooth rows back, which would have created a higher 1143: 474: 10623: 8481:

Brain, C. K.; Sillent, A. (1988). "Evidence from the Swartkrans cave for the earliest use of fire".

377:, about 2.27 to 0.87 (or, more conservatively, 2 to 1) million years ago. It has been identified in 10872: 10175: 9947: 5115: 4800: 3904:

has not been confidently identified in this layer, though it is possible that the stone tools were

2803: 8718:

Dean, M. C. (1985). "The eruption pattern of the permanent incisors and first permanent molars in

7967:

Lee-Thorp, J.; Thackeray, J. F.; der Merwe, N. V. (2000). "The hunters and the hunted revisited".

5856:

Wolpoff, M. H. (1974). "Reviewed Work: Early Hominid Posture and Locomotion by John T. Robinson".

4512:

is also found in these deposits, but species identification in Members 1 and 2 is debated between

3330: 2943:, suggesting different locomotory and head movement patterns, since inner ear anatomy affects the 10810: 10747: 10707: 10594: 10153: 9664: 9556:(2000). "Stratigraphy, artefact industries and hominid associations for Sterkfontein, Member 5". 9175: 5075: 5049: 4572: 4227: 3881: 3815: 3070: 2898: 1113: 617: 11028: 1328: 589:

characterised by the continual prolonging of dry cycles and subsequent retreat of such habitat.

481:

rate similar to non-agricultural modern humans. The species is thought to have exhibited marked

11041: 11002: 10914: 10805: 10780: 10775: 10668: 10584: 10146: 9908: 7604:

Susman, R. L.; de Ruiter, D.; Brain, C. K. (2001). "Recently identified postcranial remains of

6574: 4290: 3305: 3301: 3170: 2831: 1072: 470: 9668: 6188: 4535:

Member 1 and Member 3 have several mammal species in common, making dating by animal remains (

11069: 11036: 11023: 11015: 9443:

Herries, A. I. R.; Curnoe, D.; Adams, J. W. (2009). "A multi-disciplinary seriation of early

9035: 6353: 5160: 5030: 4649: 4054: 3797:

which has a multi-male society, and may not be an accurate indicator of social structure. If

3638: 3376: 3125: 2983: 2281: 1820: 1575: 844: 278: 9770:"A two-million-year-long hydroclimatic context for hominin evolution in southeastern Africa" 3810:

in addition to supporting chewing muscles. Further, the size of the sagittal crest (and the

3729:, with males notably larger than females. This is commonly correlated with a male-dominated 2007:

by the late 1970s to 1980s, and better resolution on how Miocene apes relate to later apes,

10971: 10770: 10673: 10574: 10535: 10480: 10385: 10089: 10082: 9842: 9784: 9526: 9460: 9012:

Towle, I. (2019). "Tertiary Dentine Frequencies in Extant Great Apes and Fossil Hominins".

8940: 8883: 8824: 8490: 8404: 8356: 8243: 7925: 7535: 7419: 7326: 7267: 7155: 7096: 6802: 6667: 6414: 6142: 6079: 5975: 5678: 5658: 5616: 5558: 5512: 5453: 5215: 4050: 3607: 3089: 1777: 1481: 1282: 1129: 998: 983: 324: 5602:"Evidence for increased hominid diversity in the Early to Middle Pleistocene of Indonesia" 5266: 8: 10182: 8395:

d'Errico, F.; Backwell, L. (2009). "Assessing the function of early hominin bone tools".

5123: 5062: 4567:

could mean Members 1–3 were deposited 1.9–1.65 million years ago, though the presence of

4474: 3194: 2245: 1683: 370: 117: 9788: 9530: 9464: 8944: 8887: 8828: 8494: 8408: 8360: 8247: 7929: 7539: 7423: 7330: 7271: 7159: 7100: 6868: 6806: 6671: 6418: 6146: 6083: 5979: 5682: 5620: 5562: 5516: 5219: 4767:

Gondolin Cave has yielded 3 hominin specimens: a right third premolar assigned to early

2970:

Upon describing the species, Broom estimated the fragmentary braincase of TM 1517 as 600

10727: 10569: 10445: 9808: 9401: 9367: 9288: 9263: 9239: 9212: 9122: 9091: 8964: 8909: 8848: 8658: 8612: 8577: 8506: 8374: 8313: 8286: 8267: 8164: 8078: 7949: 7891: 7883: 7676: 7637: 7443: 7290: 7255: 7236: 7171: 7119: 7080: 6877: 6852: 6825: 6790: 6764: 6683: 6548: 6438: 6374: 6357: 6332: 6252: 6219: 6215: 6166: 6111: 5991: 5915: 5865: 5750: 5742: 5704: 5640: 5582: 5397: 5316: 5255:. 9th Meeting of the European Society for the Study of Human Evolution. pp. 19–21. 5048:

possibly went extinct much more recently somewhere other than the Cradle of Humankind (

5010: 4587: 3734: 3654: 3646: 3384: 3313: 3157: 2913: 2056:

In 1959, another and much more robust australopithecine was discovered in East Africa,

1915: 1678:

Caves only 2 km (1.2 mi) west from Kromdraai. All these species dated to the

1667: 1582:. Broom began investigating the site, and, a few weeks later, recovered a right distal 1392: 518: 445:

australopithecines—are characterised by heavily built skulls capable of producing high

423: 366: 306: 134: 9697:; Thackeray, J. F.; van der Merwe, N. (2010). "The hunters and the hunted revisited". 8228: 7198: 6917: 6282:"The Drimolen skull: the most complete australopithecine cranium and mandible to date" 3788:). This discounts the plausibility of a harem society, which would have resulted in a 3780:

Sterkfontein Valley, and found that like other hominins, but unlike other great apes,

1459: 11010: 10891: 10846: 10712: 10653: 10643: 10414: 10378: 10232: 10026: 9888: 9869: 9850: 9800: 9714: 9674: 9643: 9608: 9573: 9405: 9371: 9359: 9293: 9244: 9157: 9126: 9083: 8956: 8901: 8840: 8793: 8739: 8700: 8616: 8581: 8528: 8463: 8458: 8431: 8378: 8318: 8259: 8168: 8156: 8082: 8070: 7984: 7941: 7848: 7803: 7759: 7711: 7655:

Holliday, T. W. (2012). "Body Size, Body Shape, and the Circumscription of the Genus

7629: 7583: 7469: 7435: 7407: 7385: 7295: 7228: 7179: 7124: 7061: 7026: 6987: 6948: 6882: 6830: 6756: 6734:"Comparative morphometric study of the australopithecine vertebral series Stw-H8/H41" 6709: 6633: 6540: 6457: 6430: 6379: 6324: 6281: 6257: 6194: 6170: 6158: 6130: 6115: 6103: 6041: 5919: 5907: 5835: 5696: 5644: 5632: 5574: 5546: 5528: 5473: 5432: 5389: 5292: 5164: 4817: 4271: 4249:, indicating a rate similar to non-agricultural modern humans (1–5%). This is odd as 4140: 4087: 4062:

teeth. Like humans, jaw robustness decreased with age, though it decreased slower in

3835: 3831: 3769: 3726: 3465: 3449: 2944: 2249: 2037: 1943: 1900: 1788: 1560: 482: 362: 358: 336: 9812: 9095: 8662: 8271: 7953: 7895: 7680: 7641: 7447: 7240: 6768: 6687: 6552: 6336: 5754: 3284:

joint had the same maneuverability as that of modern humans rather than the greater

10722: 10475: 10292: 10254: 10101: 9792: 9745: 9706: 9635: 9600: 9565: 9553: 9534: 9499: 9468: 9349: 9341: 9283: 9275: 9234: 9224: 9196: 9191: 9179: 9149: 9114: 9075: 9021: 8994: 8968: 8948: 8913: 8891: 8852: 8832: 8785: 8731: 8692: 8650: 8604: 8569: 8540: 8510: 8498: 8453: 8443: 8412: 8364: 8308: 8298: 8251: 8204: 8148: 8116: 8062: 8019: 7976: 7933: 7875: 7840: 7828: 7793: 7751: 7703: 7668: 7621: 7575: 7543: 7501: 7427: 7377: 7344: 7334: 7285: 7275: 7218: 7163: 7114: 7104: 7053: 7018: 6979: 6940: 6913: 6872: 6864: 6820: 6810: 6748: 6675: 6625: 6586: 6532: 6495: 6442: 6422: 6369: 6316: 6304: 6247: 6239: 6150: 6095: 6087: 6031: 5995: 5983: 5899: 5883: 5825: 5734: 5686: 5624: 5586: 5566: 5549:; Patterson, B. (1951). "Evolutionary Importance of the South African 'Man-apes'". 5520: 5465: 5424: 5401: 5379: 5308: 5223: 5156: 5107: 4625: 4602: 4558: 4439: 4358: 4318: 4230:. Since circular holes in enamel coverage are uniform in size, only present on the 4034: 3834:. This contrasts with other primates which flash the typically enlarged canines in 3807: 3761: 3757: 3627: 3161: 3113: 1853: 1797: 1738: 1710: 1064: 1013: 446: 428: 394: 8633:

Kelley, J.; Schwartz, G. T. (2012). "Life-History Inference in the Early Hominins

8209: 8188: 6789:

Plomp, K. A.; Dobney, K.; Weston, D. A.; Viðarsdóttir, U. S.; Collard, M. (2019).

6486:(1972). "New australopithecine endocast, SK 1585, from Swartkrans, South Africa". 5018:

fossil record 1–0.6 million years ago (though more likely 0.9 million years ago).

4571:

suggests some sections of the deposits could date to after 1.5 million years ago.

10529: 10502: 10400: 10358: 9970: 9694: 9604: 9538: 9472: 9279: 9079: 8573: 8545: 8369: 8344: 7844: 7755: 7707: 7522:

Braga, J.; Thackeray, J. F.; Bruxelles, L.; Dumoncel, J.; Fourvel, J.-P. (2017).

7431: 7223: 7109: 6320: 5903: 5708: 5496: 5037: 5033: 4724: 4536: 4267: 4177: 4165: 4120: 4079: 3971: 3945: 3905: 3777: 3768:

However, in 2011, palaeoanthropologist Sandi Copeland and colleagues studied the

3749: 3589:

dietary literature, anthropologists Bernard Wood and David Strait concluded that

3352: 3241: 3105: 2886: 2878: 2108: 1934: 1097: 866: 822: 546: 5415:

Broom, R. (1950). "The genera and species of the South African fossil ape-men".

4816:

remains in 2000 by South African palaeoanthropologists Christine Steininger and

10349: 10053: 10039: 9978: 9750: 9733: 7548: 7523: 7339: 7314: 6609: 6483: 6154: 6091: 5963: 5722: 5029:

in the fossil record is roughly 500 km (190 sq mi), whereas the

4938:

skullcap SK 54 has two puncture marks consistent with the lower canines of the

4922: 4772: 4708: 4616:

At Sterkfontein, only the specimens StW 566 and StW 569 are firmly assigned to

4524: 4467: 4357:

were also seemingly abundant megafauna. The carnivore assemblage comprises the

4331: 4298: 4136: 4045:

jawbone was somewhat similar to that of modern humans, but the breadth grew in

3811: 3326: 3289: 3109: 2995: 2954: 2870: 2690: 2525: 2359: 2188: 2179: 1812: 1591: 918: 905: 835: 809: 570: 9796: 9153: 8654: 8416: 6815: 5628: 4418:

specimen, Sts 5, dates to about 2.07 million years ago, around the arrival of

4102:

In 1968, American anthropologist Alan Mann, using dental maturity, stratified

3487:

three, he reported an average height of 132 cm (4 ft 4 in) for

1938:

from Asia (extinct apes were primarily known from Asia at the time) believing

1885:", and Robinson (without a specific reason why) decided to synonymise it with 1648:

had made the very first claim (quite controversially at the time) of an early

11058: 10937: 10517: 10370: 10060: 9915: 7403: 6131:"Oldest genetic data from a human relative found in 2-million-year-old teeth" 5725:(1965). "New Discoveries in Tanganyika: Their Bearing on Hominid Evolution". 5083: 4955: 4947: 4761: 4729: 4540: 4430:

would have had symbiotic, neutral, or antagonist relations with contemporary

4326: 4322: 4235: 4014:, but unlike humans, which could also indicate an apelike growth trajectory. 3794: 3619: 3453: 3269: 3117: 2987: 2851: 2642: 2078:(which is considered a human ancestor). This is generally taken to show that 1706: 1686:"). Broom considered them evidence of a greater diversity of hominins in the 1617: 1437: 1105: 526: 458: 390: 68: 9345: 8789: 8735: 8255: 7937: 7579: 7505: 7381: 7280: 7167: 7079:

Domínguez-Rodrigo, M.; Pickering, T. R.; Baquedano, E.; et al. (2013).

7057: 7022: 6983: 6629: 6590: 6499: 5469: 5428: 4238:

concerned with thickening enamel also increased the risk of developing PEH.

4200:(PEH), where tooth enamel formation is spotty instead of mostly uniform. In 3069:), French anthropologist Roger Saban stated that the parietal branch of the 10523: 10511: 10453: 10327: 10275: 10240: 10165: 10072: 9830: 9804: 9718: 9710: 9647: 9639: 9612: 9577: 9569: 9363: 9297: 9248: 9087: 8998: 8704: 8467: 8448: 8322: 8263: 8160: 8121: 8100: 8074: 8024: 8003: 7988: 7980: 7945: 7852: 7798: 7781: 7763: 7715: 7633: 7625: 7299: 7232: 7128: 6991: 6952: 6944: 6886: 6834: 6752: 6544: 6536: 6434: 6383: 6328: 6261: 6243: 6162: 6107: 6045: 5911: 5839: 5768: 5700: 5636: 5578: 5524: 5500: 5477: 5436: 5393: 5199: 5091: 4776: 4563: 4554: 4482: 4354: 3909: 3706: 3356: 2999: 2855: 2843: 2241: 2237: 2183: 2112: 2103: 2083: 2042: 1979: 1847: 1833: 1675: 1645: 1612: 1602:. In August 1938, Broom classified the robust Kromdraai remains into a new 1579: 1513: 1087: 1054: 968: 892: 879: 541:

may have used bones as tools to extract and process food. It is unclear if

414: 406: 386: 374: 320: 297: 254: 9503: 9320:

Herries, A. I. R.; Martin, J. M.; et al. (2020). "Contemporaneity of

9161: 9057:"A probable genetic origin for pitting enamel hypoplasia on the molars of 8960: 8905: 8844: 8797: 8743: 7807: 7587: 7439: 7389: 7183: 7065: 7030: 6760: 6637: 4857: 10963: 10946: 10407: 10334: 10306: 10299: 10247: 9927: 9769: 9354: 8985:(1994). "Behavioral ecological implications of early hominid body size". 7256:"Evidence for habitual climbing in a Pleistocene hominin in South Africa" 6099: 5532: 5247: 5099: 4698: 4545: 4369: 4263: 4246: 4231: 4030:. Unlike other apes and gracile australopithecines, but like humans, the 3876: 3721:

In 2007, anthropologist Charles Lockwood and colleagues pointed out that

3693:

may have relied more on tubers than adults, given the elevated levels of

3221: 3182: 2866: 2835: 2152: 2075: 1895: 1753: 1679: 1659: 1416: 1159: 783: 508: 478: 454: 43: 30: 9211:

Adams, J. W.; Rovinsky, D. S.; Herries, A. I. R.; Menter, C. G. (2016).

8227:

Lockwood, C. A.; Menter, C. G.; Moggi-Cecchi, J.; Keyser, A. W. (2007).

8152: 6426: 5869: 4917: 4756: 2901:

muscles (both important in biting down), further increasing bite force.

