Plaçage - Knowledge

293: 700:, began renting a dance hall in New Orleans where he threw twice weekly dances for free quadroon women and white men only. This was an innovation in New Orleans at the time: balls for free women of colour had been held in New Orleans in the 1790s, but they had been opened for both white men and free men of colour, the latter of whom could marry the women rather than form a placage with them, and these new balls exclusively for free quadroon women and white men was therefore more closely associated with the placage system, introducing a Dominguan custom to New Orleans. 368:, who was two years her junior. At the onset of their plaçage, she was already the mother of five children; she would have ten more with Métoyer. In 1778, he freed her after the parish priest filed charges against Coincoin as a "public concubine" and threatened to have her sold at New Orleans if they did not end their relationship. As a free woman, she remained with Métoyer until 1788, when his growing fortune persuaded him to take a wife who could provide legal heirs. (He chose another Marie Thérèse, a white Créole of French and German birth.) 717:

block, where light skinned girls fetched much higher prices than did prime field hands. Guillory posits the quadroon balls as the best among severely limited options for these near-white women, a way for them to control their sexuality and decide the price of their own bodies. She contends: "The most a mulatto mother and a quadroon daughter could hope to attain in the rigid confines of the black/white world was some semblance of economic independence and social distinction from the slaves and other blacks".

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After securing a colonial patent on her homestead in 1794, she petitioned for and was given a land concession from the Spanish crown. On that piney-woods tract of 800 arpents (667 ac) on Old Red River, about 5 mi from her farmstead, she set up a vacherie (a ranch) and engaged a Spaniard to tend her cattle. Shortly before her death in 1816, Coincoin sold her homestead and divided her remaining property (her piney-woods land, the three African slaves, and their offspring) among her own progeny.

272:(female street or country merchant/vendor), or a seamstress. She could also become a placée to another white Creole. She sometimes taught her daughters to become placées, by education and informal schooling in dress, comportment, and ways to behave. A mother negotiated with a young man for the dowry or property settlement, sometimes by contract, for her daughter if a white Creole were interested in her. A former placée could also marry or cohabit with a Creole man of color and have more children. 437: 185:

they were wealthy enough. When the women had children, they were sometimes emancipated along with their children. Both the woman and her children might assume the surnames of the man. When Creole men reached an age when they were expected to marry, some also kept their relationships with their placées, but that was less common. A wealthy white man could have two (or more) families: one legal and the other not. Their mixed-race children became the nucleus of the class of

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daughters with white men they had met at a quadroon ball. Instead, there was a broad range of relationships between free women of color and white men that originated in a variety of ways and often lasted for life. For an enslaved woman in late colonial New Orleans, entering into a sexual relationship with a white man who was not her owner could sometimes be a path to freedom, as it was for one of the women I write about, Agnes Mathieu.

375:, about 68 acres (28 ha) of unpatented land, adjacent to his plantation, to help support their free-born offspring. On that modest tract, Coincoin planted tobacco, a valuable commodity in the struggling colony. She and her children trapped bears and wild turkeys for sales of meat, hide, and oil locally and at the New Orleans market. She also manufactured medicine, a skill shared by her formerly enslaved sister Marie Louise 281: 623: 321:, wrote histories that did not address plaçage in much detail. They suggested that little race-mixing had occurred during the colonial period and that the placées had seduced or led white Creole men astray. They wrote that the French Creoles, in the sense of having long been native to Louisiana, were ethnic Europeans who were threatened, like other Southern whites, by the spectre of 664:) or openly kept as mistresses. When their male client died or left to settle in France for their retirement, they were normally left with money, property, or slaves for their future support. This was a common background for free colored businesswomen, among whom the most famous were Nanette Pincemaille (d. 1784), Anne Laporte (d. 1783), 384:

left Cane River, soon after the birth of their son, she formed a second and lifelong plaçage with a Cane River planter, Jean Baptiste Anty. As a second-generation entrepreneur, Susanne became far more successful than her mother and died in 1838 leaving an estate of $ 61,600 (equivalent to $ 1,500,000 in 2009 currency).

574:). Paris either died, disappeared or deliberately abandoned her (some accounts also relate that he was a merchant seaman or sailor in the navy) after she produced a daughter. Laveau was styling herself as the Widow Paris and was a hairdresser for white matrons (she was also reckoned to be an herbalist and 1471:

It is clear that the differences in admixture proportions observed between African American groups cannot simply be explained in terms of geography. For example, the admixture proportions in New Orleans (22.5%) are higher than in most African American communities in the northeast. Both the geographic

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as the mistress of a wealthy gentleman, usually a young white Creole or a visiting European. These arrangements were a common occurrence, Guillory suggests, because the highly educated, socially refined quadroons were prohibited from marrying white men and were unlikely to find Black men of their own

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with his white family. He often kept a second address in the city to use for entertaining and socializing among the white elite. He had built or bought a house for his placée and their children. She and her children were part of the society of Creoles of color. The white world might not recognize the

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White male colonists, often the younger sons of noblemen, military men, and planters, who needed to accumulate some wealth before they could marry, had women of color as consorts before marriage or in some cases after their first wives died. Merchants and administrators also followed that practice if

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Monique Guillory writes about quadroon balls that took place in New Orleans, the city most strongly associated with these events. She approaches the balls in context of the history of a building the structure of which is now the Bourbon Orleans Hotel. Inside is the Orleans Ballroom, a legendary, if

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as a man of color to live with her under respectable circumstances—thus explaining the confusion many historians have had whether he was truly white or black. Although it is popularly thought that Marie presented Dumesnil de Glapion with fifteen children, only five are listed in vital statistics and

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As often happened among the children of plaçages, Coincoin's one surviving daughter by Métoyer, Marie Susanne, became a placée also. As a young woman, apparently with the blessing of both parents, she entered into a relationship with a newly arrived physician, Joseph Conant from New Orleans. When he

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Emily Clark has challenged the popular notion of plaçage as being a systemic practice based on contractual marriages, and proposes that the practice largely consisted of a broad range of relationships between free women of color and white men that originated in various ways, which often lasted for a

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complained that Paris sent the settlers unsuitable former prostitutes as wives. The custom of sending brides from France was therefore discontinued in the French West Indies in the mid-18th century, which benefitted the development of a placage system there. A new colonisation policy was adopted in

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According to Guillory, the system of plaçage had a basis in the economics of mixed race. The plaçage of black women with white lovers, Guillory writes, could take place only because of the socially determined value of their light skin, the same light skin that commanded a higher price on the slave

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A quadroon's mother usually negotiated with an admirer the compensation that would be received for having the woman as his mistress. Typical terms included some financial payment to the parent, financial and/or housing arrangements for the quadroon herself, and, many times, paternal recognition of