10989: 10392: 10313: 9229: 8696: 8066: 7887: 7879: 7824: 7175: 6036: 5830: 5809: 5746: 5320: 5041: 4666: 4550: 4518: 4350: 4205: 4031: 3888: 3789: 3785: 3730: 3623: 3500: 3479: 3460:

reported much lighter weights as well as notable sexual dimorphism for

3404: 3349: 3225: 3174: 3092:, in 1983, Falk and anthropologist Glenn Conroy suggested that, unlike 3011: 2890: 2882: 2869:(the jaw jutted out somewhat). The skulls of males have a well-defined 2067: 1698: 562: 450: 382: 201: 88: 53: 8303: 7349: 10459: 10364: 9670:

The Hunters Or the Hunted?: An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy

8952: 8896: 8867: 8836: 8502: 8138: 6701: 6679: 6651: 6513: 5987: 5691: 5662: 5570: 5384: 5367: 5228: 5203: 4931:

The Hunters or the Hunted?: An Introduction to African Cave Taphonomy

4362: 4343: 4214: 4186: 4004: 3925: 3921: 3885: 3694: 3504: 3372: 3023: 2928: 2894: 2707: 2542: 2383: 2224:(otherwise known as "robust australopithecines", in contrast to the " 2058: 2048: 2012: 2004: 1862: 1745: 1741: 1636: 1625: 1497: 1174: 442: 378: 231: 221: 151: 93: 37: 10908: 7566:(1991). "Femoral lengths and stature in Plio-Pleistocene hominids". 6904:

of the Plio-Pleistocene site of Drimolen Republic of South Africa".

6900:

Gommery, D.; Senut, B.; Keyser, A. (2002). "A fragmentary pelvis of

6396: 5312: 3415:

as having been massive. He calculated the humerus-to-femur ratio of

2244:). Because skeletal elements are so limited in these species, their 1570:

The first remains, a partial skull including a part of the jawbone (

10931: 10320: 10285: 10262: 9983: 9734:"Possible predator avoidance behaviour of hominins in South Africa" 9118: 8608: 7672: 7078: 5738: 4971: 4967: 4963: 4071: 3963: 3929: 3702: 3598: 3575: 3574:

molar specimens were indistinguishable from patterning recorded in

3297: 3149: 3026:

and colleagues filled in frontal bone anatomy of SK 1585 using the

2847: 2016: 1903:

questioned whether this classification is completely sound or not.

1865:), and so on, and in 2019 it was again argued to be a valid genus. 1749: 1714: 1687: 1348: 796: 770: 462: 398: 241: 171: 83: 78: 63: 58: 48: 9939: 9885:

Kromdraai: A Birthplace of Paranthropus in the Cradle of Humankind

9026: 6930: 4119:

may have had a prolonged childhood. McKinley also speculated that

4115:) reported an average of 18 years. McKinley agreed with Mann that 4041:(on the palate) formed early in development. At early stages, the 3473:

to give accurate estimates). At Members 1 and 2, about 35% of the

3120:. They suggested the setup would have increased blood flow to the 10470: 10046: 5112: – Extinct hominin from the Early Pleistocene of East Africa 5080: – Two-million-year-old hominin from the Cradle of Humankind 4939: 4861: 4694: 4662: 4629: 4606: 4568: 4038: 3892: 3826:

species, with the crest and resultantly larger head (at least in

3508: 3368: 3285: 3261: 3200: 2839: 2225: 1970: 1823:

criteria for hominin taxa, in 1954, Robinson suggested demoting "

1599: 1583: 1571: 1556: 953: 945: 931: 755: 574: 550: 534: 402: 354: 191: 98: 73: 10976: 8226: 7734:

Wood, B.; Strait, D. (2004). "Patterns of resource use in early

7313:

Cazenave, M.; Oettlê, A.; Thackerey, J. F.; et al. (2019).

7197:

Ryan, T. M.; Carlson, K. J.; Gordon, A. D.; et al. (2018).

5355:. Paleoantropologia. Vol. III. Museo Arqueológico Regional. 4942:

specimen SK 349 from the same deposits. Brain hypothesised that

4342:

The Pleistocene Cradle of Humankind was mainly dominated by the

3034:, and KNM-ER 732, and recalculated the brain volume to about 476 2280:. In 2020, palaeoanthropologist Jesse M. Martin and colleagues' 1845:

has since been variously reclassified as a synonym of the Asian

1791:

and Bruce D. Patterson were the first to recommend synonymising

9693: 8811:

Leutenegger, W. (1972). "Newborn Size and Pelvic Dimensions of

7521: 7146:

From Member 1, Swartkrans: Fossil Evidence for Tool Behavior".

4978: 4027: 4011: 3698: 3237: 3209: 3166: 1752:"; in 1950, Broom suggested separating early hominins into the 1717:

Caves. The species has not been found outside this small area.

1595: 554: 211: 181: 161: 8927:

Leutenegger, W. (1973). "Gestation Period and Birth Weight of

7693: 6358:"Observations on the anatomy of the fossil Australopithecinae" 6220:"Three-dimensional molar enamel distribution and thickness in 4880: 3994: 3912:), strip tree bark, or dig up tubers or termites. The form of 3006:

cc. He also noted that, compared to other australopithecines,

1918:

is the primary opponent of synonymisation of the two species.

10545: 10436: 10426: 6788: 5503:(1979). "A Systematic Assessment of Early African Hominids". 4851:

2.04–1.95 million years ago, making it the oldest identified

4705:

specimens, at least those for which ear morphology is known.

4654: 4007: 3967: 3733:

society, such as the harem society of modern forest-dwelling

3686: 3496: 3448:

size was soon challenged in 1974 by American palaeontologist

3424:

and humans. Comparing the ratio to humans, he concluded that

3348:—SK 19, SK 82, SK 97, and SK 3121—exhibit an apparently high 3293: 3281: 3129: 2932: 2874: 2813: 1682:

and were found in the same general vicinity (now called the "

1631: 1620: 1603: 578: 530: 410: 126: 9625: 8772:

McKinley, K. R. (1971). "Survivorship in gracile and robust

8001: 7492:(1991). "Petite bodies of the "robust" australopithecines". 6654:; Conroy, G. C. (1983). "The cranial venous sinus system in 6579:

Bulletins et Mémoires de la Société d'Anthropologie de Paris

6518:"Early hominid brain evolution: a new look at old endocasts" 5456:(1954). "The genera and species of the australopithecinae". 5246:

Cazenave, M.; Zanolli, C.; Clément, D.; et al. (2019).

3928:

from medium- to large-sized mammals, but tools sourced from

3578:, chimps, and orangutans. Despite subsequent arguments that 3545:

In 1954, Robinson suggested that the heavily built skull of

3165:

articular surface (where it joins with another vertebra) is

2998:

measured the skullcap SK 1585, which is missing part of the

10204: 9768:

Caley, T.; Extier, T.; Collins, J. A.; et al. (2018).

9516: 8432:"Evidence of termite foraging by Swartkrans early hominids" 8002:

Constantino, P. J.; Borrero-Lopez, O.; Lawn, B. R. (2018).

7966: 6213: 4658: 4176:

seems to have had a low incidence rate of about 12–16% for

3822:

extended their interpretation of the crest to the males of

3611: 3031: 2625: 2236:. It is still debated if this is a valid natural grouping ( 2033: 1803: 1587: 495: 9210: 6401:

type OH 7 suggests deep-rooted species diversity in early

5600:

Zanolli, C.; Kullmer, O.; Kelley, J.; et al. (2019).

4539:) yield overlapping time intervals. Like the East African 3618:) adapted to eating abrasive and calorie-rich underground 3549:

and resultantly exorbitant bite force was indicative of a

3232:

features development of the surface and thickening of the

1801:

in 1951, wanting to limit hominin genera to only that and

1551: 525:. In addition, it may have also eaten fruits, underground 9835:

The South African Fossil Ape-Men - The Australopithecinae

7911: 5773:"The dentition of the Transvaal Pleistocene anthropoids, 3933: 3615: 3491:

males and 110 cm (3 ft 7 in) for females.

2155:") dates to 3.67 million years ago, contemporaneous with 1729:

In 1948, at the nearby Swartkrans Cave, Broom described "

1649: 1586:(the lower part of the upper arm bone), a proximal right 1530: 8776:: A demographic comparison and a proposed birth model". 8343:

Stammers, R. C.; Caruana, M.; Herries, A. I. R. (2018).

7782:"Diet and teeth. Dietary hypotheses and human evolution" 5147:

Wood, Bernard; Doherty, Dandy; Boyle, Eve (2020-05-29).

4727:, possibly the earliest record of the Hamadryas baboon, 4160: 3784:

females were more likely to leave their place of birth (

3537: 2228:

australopithecines") now also includes the East African

401:

Caves. Discovered in 1938, it was among the first early

9866:

Evolutionary History of the "Robust" Australopithecines

8042:

Towle, I.; Riga, A.; Irish, J. D.; et al. (2019).

7466:

Evolutionary History of the "Robust" Australopithecines

7312: 6706:

Evolutionary History of the "Robust" Australopithecines

5958: 3891:, except for those from Swartkrans Member 1 which bore 3818:

has been correlated with reproductive success. Balolia

3665:

appears to have consumed about the same proportion of C

3173:

often have vertebrae that are more similar to those of

2794: 2182:

found that the 2.5-million-year-old East African skull

2070:

was demonstrated to have been contemporaneous with the

1932:

was closely related to the similarly large-toothed ape

9590: 8342: 6516:; Redmond, Jr., J. C.; Guyer, J.; et al. (2000). 6458:"A new graphic reconstruction of the type specimen of 6302: 5245: 5088: – Extinct species or subspecies of archaic human 4921:

SK 54 skullcap with two holes probably inflicted by a

4245:

individuals have been identified as having had dental

3395:

may have achieved about the same grade of bipedality.

3022:

skulls in 1967. In 2000, American neuroanthropologist

2240:) or an invalid grouping of similar-looking hominins ( 1958:

or closely related, much debate followed over whether

6603: 6575:"Les veines méningées moyennes des Australopithèques" 6512: 5886:; Kuman, K. (2019). "The skull of StW 573, a 3.67 Ma 5814:: a giant ape from the Pleistocene of Asia revisited" 4974:, only taking up cave shelters in spring and autumn. 4283:

alveolar bone loss resulting from periodontal disease

493:

cc (for comparison, the brain volume of contemporary

465:). Males had more heavily built skulls than females. 8429: 8394: 8287:"Sagittal crest formation in great apes and gibbons" 7603: 7253: 7009:

from member 1, Swartkrans Formation, South Africa".

5803: 5801: 5599: 3974:, South Africa, made by South African archaeologist 1954:

was, respectively, the direct ancestor of the Asian

1899:

today). In 1965, South African palaeoanthropologist

9667:(1983). "Who Were the Hunters and Who the Hunted". 9261: 7081:"First Partial Skeleton of a 1.34-Million-Year-Old 6069: 5938:"Hominin Taxonomy and Phylogeny: What's In A Name?" 5040:700,000 km (270,000 sq mi), and the 4406:. In addition, these two species resided alongside 1873:". Most immediate reactions favoured synonymising " 596: 10449:(archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans) 9767: 9442: 8229:"Extended male growth in a fossil hominin species" 6899: 5301:The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 5096: – Archaic human species from 2.8 to 1.65 mya 4681:has been unearthed at Kromdraai B, and almost all 4281:specimens, all of them exhibited mild to moderate 3593:were most definitely generalist feeders, and that 1910:" had more or less fallen out of use in favour of 8284: 7907: 7905: 7786:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B 7196: 6214:Olejniczak, A. J.; Smith, T. M.; Skinner, M. M.; 5890:skeleton from Sterkfontein Caves, South Africa". 5798: 5545: 5340: 5338: 5336: 5334: 5332: 5330: 5204:"The Pleistocene Anthropoid Apes of South Africa" 5128: – Extinct species of hominin of East Africa 5120: – Extinct species of hominin of East Africa 4410:which is known from about 2 million years ago at 3204:Illustration of the pelvis of DNH 43 (front view) 1644:At this point in time, Australian anthropologist 11056: 7254:Georgiou, L.; Dunmore, C. J.; Bardo, A. (2020). 5146: 3228:and hip joint. Like modern humans, the ilium of 1652:-like human ancestor in 1924 from South Africa, 8559: 8436:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 8338: 8336: 8334: 8332: 8222: 8220: 8182: 8180: 8178: 8134: 8132: 8094: 8092: 7865: 7410:(1974). "Size and Scaling in Human Evolution". 7260:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 7005:Grine, F. E.; Susman, R. L. (1991). "Radius of 6182: 6180: 6013: 5344: 3802:male-skewed mortality with the same mechanism. 3515:were about the same estimated weight as female 3407:woman, and so assumed humanlike proportions in 2908:may have been more heavily built than females ( 1807:, and it has since been debated whether or not 9882: 9438: 9436: 9434: 9432: 9430: 9428: 9426: 9424: 9422: 9315: 9313: 9311: 9309: 9307: 9040:: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of August 2024 ( 8679:Cofran, Z. (2014). "Mandibular development in 8632: 8041: 7902: 6727: 6725: 5931: 5929: 5851: 5849: 5448: 5446: 5327: 5241: 5239: 4636:. The specimen is still generally assigned to 4388:likely preferred cooler conditions than later 4310:, or some immunological difference which made 2308:species with each other is quite contentious. 9955: 9829: 9763: 9761: 9659: 9657: 9319: 8674: 8672: 8628: 8626: 8390: 8388: 8285:Balolia, K. L.; Soligo, C.; Wood, B. (2017). 7823: 7599: 7597: 6352: 6275: 6273: 6271: 6186: 6065: 6063: 6061: 6059: 6057: 6055: 5807: 5495: 4835:specimens. Among these are the most complete 4632:from the earlier Member 4 was an ancestor to 2119:was instead the last common ancestor between 625: 477:on the teeth, and seems to have had a dental 432:, so the species is also often classified as 9262:Dávid-Barrett, T.; Dunbar, R. I. M. (2016). 8588: 8522: 8520: 8480: 8423: 8329: 8217: 8175: 8129: 8089: 8037: 8035: 7819: 7817: 7556: 7517: 7515: 7482: 7402: 6853:"Human evolution: taxonomy and paleobiology" 6850: 6348: 6346: 6177: 5153:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Anthropology 4958:were more likely to have regularly consumed 4739:in South Africa. The absence of the baboons 4398:also cohabited the Cradle of Humankind with 4017:While growing, the front part of the jaw in 3916:incisors appears to be intermediate between 3601:. They found that the microwear patterns in 2873:on the midline of the skullcap and inflated 1720: 581:on the mixed, open-to-closed landscape, and 517:seems to have consumed a high proportion of 10434: 9551: 9419: 9387:"Paleoecology of Early Hominidae in Africa" 9304: 8926: 8810: 7729: 7727: 7725: 7363: 7004: 6966:Straus, Jr., W. L. (1948). "The humerus of 6965: 6846: 6844: 6722: 5926: 5882: 5846: 5491: 5489: 5487: 5443: 5236: 5194: 5192: 5190: 5188: 5186: 5104: – South African archaic human species 3756:could have lived in multi-male groups like 418:. However, it has been argued by some that 9962: 9948: 9758: 9731: 9654: 9108: 9054: 8761:(PhD). University of California, Berkeley. 8669: 8623: 8385: 7733: 7594: 7135: 6650: 6268: 6052: 5952: 4812:Cooper's Cave was first reported to yield 4528:, or multiple species. In total, over 300 4457: 4314:somewhat more susceptible to gum disease. 4026:, this may have functioned to thicken the 3018:, echoing what Tobias said while studying 2994:In 1972, American physical anthropologist 2935:and SK 47 are unlike those of the apelike 2897:(and thereby, torque) of the masseter and 632: 618: 116: 16:Extinct species of hominin of South Africa 9749: 9451:bearing palaeocaves in southern Africa". 9353: 9287: 9255: 9238: 9228: 9195: 9139: 9025: 8895: 8778:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 8724:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 8685:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 8562:Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa 8544: 8526: 8517: 8474: 8457: 8447: 8368: 8312: 8302: 8208: 8120: 8055:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 8032: 8023: 7814: 7797: 7568:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 7547: 7512: 7494:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 7370:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 7348: 7338: 7289: 7279: 7222: 7118: 7108: 7046:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 7011:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 6972:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 6876: 6824: 6814: 6618:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 6616:calvaria from East Lake Turkana, Kenya". 6488:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 6390: 6373: 6343: 6251: 6193:. John Wiley and Sons. pp. 152–157. 6035: 6024:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 6014:Wood, Bernard; Constantino, Paul (2007). 5829: 5818:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 5690: 5458:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 5417:American Journal of Physical Anthropology 5383: 5352:Miscelanea en Homenaje a Emiliano Aguirre 5345:Constantino, P. J.; Wood, B. A. (2004). " 5299:After Seventy Years: Was It a Hominid?". 5285: 5227: 5072: – Extinct hominid from South Africa 4438:. It is possible that South Africa was a 3236:, which are important in stabilising the 3038:cc. They stated overall brain anatomy of 2986:commented that, since only a part of the 2094:species, which at the time only included 2036:(reconstructed skull above) was made the 10854:Human evolutionary developmental biology 9841: 8771: 8720:Australopithecus (Paranthropus) robustus 8594: 8186: 8098: 7722: 7654: 6841: 6482: 6455: 6128: 6009: 6007: 6005: 5657: 5484: 5452: 5183: 4916: 4755: 4597: 4297:possibly suffered from a higher rate of 4196:seems to have had notably high rates of 4159: 3993: 3748: 3536: 3199: 3073:originated from the posterior branch in 2982:cc. A year later, British primatologist 2953: 2028: 1550: 529:(such as roots and tubers), and perhaps 441:Robust australopithecines—as opposed to 8981: 8759:The Paleodemography of Australopithecus 7960: 7562: 7488: 7460: 6731: 6462:from Kromdraai, South Africa - TM 1517" 6020:: Fifty years of evidence and analysis" 5935: 5855: 4164:The left upper 1st molar of SK 57 with 4147:, he reported newborn brain size of 175 3966:(dry savanna grass as well as possible 3859:, as bone tools are most abundant when 3519:in Swartkrans, but they estimated male 1590:(upper part of a lower arm bone) and a 1574:), were discovered in June 1938 at the 11057: 8865: 8678: 8430:Backwell, L. R.; d'Errico, F. (2001). 7776: 7141: 7043: 6279: 5721: 5291: 5161:10.1093/acrefore/9780190854584.013.194 4508:has been identified from Members 1–3. 3112:) sinuses, completely supplanting the 3042:was more like that of non-human apes. 2877:bones, which likely supported massive 2186:—which they assigned to a new species 1965:In 1972, Robinson suggested including 1780:continued arguing for the validity of 1526: 10913: 10912: 10639:Evolutionary models of human drug use 9943: 9863: 9663: 9485: 9204: 9174: 9011: 7612:from Swartkrans Cave, South Africa". 7085:from Bed II, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania" 6572: 6002: 5767: 5414: 5365: 5198: 4426:. It has been debated whether or not 4274:, or the loss of the adjacent molar. 4053:and the front jaw broadened, and the 3685:). A high cavity rate could indicate 2812:Female DNH 7 (left) and cast of male 2135:lineage or at least was ancestral to 2015:, and is now placed in the subfamily 1697:, was later discovered at the nearby 610: 10879: 9883:Bragá, J.; Thackeray, J. F. (2017). 9847:Early Hominid Posture and Locomotion 9384: 8756: 8717: 8643:International Journal of Primatology 6700: 5368:"Another new type of fossil ape-man" 4262:, which is commonly associated with 3325:hand is consistent with a humanlike 3304:near the hand which indicate strong 3288:achieved by non-human apes, but the 3002:, and reported a volume of about 530 2763:Three examples of family trees with 1469: 1447: 1425: 1401: 1381: 1361: 1337: 1317: 1294: 1271: 1251: 1231: 1211: 1191: 599: 9969: 8193:societies - one-male or multimale?" 6869:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2000.19710019.x 5025:However, the geographical range of 4723:are monkeys, including leaf-eating 3712: 2260:. Proponents of monophyly consider 1693:The Kromdraii taxon, classified as 1541: 13: 9823: 6187:Cartmill, M.; Smith, F.H. (2009). 4798:GDA-2 was found alongside the pig 3122:internal vertebral venous plexuses 2107:from East Africa, anthropologists 1962:was a hominin or a non-human ape. 1921: 14: 11106: 9902: 8397:Journal of Archaeological Science 7199:"Human-like hip joint loading in 4382:montane grasslands and shrublands 3452:and English palaeoanthropologist 3359:StW 311, which either belongs to 3156:. The only thoracolumbar series ( 3057:In 1983, while studying SK 1585 ( 2215: 2208:lineage as beginning long before 2101:In 1979, a year after describing 1946:and German-Dutch palaeontologist 1928:In 1939, Broom hypothesised that 1831:", and also moved the Indonesian 10890: 10878: 10867: 10866: 9738:South African Journal of Science 9725: 9687: 9619: 9584: 9545: 9492:South African Journal of Science 9055:Towle, I.; Irish, J. D. (2019). 8533:South African Journal of Science 8197:South African Journal of Science 6466:South African Journal of Science 6286:South African Journal of Science 5808:Zhang, Y.; Harrison, T. (2017). 4624:. In 1988, palaeoanthropologist 4514:H. ergaster/H. erectus 4481: 4466: 4337: 4172:Based on a sample of 402 teeth, 3978:in 2011, which he attributed to 3663:H. ergaster/H. erectus 3527: 3521:H. ergaster/H. erectus 3517:H. ergaster/H. erectus 3052: 2802: 2793: 2072:H. ergaster/H. erectus 1914:. American palaeoanthropologist 1662:. In 1936, Broom had described " 138: 41: 11085:Pleistocene species extinctions 9849:. University of Chicago Press. 9673:. University of Chicago Press. 9510: 9479: 9394:Kroeber Anthropological Society 9378: 9168: 9133: 9102: 9048: 9005: 8975: 8920: 8859: 8804: 8765: 8750: 8711: 8553: 8278: 8004:"Mechanisms of Tooth Damage in 7995: 7859: 7770: 7687: 7648: 7468:. Routledge. pp. 133–148. 7454: 7396: 7357: 7306: 7247: 7190: 7142:Susman, R. L. (1988). "Hand of 7072: 7037: 6998: 6959: 6924: 6893: 6782: 6708:. Routledge. pp. 133–148. 6694: 6644: 6597: 6566: 6506: 6476: 6449: 6296: 6207: 6122: 5876: 5761: 5715: 5651: 5593: 5539: 4384:. Australopithecines and early 4097: 4037:between the premaxilla and the 3725:appears to have had pronounced 2304:). The exact classification of 2248:with each other and with other 2174:, but in 1985, anthropologists 2159:. The matter is still debated. 2131:was the earliest member of the 9197:10.1080/00445096.1972.11447451 8105:from Swartkrans, South Africa" 5788:Annals of the Transvaal Museum 5408: 5359: 5259: 5140: 4492:is known from 1, 7, and 11–14) 3989: 3830:) being used for some kind of 3411:. In 1972, Robinson estimated 3234:posterior superior iliac spine 3212:is similar to the pelvises of 3010:seems to have had an expanded 2143:inhabited South Africa before 1969:in "Paranthropinae", with the 1819:. In the spirit of tightening 1190: 1: 11090:Fossil taxa described in 1938 11065:Pleistocene mammals of Africa 9833:; Schepers, G. W. H. (1946). 7211:Journal of Human Anthropology 6918:10.1016/S0016-6995(02)00022-0 6129:Callaway, Ewen (2023-07-10). 5133: 4988: 4647:The appearance of the baboon 3846: 2951:was not an endurance runner. 2925:posterior semicircular canals 2767:(note, they are not absolute) 1664:Plesianthropus transvaalensis 553:or a multi-male society like 9934:Human Timeline (Interactive) 9605:10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.07.013 9539:10.1016/j.quageo.2014.07.004 9486:Grine, F. E. (2005). "Early 9473:10.1016/j.quaint.2008.05.017 9280:10.1016/j.jhevol.2016.02.006 9080:10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.01.002 8574:10.1080/0067270X.2012.756754 8370:10.1016/j.quaint.2018.04.026 7845:10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.05.007 7756:10.1016/j.jhevol.2003.11.004 7708:10.1016/j.jhevol.2015.05.005 7432:10.1126/science.186.4167.892 7224:10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.03.008 7110:10.1371/journal.pone.0080347 6851:Wood B, Richmond BG (2000). 