538:(having relatives, lovers, and even children on this side of the color line). Consequently, much of Faubourg Marigny was built by free black artisans for free people of color or for French-speaking white Creoles. Rochon remained largely illiterate, dying in 1863 at the age of 96, leaving behind an 729:

According to Suarez-Kurtz, there is genetic evidence for the impact of plaçage in New Orleans. African Americans in New Orleans have significantly higher European ancestry than African Americans residing in the northern United States. Furthermore, they note that African Americans from New Orleans

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The quadroon balls were elegant and elaborate, designed to appeal to wealthy white men. Although race mixing was prohibited by New Orleans law, it was common for white gentleman to attend the balls, sometimes stealing away from white balls to mingle with the city's quadroon female population. The

499:. During her sojourn there, Hardy must have died or relinquished his relationship with her; for in 1797 during the Haitian Revolution, she escaped to New Orleans, where she later became the placée of Joseph Forstal and then after his death, Charles Populus, both wealthy white New Orleans Creoles. 379:

Mariotte and likely one acquired from their African-born parents. With this money, she progressively bought the freedom of four of her first five children and several grandchildren, before investing in three African-born slaves to provide the physical labor that became more difficult as she aged.

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came to constitute a third class in New Orleans and other former French cities between the white Creoles and the mass of black slaves. They had certain status and rights and often acquired education and property. Later, their descendants became leaders in New Orleans, held political office in the

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with the same names, Leveaux could also have been another free man of color who owned slaves and property as well. All three may have escaped Haiti along with thousands of other Creole whites and Creoles of color during the slave uprisings that culminated in the French colony's becoming the only

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Modern archaeological work at the site of Coincoin's farmstead is documenting some of the aspects of her domestic life. A mid-nineteenth century dwelling, now dubbed the Coincoin-Prudhomme House although it was not the actual site of her residence, commemorates her within the Cane River National

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Contrary to popular misconceptions, placées were not and did not become prostitutes. Creole men of color objected to the practice as denigrating the virtue of Creole women of color, but some, as descendants of white males, benefited by the transfer of social capital. Martin writes, "They did not

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Through warfare and raids, Native American women were often captured to be traded, sold, or taken as wives. At first, the colony generally imported African men to use as slave labor because of the heavy work of clearing to develop plantations. Over time, it also imported African women as slaves.

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The plaçage system developed from the predominance of men among early colonial populations, who took women as consorts from Native Americans, free women of color and enslaved Africans. In this period there was a shortage of European women, as the colonies were dominated in the early day by male

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In the French colony, the male population outnumbered women, white women were few, and there were few alternatives to prostitution for free women of color. The colony was known in the Caribbean for its "mulatto courtesans", whose trademark was elegance, a haughty demeanor, and the demand to be

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in 1806. Bernard de Marigny, the Creole speculator, refused to sell the lots he was subdividing from his family plantation to anyone who spoke English. While this turned out to be a losing financial decision, Marigny felt more comfortable with the French-speaking, Catholic free people of color

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is a fractional term referring to a person with one white and one mulatto parent, some courts would have considered one-fourth Black. The "quadroon balls" were social events designed to encourage mixed-race women to form liaisons with wealthy white men through a system of concubinage known as

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Dr. Clark: Let me say first that "plaçage" as a notion is as problematic as the mythic quadroon. There was really no such thing -- even the term itself comes from a 20th-century Haitian practice, not from 19th-century New Orleans. There was no system of mothers brokering placements for their

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Upon the death of her protector, the placée and her family could, on legal challenge, expect up to a third of the man's property. Some white lovers made their mixed-race children primary heirs over other white descendants or relatives. A notable inheritance case was the daughters of

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in 1791 until the Dominguan refuge colony in Cuba was ousted in 1809. These were white, black, and free people of color who were used to the plaçage system in Saint Domingue and who introduced a more formalized form of plaçage as well as the famous quadroon balls to New Orleans.

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queen of New Orleans, was born between 1795 and 1801 as the daughter of a mulatto business owner, Charles Leveaux, and his mixed Black and Native American placée Marguerite Darcantel (or D'Arcantel). Because there were so many whites as well as free people of color in

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Given the harsh conditions in the colonies, persuading women to follow the men was not easy. France sent women convicted along with their debtor husbands and in 1719 deported 209 women felons "who were of a character to be sent to the French settlement in Louisiana."

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origin of the enslaved Africans imported to Louisiana and their status during the French domination have been distinct from what occurred in the British Colonies, and there have been historical accounts of substantial intermarriage in the New Orleans area.

472:, contested the will. The court upheld his will. After Eulalie's death, their surviving children defeated another attempt by Macarty's relatives to claim his estate, by then worth more than $ 150,000. Eulalie de Mandéville de Macarty became a successful 713:

any children the union produced. Guillory points out that some of these matches were as enduring and exclusive as marriages. A beloved quadroon mistress had the power to destabilize white marriages and families, something she was much resented for.

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She notes that many participants in the balls were successful in actual businesses when they could no longer rely on an income from the plaçage system. She speculates they developed business acumen from the process of marketing their own bodies.

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have the highest rate of European male haplogroups, with 47% of New Orleans black men carrying a European haplogroup. This supports the historical record of mass intermarriages between white men and black women in New Orleans and the south.

606:—lived to adulthood. Marie Euchariste closely resembled her mother and startled many who thought that Marie Leveau had been resurrected by the black arts, or could be at two places at once, beliefs that the daughter did little to correct. 247:

For a time, both boys and girls were educated in France, as there were no schools in New Orleans for mixed-race children. As supporting such a plaçage arrangement ran into thousands of dollars per year, it was limited to the wealthy.

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courted. As there were no brothels in the colony and sex workers worked independently, these balls were the place where the most exclusive courtesans met their clients. Having met, they were set up as the official housekeeper (

244:. If the man was not married, he might keep a separate residence, preferably next door or in the same or next block as his placée. He often took part in and arranged for the upbringing and education of their children. 1582:, (An abridged translation from the original French by Stuart O. Landry) by C.C. Robin, Pelican Publishing Co., 1966. (Robin visited Louisiana just after its purchase by the Americans and resided there for two years.) 228:

and plantations. Particularly during the Spanish colonial era, a woman might be listed as owning slaves, who were sometimes relatives whom she intended to free after she had earned enough money to buy their freedom.