6321:10.1016/j.jhevol.2018.12.002 6072:Nature Ecology and Evolution 5904:10.1016/j.jhevol.2019.06.005 5609:Nature Ecology and Evolution 5273:. Merriam–Webster Dictionary 4912: 4693:, but the dimensions of the 4155: 4135:In 1985, British biologists 3855:and the latter generally to 3585:In 2004, in their review of 2865:has a tall face with slight 2162:It was long assumed that if 2090:, both developing from some 2022: 1772:"), and "Archanthropinae" (" 1637: 1626: 1546: 489:cc, and of DNH 155 about 450 7: 10897:Evolutionary biology Portal 8210:10.17159/sajs.2016/20150165 8012:Biosurface and Biotribology 5888:Australopithecus prometheus 5055: 2958:Reconstruction of a female 1630:, beside or alongside; and 1527: 749: 592: 422:is an invalid grouping and 10: 11111: 9699:Journal of Human Evolution 9628:Journal of Human Evolution 9593:Journal of Human Evolution 9558:Journal of Human Evolution 9268:Journal of Human Evolution 9068:Journal of Human Evolution 8987:Journal of Human Evolution 8546:10.4102/sajs.v108i5/6.1250 8048:third molar from Drimolen" 7969:Journal of Human Evolution 7833:Journal of Human Evolution 7744:Journal of Human Evolution 7696:Journal of Human Evolution 7614:Journal of Human Evolution 7549:10.1016/j.crpv.2016.03.003 7340:10.1016/j.crpv.2018.06.002 7201:Australopithecus africanus 6933:Journal of Human Evolution 6741:Journal of Human Evolution 6656:Australopithecus afarensis 6525:Journal of Human Evolution 6309:Journal of Human Evolution 6155:10.1038/d41586-023-02242-z 6092:10.1038/s41559-020-01319-6 5942:Nature Education Knowledge 5892:Journal of Human Evolution 5069:Australopithecus africanus 5007:Mid-Pleistocene Transition 4981:, and it is possible that 3871:", which he attributed to 3065:, which he referred to as 2774: 2284:reported the monophyly of 2011:was entirely removed from 1995:(which he referred to as " 1827:" to subspecies level as " 1655:Australopithecus africanus 1632: 1621: 587:Mid-Pleistocene Transition 405:described, and became the 125:Cast of the presumed-male 10921: 10862: 10842:Evolutionary anthropology 10819: 10793: 10746: 10684: 10603: 10562: 10555: 10501: 10425: 10348: 10273: 10227: 10220: 10203: 10163: 10099: 10070: 10034: 10025: 9992: 9977: 9911:Australopithecus robustus 9797:10.1038/s41586-018-0309-6 9154:10.1902/jop.1989.60.2.118 9142:Journal of Periodontology 8866:Frazer, J. F. D. (1973). 8681:Australopithecus robustus 8655:10.1007/s10764-012-9607-2 8527:Pickering, T. R. (2012). 8417:10.1016/j.jas.2009.04.005 8191:Australopithecus robustus 8101:"Dietary proclivities of 6816:10.1186/s12862-019-1550-9 6460:Australopithecus robustus 5629:10.1038/s41559-019-0860-z 5149:"Hominin Taxic Diversity" 4546:Parmularius angusticornis 4198:pitting enamel hypoplasia 3869:osteodontokeratic culture 3444:Robinson's estimation of 3371:SKX 1084, which reflects 3276:is comparable in form to 3108:and marginal (around the 2704: 2687: 2680: 2663: 2656: 2639: 2622: 2615: 2598: 2591: 2539: 2522: 2515: 2489: 2472: 2465: 2458: 2397: 2380: 2373: 2356: 2349: 2332: 2325: 2204:), thus establishing the 511:(movement in the trees). 475:pitting enamel hypoplasia 435:Australopithecus robustus 332:Australopithecus robustus 312: 305: 284: 277: 135:Scientific classification 133: 124: 115: 23: 11095:Prehistoric South Africa 9930:'s Human Origins Program 9751:10.17159/sajs.2018/a0274 9519:Quaternary Geochronology 9453:Quaternary International 8349:Quaternary International 8187:Kaszycka, K. A. (2016). 8099:Williams, F. L. (2015). 6795:BMC Evolutionary Biology 5117:Paranthropus aethiopicus 4801:Metridiochoerus andrewsi 4609:(above) is ancestral to 3816:western lowland gorillas 3302:radial styloid processes 3255: 3143: 2965: 2784: 2292:had branched off before 642: 10748:Origin of modern humans 9837:. The Transvaal Museum. 9732:Badenhorst, S. (2019). 9346:10.1126/science.aaw7293 8790:10.1002/ajpa.1330340311 8736:10.1002/ajpa.1330670310 8256:10.1126/science.1149211 8008:Dietary Reconstruction" 7938:10.1126/science.1133827 7580:10.1002/ajpa.1330850204 7506:10.1002/ajpa.1330860402 7382:10.1002/ajpa.1330770103 7281:10.1073/pnas.1914481117 7168:10.1126/science.3129783 7058:10.1002/ajpa.1330790403 7023:10.1002/ajpa.1330840302 6984:10.1002/ajpa.1330060305 6732:Sanders, W. J. (1998). 6630:10.1002/ajpa.1330910202 6614:Australopithecus boisei 6591:10.3406/bmsap.1983.3905 6500:10.1002/ajpa.1330370203 5936:McNulty, K. P. (2016). 5470:10.1002/ajpa.1330120216 5429:10.1002/ajpa.1330080109 5077:Australopithecus sediba 4458:Fossil-bearing deposits 4408:Australopithecus sediba 4228:amelogenesis imperfecta 3882:Charles Kimberlin Brain 3639:carbon isotope analysis 3532: 3429:contrast, he estimated 3398: 3331:non-human primate tools 3306:brachioradialis muscles 3071:middle meningeal artery 2779: 1839:P. palaeojavanicus 1514:P a r a n t h r o p u s 1373:Dispersal beyond Africa 10953:Praeanthropus robustus 9711:10.1006/jhev.2000.0436 9640:10.1006/jhev.1999.0329 9570:10.1006/jhev.1999.0392 9030:(inactive 2024-08-22). 8999:10.1006/jhev.1994.1036 8868:"Gestation Period for 8449:10.1073/pnas.021551598 8122:10.1515/anre-2015-0001 8109:Anthropological Review 8025:10.1049/bsbt.2018.0017 7981:10.1006/jhev.2000.0436 7799:10.1098/rstb.1981.0013 7626:10.1006/jhev.2001.0510 7528:Comptes Rendus Palevol 7319:Comptes Rendus Palevol 6945:10.1006/jhev.1998.0267 6753:10.1006/jhev.1997.0193 6537:10.1006/jhev.1999.0378 6280:Keyser, A. W. (2000). 6244:10.1098/rsbl.2008.0223 6218:; et al. (2008). 5812:Gigantopithecus blacki 5525:10.1126/science.104384 4925: 4764: 4613: 4557:. The presence of the 4488:Fossil-bearing caves ( 4377:Lycyaenops silberbergi 4349:, but other antelope, 4291:cementoenamel junction 4169: 3999: 3863:remains far outnumber 3765: 3689:consumption. Juvenile 3542: 3205: 3171:spinal disc herniation 3096:or modern humans, all 3030:specimens KNM-ER 407, 2978:varied from 500 to 900 2962: 2832:post-canine megadontia 2300:was ancestral to only 2166:is a valid genus then 2053: 1906:By the 21st century, " 1854:Pithecanthropus dubius 1764:"), "Paranthropinae" ( 1567: 645:−10 — 561:society may have been 499:varied from 500 to 900 471:genetic susceptibility 453:, as well as inflated 11037:Paleobiology Database 11024:Paleobiology Database 10923:Paranthropus robustus 10756:Recent African origin 9994:Last common ancestors 9923:Paranthropus robustus 9887:. African Sun Media. 9868:. Aldine de Gruyter. 9864:Grine, F. E. (1988). 9059:Paranthropus robustus 8103:Paranthropus robustus 8046:Paranthropus robustus 7914:Paranthropus robustus 7366:Paranthropus robustus 7205:Paranthropus robustus 7144:Paranthropus robustus 7007:Paranthropus robustus 6968:Paranthropus robustus 6902:Paranthropus robustus 6456:Kaszycka, K. (2001). 6030:(Suppl 45): 117–121. 5665:Telanthropus capensis 5251:Paranthropus robustus 5031:critically endangered 4920: 4759: 4650:Theropithecus oswaldi 4601: 4299:tooth-attachment loss 4163: 4055:ramus of the mandible 3997: 3752: 3540: 3220:, but it has a wider 3203: 3126:internal jugular vein 2984:Wilfrid Le Gros Clark 2957: 2282:phylogenetic analyses 2032: 1983:) as the ancestor of 1948:Ralph von Koenigswald 1893:are sometimes called 1871:Telanthropus capensis 1829:P. r. crassidens 1695:Paranthropus robustus 1608:Paranthropus robustus 1554: 735:−1 — 725:−2 — 715:−3 — 705:−4 — 695:−5 — 685:−6 — 675:−7 — 665:−8 — 655:−9 — 350:Paranthropus robustus 291:Paranthropus robustus 25:Paranthropus robustus 11075:Pleistocene primates 10771:Behavioral modernity 10761:Multiregional origin 10541:archaic Homo sapiens 10536:Homo heidelbergensis 10481:Red Deer Cave people 9385:Boaz, N. T. (1977). 8757:Mann, A. E. (1968). 8597:Current Anthropology 7661:Current Anthropology 6354:Le Gros Clark, W. E. 5727:Current Anthropology 4970:and into the warmer 4051:body of the mandible 3645:subsisted on mainly 3310:extensor retinaculae 3195:iliolumbar ligaments 3090:dural venous sinuses 2170:was the ancestor of 1778:John Talbot Robinson 1756:Australopithecinae ( 1555:Cast of the face of 1329:Earliest stone tools 10408:H. neanderthalensis 10328:H. e. tautavelensis 9789:2018Natur.560...76C 9531:2014QuGeo..24...10G 9465:2009QuInt.202...14H 8945:1972Natur.240..568L 8888:1973Natur.242..347F 8829:1972Natur.240..568L 8495:1988Natur.336..464B 8409:2009JArSc..36.1764D 8361:2018QuInt.495...87S 8248:2007Sci...318.1443L 8242:(5855): 1443–1446. 8153:10.1038/nature10149 7930:2006Sci...314..980S 7540:2017CRPal..16...58B 7424:1974Sci...186..892P 7331:2019CRPal..18..223C 7272:2020PNAS..117.8416G 7160:1988Sci...240..781S 7101:2013PLoSO...880347D 7083:Paranthropus boisei 6807:2019BMCEE..19..226P 6672:1983Natur.306..779F 6427:10.1038/nature14224 6419:2015Natur.519...83S 6147:2023Natur.619..446C 6084:2020NatEE...5...38M 6018:Paranthropus boisei 5980:1986Natur.322..517W 5683:1953Natur.171...33R 5621:2019NatEE...3..755Z 5563:1951Natur.167..650W 5517:1979Sci...203..321J 5220:1938Natur.142..377B 5125:Paranthropus boisei 5063:African archaeology 5050:Signor–Lipps effect 5005:coincided with the 4875: 4573:Uranium–lead dating 4525:H. rudolfensis 4475:Cradle of Humankind 4317:While removing the 4260:alveolar resportion 3735:silverback gorillas 3541:Cast of SK 46 skull 3260:The distal (lower) 2581: 2448: 2315: 2298:P. aethiopicus 2294:P. aethiopicus 2274:A. aethiopicus 2262:P. aethiopicus 2234:P. aethiopicus 2189:A. aethiopicus 2062:, and in 1975, the 1837:into the genus as " 1684:Cradle of Humankind 1616:" derives from the 1576:Kromdraai cave site 371:Cradle of Humankind 369:Pleistocene of the 339:and Patterson, 1951 36:2.27/2–1/0.87 10595:Self-domestication 10386:H. heidelbergensis 10335:H. e. yuanmouensis 10300:H. e. lantianensis 10027:Australopithecines 9340:(6486): eaaw7293. 9332:in South Africa". 9230:10.7717/peerj.1941 9184:Zoologica Africana 8774:Australopithecines 8697:10.1002/ajpa.22527 8291:Journal of Anatomy 8067:10.1002/ajpa.23891 8044:"Root caries on a 7880:10.1007/BF01561000 6857:Journal of Anatomy 6573:Saban, R. (1983). 6362:Journal of Anatomy 6037:10.1002/ajpa.20732 5831:10.1002/ajpa.23150 5366:Broom, R. (1948). 5295:(1998). "Ape-Like 5011:tropical rain belt 4926: 4858: 4765: 4614: 4588:Cosmogenic nuclide 4414:. The most recent 4277:In a sample of 15 4170: 4000: 3766: 3543: 3466:linear regressions 3433:(which he called " 3314:proximal phalanges 3206: 3061:) and KNM-ER 407 ( 2963: 2914:sexually dimorphic 2579: 2446: 2313: 2250:australopithecines 2192:—was ancestral to 2054: 1916:Frederick E. Grine 1908:P. crassidens 1879:P. crassidens 1825:P. crassidens 1762:Pl. transvaalensis 1731:P. crassidens 1568: 1130:H. heidelbergensis 11080:Pliocene primates 11052: 11051: 11011:Open Tree of Life 10915:Taxon identifiers 10906: 10905: 10847:Paleoanthropology 10789: 10788: 10766:Archaic admixture 10644:Stoned ape theory 10580:Endurance running 10497: 10496: 10493: 10492: 10489: 10488: 10344: 10343: 10307:H. e. nankinensis 10263:H. tsaichangensis 10199: 10198: 9894:978-1-928355-06-9 9875:978-0-202-02031-0 9856:978-0-226-72230-6 9680:978-0-226-07090-2 8823:(5383): 568–569. 8489:(6198): 464–466. 8304:10.1111/joa.12609 7924:(5801): 980–982. 7475:978-1-351-52126-0 7418:(4167): 892–901. 7266:(15): 8416–8423. 7154:(4853): 781–784. 6715:978-1-351-52126-0 6666:(5945): 779–781. 6200:978-0-471-21491-5 6190:The Human Lineage 5974:(6079): 517–522. 5557:(4251): 650–651. 5511:(4378): 321–330. 5214:(3591): 377–339. 4946:and perhaps also 4907: 4906: 4874: 4868: 4818:Lee Rogers Berger 4736:Papio angusticeps 4642:A. africanus 4638:A. africanus 4622:A. africanus 4611:P. robustus. 4416:A. africanus 4359:sabertoothed cats 4287:A. africanus 4258:presented either 4210:A. africanus 4182:A. africanus 4141:Tim Clutton-Brock 4109:A. africanus 4088:sexual bimaturism 3873:A. africanus 3836:agonistic display 3770:strontium isotope 3758:Hamadryas baboons 3727:sexual dimorphism 3450:Stephen Jay Gould 3431:A. africanus 3336:The femur, as in 3250:A. africanus 3218:A. afarensis 3214:A. africanus 3134:A. africanus 3102:A. afarensis 3094:A. africanus 2945:vestibular system 2760: 2759: 2755: 2754: 2746: 2745: 2737: 2736: 2728: 2727: 2719: 2718: 2577: 2576: 2572: 2571: 2563: 2562: 2554: 2553: 2504: 2503: 2444: 2443: 2439: 2438: 2430: 2429: 2421: 2420: 2412: 2411: 2196:(they considered 2157:A. afarensis 2149:A. afarensis 2141:A. africanus 2129:A. africanus 2117:A. afarensis 2104:A. afarensis 2096:A. africanus 2038:holotype specimen 2019:with orangutans. 1993:A. africanus 1944:Franz Weidenreich 1901:Phillip V. Tobias 1789:Sherwood Washburn 1733:" (distinct from 1672:A. africanus 1561:holotype specimen 1539: 1538: 1531:million years ago 1490: 1489: 1468: 1467: 1446: 1445: 1438:Earliest rock art 1424: 1423: 1400: 1399: 1393:Earliest language 1380: 1379: 1360: 1359: 1336: 1335: 1316: 1315: 1306:Earliest sign of 1293: 1292: 1283:Earliest sign of 1270: 1269: 1250: 1249: 1230: 1229: 1210: 1209: 853:Ou. macedoniensis 483:sexual dimorphism 359:australopithecine 346: 345: 340: 328: 11102: 11045: 11044: 11032: 11031: 11019: 11018: 11006: 11005: 10993: 10992: 10980: 10979: 10967: 10966: 10957: 10956: 10955: 10942: 10941: 10940: 10910: 10909: 10894: 10882: 10881: 10870: 10869: 10806:Human prehistory 10781:Recent evolution 10776:Early migrations 10718:Thermoregulation 10619:Expensive tissue 10590:Sexual selection 10560: 10559: 10432: 10431: 10314:H. e. pekinensis 10225: 10224: 10218: 10217: 10133:A. bahrelghazali 10102:Australopithecus 10032: 10031: 10002:Chimpanzee–human 9990: 9989: 9964: 9957: 9950: 9941: 9940: 9898: 9879: 9860: 9838: 9817: 9816: 9783:(76–79): 76–79. 9774: 9765: 9756: 9755: 9753: 9729: 9723: 9722: 9691: 9685: 9684: 9661: 9652: 9651: 9623: 9617: 9616: 9588: 9582: 9581: 9549: 9543: 9542: 9514: 9508: 9507: 9483: 9477: 9476: 9440: 9417: 9416: 9414: 9408:. Archived from 9391: 9382: 9376: 9375: 9357: 9322:Australopithecus 9317: 9302: 9301: 9291: 9259: 9253: 9252: 9242: 9232: 9208: 9202: 9201: 9199: 9172: 9166: 9165: 9137: 9131: 9130: 9106: 9100: 9099: 9065: 9052: 9046: 9045: 9039: 9031: 9029: 9009: 9003: 9002: 8979: 8973: 8972: 8953:10.1038/240568a0 8929:Australopithecus 8924: 8918: 8917: 8899: 8897:10.1038/242347a0 8870:Australopithecus 8863: 8857: 8856: 8837:10.1038/240568a0 8813:Australopithecus 8808: 8802: 8801: 8769: 8763: 8762: 8754: 8748: 8747: 8715: 8709: 8708: 8676: 8667: 8666: 8649:(6): 1332–1363. 8635:Australopithecus 8630: 8621: 8620: 8592: 8586: 8585: 8557: 8551: 8550: 8548: 8524: 8515: 8514: 8503:10.1038/336464a0 8478: 8472: 8471: 8461: 8451: 8442:(4): 1358–1363. 8427: 8421: 8420: 8403:(8): 1764–1773. 8392: 8383: 8382: 8372: 8340: 8327: 8326: 8316: 8306: 8282: 8276: 8275: 8233: 8224: 8215: 8214: 8212: 8203:(1–2): 124–131. 8184: 8173: 8172: 8136: 8127: 8126: 8124: 8096: 8087: 8086: 8052: 8039: 8030: 8029: 8027: 7999: 7993: 7992: 7964: 7958: 7957: 7909: 7900: 7899: 7863: 7857: 7856: 7821: 7812: 7811: 7801: 7774: 7768: 7767: 7731: 7720: 7719: 7691: 7685: 7684: 7652: 7646: 7645: 7601: 7592: 7591: 7560: 7554: 7553: 7551: 7519: 7510: 7509: 7486: 7480: 7479: 7458: 7452: 7451: 7400: 7394: 7393: 7361: 7355: 7354: 7352: 7342: 7310: 7304: 7303: 7293: 7283: 7251: 7245: 7244: 7226: 7194: 7188: 7187: 7139: 7133: 7132: 7122: 7112: 7076: 7070: 7069: 7041: 7035: 7034: 7002: 6996: 6995: 6963: 6957: 6956: 6928: 6922: 6921: 6897: 6891: 6890: 6880: 6848: 6839: 6838: 6828: 6818: 6786: 6780: 6779: 6777: 6771:. Archived from 6738: 6729: 6720: 6719: 6698: 6692: 6691: 6680:10.1038/306779a0 6648: 6642: 6641: 6601: 6595: 6594: 6570: 6564: 6563: 6561: 6555:. Archived from 6522: 6510: 6504: 6503: 6480: 6474: 6473: 6453: 6447: 6446: 6394: 6388: 6387: 6377: 6350: 6341: 6340: 6300: 6294: 6293: 6277: 6266: 6265: 6255: 6222:Australopithecus 6211: 6205: 6204: 6184: 6175: 6174: 6126: 6120: 6119: 6067: 6050: 6049: 6039: 6011: 6000: 5999: 5988:10.1038/322517a0 5956: 5950: 5949: 5933: 5924: 5923: 5880: 5874: 5873: 5853: 5844: 5843: 5833: 5805: 5796: 5795: 5785: 5765: 5759: 5758: 5719: 5713: 5712: 5694: 5692:10.1038/171033a0 5655: 5649: 5648: 5606: 5597: 5591: 5590: 5571:10.1038/167650a0 5543: 5537: 5536: 5493: 5482: 5481: 5450: 5441: 5440: 5412: 5406: 5405: 5387: 5385:10.1038/163057a0 5363: 5357: 5356: 5342: 5325: 5324: 5297:Australopithecus 5289: 5283: 5282: 5280: 5278: 5263: 5257: 5256: 5243: 5234: 5233: 5231: 5229:10.1038/142377a0 5196: 5181: 5180: 5178: 5177: 5144: 5109:Homo rudolfensis 5046:P. robustus 5027:P. robustus 5015:P. robustus 5003:P. robustus 4999:P. robustus 4995:P. robustus 4983:P. robustus 4960:P. robustus 4936:P. robustus 4876: 4870: 4866: 4853:P. robustus 4841:H. ergaster 4837:P. robustus 4833:P. robustus 4814:P. robustus 4793:P. robustus 4781:P. robustus 4725:colobine monkeys 4721:P. robustus 4703:P. robustus 4691:P. robustus 4683:P. robustus 4679:P. robustus 4634:P. robustus 4626:Ronald J. Clarke 4618:P. robustus 4603:Ronald J. Clarke 4578:P. robustus 4559:Hamadryas baboon 4530:P. robustus 4506:P. robustus 4485: 4473:Location of the 4470: 4444:Australopithecus 4432:Australopithecus 4428:P. robustus 4420:P. robustus 4400:H. ergaster 4374:, and the hyena 4347:Antidorcas recki 4312:P. robustus 4308:P. robustus 4303:P. robustus 4295:P. robustus 4279:P. robustus 4272:mouth microbiome 4255:P. robustus 4251:P. robustus 4243:P. robustus 4241:As many as four 4202:P. robustus 4174:P. robustus 4145:P. robustus 4130:P. robustus 4117:P. robustus 4104:P. robustus 4092:P. robustus 4076:P. robustus 4068:P. robustus 4066:. Regardless if 4064:P. robustus 4059:P. robustus 4047:P. robustus 4043:P. robustus 4019:P. robustus 3980:H. ergaster 3955:H. ergaster 3951:P. robustus 3942:P. robustus 3914:P. robustus 3898:P. robustus 3861:P. robustus 3857:P. robustus 3808:sexual selection 3799:P. robustus 3782:P. robustus 3774:P. robustus 3762:Dierenpark Emmen 3760:(above troop at 3743:P. robustus 3739:P. robustus 3723:P. robustus 3713:Social structure 3691:P. robustus 3679:P. robustus 3675:P. robustus 3643:P. robustus 3628:Richard Wrangham 3603:P. robustus 3595:P. robustus 3547:P. robustus 3513:P. robustus 3503:, but less than 3489:P. robustus 3484:P. robustus 3475:P. robustus 3470:P. robustus 3446:P. robustus 3426:P. robustus 3422:P. robustus 3417:P. robustus 3409:P. robustus 3389:P. robustus 3381:P. robustus 3361:P. robustus 3346:P. robustus 3323:P. robustus 3278:Australopithecus 3274:P. robustus 3266:P. robustus 3246:P. robustus 3240:, and indicates 3230:P. robustus 3187:H. ergaster 3179:P. robustus 3154:P. robustus 3152:are assigned to 3075:P. robustus 3059:P. robustus 3040:P. robustus 2960:P. robustus 2949:P. robustus 2937:Australopithecus 2918:P. robustus 2910:P. robustus 2906:P. robustus 2899:medial pterygoid 2879:temporal muscles 2850:are shaped like 2838:but human-sized 2828:P. robustus 2806: 2797: 2683: 2682: 2659: 2658: 2618: 2617: 2594: 2593: 2587: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2518: 2517: 2468: 2467: 2461: 2460: 2454: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2376: 2375: 2352: 2351: 2328: 2327: 2321: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2306:Australopithecus 2290:P. robustus 2288:, but also that 2278:A. robustus 2266:Australopithecus 2254:P. robustus 2202:Australopithecus 2200:synonymous with 2168:P. robustus 2145:P. robustus 2137:P. robustus 2092:Australopithecus 1987:and the Chinese 1975:G. bilaspurensis 1930:P. robustus 1912:P. robustus 1896:H. ergaster 1875:T. capensis 1817:Australopithecus 1798:Australopithecus 1787:Anthropologists 1744:, and non-human 1735:P. robustus 1703:P. robustus 1640: 1635: 1634: 1629: 1624: 1623: 1565:P. robustus 1542:Research history 1519: 1517: 1516: 1502: 1500: 1484: 1475: 1470: 1462: 1460:Earliest clothes 1453: 1448: 1440: 1431: 1426: 1407: 1402: 1387: 1382: 1367: 1362: 1349:Earliest sign of 1343: 1338: 1323: 1318: 1308:Australopithecus 1300: 1295: 1277: 1272: 1263:Earliest bipedal 1257: 1252: 1243:Chimpanzee split 1237: 1232: 1217: 1212: 1197: 1192: 1178: 1177: 1163: 1162: 1146: 1132: 1118: 1090: 1077: 1057: 1044: 1016: 1014:Australopithecus 1003: 988: 971: 958: 934: 921: 908: 895: 882: 869: 857: 838: 825: 812: 800: 786: 773: 760: 758: 746: 741: 736: 731: 726: 721: 716: 711: 706: 701: 696: 691: 686: 681: 676: 671: 666: 661: 656: 651: 646: 634: 627: 620: 614: 604: 603:Hominin timeline 597: 583:P. robustus 567:P. robustus 559:P. robustus 543:P. robustus 539:P. robustus 505:P. robustus 467:P. robustus 429:Australopithecus 335: 319: 293: 289: 270:P. robustus 253: 143: 142: 120: 110: 40: 29:Temporal range: 21: 20: 11110: 11109: 11105: 11104: 11103: 11101: 11100: 11099: 11055: 11054: 11053: 11048: 11040: 11035: 11027: 11022: 11014: 11009: 11001: 10996: 10988: 10983: 10975: 10970: 10962: 10960: 10951: 10950: 10945: 10936: 10935: 10930: 10917: 10907: 10902: 10858: 10815: 10801:Human evolution 10785: 10742: 10686: 10680: 10659:Cooperative eye 10604:Specific models 10599: 10551: 10530:Homo antecessor 10485: 10421: 10415:H. rhodesiensis 10379:H. floresiensis 10340: 10321:H. e. soloensis 10293:H. e. georgicus 10269: 10233:H. gautengensis 10208: 10206: 10195: 10159: 10095: 10066: 10021: 10012:Orangutan–human 9981: 9973: 9971:Human evolution 9968: 9905: 9895: 9876: 9857: 9843:Robinson, J. T. 9826: 9824:Further reading 9821: 9820: 9772: 9766: 9759: 9730: 9726: 9692: 9688: 9681: 9662: 9655: 9624: 9620: 9589: 9585: 9550: 9546: 9515: 9511: 9484: 9480: 9441: 9420: 9412: 9389: 9383: 9379: 9318: 9305: 9260: 9256: 9209: 9205: 9173: 9169: 9138: 9134: 9107: 9103: 9063: 9053: 9049: 9033: 9032: 9014:Open Quaternary 9010: 9006: 8980: 8976: 8939:(5383): 568–9. 8925: 8921: 8864: 8860: 8809: 8805: 8770: 8766: 8755: 8751: 8716: 8712: 8677: 8670: 8631: 8624: 8593: 8589: 8558: 8554: 8525: 8518: 8479: 8475: 8428: 8424: 8393: 8386: 8341: 8330: 8283: 8279: 8231: 8225: 8218: 8185: 8176: 8147:(7349): 76–78. 8137: 8130: 8097: 8090: 8050: 8040: 8033: 8000: 7996: 7965: 7961: 7910: 7903: 7864: 7860: 7822: 7815: 7792:(1057): 57–64. 7775: 7771: 7732: 7723: 7692: 7688: 7653: 7649: 7602: 7595: 7561: 7557: 7520: 7513: 7487: 7483: 7476: 7459: 7455: 7401: 7397: 7362: 7358: 7311: 7307: 7252: 7248: 7195: 7191: 7140: 7136: 7077: 7073: 7042: 7038: 7003: 6999: 6964: 6960: 6929: 6925: 6898: 6894: 6849: 6842: 6787: 6783: 6775: 6736: 6730: 6723: 6716: 6699: 6695: 6649: 6645: 6608:; Ward, C. V.; 6602: 6598: 6571: 6567: 6559: 6520: 6511: 6507: 6484:Holloway, R. L. 6481: 6477: 6454: 6450: 6413:(7541): 83–86. 6395: 6391: 6351: 6344: 6301: 6297: 6278: 6269: 6232:Biology Letters 6212: 6208: 6201: 6185: 6178: 6127: 6123: 6068: 6053: 6012: 6003: 5957: 5953: 5934: 5927: 5881: 5877: 5854: 5847: 5806: 5799: 5783: 5766: 5762: 5720: 5716: 5663:"The Nature of 5659:Robinson, J. T. 5656: 5652: 5604: 5598: 5594: 5547:Washburn, S. L. 5544: 5540: 5497:Johanson, D. C. 5494: 5485: 5454:Robinson, J. T. 5451: 5444: 5413: 5409: 5364: 5360: 5349:Paleobiology". 5343: 5328: 5313:10.2307/3034503 5290: 5286: 5276: 5274: 5265: 5264: 5260: 5244: 5237: 5197: 5184: 5175: 5173: 5171: 5145: 5141: 5136: 5131: 5058: 5038:western gorilla 5034:eastern gorilla 4991: 4934:. The juvenile 4915: 4909: 4903: 4901: 4872:View references 4869: 4845:H. erectus 4709:Palaeomagnetism 4537:biostratigraphy 4519:H. habilis 4504:At Swartkrans, 4497: 4496: 4495: 4494: 4493: 4486: 4478: 4477: 4471: 4460: 4424:H. erectus 4404:H. erectus 4340: 4268:hypercementosis 4204:, about 47% of 4178:tertiary dentin 4166:tertiary dentin 4158: 4121:sexual maturity 4100: 4080:dental alveolus 3992: 3984:H. erectus 3972:Wonderwerk Cave 3959:H. erectus 3946:white stinkwood 3918:H. erectus 3849: 3812:gluteus muscles 3776:teeth from the 3715: 3673:based foods as 3672: 3668: 3658: 3650: 3641:suggested that 3535: 3530: 3401: 3393:H. habilis 3353:trabecular bone 3342:H. habilis 3258: 3242:lumbar lordosis 3191:H. erectus 3146: 3118:sigmoid sinuses 3104:) had expanded 3055: 2968: 2887:masseter muscle 2820: 2819: 2818: 2817: 2809: 2808: 2807: 2799: 2798: 2787: 2782: 2777: 2769: 2768: 2761: 2756: 2747: 2738: 2729: 2720: 2573: 2564: 2555: 2505: 2440: 2431: 2422: 2413: 2218: 2115:suggested that 2109:Donald Johanson 2027: 2009:Gigantopithecus 1967:Gigantopithecus 1960:Gigantopithecus 1956:H. erectus 1952:Gigantopithecus 1940:Gigantopithecus 1935:Gigantopithecus 1926: 1923:Gigantopithecus 1891:H. erectus 1887:H. erectus 1883:Pithecanthropus 1727: 1658:, based on the 1549: 1544: 1535: 1534: 1522: 1521: 1520: 1512: 1511: 1509: 1505: 1504: 1503: 1498:H o m i n i d s 1496: 1494: 1486: 1485: 1480: 1473: 1464: 1463: 1458: 1451: 1442: 1441: 1436: 1429: 1420: 1419: 1405: 1396: 1395: 1385: 1376: 1375: 1365: 1356: 1355: 1350: 1341: 1332: 1331: 1321: 1312: 1311: 1298: 1289: 1288: 1275: 1266: 1265: 1255: 1246: 1245: 1235: 1226: 1225: 1215: 1206: 1205: 1195: 1188: 1187: 1186: 1181: 1180: 1179: 1173: 1172: 1168: 1166: 1165: 1164: 1158: 1157: 1153: 1151: 1150: 1149: 1142: 1136: 1135: 1134: 1128: 1123: 1121: 1120: 1119: 1110: 1102: 1094: 1093: 1086: 1080: 1079: 1078: 1069: 1061: 1060: 1053: 1047: 1046: 1045: 1036: 1028: 1020: 1019: 1012: 1006: 1005: 1004: 995: 991: 990: 989: 980: 976: 975: 974: 967: 961: 960: 959: 950: 942: 938: 937: 936: 930: 925: 924: 923: 917: 912: 911: 910: 904: 899: 898: 897: 891: 886: 885: 884: 878: 873: 872: 871: 867:Chororapithecus 865: 860: 859: 858: 849: 841: 840: 834: 829: 828: 827: 823:Samburupithecus 821: 816: 815: 814: 808: 803: 802: 801: 794: 790: 789: 788: 782: 777: 776: 775: 769: 764: 763: 762: 756: 754: 747: 744: 742: 739: 737: 734: 732: 729: 727: 724: 722: 719: 717: 714: 712: 709: 707: 704: 702: 699: 697: 694: 692: 689: 687: 684: 682: 679: 677: 674: 672: 669: 667: 664: 662: 659: 657: 654: 652: 649: 647: 644: 638: 612: 606: 602: 595: 571:sabertooth cats 569:contended with 522: 469:may have had a 334: 318: 301: 295: 287: 286: 273: 251: 137: 111: 109: 108: 107: 106: 101: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 56: 51: 46: 35: 34: 27: 17: 12: 11: 5: 11108: 11098: 11097: 11092: 11087: 11082: 11077: 11072: 11067: 11050: 11049: 11047: 11046: 11033: 11020: 11007: 10994: 10981: 10968: 10958: 10943: 10927: 10925: 10919: 10918: 10904: 10903: 10901: 10900: 10888: 10876: 10863: 10860: 10859: 10857: 10856: 10851: 10850: 10849: 10839: 10834: 10829: 10823: 10821: 10817: 10816: 10814: 10813: 10811:Human timeline 10808: 10803: 10797: 10795: 10791: 10790: 10787: 10786: 10784: 10783: 10778: 10773: 10768: 10763: 10758: 10752: 10750: 10744: 10743: 10741: 10740: 10735: 10730: 10725: 10720: 10715: 10710: 10705: 10700: 10695: 10689: 10687: 10682: 10681: 10679: 10678: 10677: 10676: 10671: 10663: 10662: 10661: 10656: 10648: 10647: 10646: 10641: 10636: 10634:Drunken monkey 10628: 10627: 10626: 10621: 10616: 10607: 10605: 10601: 10600: 10598: 10597: 10592: 10587: 10582: 10577: 10572: 10566: 10564: 10563:General models 10557: 10553: 10552: 10550: 10549: 10507: 10505: 10499: 10498: 10495: 10494: 10491: 10490: 10487: 10486: 10484: 10483: 10478: 10473: 10468: 10463: 10456: 10451: 10442: 10440: 10429: 10423: 10422: 10420: 10419: 10411: 10404: 10397: 10389: 10382: 10375: 10367: 10362: 10354: 10352: 10350:Archaic humans 10346: 10345: 10342: 10341: 10339: 10338: 10331: 10324: 10317: 10310: 10303: 10296: 10289: 10281: 10279: 10271: 10270: 10268: 10267: 10259: 10255:H. rudolfensis 10251: 10244: 10237: 10228: 10222: 10215: 10201: 10200: 10197: 10196: 10194: 10193: 10186: 10179: 10176:P. aethiopicus 10171: 10169: 10161: 10160: 10158: 10157: 10150: 10143: 10136: 10129: 10122: 10115: 10107: 10105: 10097: 10096: 10094: 10093: 10086: 10078: 10076: 10068: 10067: 10065: 10064: 10057: 10054:Sahelanthropus 10050: 10043: 10040:Nakalipithecus 10035: 10029: 10023: 10022: 10020: 10019: 10014: 10009: 10004: 9998: 9996: 9987: 9975: 9974: 9967: 9966: 9959: 9952: 9944: 9938: 9937: 9931: 9919: 9904: 9903:External links 9901: 9900: 9899: 9893: 9880: 9874: 9861: 9855: 9839: 9825: 9822: 9819: 9818: 9757: 9724: 9705:(6): 565–576. 