48:. They became institutionalized with contracts or negotiations that settled property on the woman and her children and, in some cases, gave them freedom if they were enslaved. The system flourished throughout the 2075: 218:

By 1788, 1,500 Creole women of color and black women were being maintained by white men. Certain customs had evolved. It was common for a wealthy, married Creole to live primarily outside New Orleans on his

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Gayarré, when younger, was said to have taken a woman of color as his placée, and she had their children to his later shame. He married a white woman late in life. His earlier experience inspired his novel

495:), and his mulâtresse slave-consort Marianne, who bore him five other children. Once Rosette reached a suitable age, she became the consort of a Monsieur Hardy, with whom she relocated to the colony of 1912: 156:, an order of nuns, chaperoned the casket girls until they married. Martin writes that some Creole families who today identify as white had ancestors during the colonial period who were African or 506:; she eventually owned rental property, opened grocery stores, made loans, bought and sold mortgages, and owned and rented out (hired out) slaves. She also traveled extensively back and forth to 1576:, by Bernhard, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach; William Jeronimus and C.J. Jeronimus, University Press of America, 2001. (The Duke relates his visits to quadroon balls as a tourist in New Orleans.) 412:

There were many other examples of white Creole fathers who reared and carefully and quietly placed their daughters of color with the sons of known friends or family members. This occurred with

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which male colonists from France merely came to the colony to make their fortune and returned to France after a few years during which they did not marry but lived with a free woman of colour.

1611: (archived 6 December 2000), History of 918 Barracks Street in the French Quarter, where Eugène Macarty purchased and then built another home for his placée, Eulalie Mandeville (fwc; for 579: 449: 59:

The system may have been most widely practiced in New Orleans, where planter society had created enough wealth to support the system. It also took place in the Latin-influenced cities of

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with relatives on both sides of the color line. It has been alleged that Dumesnil de Glapion was so in love with Marie, he refused to live separately from his placée according to racial

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depicting "comfort women" embarking unwillingly for the Americas. Whether "comfort women," "casket girls," or aristocrats, French women were reluctant to migrate to the French colonies.

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was married and was said to have had numerous, complex affairs with Creole women of color. When he died, several women made claims on behalf of their children against his estate.

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The placage system first developed in Saint-Domingue. France sent women from the poor houses to the West Indies, but they had the reputation of also being former prostitutes from

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Historian Joan Martin maintains that there is little documentation that "casket girls", considered among the ancestors of white French Creoles, were brought to Louisiana. The

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was a recognized extralegal system in French and Spanish slave colonies of North America (including the Caribbean) by which ethnic European men entered into civil unions with

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Violet Harrington Bryan, "Marcus Christian's Treatment of Les Gens de Couleur Libre", in Creole, edited by Sybil Kein, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 2000.

2397: 903:. A historical romance following the life of Sylvia Dupont, a young woman raised to be a placée. Dupont marries a free man of color and struggles with the consequences. 468:

On his deathbed in 1845, Eugène de Macarty married Eulalie. He willed her all of his money and property, then worth $ 12,000. His white relatives, including his niece,

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Caryn Cosse Bell, "The Real Marie Laveau", review of Voodoo Queen: The Spirited Lives of Marie Laveau, by Martha Ward, University Press of Mississippi, Jackson, 2004.

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Heritage Area. Popular lore also has, erroneously, credited her with the ownership of a Cane River plantation founded by her son Louis Metoyer, known today as

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The women in those relationships often worked to develop assets: acquiring property, running a legitimate rooming-house, or a small business as a hairdresser,

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While in New Orleans (or other cities), the man would cohabit with the placée as an official "boarder" at her Creole cottage or house. Many were located near

1652: 519: 3992: 2002: 3997: 1987: 1601: (archived 29 June 2006), Creole genealogical newsletter, dated 20 June 2003, on the genealogy of Marie Laveau, also related to the Trudeaus, page 5. 1015:

Aslakson, Kenneth (2012). "The 'Quadroon-Plaçage' Myth of Antebellum New Orleans: Anglo-American (Mis)Interpretations of a French-Caribbean Phenomenon".

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Katy F. Morlas, "La Madame et la Mademoiselle," graduate thesis in history, Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College, 2003

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features a protagonist, Aveline de Grandpre, who is a free woman of color in 1760s New Orleans, the daughter of a French merchant and his placée.

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in New Orleans, once the demarcation line or wall between the city and the frontier. Other popular neighborhoods for Creoles of color were the

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lifetime. Genetic evidence strongly supports the historical record of mass intermarriages between white men and women of color in New Orleans.

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in the late 18th and the early 19th centuries, many refugees came to New Orleans, adding a new wave of French-speaking free people of color.

796:. A young man is engaged to a woman until it is found out that he is already involved with a placée in New Orleans and has a child with her. 3003: 2047: 2022: 1072: 143:) to their colonies for marriage to both Canada and Louisiana. France recruited willing farm- and city-dwelling women, known as casket or 2928: 2502: 2225: 972: 401: 589:

practitioner (she would not be declared a "queen" until about 1830), and Dumesnil de Glapion was a fiftyish white Creole veteran of the

2215: 1943: 1727: 420:. Taken from her enslaved mother as a baby, and partly raised by a white grandmother, 22-year-old Eulalie was "placed" by her father, 3957: 3562: 2551: 2179: 977: 3157: 2087: 2007: 4022: 4002: 1378: 1172: 510:, where her son by Hardy had become a government official in the new republic. Her social circle in New Orleans once included 4017: 2497: 2447: 2260: 1495: 1457: 1245: 265:, successfully petitioned the US government in the 1830s to intercede on their behalf to secure a portion of Vidal's estate. 224:

placée as a wife legally and socially, but she was recognized as such among the Creoles of color. Some of the women acquired

1397: 428:, a member of the famous French-Irish clan in 1796. Their alliance resulted in five children and lasted almost fifty years. 3977: 2407: 2250: 1877: 1842: 1103: 1104:"Quadroons for Beginners: Discussing the Suppressed and Sexualized History of Free Women of Color with Author Emily Clark" 2452: 2402: 2392: 2097: 1962: 1917: 1822: 1782: 933: 1592: 352:

Coincoin became an icon of black female entrepreneurship in colonial Louisiana. She was born at the frontier outpost of

3982: 3720: 2944: 2330: 1882: 1872: 1867: 1847: 891:– 1971 film following preparation of prostitutes for presentation at the annual Quadroon Ball set in 1835 New Orleans. 442:

Portrait of Bernard de Marigny, flamboyant Creole millionaire and the half-brother of Eulalie de Mandéville de Macarty

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in the 1830s. His mother and half-sister are also featured; both are placées. His wife is the daughter of a placée.

1604: 1364: 3947: 3145: 2462: 1922: 1887: 1792: 1767: 1630: (archived 5 December 2004), located on 1515 Pauger Street, Marigny, New Orleans. This house, which survived 867: 404:, the spiritual center of Cane River's large community of Creoles of color who trace their heritage to Coincoin. 3901: 3493: 2913: 2107: 1907: 1857: 1837: 1812: 1802: 1787: 1777: 1762: 1742: 1717: 1707: 1697: 644: 1623: 1574:

Travels by His Highness Duke Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach through North America in the years 1825 and 1826

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Creole women of color out taking the air, from a watercolor series by Édouard Marquis, New Orleans, 1867

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The Strange History of the American Quadroon − Free Women of Color in the Revolutionary Atlantic World

859:, in her "Formation" music video, features visuals of placées. This song was released 6 February 2016. 3952: 3757: 2918: 2472: 2325: 1017: 598: 454:

Portrait of Augustin de Macarty, military man, mayor of New Orleans, and brother of Eugène de Macarty

491:, the daughter of Pierre Rochon, a shipbuilder from a Québécois family (family name was Rocheron in 3225: 3135: 2825: 2266: 258: 875:

about a young man making his way in Creole New Orleans. it was adapted as a film by the same name.

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Monique Guillory, "Under One Roof: The Sins and Sanctity of the New Orleans Quadroon Balls", 68-9

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American State Papers: Documents, Legislative and Executive, of the Congress of the United States

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Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century

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Monique Guillory, "Under One Roof: The Sins and Sanctity of the New Orleans Quadroon Balls", in

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Monique Guillory, "Under One Roof: The Sins and Sanctity of the New Orleans Quadroon Balls", 83

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Monique Guillory, "Under One Roof: The Sins and Sanctity of the New Orleans Quadroon Balls", 82

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Monique Guillory, "Under One Roof: The Sins and Sanctity of the New Orleans Quadroon Balls", 81

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Monique Guillory, "Under One Roof: The Sins and Sanctity of the New Orleans Quadroon Balls", 80

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Creole woman of color with maid, from a watercolor series by Édouard Marquis, New Orleans, 1867

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Mills, Elizabeth Shown. "Which Marie Louise is 'Mariotte'? Sorting Slaves with Common Names."

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with an intended white bride, especially if she was of high rank, was not permitted socially.

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men during that period often did not marry until their late twenties or their early thirties.

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In the late 19th and the early 20th centuries, after Reconstruction and the reassertion of

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meaning "to place with". The women were not legally recognized as wives but were known as

8: 3792: 3787: 3739: 3710: 3682: 3600: 3483: 3441: 3272: 2781: 2699: 2487: 985: 462: 149:, because they brought all their possessions to the colonies in a small trunk or casket. 136: 112: 64: 45: 3610: 3451: 3300: 3279: 3235: 3162: 3150: 3090: 3085: 3012: 2970: 2560: 2507: 2482: 2434: 1034: 680: 534: 417: 389: 196: 76: 2686: 856: 314: 3674: 3660: 3628: 3590: 3515: 3505: 3363: 3308: 3293: 3206: 3184: 3174: 3112: 3107: 3080: 3031: 2949: 2719: 1631: 1491: 1453: 1241: 1042: 925: 792: 594: 3906: 3896: 3865: 3386: 3343: 3220: 2588: 2112: 1937: 1379:

Blue Coat Or Powdered Wig: Free People of Color in Pre-revolutionary Saint Domingue

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of African, Native American and mixed-race descent. The term comes from the French

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Chained to the Rock of Adversity, To Be Free, Black & Female in the Old South,

318: 3833: 3715: 3542: 3410: 3381: 3371: 3251: 3194: 3189: 3095: 3063: 2748: 2731: 2271: 2199: 2137: 1627: 1608: 1598: 1545:, by Arnold R. Hirsch and Joseph Logsdon, Louisiana State University Press, 1992. 1189: 917: 853:, is about placée Leah Bonvivier, and her wealthy Creole lover Baptiste Fontaine. 781: 488: 469: 310: 191: 68: 23: 649: 3821: 3816: 3572: 3547: 3456: 3376: 3348: 3326: 3318: 3286: 3258: 3199: 3167: 3053: 3041: 3026: 2704: 2648: 2580: 1637: 995: 833: 819: 809: 804: 749: 739: 697: 676: 665: 653: 503: 496: 484: 233: 173: 145: 116: 80: 1555:

Afristocracy: Free Women of Color and the Politics of Race, Class, and Culture

916:– a 2000 TV movie on the founder of the Sisters of the Holy Family, featuring 3941: 3874: 3828: 3645: 3595: 3353: 3240: 3117: 3036: 2908: 2903: 2672: 2663: 2658: 2424: 2174: 2117: 872: 212: 1192:, edited by Sybil Kein, Louisiana State University Press, Baton Rouge, 2000. 3891: 2876: 1046: 842:. This series of novels features Benjamin January, a free man of color, in 575: 550: 539: 515: 511: 1618: 360:

in August 1742 as a slave of the post founder, the controversial explorer

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Bounded Lives, Bounded Places: Free Black Society in Colonial New Orleans

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Count Pierre Enguerrand Philippe, Écuyer de Mandéville, Sieur de Marigny

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principal desire of quadroon women attending these balls was to become

357: 261:, a former high official in Spanish Louisiana, who, with their mother, 56:

periods, reaching its zenith during the latter, between 1769 and 1803.

2792: 1275:(Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 2009), chap. 1, pages 10–29 280: 123: 3848: 3762: 3552: 3431: 2981: 2786: 2774: 2680: 2643: 2529: 1269:"Marie Thérèse Coincoin (1742–1816): Slave, Slave Owner, and Paradox" 962: 957: 862: 473: 371:

In setting Coincoin aside, Métoyer donated to her his interest in 80

269: 165: 153: 2628: 1365:

The Plantation Machine: Atlantic Capitalism in French Saint-Domingue

1173:

The Plantation Machine: Atlantic Capitalism in French Saint-Domingue

492: 448: 168:

of the 18th century, but interracial sex continued. The upper class

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edited by Virginia Meacham Gould, University of Georgia Press, 1998

887: 757: 615: 461:

In contrast to the Macartys' stable relationship, Eugène's brother

2833: 1302: 808:. The book was later adapted as a film by the same name, starring 529:

In particular, Rochon became one of the earliest investors in the

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not entirely factual, location for the earliest quadroon balls.

542:

valued at $ 100,000 (today, an estate worth a million dollars).

306:

choose to live in concubinage; what they chose was to survive."