9686: 9679: 9653: 9634:(2): 299–307. 9618: 9599:(4): 447–456. 9583: 9564:(6): 827–847. 9544: 9509: 9504:10520/EJC96341 9498:(1–2): 43–52. 9478: 9459:(1–2): 14–28. 9418: 9415:on 2020-02-27. 9377: 9303: 9254: 9203: 9167: 9148:(2): 118–120. 9132: 9119:10.1101/597385 9101: 9047: 9004: 8983:McHenry, H. M. 8974: 8919: 8858: 8803: 8784:(3): 417–426. 8764: 8749: 8730:(3): 251–257. 8710: 8691:(3): 436–446. 8668: 8622: 8609:10.1086/660919 8603:(4): 585–595. 8587: 8552: 8516: 8473: 8422: 8384: 8328: 8297:(6): 820–832. 8277: 8216: 8174: 8128: 8088: 8061:(2): 319–323. 8031: 7994: 7975:(6): 565–576. 7959: 7901: 7874:(4): 371–387. 7858: 7839:(4): 482–498. 7813: 7769: 7750:(2): 119–162. 7721: 7686: 7673:10.1086/667360 7647: 7620:(6): 607–629. 7593: 7574:(2): 149–158. 7564:McHenry, H. M. 7555: 7511: 7500:(4): 445–454. 7490:McHenry, H. M. 7481: 7474: 7462:McHenry, H. M. 7453: 7395: 7356: 7325:(2): 223–235. 7305: 7246: 7189: 7134: 7095:(12): e80347. 7071: 7052:(4): 451–474. 7036: 7017:(3): 229–248. 6997: 6978:(3): 285–313. 6958: 6923: 6912:(2): 265–281. 6892: 6840: 6781: 6778:on 2019-02-26. 6747:(3): 249–302. 6721: 6714: 6693: 6643: 6596: 6585:(3): 313–323. 6565: 6562:on 2020-06-23. 6531:(5): 695–717. 6505: 6494:(2): 173–185. 6475: 6448: 6389: 6342: 6295: 6267: 6238:(4): 406–410. 6206: 6199: 6176: 6121: 6051: 6001: 5951: 5925: 5875: 5864:(4): 719–724. 5845: 5797: 5775:Plesianthropus 5760: 5739:10.1086/200622 5714: 5650: 5615:(5): 755–764. 5592: 5538: 5483: 5464:(2): 181–200. 5442: 5407: 5358: 5326: 5307:(2): 283–308. 5284: 5258: 5235: 5182: 5169: 5138: 5137: 5135: 5132: 5130: 5129: 5121: 5113: 5105: 5097: 5089: 5081: 5073: 5065: 5059: 5057: 5054: 4990: 4987: 4948:hunting hyenas 4923:leopard attack 4914: 4911: 4905: 4904: 4879: 4829: 4828: 4810: 4809: 4785:P. boisei 4773:Elisabeth Vrba 4754: 4753: 4677:At Kromdraai, 4675: 4674: 4596: 4595: 4582:P. boisei 4502: 4501: 4487: 4480: 4479: 4472: 4465: 4464: 4463: 4462: 4461: 4459: 4456: 4339: 4336: 4332:leopard attack 4306:microflora in 4224:H. naledi 4215:A. sediba 4187:H. naledi 4157: 4154: 4137:Paul H. Harvey 4113:P. boisei 4099: 4096: 3991: 3988: 3976:Peter Beaumont 3848: 3845: 3828:P. boisei 3714: 3711: 3683:P. boisei 3670: 3666: 3656: 3651:savanna plants 3648: 3630:proposed that 3620:storage organs 3572:P. boisei 3563:P. boisei 3534: 3531: 3529: 3526: 3400: 3397: 3338:P. boisei 3327:precision grip 3319:P. boisei 3290:head of radius 3257: 3254: 3145: 3142: 3138:P. boisei 3110:foramen magnum 3088:Regarding the 3083:P. boisei 3079:P. boisei 3063:P. boisei 3054: 3051: 3028:P. boisei 3020:P. boisei 2996:Ralph Holloway 2967: 2964: 2871:sagittal crest 2834:with enormous 2816:(right) skulls 2811: 2810: 2801: 2800: 2792: 2791: 2790: 2789: 2788: 2786: 2783: 2781: 2778: 2776: 2773: 2762: 2758: 2757: 2753: 2752: 2749: 2748: 2744: 2743: 2740: 2739: 2735: 2734: 2731: 2730: 2726: 2725: 2722: 2721: 2717: 2716: 2713: 2712: 2703: 2700: 2699: 2696: 2695: 2691:P. aethiopicus 2686: 2681: 2679: 2676: 2675: 2672: 2671: 2662: 2657: 2655: 2652: 2651: 2648: 2647: 2638: 2635: 2634: 2631: 2630: 2621: 2616: 2614: 2611: 2610: 2607: 2606: 2597: 2592: 2590: 2585: 2575: 2574: 2570: 2569: 2566: 2565: 2561: 2560: 2557: 2556: 2552: 2551: 2548: 2547: 2538: 2535: 2534: 2531: 2530: 2526:P. aethiopicus 2521: 2516: 2514: 2511: 2510: 2507: 2506: 2502: 2501: 2498: 2497: 2488: 2485: 2484: 2481: 2480: 2471: 2466: 2464: 2459: 2457: 2452: 2442: 2441: 2437: 2436: 2433: 2432: 2428: 2427: 2424: 2423: 2419: 2418: 2415: 2414: 2410: 2409: 2406: 2405: 2396: 2393: 2392: 2389: 2388: 2379: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2368: 2365: 2364: 2360:P. aethiopicus 2355: 2350: 2348: 2345: 2344: 2341: 2340: 2331: 2326: 2324: 2319: 2311: 2310: 2302:P. boisei 2270:A. boisei 2258:P. boisei 2230:P. boisei 2217: 2216:Classification 2214: 2194:A. boisei 2180:Richard Leakey 2172:P. boisei 2064:P. boisei 2059:P. boisei 2049:P. boisei 2040:of the second 2026: 2021: 1989:G. blacki 1925: 1920: 1813:junior synonym 1774:Au. prometheus 1770:Pa. crassidens 1726: 1719: 1701:Cave in 1948. 1592:distal phalanx 1548: 1545: 1543: 1540: 1537: 1536: 1528: 1524: 1523: 1508: 1507: 1506: 1493: 1492: 1491: 1488: 1487: 1479: 1478: 1476: 1466: 1465: 1457: 1456: 1454: 1444: 1443: 1435: 1434: 1432: 1422: 1421: 1411: 1410: 1408: 1398: 1397: 1391: 1390: 1388: 1378: 1377: 1371: 1370: 1368: 1358: 1357: 1347: 1346: 1344: 1334: 1333: 1327: 1326: 1324: 1314: 1313: 1304: 1303: 1301: 1291: 1290: 1281: 1280: 1278: 1268: 1267: 1261: 1260: 1258: 1248: 1247: 1241: 1240: 1238: 1228: 1227: 1221: 1220: 1218: 1208: 1207: 1201: 1200: 1198: 1189: 1184: 1183: 1182: 1171: 1170: 1169: 1167: 1156: 1155: 1154: 1152: 1139: 1138: 1137: 1126: 1125: 1124: 1122: 1083: 1082: 1081: 1065:H. rudolfensis 1050: 1049: 1048: 1009: 1008: 1007: 994: 993: 992: 979: 978: 977: 964: 963: 962: 941: 940: 939: 928: 927: 926: 919:Graecopithecus 915: 914: 913: 906:Sahelanthropus 902: 901: 900: 889: 888: 887: 876: 875: 874: 863: 862: 861: 836:Ouranopithecus 832: 831: 830: 819: 818: 817: 810:Nakalipithecus 806: 805: 804: 793: 792: 791: 780: 779: 778: 767: 766: 765: 752: 751: 750: 748: 745:0 — 743: 738: 733: 728: 723: 718: 713: 708: 703: 698: 693: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 643: 640: 639: 637: 636: 629: 622: 611: 608: 607: 600: 594: 591: 527:storage organs 523:savanna plants 520: 344: 343: 342: 341: 329: 310: 309: 303: 302: 296: 282: 281: 275: 274: 266: 264: 260: 259: 249: 245: 244: 239: 235: 234: 229: 225: 224: 219: 215: 214: 209: 205: 204: 199: 195: 194: 189: 185: 184: 179: 175: 174: 169: 165: 164: 159: 155: 154: 149: 145: 144: 131: 130: 122: 121: 113: 112: 104: 103: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 57: 52: 47: 42: 28: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11107: 11096: 11093: 11091: 11088: 11086: 11083: 11081: 11078: 11076: 11073: 11071: 11068: 11066: 11063: 11062: 11060: 11043: 11038: 11034: 11030: 11025: 11021: 11017: 11012: 11008: 11004: 10999: 10995: 10991: 10986: 10982: 10978: 10973: 10969: 10965: 10959: 10954: 10948: 10944: 10939: 10933: 10929: 10928: 10926: 10924: 10920: 10916: 10911: 10899: 10898: 10893: 10889: 10887: 10886: 10877: 10875: 10874: 10865: 10864: 10861: 10855: 10852: 10848: 10845: 10844: 10843: 10840: 10838: 10835: 10833: 10830: 10828: 10825: 10824: 10822: 10818: 10812: 10809: 10807: 10804: 10802: 10799: 10798: 10796: 10792: 10782: 10779: 10777: 10774: 10772: 10769: 10767: 10764: 10762: 10759: 10757: 10754: 10753: 10751: 10749: 10745: 10739: 10736: 10734: 10731: 10729: 10726: 10724: 10721: 10719: 10716: 10714: 10711: 10709: 10706: 10704: 10701: 10699: 10696: 10694: 10691: 10690: 10688: 10683: 10675: 10672: 10670: 10667: 10666: 10665:Life history 10664: 10660: 10657: 10655: 10652: 10651: 10649: 10645: 10642: 10640: 10637: 10635: 10632: 10631: 10629: 10625: 10622: 10620: 10617: 10615: 10612: 10611: 10609: 10608: 10606: 10602: 10596: 10593: 10591: 10588: 10586: 10583: 10581: 10578: 10576: 10573: 10571: 10568: 10567: 10565: 10561: 10558: 10554: 10548: 10547: 10542: 10538: 10537: 10532: 10531: 10526: 10525: 10520: 10519: 10518:Homo ergaster 10514: 10513: 10509: 10508: 10506: 10504: 10500: 10482: 10479: 10477: 10474: 10472: 10469: 10467: 10464: 10462: 10461: 10457: 10455: 10452: 10450: 10448: 10447:H. s. sapiens 10444: 10443: 10441: 10439: 10438: 10433: 10430: 10428: 10427:Modern humans 10424: 10417: 10416: 10412: 10410: 10409: 10405: 10403: 10402: 10401:H. luzonensis 10398: 10395: 10394: 10390: 10388: 10387: 10383: 10381: 10380: 10376: 10373: 10372: 10368: 10366: 10363: 10361: 10360: 10359:H. antecessor 10356: 10355: 10353: 10351: 10347: 10337: 10336: 10332: 10330: 10329: 10325: 10323: 10322: 10318: 10316: 10315: 10311: 10309: 10308: 10304: 10302: 10301: 10297: 10295: 10294: 10290: 10288: 10287: 10286:H. e. erectus 10283: 10282: 10280: 10278: 10277: 10272: 10265: 10264: 10260: 10257: 10256: 10252: 10250: 10249: 10245: 10243: 10242: 10238: 10235: 10234: 10230: 10229: 10226: 10223: 10219: 10216: 10214: 10212: 10202: 10192: 10191: 10187: 10185: 10184: 10180: 10178: 10177: 10173: 10172: 10170: 10168: 10167: 10162: 10156: 10155: 10151: 10149: 10148: 10144: 10142: 10141: 10140:A. deyiremeda 10137: 10135: 10134: 10130: 10128: 10127: 10123: 10121: 10120: 10116: 10114: 10113: 10109: 10108: 10106: 10104: 10103: 10098: 10092: 10091: 10087: 10085: 10084: 10080: 10079: 10077: 10075: 10074: 10069: 10063: 10062: 10061:Kenyanthropus 10058: 10056: 10055: 10051: 10049: 10048: 10044: 10042: 10041: 10037: 10036: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10024: 10018: 10015: 10013: 10010: 10008: 10007:Gorilla–human 10005: 10003: 10000: 9999: 9997: 9995: 9991: 9988: 9985: 9980: 9976: 9972: 9965: 9960: 9958: 9953: 9951: 9946: 9945: 9942: 9936:– Smithsonian 9935: 9932: 9929: 9925: 9924: 9920: 9917: 9916:John D. Hawks 9913: 9912: 9907: 9906: 9896: 9890: 9886: 9881: 9877: 9871: 9867: 9862: 9858: 9852: 9848: 9844: 9840: 9836: 9832: 9828: 9827: 9814: 9810: 9806: 9802: 9798: 9794: 9790: 9786: 9782: 9778: 9771: 9764: 9762: 9752: 9747: 9743: 9739: 9735: 9728: 9720: 9716: 9712: 9708: 9704: 9700: 9696: 9695:Lee-Thorp, J. 9690: 9682: 9676: 9672: 9671: 9666: 9660: 9658: 9649: 9645: 9641: 9637: 9633: 9629: 9622: 9614: 9610: 9606: 9602: 9598: 9594: 9587: 9579: 9575: 9571: 9567: 9563: 9559: 9555: 9554:Clarke, R. J. 9548: 9540: 9536: 9532: 9528: 9524: 9520: 9513: 9505: 9501: 9497: 9493: 9489: 9482: 9474: 9470: 9466: 9462: 9458: 9454: 9450: 9446: 9439: 9437: 9435: 9433: 9431: 9429: 9427: 9425: 9423: 9411: 9407: 9403: 9399: 9395: 9388: 9381: 9373: 9369: 9365: 9361: 9356: 9355:11568/1040368 9351: 9347: 9343: 9339: 9335: 9331: 9327: 9323: 9316: 9314: 9312: 9310: 9308: 9299: 9295: 9290: 9285: 9281: 9277: 9273: 9269: 9265: 9258: 9250: 9246: 9241: 9236: 9231: 9226: 9222: 9218: 9214: 9207: 9198: 9193: 9189: 9185: 9181: 9177: 9171: 9163: 9159: 9155: 9151: 9147: 9143: 9136: 9128: 9124: 9120: 9116: 9112: 9105: 9097: 9093: 9089: 9085: 9081: 9077: 9073: 9069: 9062: 9060: 9051: 9043: 9037: 9028: 9027:10.5334/oq.48 9023: 9019: 9015: 9008: 9000: 8996: 8992: 8988: 8984: 8978: 8970: 8966: 8962: 8958: 8954: 8950: 8946: 8942: 8938: 8934: 8930: 8923: 8915: 8911: 8907: 8903: 8898: 8893: 8889: 8885: 8882:(5396): 347. 8881: 8877: 8873: 8871: 8862: 8854: 8850: 8846: 8842: 8838: 8834: 8830: 8826: 8822: 8818: 8814: 8807: 8799: 8795: 8791: 8787: 8783: 8779: 8775: 8768: 8760: 8753: 8745: 8741: 8737: 8733: 8729: 8725: 8721: 8714: 8706: 8702: 8698: 8694: 8690: 8686: 8682: 8675: 8673: 8664: 8660: 8656: 8652: 8648: 8644: 8640: 8636: 8629: 8627: 8618: 8614: 8610: 8606: 8602: 8598: 8591: 8583: 8579: 8575: 8571: 8567: 8563: 8556: 8547: 8542: 8538: 8534: 8530: 8523: 8521: 8512: 8508: 8504: 8500: 8496: 8492: 8488: 8484: 8477: 8469: 8465: 8460: 8455: 8450: 8445: 8441: 8437: 8433: 8426: 8418: 8414: 8410: 8406: 8402: 8398: 8391: 8389: 8380: 8376: 8371: 8366: 8362: 8358: 8354: 8350: 8346: 8339: 8337: 8335: 8333: 8324: 8320: 8315: 8310: 8305: 8300: 8296: 8292: 8288: 8281: 8273: 8269: 8265: 8261: 8257: 8253: 8249: 8245: 8241: 8237: 8230: 8223: 8221: 8211: 8206: 8202: 8198: 8194: 8192: 8183: 8181: 8179: 8170: 8166: 8162: 8158: 8154: 8150: 8146: 8142: 8135: 8133: 8123: 8118: 8114: 8110: 8106: 8104: 8095: 8093: 8084: 8080: 8076: 8072: 8068: 8064: 8060: 8056: 8049: 8047: 8038: 8036: 8026: 8021: 8017: 8013: 8009: 8007: 7998: 7990: 7986: 7982: 7978: 7974: 7970: 7963: 7955: 7951: 7947: 7943: 7939: 7935: 7931: 7927: 7923: 7919: 7915: 7908: 7906: 7897: 7893: 7889: 7885: 7881: 7877: 7873: 7869: 7868:Human Ecology 7862: 7854: 7850: 7846: 7842: 7838: 7834: 7830: 7826: 7820: 7818: 7809: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7791: 7787: 7783: 7779: 7773: 7765: 7761: 7757: 7753: 7749: 7745: 7741: 7737: 7730: 7728: 7726: 7717: 7713: 7709: 7705: 7701: 7697: 7690: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7670: 7666: 7662: 7658: 7651: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7631: 7627: 7623: 7619: 7615: 7611: 7607: 7600: 7598: 7589: 7585: 7581: 7577: 7573: 7569: 7565: 7559: 7550: 7545: 7541: 7537: 7533: 7529: 7525: 7518: 7516: 7507: 7503: 7499: 7495: 7491: 7485: 7477: 7471: 7467: 7463: 7457: 7449: 7445: 7441: 7437: 7433: 7429: 7425: 7421: 7417: 7413: 7409: 7405: 7399: 7391: 7387: 7383: 7379: 7375: 7371: 7367: 7360: 7351: 7346: 7341: 7336: 7332: 7328: 7324: 7320: 7316: 7309: 7301: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7282: 7277: 7273: 7269: 7265: 7261: 7257: 7250: 7242: 7238: 7234: 7230: 7225: 7220: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7206: 7202: 7193: 7185: 7181: 7177: 7173: 7169: 7165: 7161: 7157: 7153: 7149: 7145: 7138: 7130: 7126: 7121: 7116: 7111: 7106: 7102: 7098: 7094: 7090: 7086: 7084: 7075: 7067: 7063: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7047: 7040: 7032: 7028: 7024: 7020: 7016: 7012: 7008: 7001: 6993: 6989: 6985: 6981: 6977: 6973: 6969: 6962: 6954: 6950: 6946: 6942: 6939:(2): 211–32. 