3838: 3521: 3392: 3212: 1563:, by Emily Clark, The University of North Carolina Press, 2013. 372: 1529:, by Mary Gehman and Lloyd Dennis, Margaret Media, Inc., 1994. 1240:. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. pp. 238–239. 622: 566:

At 17, Marie married a Creole man of color popularly known as

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Slave labor on United States military installations 1799–1863

559: 507: 84: 1125: 518:, and the free black contractors and real estate developers 313:

across the former Confederacy, the white Creole historians,

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of these, two daughters—one the famous Marie Euchariste or

679:

came to New Orleans and settled after the outbreak of the

164:

Marriage between the races was forbidden according to the

1348:

Jorge Canizares-Esguerra, Matt D. Childs, James Sidbury:

849:

Barbara Ferry Johnson's 1977 best-selling romance novel,

207:

city and state, and became part of what developed as the

1527:

The Free People of Color of New Orleans, An Introduction

1137: 928:, struggling with the thought of also becoming a placée. 1351:

The Black Urban Atlantic in the Age of the Slave Trade

1214: 748:. A novel about a mixed-race slave who is brought to 585:

Marie was just beginning her spectacular career as a

160:, whose descendants married whites over generations. 2003:

Slavery in the colonial history of the United States

1634:, is the only extant residence built by Mme. Rochon. 1288:

Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1977.

1286:

The Forgotten People: Cane River's Creoles of Color.

1227: 115:, and in 1713 and again in 1743, the authorities in 1490:. Foundation of Human Biology. Wiley. p. 254. 637: 135:France also relocated young women orphans known as 2018:Slave markets and slave jails in the United States 1271:, Chapter 1 in Janet Allred and Judy Gentry, ed., 784:", which portrayed the placée as societal outcast. 642:The origin of quadroon balls can be traced to the 202:During the period of French and Spanish rule, the 1301:94 (September 2006): 183–204; archived online at 1237:The Devil's Lane: Sex and Race in the Early South 3939: 2282:Movement to reopen the transatlantic slave trade 1667: 1233: 687: 36:; their relationships were recognized among the 16:Civil union in French and Spanish slave colonies 2071:Slavery as a positive good in the United States 1234:Clinton, Catherine; Gillespie, Michele (1997). 1186:Placage and the Louisiana Gens de Couleur Libre 502:Rochon came to speculate in real estate in the 760:daughter is introduced to society as a placée. 597:. In an unusual decision, Dumesnil de Glapion 2997: 2545: 2038:Slavery at American colleges and universities 1653: 563:independent black republic in the New World. 553:(also spelled Leveau, Laveaux), known as the 392:, and its historic buildings Yucca House and 2023:Kidnapping into slavery in the United States 1543:Creole New Orleans, Race and Americanization 1445: 1398:The Strange History of the American Quadroon 1208: 1131: 582:and in the early 1820s, they became lovers. 570:(however, in some documents, he is known as 27: 3993:Marriage, unions and partnerships in France 2929:Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories 2503:Family reunification ads after emancipation 1344: 1342: 1340: 1102:Melle, Stacy Parker Le (4 September 2013). 973:Marriage of enslaved people (United States) 402:St. Augustine Parish (Isle Brevelle) Church 195:in Louisiana and Saint-Domingue. After the 3998:Marriage, unions and partnerships in Spain 3004: 2990: 2552: 2538: 2216:Slavery and the United States Constitution 1660: 1646: 1483: 1143: 1073:"Mixed Race Studies » quadroon balls" 98: 1557:, by Angela Johnson-Fisher, Verlag, 2008. 1539:, Louisiana State University Press, 1995. 772:(1880). He also wrote the short stories " 2306:Thirteenth Amendment of the Constitution 1567: 1391: 1389: 1387: 1337: 1154: 1152: 1014: 769:The Grandissimes, A Story of Creole Life 696:In 1805, Albert Tessier, a refugee from 621: 407: 341: 122: 2008:Indentured servitude in British America 1449:Pharmacogenomics in Admixed Populations 1299:National Genealogical Society Quarterly 733: 418:Bernard Xavier de Marigny de Mandéville 251: 179: 3940: 3011: 2559: 1273:Louisiana Women: Their Lives and Times 1166: 1164: 2985: 2533: 2448:Slavery during the American Civil War 2261:Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves 1641: 1384: 1223:. Washington, D.C.: Gales and Seaton. 1149: 1101: 91:as part of its cosmopolitan society. 3988:Multiracial affairs in North America 580:Louis-Christophe Dumesnil de Glapion 2453:End of slavery in the United States 1161: 476:and ran a dairy. She died in 1848. 13: 2331:John Quincy Adams and abolitionism 1605:"French Quarter Square Number 912" 1515: 470:Marie Delphine de Macarty LaLaurie 336: 87:). Plaçage became associated with 14: 4034: 2498:Civil rights movement (1865–1896) 2443:Origins of the American Civil War 2150:African American founding fathers 2093:Education during the slave period 1586: 908:Haunting of the Octoroon Mistress 724: 609: 479: 3920: 3919: 2246:History of slavery by U.S. state 2013:Slave trade in the United States 934:Assassin's Creed III: Liberation 638:Quadroon Balls of Saint Domingue 447: 435: 291: 279: 3958:History of European colonialism 1520: 1477: 1439: 1430: 1421: 1412: 1403: 1370: 1362:Trevor Burnard, John Garrigus: 1356: 1328: 1319: 1310: 1291: 1278: 1261: 1215:United States Congress (1834). 1195: 1170:Trevor Burnard, John Garrigus: 545: 533:, acquiring her first lot from 3902:Marriage in pre-Islamic Arabia 2914:Origins of Hutu, Tutsi and Twa 2108:List of American slave traders 1988:Slavery among Native Americans 1217:"Transactions in the Floridas" 1178: 1095: 1065: 1053: 1008: 839:The Benjamin January Mysteries 756:with her master's family. Her 645:redoutes des filles de couleur 396:. Her eldest half-French son, 1: 4023:Slavery in the Spanish Empire 4003:History of women in Louisiana 3511:Ghost marriage in South Sudan 2872:Cherokee freedmen controversy 2316:George Washington and slavery 2195:American Colonization Society 2190:African-American slave owners 1452:. CRC Press. pp. 35–37. 1001: 830:, 31 January – 16 March 2014. 824:The House That Will Not Stand 688:Quadroon Balls of New Orleans 487:was born in 1767 in colonial 209:African-American middle class 4018:Slavery in the United States 2321:Thomas Jefferson and slavery 2066:American proslavery movement 2028:Slave states and free states 1669:Slavery in the United States 366:Claude Thomas Pierre Métoyer 362:Louis Juchereau de St. Denis 7: 3978:19th century in New Orleans 2346:Abraham Lincoln and slavery 941: 752:and is eventually taken to 10: 4039: 2945:Contemporary ethnic groups 2420:Children of the plantation 2351:Andrew Johnson and slavery 2341:Zachary Taylor and slavery 2287:Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 2256:Fugitive Slave Act of 1793 2221:American slave court cases 2185:Amerindian slave ownership 1619:Louisiana Creoles of Color 948:Children of the plantation 828:Berkeley Repertory Theatre 42:mariages de la main gauche 3983:Interracial relationships 3915: 3884: 3864: 3801: 3748: 3696: 3673: 3621: 3581: 3535: 3476: 3467: 3424: 3362: 3336: 3128: 3019: 2963: 2937: 2864: 2568: 2473:Emancipation Proclamation 2433: 2398:Sexual relations and rape 2376: 2326:James Madison and slavery 2208: 2056: 1978: 1971: 1950: 1936: 1675: 1487:Human Population Genetics 1484:Relethford, J.H. (2012). 1446:Suarez-Kurtz, G. (2007). 1018:Journal of Social History 104:explorers and colonists. 4013:Slavery in North America 4008:Slavery in the Caribbean 2458:Compensated emancipation 1551:, by Kimberly S. Hanger. 1267:Mills, Elizabeth Shown. 1077:www.mixedracestudies.org 652:in the French colony of 398:Nicolas Augustin Métoyer 3963:Louisiana Creole people 2293:Partus sequitur ventrem 2236:Three-fifths Compromise 868:The Feast of All Saints 764:George Washington Cable 127:A print by Dupin after 99:History and development 3948:History of New Orleans 3499:Chinese ghost marriage 2368:Supreme Court Justices 2336:John Tyler and slavery 2311:Presidents and slavery 2300:Dred Scott v. Sandford 745:Island Beneath the Sea 634: 192:gens de couleur libres 140: 132: 79:, Florida; as well as 28: 2241:Slave and free states 2231:Fugitive Slave Clause 2145:List of abolitionists 1998:Slavery in New France 1615:) and their children. 