6938: 6934: 6927: 6919: 6915: 6911: 6908:(in French). 6907: 6903: 6896: 6888: 6884: 6879: 6874: 6870: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6854: 6847: 6845: 6836: 6832: 6827: 6822: 6817: 6812: 6808: 6804: 6800: 6796: 6792: 6785: 6774: 6770: 6766: 6762: 6758: 6754: 6750: 6746: 6742: 6735: 6728: 6726: 6717: 6711: 6707: 6703: 6697: 6689: 6685: 6681: 6677: 6673: 6669: 6665: 6661: 6657: 6653: 6647: 6639: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6615: 6612:(1993). "New 6611: 6610:Leakey, R. E. 6607: 6600: 6592: 6588: 6584: 6581:(in French). 6580: 6576: 6569: 6558: 6554: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6530: 6526: 6519: 6515: 6509: 6501: 6497: 6493: 6489: 6485: 6479: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6461: 6452: 6444: 6440: 6436: 6432: 6428: 6424: 6420: 6416: 6412: 6408: 6404: 6400: 6393: 6385: 6381: 6376: 6371: 6368:(Pt 3): 321. 6367: 6363: 6359: 6355: 6349: 6347: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6326: 6322: 6318: 6314: 6310: 6306: 6305:Clarke, R. J. 6303:Beaudet, A.; 6299: 6291: 6287: 6283: 6276: 6274: 6272: 6263: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6227: 6223: 6217: 6210: 6202: 6196: 6192: 6191: 6183: 6181: 6172: 6168: 6164: 6160: 6156: 6152: 6148: 6144: 6141:(7970): 446. 6140: 6136: 6132: 6125: 6117: 6113: 6109: 6105: 6101: 6100:11568/1066411 6097: 6093: 6089: 6085: 6081: 6077: 6073: 6066: 6064: 6062: 6060: 6058: 6056: 6047: 6043: 6038: 6033: 6029: 6025: 6021: 6019: 6010: 6008: 6006: 5997: 5993: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5965: 5964:Leakey, R. E. 5961: 5955: 5947: 5943: 5939: 5932: 5930: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5893: 5889: 5885: 5884:Clarke, R. J. 5879: 5871: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5858:Human Biology 5852: 5850: 5841: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5823: 5819: 5815: 5813: 5804: 5802: 5794:(3): 303–314. 5793: 5789: 5782: 5780: 5776: 5770: 5764: 5756: 5752: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5728: 5724: 5723:Tobias, P. V. 5718: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5693: 5688: 5684: 5680: 5676: 5672: 5668: 5666: 5660: 5654: 5646: 5642: 5638: 5634: 5630: 5626: 5622: 5618: 5614: 5610: 5603: 5596: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5572: 5568: 5564: 5560: 5556: 5552: 5548: 5542: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5506: 5502: 5498: 5492: 5490: 5488: 5479: 5475: 5471: 5467: 5463: 5459: 5455: 5449: 5447: 5438: 5434: 5430: 5426: 5422: 5418: 5411: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5386: 5381: 5377: 5373: 5369: 5362: 5354: 5353: 5348: 5341: 5339: 5337: 5335: 5333: 5331: 5322: 5318: 5314: 5310: 5306: 5302: 5298: 5294: 5293:Tobias, P. V. 5288: 5272: 5270: 5262: 5254: 5253: 5250: 5242: 5240: 5230: 5225: 5221: 5217: 5213: 5209: 5205: 5201: 5195: 5193: 5191: 5189: 5187: 5172: 5170:9780190854584 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5150: 5143: 5139: 5127: 5126: 5122: 5119: 5118: 5114: 5111: 5110: 5106: 5103: 5102: 5098: 5095: 5094: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5085:Homo ergaster 5082: 5079: 5078: 5074: 5071: 5070: 5066: 5064: 5061: 5060: 5053: 5051: 5047: 5043: 5039: 5035: 5032: 5028: 5023: 5021: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 5000: 4996: 4986: 4984: 4980: 4975: 4973: 4969: 4965: 4961: 4957: 4956:spotted hyena 4953: 4949: 4945: 4941: 4937: 4933: 4932: 4924: 4919: 4910: 4878: 4877: 4873: 4865: 4863: 4856: 4854: 4848: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4834: 4827:Drimolen Cave 4826: 4825: 4824: 4821: 4819: 4815: 4808:Cooper's Cave 4807: 4806: 4805: 4803: 4802: 4796: 4794: 4790: 4786: 4782: 4778: 4774: 4770: 4763: 4762:Gondolin Cave 4758: 4752:Gondolin Cave 4751: 4750: 4749: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4737: 4732: 4731: 4730:Gorgopithecus 4726: 4722: 4717: 4712: 4710: 4706: 4704: 4700: 4696: 4692: 4688: 4684: 4680: 4672: 4671: 4670: 4668: 4664: 4660: 4656: 4652: 4651: 4645: 4643: 4639: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4623: 4619: 4612: 4608: 4604: 4600: 4593: 4592: 4591: 4589: 4585: 4583: 4579: 4574: 4570: 4566: 4565: 4560: 4556: 4552: 4548: 4547: 4542: 4538: 4533: 4531: 4527: 4526: 4521: 4520: 4515: 4511: 4507: 4499: 4498: 4491: 4484: 4476: 4469: 4455: 4453: 4449: 4445: 4441: 4437: 4433: 4429: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4413: 4409: 4405: 4401: 4397: 4393: 4391: 4387: 4383: 4379: 4378: 4373: 4371: 4366: 4364: 4360: 4356: 4352: 4348: 4345: 4338:Palaeoecology 4335: 4333: 4328: 4327:Robert Ardrey 4324: 4323:parietal bone 4320: 4315: 4313: 4309: 4304: 4300: 4296: 4292: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4275: 4273: 4269: 4265: 4261: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4239: 4237: 4236:coding region 4233: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4216: 4211: 4207: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4191: 4189: 4188: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4168:(white arrow) 4167: 4162: 4153: 4150: 4146: 4142: 4138: 4133: 4131: 4125: 4122: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4105: 4095: 4093: 4089: 4083: 4081: 4077: 4073: 4069: 4065: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4048: 4044: 4040: 4036: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4020: 4015: 4013: 4009: 4006: 3996: 3987: 3985: 3981: 3977: 3973: 3969: 3965: 3960: 3956: 3952: 3947: 3943: 3937: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3915: 3911: 3907: 3903: 3899: 3894: 3890: 3887: 3883: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3866: 3862: 3858: 3854: 3844: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3803: 3800: 3796: 3795:rhesus monkey 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3763: 3759: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3719: 3710: 3708: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3664: 3660: 3659:forest plants 3652: 3644: 3640: 3635: 3633: 3629: 3625: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3604: 3600: 3596: 3592: 3588: 3583: 3581: 3577: 3573: 3568: 3564: 3560: 3556: 3552: 3548: 3539: 3528:Palaeobiology 3525: 3522: 3518: 3514: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3492: 3490: 3485: 3481: 3476: 3471: 3467: 3463: 3459: 3458:Henry McHenry 3455: 3454:David Pilbeam 3451: 3447: 3442: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3427: 3423: 3418: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3396: 3394: 3390: 3386: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3358: 3354: 3351: 3347: 3343: 3339: 3334: 3332: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3299: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3280:species. The 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3263: 3253: 3251: 3247: 3243: 3239: 3235: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3219: 3215: 3211: 3202: 3198: 3196: 3192: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3172: 3168: 3163: 3159: 3155: 3151: 3141: 3139: 3135: 3131: 3127: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3086: 3084: 3080: 3076: 3072: 3068: 3064: 3060: 3053:Blood vessels 3050: 3048: 3043: 3041: 3037: 3033: 3029: 3025: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2992: 2989: 2988:temporal bone 2985: 2981: 2977: 2973: 2961: 2956: 2952: 2950: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2934: 2930: 2926: 2921: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2902: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2880: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2857: 2853: 2849: 2845: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2815: 2805: 2796: 2772: 2766: 2751: 2750: 2742: 2741: 2733: 2732: 2724: 2723: 2715: 2714: 2711: 2710: 2709: 2702: 2701: 2698: 2697: 2694: 2693: 2692: 2685: 2684: 2678: 2677: 2674: 2673: 2670: 2669: 2668: 2661: 2660: 2654: 2653: 2650: 2649: 2646: 2645: 2644: 2643:Kenyanthropus 2637: 2636: 2633: 2632: 2629: 2628: 2627: 2620: 2619: 2613: 2612: 2609: 2608: 2605: 2604: 2603: 2596: 2595: 2589: 2588: 2584: 2583: 2568: 2567: 2559: 2558: 2550: 2549: 2546: 2545: 2544: 2537: 2536: 2533: 2532: 2529: 2528: 2527: 2520: 2519: 2513: 2512: 2509: 2508: 2500: 2499: 2496: 2495: 2494: 2487: 2486: 2483: 2482: 2479: 2478: 2477: 2470: 2469: 2463: 2462: 2456: 2455: 2451: 2450: 2435: 2434: 2426: 2425: 2417: 2416: 2408: 2407: 2404: 2403: 2402: 2395: 2394: 2391: 2390: 2387: 2386: 2385: 2378: 2377: 2371: 2370: 2367: 2366: 2363: 2362: 2361: 2354: 2353: 2347: 2346: 2343: 2342: 2339: 2338: 2337: 2330: 2329: 2323: 2322: 2318: 2317: 2309: 2307: 2303: 2299: 2295: 2291: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2263: 2259: 2255: 2251: 2247: 2243: 2239: 2235: 2231: 2227: 2223: 2213: 2212:had existed. 2211: 2207: 2203: 2199: 2195: 2191: 2190: 2185: 2181: 2177: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2160: 2158: 2154: 2150: 2146: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2126: 2122: 2118: 2114: 2110: 2106: 2105: 2099: 2097: 2093: 2089: 2085: 2081: 2077: 2073: 2069: 2065: 2061: 2060: 2051: 2050: 2045: 2044: 2039: 2035: 2031: 2025: 2020: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2006: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1981: 1976: 1972: 1968: 1963: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1945: 1941: 1937: 1936: 1931: 1924: 1919: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1904: 1902: 1898: 1897: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1876: 1872: 1866: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1855: 1850: 1849: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1835: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1818: 1814: 1810: 1806: 1805: 1800: 1799: 1794: 1790: 1785: 1783: 1779: 1775: 1771: 1767: 1763: 1759: 1758:Au. africanus 1755: 1751: 1747: 1743: 1740: 1736: 1732: 1724: 1723:P. crassidens 1718: 1716: 1712: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1696: 1691: 1689: 1685: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1656: 1651: 1647: 1642: 1639: 1628: 1619: 1618:Ancient Greek 1615: 1614: 1609: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1573: 1566: 1562: 1558: 1553: 1532: 1525: 1518: 1515: 1501: 1499: 1483: 1482:Modern humans 1477: 1472: 1471: 1461: 1455: 1450: 1449: 1439: 1433: 1428: 1427: 1418: 1414: 1413:Earliest fire 1409: 1404: 1403: 1394: 1389: 1384: 1383: 1374: 1369: 1364: 1363: 1354: 1353: 1345: 1340: 1339: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1319: 1310: 1309: 1302: 1297: 1296: 1287: 1286: 1279: 1274: 1273: 1264: 1259: 1254: 1253: 1244: 1239: 1234: 1233: 1224: 1223:Gorilla split 1219: 1214: 1213: 1204: 1199: 1194: 1193: 1176: 1161: 1148: 1147: 1145: 1133: 1131: 1117: 1115: 1109: 1107: 1101: 1099: 1098:H. antecessor 1092: 1091: 1089: 1076: 1074: 1068: 1066: 1059: 1058: 1056: 1043: 1041: 1040:Au. anamensis 1035: 1033: 1032:Au. afarensis 1027: 1025: 1024:Au. africanus 1018: 1017: 1015: 1002: 1000: 987: 985: 973: 972: 970: 957: 955: 954:O. tugenensis 949: 947: 935: 933: 922: 920: 909: 907: 896: 894: 883: 881: 870: 868: 856: 854: 848: 846: 839: 837: 826: 824: 813: 811: 799: 798: 787: 785: 774: 772: 761: 759: 641: 635: 630: 628: 623: 621: 616: 615: 609: 605: 598: 590: 588: 584: 580: 576: 572: 568: 564: 560: 556: 552: 549:society like 548: 544: 540: 536: 532: 528: 524: 516: 512: 510: 506: 502: 498: 497: 492: 488: 484: 480: 476: 472: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 448: 444: 439: 437: 436: 431: 430: 425: 421: 417: 416: 412: 408: 404: 400: 396: 392: 388: 384: 380: 376: 372: 368: 365:and possibly 364: 360: 356: 352: 351: 338: 333: 330: 326: 322: 317: 316:P. crassidens 314: 313: 311: 308: 304: 299: 294: 292: 283: 280: 279:Binomial name 276: 272: 271: 265: 262: 261: 258: 257: 250: 247: 246: 243: 240: 237: 236: 233: 230: 227: 226: 223: 220: 217: 216: 213: 210: 207: 206: 203: 200: 197: 196: 193: 190: 187: 186: 183: 180: 177: 176: 173: 170: 167: 166: 163: 160: 157: 156: 153: 150: 147: 146: 141: 136: 132: 128: 123: 119: 114: 100: 95: 90: 85: 80: 75: 70: 65: 60: 55: 50: 45: 39: 32: 26: 22: 19: 11070:Paranthropus 10922: 10895: 10883: 10871: 10738:Gender roles 10733:Intelligence 10546:Homo sapiens 10544: 10540: 10534: 10528: 10524:Homo erectus 10522: 10516: 10512:Homo habilis 10510: 10471:Manot people 10460:H. s. idaltu 10458: 10454:Jebel Irhoud 10446: 10437:Homo sapiens 10435: 10413: 10406: 10399: 10391: 10384: 10377: 10369: 10357: 10333: 10326: 10319: 10312: 10305: 10298: 10291: 10284: 10276:Homo erectus 10274: 10261: 10253: 10246: 10239: 10231: 10221:Proto-humans 10210: 10207:proto-humans 10189: 10188: 10181: 10174: 10166:Paranthropus 10164: 10152: 10145: 10138: 10131: 10126:A. anamensis 10124: 10119:A. africanus 10117: 10112:A. afarensis 10110: 10100: 10088: 10081: 10073:Ardipithecus 10071: 10059: 10052: 10045: 10038: 10017:Gibbon–human 9922: 9910: 9884: 9865: 9846: 9834: 9780: 9776: 9741: 9737: 9727: 9702: 9698: 9689: 9669: 9665:Brain, C. K. 9631: 9627: 9621: 9596: 9592: 9586: 9561: 9557: 9547: 9522: 9518: 9512: 9495: 9491: 9487: 9481: 9456: 9452: 9449:Paranthropus 9448: 9444: 9410:the original 9397: 9393: 9380: 9337: 9333: 9330:Homo erectus 9329: 9328:, and early 9326:Paranthropus 9325: 9321: 9271: 9267: 9257: 9220: 9216: 9206: 9187: 9183: 9176:Brain, C. K. 9170: 9145: 9141: 9135: 9110: 9104: 9071: 9067: 9058: 9050: 9036:cite journal 9017: 9013: 9007: 8990: 8986: 8977: 8936: 8932: 8928: 8922: 8879: 8875: 8869: 8861: 8820: 8816: 8812: 8806: 8781: 8777: 8773: 8767: 8758: 8752: 8727: 8723: 8719: 8713: 8688: 8684: 8680: 8646: 8642: 8639:Paranthropus 8638: 8634: 8600: 8596: 8590: 8568:(1): 16–17. 