1568:Contemporary accounts 625: 591:Battle of New Orleans 414:Eulalie de Mandéville 408:Eulalie de Mandéville 347:Marie Thérèse Metoyer 342:Marie Thérèse Metoyer 126: 83:(now the Republic of 46:left-handed marriages 2892:Interracial marriage 2887:Interethnic marriage 2715:Eurasian Singaporean 2267:Gag rule (1836–1840) 2128:Underground Railroad 2103:Domestic slave trade 2088:Mandatory illiteracy 1993:Slavery in New Spain 1944:District of Columbia 1624:Musée Rosette Rochon 1537:Gwendolyn Midlo Hall 1083:on 27 September 2018 968:Inter-caste marriage 900:Shadows on the Bayou 778:Madame John's Legacy 734:Treatment in fiction 632:Saint-Louis, Senegal 578:nurse) when she met 252:Inheritance and work 187:free people of color 180:Free people of color 129:Jean-Antoine Watteau 38:free people of color 3740:Royal intermarriage 3442:Mystery of Crowning 2488:Radical Republicans 2435:Civil War and after 2363:Members of Congress 2180:List of plantations 1963:U.S. Virgin Islands 1613:free woman of color 1580:Voyage to Louisiana 986:Morganatic marriage 914:The Courage to Love 873:coming of age novel 675:Many refugees from 520:Jean-Louis Doliolle 463:Augustin de Macarty 259:Nicolás María Vidal 65:Biloxi, Mississippi 3606:Marriage allowance 3236:Widow conservation 3013:Types of marriages 2971:Race of the future 2955:luk khrueng people 2483:Reconstruction era 1203:Race Consciousness 1108:huffingtonpost.com 1031:10.1093/jsh/shr059 980:à la façon du pays 681:Haitian Revolution 635: 535:Bernard de Marigny 390:Melrose Plantation 197:Haitian Revolution 133: 3935: 3934: 3669: 3668: 3656:Mixed-orientation 3506:Widow inheritance 3185:Marriage in Islam 3175:Clerical marriage 2979: 2978: 2527: 2526: 2523: 2522: 2493:Freedmen's Bureau 1632:Hurricane Katrina 1497:978-0-470-46467-0 1459:978-1-4987-1379-5 1376:Stewart R. King: 1304:Historic Pathways 1247:978-0-19-802721-8 1132:Suarez-Kurtz 2007 926:Henriette Delille 924:as her daughter, 793:Absalom, Absalom! 630:ball in colonial 426:Eugène de Macarty 331:Fernando de Lemos 4030: 3953:Women in society 3923: 3922: 3897:Mail-order bride 3474: 3473: 3344:Marriageable age 3158:Eastern Orthodox 3006: 2999: 2992: 2983: 2982: 2720:Filipino Mestizo 2554: 2547: 2540: 2531: 2530: 2209:Law and politics 2133:Freedmen's towns 2113:Runaway slave ad 1976: 1975: 1938:Federal district 1662: 1655: 1648: 1639: 1638: 1509: 1508: 1506: 1504: 1481: 1475: 1474: 1468: 1466: 1443: 1437: 1434: 1428: 1425: 1419: 1416: 1410: 1407: 1401: 1393: 1382: 1374: 1368: 1360: 1354: 1346: 1335: 1332: 1326: 1323: 1317: 1314: 1308: 1295: 1289: 1282: 1276: 1265: 1259: 1258: 1256: 1254: 1231: 1225: 1224: 1212: 1206: 1199: 1193: 1184:Joan M. Martin, 1182: 1176: 1168: 1159: 1156: 1147: 1141: 1135: 1134:, p. 35-37. 1129: 1123: 1122: 1116: 1114: 1099: 1093: 1092: 1090: 1088: 1079:. Archived from 1069: 1063: 1057: 1051: 1050: 1012: 922:Vanessa Williams 920:as a placée and 883:R.B. McGowen Jr. 788:William Faulkner 531:Faubourg Marigny 522:and his brother 451: 439: 295: 283: 263:Eufrosina Hinard 238:Faubourg Marigny 137:King's Daughters 54:Spanish colonial 31: 4038: 4037: 4033: 4032: 4031: 4029: 4028: 4027: 3938: 3937: 3936: 3931: 3911: 3880: 3860: 3797: 3744: 3692: 3665: 3617: 3577: 3531: 3469: 3463: 3420: 3372:Sister exchange 3358: 3332: 3124: 3064:Serial monogamy 3020:Legal scenarios 3015: 3010: 2980: 2975: 2959: 2933: 2860: 2564: 2558: 2528: 2519: 2508:Freedmen's town 2429: 2408:Slave marriages 2381:and procreation 2380: 2378: 2372: 2358:Vice presidents 2272:Nullifier Party 2251:Fugitive slaves 2204: 2200:Slave narrative 2138:Black Canadians 2058: 2052: 1967: 1946: 1932: 1671: 1666: 1628:Wayback Machine 1609:Wayback Machine 1599:Wayback Machine 1589: 1570: 1523: 1518: 1516:Further reading 1513: 1512: 1502: 1500: 1498: 1482: 1478: 1464: 1462: 1460: 1444: 1440: 1435: 1431: 1426: 1422: 1417: 1413: 1408: 1404: 1394: 1385: 1375: 1371: 1361: 1357: 1347: 1338: 1333: 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3385: 3384: 3383: 3380: 3378: 3375: 3373: 3370: 3369: 3367: 3365: 3361: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3341: 3339: 3335: 3329: 3328: 3324: 3320: 3317: 3315: 3312: 3310: 3307: 3303: 3302: 3298: 3296: 3295: 3291: 3289: 3288: 3284: 3282: 3281: 3277: 3275: 3274: 3270: 3268: 3267: 3263: 3261: 3260: 3256: 3254: 3253: 3249: 3248: 3247: 3244: 3243: 3242: 3239: 3237: 3234: 3232: 3229: 3227: 3224: 3222: 3219: 3215: 3214: 3210: 3209: 3208: 3205: 3201: 3198: 3196: 3193: 3191: 3188: 3186: 3183: 3182: 3181: 3178: 3176: 3173: 3169: 3166: 3164: 3161: 3159: 3156: 3152: 3149: 3148: 3147: 3144: 3143: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3133: 3131: 3127: 3119: 3116: 3114: 3111: 3110: 3109: 3106: 3102: 3099: 3097: 3094: 3092: 3089: 3088: 3087: 3084: 3082: 3079: 3077: 3074: 3072: 3069: 3065: 3062: 3061: 3060: 3057: 3055: 3052: 3048: 3045: 3043: 3040: 3039: 3038: 3035: 3033: 3030: 3028: 3025: 3024: 3022: 3018: 3014: 3007: 3002: 3000: 2995: 2993: 2988: 2987: 2984: 2972: 2969: 2968: 2966: 2962: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2946: 2943: 2942: 2940: 2936: 2930: 2927: 2925: 2922: 2920: 2917: 2915: 2912: 2910: 2909:One-drop rule 2907: 2905: 2904:Miscegenation 2902: 2900: 2897: 2893: 2890: 2888: 2885: 2884: 2883: 2880: 2878: 2875: 2873: 2870: 2869: 2867: 2863: 2857: 2854: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2846: 2842: 2840: 2837: 2835: 2832: 2828: 2827: 2823: 2821: 2820: 2816: 2814: 2813: 2809: 2808: 2807: 2804: 2801: 2800: 2795: 2794: 2790: 2788: 2785: 2783: 2780: 2776: 2773: 2772: 2771: 2770: 2766: 2764: 2763: 2759: 2755: 2752: 2750: 2747: 2745: 2742: 2740: 2739: 2735: 2733: 2730: 2728: 2727: 2723: 2721: 2718: 2716: 2713: 2711: 2708: 2706: 2703: 2701: 2698: 2696: 2695:Anglo-Burmese 2693: 2689: 2688: 2684: 2683: 2682: 2679: 2678: 2676: 2674: 2671: 2665: 2662: 2660: 2657: 2655: 2652: 2651: 2650: 2647: 2646: 2645: 2642: 2640: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2630: 2626: 2622: 2621: 2617: 2615: 2614: 2610: 2609: 2608: 2607: 2603: 2599: 2598: 2594: 2593: 2592: 2591: 2587: 2586: 2584: 2582: 2579: 2577: 2574: 2573: 2571: 2567: 2562: 2555: 2550: 2548: 2543: 2541: 2536: 2535: 2532: 2514: 2511: 2510: 2509: 2506: 2504: 2501: 2499: 2496: 2494: 2491: 2489: 2486: 2484: 2481: 2479: 2476: 2474: 2471: 2469: 2466: 2464: 2461: 2459: 2456: 2454: 2451: 2449: 2446: 2444: 2441: 2440: 2438: 2436: 2432: 2426: 2425:Shadow family 2423: 2421: 2418: 2416: 2415: 2411: 2409: 2406: 2404: 2401: 2399: 2396: 2394: 2391: 2389: 2386: 2385: 2383: 2375: 2369: 2366: 2364: 2361: 2359: 