8565: 8561: 8555: 8539:(5–6): 1–2. 8536: 8532: 8486: 8482: 8476: 8439: 8435: 8425: 8400: 8396: 8352: 8348: 8294: 8290: 8280: 8239: 8235: 8200: 8196: 8190: 8144: 8140: 8112: 8108: 8102: 8058: 8054: 8045: 8018:(3): 73–78. 8015: 8011: 8006:Paranthropus 8005: 7997: 7972: 7968: 7962: 7921: 7917: 7913: 7871: 7867: 7861: 7836: 7832: 7829:Wrangham, R. 7789: 7785: 7772: 7747: 7743: 7740:Paranthropus 7739: 7735: 7699: 7695: 7689: 7664: 7660: 7656: 7650: 7617: 7613: 7609: 7606:Paranthropus 7605: 7571: 7567: 7558: 7534:(1): 58–70. 7531: 7527: 7497: 7493: 7484: 7465: 7456: 7415: 7411: 7408:Gould, S. J. 7398: 7373: 7369: 7365: 7359: 7322: 7318: 7308: 7263: 7259: 7249: 7214: 7210: 7204: 7200: 7192: 7151: 7147: 7143: 7137: 7092: 7088: 7082: 7074: 7049: 7045: 7039: 7014: 7010: 7006: 7000: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6961: 6936: 6932: 6926: 6909: 6905: 6901: 6895: 6863:(1): 35–36. 6860: 6856: 6801:(226): 226. 6798: 6794: 6784: 6773:the original 6744: 6740: 6705: 6696: 6663: 6659: 6655: 6646: 6621: 6617: 6613: 6599: 6582: 6578: 6568: 6557:the original 6528: 6524: 6508: 6491: 6487: 6478: 6469: 6465: 6459: 6451: 6410: 6406: 6402: 6399:Homo habilis 6398: 6392: 6365: 6361: 6312: 6308: 6298: 6289: 6285: 6235: 6231: 6226:Paranthropus 6225: 6221: 6216:Grine, F. E. 6209: 6189: 6138: 6134: 6124: 6078:(1): 38–45. 6075: 6071: 6027: 6023: 6017: 5971: 5967: 5954: 5945: 5941: 5895: 5891: 5887: 5878: 5861: 5857: 5824:(S63): 170. 5821: 5817: 5811: 5791: 5787: 5779:Paranthropus 5778: 5774: 5763: 5730: 5726: 5717: 5677:(4340): 33. 5674: 5670: 5664: 5653: 5612: 5608: 5595: 5554: 5550: 5541: 5508: 5504: 5501:White, T. D. 5461: 5457: 5420: 5416: 5410: 5378:(4132): 57. 5375: 5371: 5361: 5351: 5347:Paranthropus 5346: 5304: 5300: 5296: 5287: 5275:. Retrieved 5269:Paranthropus 5268: 5261: 5252: 5248: 5211: 5207: 5174:. Retrieved 5152: 5142: 5124: 5116: 5108: 5100: 5093:Homo habilis 5092: 5084: 5076: 5068: 5045: 5026: 5024: 5019: 5014: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4992: 4982: 4976: 4959: 4951: 4943: 4935: 4929: 4927: 4908: 4859: 4852: 4849: 4844: 4840: 4836: 4832: 4830: 4822: 4813: 4811: 4799: 4797: 4792: 4791:rather than 4789:Paranthropus 4788: 4784: 4780: 4777:Andre Keyser 4768: 4766: 4745:Dinopithecus 4744: 4740: 4734: 4728: 4720: 4715: 4713: 4707: 4702: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4678: 4676: 4648: 4646: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4621: 4617: 4615: 4610: 4594:Sterkfontein 4586: 4581: 4577: 4564:Dinopithecus 4562: 4555:Cape buffalo 4544: 4534: 4529: 4523: 4517: 4513: 4509: 4505: 4503: 4489: 4452:Paranthropus 4451: 4447: 4443: 4435: 4431: 4427: 4423: 4419: 4415: 4407: 4403: 4399: 4395: 4394: 4389: 4385: 4375: 4368: 4361: 4346: 4341: 4316: 4311: 4307: 4302: 4294: 4286: 4278: 4276: 4254: 4250: 4242: 4240: 4223: 4219: 4213: 4209: 4201: 4193: 4192: 4185: 4181: 4173: 4171: 4148: 4144: 4134: 4129: 4126: 4116: 4112: 4108: 4103: 4101: 4098:Life history 4091: 4084: 4075: 4067: 4063: 4058: 4046: 4042: 4032:premaxillary 4024:Paranthropus 4023: 4018: 4016: 4001: 3998:SKX 11 tooth 3983: 3979: 3958: 3954: 3950: 3941: 3938: 3917: 3913: 3910:marula fruit 3901: 3897: 3872: 3864: 3860: 3856: 3852: 3850: 3840:Paranthropus 3839: 3827: 3824:Paranthropus 3823: 3819: 3804: 3798: 3781: 3773: 3767: 3753: 3742: 3738: 3722: 3720: 3716: 3690: 3682: 3678: 3674: 3662: 3642: 3636: 3632:Paranthropus 3631: 3608:convergently 3602: 3594: 3591:Paranthropus 3590: 3587:Paranthropus 3586: 3584: 3580:Paranthropus 3579: 3571: 3567:Paranthropus 3566: 3562: 3558: 3555:Paranthropus 3554: 3546: 3544: 3520: 3516: 3512: 3493: 3488: 3483: 3474: 3469: 3462:Paranthropus 3461: 3445: 3443: 3438: 3434: 3430: 3425: 3421: 3416: 3413:Paranthropus 3412: 3408: 3402: 3392: 3388: 3380: 3377:big toe bone 3364: 3360: 3357:femoral head 3345: 3341: 3337: 3335: 3322: 3318: 3277: 3273: 3265: 3259: 3249: 3245: 3229: 3224:and smaller 3217: 3213: 3207: 3190: 3186: 3178: 3153: 3147: 3137: 3133: 3101: 3098:Paranthropus 3097: 3093: 3087: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3066: 3062: 3058: 3056: 3046: 3044: 3039: 3035: 3027: 3019: 3015: 3008:Paranthropus 3007: 3003: 3000:frontal bone 2993: 2979: 2975: 2971: 2969: 2959: 2948: 2940: 2936: 2922: 2917: 2909: 2905: 2903: 2862: 2861: 2827: 2824:Paranthropus 2823: 2821: 2770: 2764: 2706: 2705: 2689: 2688: 2666: 2665: 2664: 2641: 2640: 2624: 2623: 2602:A. africanus 2600: 2599: 2541: 2540: 2524: 2523: 2492: 2491: 2490: 2476:A. africanus 2474: 2473: 2400: 2399: 2398: 2382: 2381: 2358: 2357: 2336:A. africanus 2334: 2333: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2293: 2289: 2286:Paranthropus 2285: 2277: 2273: 2269: 2265: 2261: 2257: 2253: 2242:paraphyletic 2238:monophyletic 2233: 2229: 2222:Paranthropus 2221: 2219: 2209: 2205: 2201: 2198:Paranthropus 2197: 2193: 2187: 2184:KNM WT 17000 2171: 2167: 2164:Paranthropus 2163: 2161: 2156: 2148: 2144: 2140: 2136: 2133:Paranthropus 2132: 2128: 2125:Paranthropus 2124: 2120: 2116: 2113:Tim D. White 2102: 2100: 2095: 2091: 2087: 2084:sister taxon 2080:Paranthropus 2079: 2071: 2063: 2057: 2055: 2047: 2043:Paranthropus 2041: 2023: 2008: 2000: 1996: 1992: 1988: 1985:Paranthropus 1984: 1980:Indopithecus 1978: 1974: 1966: 1964: 1959: 1955: 1951: 1939: 1933: 1929: 1927: 1922: 1911: 1907: 1905: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1867: 1858: 1852: 1848:Homo erectus 1846: 1843:Meganthropus 1842: 1838: 1834:Meganthropus 1832: 1828: 1824: 1816: 1809:Paranthropus 1808: 1802: 1796: 1793:Paranthropus 1792: 1786: 1782:Paranthropus 1781: 1773: 1769: 1766:Pa. robustus 1765: 1761: 1757: 1734: 1730: 1728: 1722: 1702: 1694: 1692: 1676:Sterkfontein 1671: 1663: 1653: 1646:Raymond Dart 1643: 1613:Paranthropus 1611: 1607: 1580:Robert Broom 1569: 1564: 1510: 1495: 1351: 1307: 1285:Ardipithecus 1284: 1203:Earlier apes 1160:Neanderthals 1144:Homo sapiens 1141: 1140: 1127: 1111: 1103: 1095: 1085: 1084: 1070: 1062: 1052: 1051: 1037: 1029: 1021: 1011: 1010: 996: 981: 969:Ardipithecus 966: 965: 951: 943: 929: 916: 903: 893:Sivapithecus 890: 880:Oreopithecus 877: 864: 850: 842: 833: 820: 807: 795: 781: 768: 753: 582: 566: 558: 542: 538: 514: 513: 504: 500: 494: 490: 486: 466: 440: 434: 433: 427: 420:Paranthropus 419: 415:Paranthropus 413: 407:type species 387:Sterkfontein 375:South Africa 349: 348: 347: 331: 315: 290: 285: 269: 268: 256:Paranthropus 255: 208:Infraorder: 24: 18: 10947:Wikispecies 10669:Grandmother 10624:Shore-based 10585:Aquatic ape 10476:Tam Pa Ling 10371:H. ergaster 10190:P. robustus 9928:Smithsonian 9552:Kuman, K.; 9190:: 389–391. 8993:(1–3): 84. 8115:(1): 1–19. 7404:Pilbeam, D. 7376:(1): 7–15. 6604:Brown, B.; 5423:(1): 1–14. 5101:Homo naledi 4952:Megantereon 4760:GDA-2 from 4699:oval window 4667:springhares 4490:P. robustus 4396:P. robustus 4370:Megantereon 4264:gum disease 4232:molar teeth 4194:P. robustus 3990:Development 3889:stone tools 3877:Makapansgat 3754:P. robustus 3501:chimpanzees 3350:anisotropic 3222:iliac blade 3183:Turkana Boy 3175:chimpanzees 2883:eye sockets 2867:prognathism 2863:P. robustus 2836:cheek teeth 2822:Typical of 2765:P. robustus 2667:P. robustus 2493:P. robustus 2401:P. robustus 2176:Alan Walker 2153:Little Foot 2076:KNM ER 3733 1973:Pakistani " 1754:subfamilies 1680:Pleistocene 1674:) from the 1668:synonymised 1660:Taung child 1106:H. ergaster 999:Ar. ramidus 984:Ar. kadabba 946:O. praegens 784:Pleistocene 613:This box: 545:lived in a 515:P. robustus 509:arboreality 455:cheek teeth 451:bite forces 228:Subfamily: 212:Simiiformes 31:Pleistocene 11059:Categories 10708:Skin color 10693:Bipedalism 10654:Killer ape 10466:Cro-Magnon 10365:Denisovans 10241:H. habilis 10205:Humans and 10090:A. ramidus 10083:A. kadabba 8355:: 87–101. 7778:Walker, A. 7667:(6): 338. 7608:and Early 7350:2263/71976 6624:(2): 157. 6606:Walker, A. 6292:: 189–197. 5960:Walker, A. 5898:: 102634. 5733:(4): 393. 5176:2021-04-19 5134:References 5042:endangered 4989:Extinction 4954:, and the 4855:specimen. 4741:T. oswaldi 4628:suggested 4605:suggested 4553:, and the 4551:wildebeest 4500:Swartkrans 4206:baby teeth 4072:perikymata 3926:long bones 3847:Technology 3814:) in male 3790:matrilocal 3786:patrilocal 3731:polygamous 3624:Greg Laden 3551:specialist 3505:orangutans 3480:ankle bone 3385:gait cycle 3226:acetabulum 3130:bipedalism 3114:transverse 3012:cerebellum 2891:bite force 2246:affinities 2220:The genus 2139:, because 2068:KNM-ER 406 2005:cladistics 1863:orangutans 1746:great apes 1699:Swartkrans 1175:Denisovans 1114:Au. sediba 1088:H. erectus 1055:H. habilis 845:Ou. turkae 563:patrilocal 424:synonymous 383:Swartkrans 357:of robust 202:Haplorhini 198:Suborder: 10827:Theorists 10794:Timelines 10674:Patriarch 10650:Behavior 10575:Gathering 10503:Ancestors 10248:H. naledi 10183:P. boisei 10154:A. sediba 9918:' website 9831:Broom, R. 9525:: 10–15. 9406:201632920 9400:: 39–40. 9372:214763272 9274:: 72–82. 9223:: e1941. 9127:132416831 9074:: 54–61. 8617:144176681 8582:163033909 8379:135196415 8169:205225222 8083:195786562 7825:Laden, G. 7702:: 75–93. 7217:: 12–24. 6315:: 67–80. 6171:259657320 6116:226296091 5920:201209318 5769:Broom, R. 5645:102353734 5200:Broom, R. 4964:sinkholes 4944:Dinofelis 4913:Predation 4673:Kromdraai 4663:ostriches 4580:outlived 4363:Dinofelis 4355:elephants 4344:springbok 4301:, unless 4156:Pathology 3964:wildfires 3930:mandibles 3886:Acheulean 3772:ratio of 3695:strontium 3576:mandrills 3511:. Female 3439:africanus 3373:cartilage 3363:or early 3150:vertebrae 3106:occipital 3024:Dean Falk 2929:inner ear 2895:lever arm 2848:premolars 2830:exhibits 2708:P. boisei 2580:Monophyly 2543:P. boisei 2447:Paraphyly 2384:P. boisei 2314:Monophyly 2046:species, 2024:P. boisei 2013:Homininae 2001:africanus 1889:(African 1821:splitting 1742:Hominidae 1638:ánthropos 1547:Discovery 1073:Au. garhi 463:premolars 379:Kromdraai 361:from the 263:Species: 232:Homininae 222:Hominidae 158:Kingdom: 152:Eukaryota 11003:11419625 10961:BioLib: 10932:Wikidata 10873:Category 10728:Language 10698:Skeleton 10393:H. longi 10147:A. garhi 9984:Hominins 9979:Taxonomy 9845:(1972). 9813:49668495 9805:29988081 9719:11102267 9648:10444355 9613:24012253 9578:10835264 9364:32241925 9298:27178459 9249:27114884 9178:(1972). 9096:85502058 9088:30904040 9020:(1): 2. 8705:24820665 8663:16288970 8468:11171955 8323:28418109 8272:32900905 8264:18048687 8161:21637256 8075:31265762 7989:11102267 7954:22291574 7946:17095699 7896:86632664 7853:16085279 7780:(1981). 7764:14871560 7716:26094042 7681:83620946 7642:26326715 7634:11782111 7448:23346637 7300:32229560 7241:14060188 7233:29706230 7129:24339873 7089:PLOS ONE 6992:18884223 6953:10068067 6887:10999270 6835:31842740 6769:13290661 6702:Falk, D. 6688:34922603 6652:Falk, D. 6553:18886132 6545:10799260 6514:Falk, D. 6435:25739632 6384:17105037 6356:(1947). 6337:73466797 6329:30777359 6262:18522924 6163:37430164 6108:33168991 6046:18046746 5912:31446970 5870:41462378 5840:28105715 5771:(1939). 5755:84325204 5701:13025468 5661:(1953). 5637:30962558 5579:14826894 5478:13188956 5437:15410860 5394:18106151 5202:(1938). 5056:See also 4972:Bushveld 4968:Highveld 4867:(in mya) 4864:timeline 4860:African 4569:warthogs 4440:refugium 4351:giraffes 4247:cavities 4218:, early 3906:reworked 3778:dolomite 3703:cementum 3599:omnivore 3509:gorillas 3298:arboreal 3158:thoracic 3067:robustus 2840:incisors 2210:robustus 2017:Ponginae 1877:" with " 1750:Pongidae 1715:Drimolen 1711:Cooper's 1707:Gondolin 1688:Pliocene 1633:άνθρωπος 1600:hominins 797:Hominini 771:Pliocene 593:Taxonomy 575:leopards 551:gorillas 535:termites 447:stresses 409:for the 403:hominins 399:Drimolen 395:Cooper's 391:Gondolin 337:Washburn 325:Robinson 307:Synonyms 242:Hominini 218:Family: 192:Primates 182:Mammalia 172:Chordata 168:Phylum: 162:Animalia 148:Domain: 11016:3607708 10990:4827640 10977:4454196 10938:Q310529 10885:Commons 10837:Fossils 10703:Muscles 10614:Cooking 10570:Hunting 10047:Orrorin 9785:Bibcode 9744:(7–8). 9527:Bibcode 9461:Bibcode 9334:Science 9289:4874949 9240:4841245 9162:2656976 9111:bioRxiv 8969:4151860 8961:4568405 8941:Bibcode 8914:4289836 8906:4699060 8884:Bibcode 8853:4151860 8845:4568405 8825:Bibcode 8798:5120556 8744:3933358 8511:4318364 8491:Bibcode 8405:Bibcode 8357:Bibcode 8314:5442144 8244:Bibcode 8236:Science 7926:Bibcode 7918:Science 7888:4602571 7808:6115407 7588:1882979 7536:Bibcode 7440:4219964 7420:Bibcode 7412:Science 7390:3189526 7327:Bibcode 7291:7165455 7268:Bibcode 7184:3129783 7176:1701549 7156:Bibcode 7148:Science 7120:3855051 7097:Bibcode 7066:2672829 7031:2024712 6906:Geobios 6878:1468107 6826:6916256 6803:Bibcode 6761:9547457 6668:Bibcode 6638:8317557 6443:4470282 6415:Bibcode 6375:1272827 6253:2610159 6143:Bibcode 6080:Bibcode 5996:4270200 5976:Bibcode 5948:(1): 2. 5747:2740331 5679:Bibcode 5617:Bibcode 5587:4207075 5559:Bibcode 5513:Bibcode 5505:Science 5402:4126221 5321:3034503 5277:20 June 5216:Bibcode 4993:Though 4979:impalas 4940:leopard 4862:hominin 4695:cochlea 4630:StW 505 4607:StW 505 4541:Olduvai 4039:maxilla 4012:bonobos 4005:indriid 3893:Oldowan 3832:display 3637:A 2006 3597:was an 3369:kneecap 3286:flexion 3262:humerus 2927:in the 2844:canines 2775:Anatomy 2226:gracile 1977:" (now 1971:Miocene 1666:" (now 1641:, man. 1584:humerus 1572:TM 1517 1557:TM 1517 1474:← 1452:← 1430:← 1417:cooking 1406:← 1386:← 1366:← 1342:← 1322:← 1299:← 1276:← 1256:← 1236:← 1216:← 1196:← 932:Orrorin 757:Miocene 740:– 730:– 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