2356: 2352: 2349: 2347: 2344: 2342: 2339: 2337: 2334: 2332: 2329: 2327: 2324: 2322: 2319: 2317: 2314: 2313: 2312: 2309: 2307: 2304: 2302: 2301: 2297: 2295: 2294: 2290: 2288: 2285: 2283: 2280: 2278: 2275: 2273: 2270: 2268: 2265: 2262: 2259: 2257: 2254: 2252: 2249: 2247: 2244: 2242: 2239: 2237: 2234: 2232: 2229: 2227: 2226:Freedom suits 2224: 2222: 2219: 2217: 2214: 2213: 2211: 2207: 2201: 2198: 2196: 2193: 2191: 2188: 2186: 2183: 2181: 2178: 2176: 2175:Planter class 2173: 2171: 2168: 2166: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2139: 2136: 2134: 2131: 2130: 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States 210: 205: 200: 198: 194: 193: 188: 177: 175: 171: 167: 161: 159: 155: 150: 148: 147: 142: 141:filles du roi 138: 130: 125: 121: 118: 114: 109: 105: 96: 92: 90: 86: 82: 78: 74: 73:St. Augustine 70: 66: 62: 57: 55: 51: 47: 43: 39: 35: 30: 25: 24:non-Europeans 21: 3924: 3892:Dishu system 3873: 3758:Human–animal 3730:Same-surname 3687: 3520: 3391: 3325: 3299: 3292: 3285: 3278: 3271: 3264: 3257: 3250: 3231:Self-uniting 3211: 3195:Nikah mut'ah 3096:Nikah mut'ah 3046: 2923: 2877:Ethnogenesis 2844: 2824: 2817: 2810: 2798: 2791: 2767: 2760: 2736: 2724: 2700:Anglo-Indian 2685: 2637: 2627: 2618: 2611: 2604: 2595: 2589: 2413: 2412: 2298: 2291: 2160:Field slaves 2123:Abolitionism 2057:Cultural and 2048:Bibliography 1883:South Dakota 1873:Rhode Island 1868:Pennsylvania 1848:North Dakota 1612: 1593: 1579: 1573: 1560: 1554: 1548: 1542: 1532: 1526: 1521:Recent books 1501:. Retrieved 1486: 1479: 1470: 1463:. Retrieved 1448: 1441: 1432: 1423: 1414: 1405: 1396: 1395:Emily Clark: 1377: 1372: 1363: 1358: 1349: 1330: 1321: 1312: 1303: 1298: 1293: 1285: 1280: 1272: 1263: 1251:. Retrieved 1236: 1229: 1220: 1210: 1202: 1197: 1185: 1180: 1171: 1139: 1127: 1118: 1111:. Retrieved 1107: 1097: 1085:. Retrieved 1081:the original 1076: 1067: 1059: 1055: 1022: 1016: 1010: 979: 932: 913: 898: 886: 866: 850: 837: 823: 803: 791: 767: 743: 728: 719: 715: 711: 705: 702: 695: 691: 674: 661: 658: 650:Cap-Français 643: 641: 613: 584: 576:yellow fever 565: 551:Marie Laveau 549: 546:Marie Laveau 528: 516:Jean Lafitte 512:Marie Laveau 501: 483: 467: 460: 411: 386: 382: 376: 370: 354:Natchitoches 349: 345: 330: 327: 308: 304: 267: 255: 246: 231: 217: 203: 201: 190: 183: 162: 151: 144: 134: 110: 106: 102: 93: 58: 41: 33: 19: 18: 3968:Concubinage 3812:Concubinage 3783:Interracial 3773:Interethnic 3768:Inter-caste 3706:Consanguine 3634:Watta satta 3583:Convenience 3437:Handfasting 3226:Scientology 3200:Nikah 'urfi 3042:Nikah 'urfi 2899:Melting pot 2839:Mixed-blood 2744:Luso-Asians 2738:Luk khrueng 2585:Brazilians 2561:Multiracial 2277:Fire-Eaters 2170:Task system 2165:Gang system 2155:Plantations 1958:Puerto Rico 1951:Territories 1798:Mississippi 1713:Connecticut 953:Concubinage 879:Sarah Riggs 851:Delta Blood 844:New Orleans 814:Gary Cooper 800:Edna Ferber 754:New Orleans 670:Julie Dahey 323:race-mixing 158:multiracial 89:New Orleans 71:, Alabama; 3942:Categories 3804:monogamous 3793:Morganatic 3788:Interfaith 3711:Avunculate 3683:Common-law 3601:Green card 3568:Tongyangxi 3484:Posthumous 3425:Ceremonial 3416:Tongyangxi 3273:Prajapatya 3076:Remarriage 2710:Dutch Indo 2677:Eurasians 2576:Afro-Asian 2478:Juneteenth 2463:Contraband 1913:Washington 1833:New Mexico 1828:New Jersey 1703:California 1253:17 October 1113:22 October 1087:22 October 1002:References 400:, founded 358:Cane River 221:plantation 3849:Polyandry 3763:Hypergamy 3611:Predatory 3553:Hypergamy 3536:Financial 3452:Las Vegas 3432:Betrothal 3387:Abduction 3309:Ayyavazhi 3301:Paishacha 3280:Gandharva 3151:Josephite 3141:Christian 3129:Religious 3091:Hollywood 3086:Temporary 3037:Customary 2950:Diasporas 2787:Melungeon 2769:Hùnxuě'ér 2681:Amerasian 2644:Coloureds 2377:Marriage, 2076:Treatment 1923:Wisconsin 1888:Tennessee 1793:Minnesota 1768:Louisiana 978:Marriage 963:Hypergamy 958:Courtesan 885:(story): 863:Anne Rice 619:plaçage. 614:The term 474:marchande 270:marchande 166:Code Noir 154:Ursulines 139:(French: 77:Pensacola 3926:Category 3854:Polygyny 3844:Polygamy 3735:Homogamy 3698:Endogamy 3675:De facto 3661:Sororate 3651:Sologamy 3629:Exchange 3591:Lavender 3516:Levirate 3364:Arranged 3294:Rakshasa 3207:Levirate 3146:Catholic 3113:Putative 3108:Voidable 3101:Wedlease 3081:Same-sex 3071:Marriage 3059:Monogamy 3032:Covenant 2964:See also 2851:Quadroon 2775:Chindian 2754:Topasses 2749:Macanese 2732:Kristang 2620:mameluco 2597:caiçaras 2043:Glossary 1908:Virginia 1858:Oklahoma 1838:New York 1813:Nebraska 1803:Missouri 1788:Michigan 1778:Maryland 1763:Kentucky 1743:Illinois 1718:Delaware 1708:Colorado 1698:Arkansas 1594:Mon Cher 1047:22611585 1039:41678906 942:See also 888:Quadroon 758:quadroon 709:status. 662:menagère 616:quadroon 170:European 3907:Walking 3866:Sexless 3750:Exogamy 3688:Plaçage 3494:Germany 3447:Wedding 3411:Shotgun 3246:Vivaaha 3221:Natural 3180:Islamic 3047:Plaçage 2924:Plaçage 2919:Passing 2882:Exogamy 2865:History 2856:Sacatra 2845:mulatos 2812:castizo 2806:Mestizo 2793:mestiço 2782:Marabou 2705:Burgher 2687:Bụi đời 2659:Griquas 2654:Basters 2613:caboclo 2590:juçaras 2414:Plaçage 1980:History 1928:Wyoming 1903:Vermont 1808:Montana 1748:Indiana 1728:Georgia 1723:Florida 1693:Arizona 1683:Alabama 1626:at the 1607:at the 1597:at the 991:Signare 780:" and " 628:signare 424:, with 373:arpents 211:in the 61:Natchez 34:placées 20:Plaçage 3839:Bigamy 3834:Plural 3716:Cousin 3543:Boston 3522:Yibbum 3489:France 3393:Raptio 3382:Forced 3252:Brahma 3213:Yibbum 3190:Misyar 3168:Quaker 3163:Mormon 3136:Jewish 2826:coyote 2799:ainoko 2673:Dougla 2664:Oorlam 2638:cafuzo 2629:sarará 2563:topics 2263:(1808) 2081:Health 1972:Topics 1863:Oregon 1818:Nevada 1758:Kansas 1733:Hawaii 1688:Alaska 1676:States 1503:22 May 1494: 1465:22 May 1456: 1244: 1190:Creole 1045: 1037: 706:placée 668:, and 599:passed 595:custom 587:voodoo 555:voodoo 540:estate 493:Québec 489:Mobile 226:slaves 69:Mobile 50:French 29:placer 3885:Other 3817:Group 3641:Heqin 3622:Other 3573:Trial 3558:Naked 3548:Flash 3477:Death 3470:basis 3457:Proxy 3401:Heqin 3377:Flash 3349:Child 3327:Manus 3319:Yogic 3314:Vedic 3287:Asura 3266:Arsha 3259:Daiva 3241:Hindu 3054:Fleet 3027:Civil 2938:Lists 2834:Métis 2819:cholo 2606:pardo 2569:Terms 1893:Texas 1773:Maine 1738:Idaho 1535:, by 1188:, in 1035:JSTOR 560:Haiti 508:Haiti 242:Tremé 85:Haiti 3829:Open 3822:Line 3802:Non- 3646:Love 3596:Sham 3563:Peer 3406:Miai 3354:Teen 3118:Void 2762:Hapa 2726:Hāfu 2513:list 1898:Utah 1853:Ohio 1753:Iowa 1505:2023 1492:ISBN 1467:2023 1454:ISBN 1255:2018 1242:ISBN 1115:2017 1089:2017 1043:PMID 871:. 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