2433:
2455:: a large, blunt body entering the atmosphere creates a boundary layer of compressed air which serves as a buffer between the body surface and the compression-heated air. In other words, kinetic energy is converted into heated air via ram pressure, and that heated air is quickly moved away from object surface with minimal physical interaction, and hence minimal heating of the body. This was counter-intuitive at the time, when sharp, streamlined profiles were assumed to be better. This blunt-body concept was used in
20:
907:
2048:
352:
1317:
644:
2416:. This sudden rise in the force exerted on the meteoroid overwhelms the body's structural integrity and it begins to break up. The breakup of the meteoroid yields an even larger total surface area for the superheated air to act upon and a cycle of amplification rapidly occurs. This is the explosion, and it causes the meteoroid to disintegrate with
902:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}(\rho u_{i})&=u_{i}{\frac {\partial \rho }{\partial t}}+\rho {\frac {\partial u_{i}}{\partial t}}\\&=u_{i}{\frac {\partial \rho }{\partial t}}-{\frac {\partial p}{\partial x_{i}}}-\rho u_{j}{\frac {\partial u_{i}}{\partial x_{j}}}+\rho g_{i}.\end{aligned}}}
1053:
2411:
In essence, the meteoroid is ripped apart by its own speed. This occurs when fine tendrils of superheated air force their way into cracks and faults in the leading face's surface. Once this high pressure plasma gains entry to the meteoroid's interior it exerts tremendous force on the body's internal
2226:
the speed of the galaxy relative to the medium. This pressure can strip gas out of the galaxy where, essentially, the gas is gravitationally bound to the galaxy less strongly than the force from the intracluster medium 'wind' due to the ram pressure. Evidence of this ram pressure stripping can be
1638:
equal to the ram pressure term. This discussion can be extended to 'drag' forces; if all matter incident upon a surface transfers all its momentum to the volume, this is equivalent (in terms of momentum transfer) to the matter entering the volume (the context above). On the other hand, if only
511:
1633:
1041:
1312:{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}{\frac {\partial }{\partial t}}(\rho u_{i})&=-{\frac {\partial p}{\partial x_{i}}}+\rho g_{i}-{\frac {\partial }{\partial x_{j}}}(\rho u_{i}u_{j})\\&=-{\frac {\partial }{\partial x_{j}}}\left+\rho g_{i}\end{aligned}}}
2234:
Ram pressure stripping is thought to have profound effects on the evolution of galaxies. As galaxies fall toward the center of a cluster, more and more of their gas is stripped out, including the cool, denser gas that is the source of continued
2247:
clusters have had their gas (neutral hydrogen) depleted in this way and simulations suggest that this process can happen relatively quickly, with 100% depletion occurring in 100 million years to a more gradual few billion years.
377:
1479:
1468:
918:
2271:
emission, a sign of star formation, corresponds to the compressed CO region, suggesting that star formation may be accelerated, at least temporarily, while ram pressure stripping of neutral hydrogen is ongoing.
1058:
649:
1699:
2147:
112:
340:
1362:
In this context, ram pressure is momentum transfer by advection (flow of matter carrying momentum across a surface into a body). The mass per unit second flowing into a volume
163:
2976:
Lee, Bumhyun; Chung, Aeree; Tonnesen, Stephanie; Kenney, Jeffrey D. P.; Wong, O. Ivy; Vollmer, B.; Petitpas, Glen R.; Crowl, Hugh H.; van Gorkom, Jacqueline (2017-04-01).
1357:
276:
243:
612:
563:
2204:
2177:
1730:
583:
136:
364:
2763:; Fasano, G.; Omizzolo, A.; Gullieuszik, M.; Bettoni, D.; Moretti, A.; Paccagnella, A.; Jaffe', Y. L.; Vulcani, B.; Fritz, J.; Couch, W.; D'Onofrio, M. (2015).
2224:
1400:
1380:
632:
534:
203:
183:
3035:
BenĂtez-Llambay, Alejandro; Navarro, Julio F.; Abadi, Mario G.; Gottlöber, Stefan; Yepes, Gustavo; Hoffman, Yehuda; Steinmetz, Matthias (17 January 2013).
2384:
is somewhat loose in this context, and can be confusing. This confusion is exacerbated by the tendency for airburst energies to be expressed in terms of
506:{\displaystyle \rho {\frac {\partial {\vec {u}}}{\partial t}}=-{\vec {\nabla }}p-\rho ({\vec {u}}\cdot {\vec {\nabla }}){\vec {u}}+\rho {\vec {g}}}
285:
In the simple case when the relative velocity is normal to the surface, and momentum is fully transferred to the object, the ram pressure becomes
1628:{\displaystyle -\oint _{S}{\vec {u}}\rho {\vec {u}}\cdot \mathrm {d} {\vec {S}}=-\int _{V}{\frac {\partial }{\partial x_{j}}}\left\mathrm {d} V,}
2231:. These ram pressure stripped galaxies will often have a large trailing tail and because of this they are commonly called "Jellyfish galaxies."
1036:{\displaystyle {\frac {\partial \rho }{\partial t}}=-{\vec {\nabla }}\cdot (\rho {\vec {u}})=-{\frac {\partial (\rho u_{j})}{\partial x_{j}}}}
1408:
2412:
structure. This occurs because the superheated air now exerts its force over a much larger surface area, as when the wind suddenly fills a
2448:
1639:
velocity perpendicular to the surface is transferred, there are no shear forces, and the effective pressure on that surface increases by
2915:
Balogh, Michael L.; Navarro, Julio F.; Morris, Simon L. (2000-09-01). "The Origin of Star
Formation Gradients in Rich Galaxy Clusters".
3094:
Karachentsev, Igor D.; Kaisina, Elena I.; Makarov, Dmitry I. (3 December 2013). "Suites of Dwarfs Around Nearby Giant
Galaxies".
2471:â an air intake system that aids in engine performance and cooling, commonly used on aircraft and other high-performance vehicles
2603:"Spectacular Hubble Space Telescope Observations of the Coma Galaxy D100 and Star Formation in Its Ram Pressureâstripped Tail"
3242:
2432:
2519:
2348:. The meteoroid then experiences what is known as ram pressure. As the air in front of the meteoroid is compressed its
1645:
2826:
2360:
than formerly. Ram pressure and the very high temperatures it causes are the reasons few meteors make it all the way
2091:
64:
2303:
with particularly low hydrogen abundance to stellar mass ratio, but also the compression of gas in the centre of a
291:
2452:
2295:
renders ram pressure efficient. This is an attractive mechanism to explain not only the presence of isolated
2344:
the immense speed at which a meteor travels nevertheless rapidly compresses the air in its path, creating a
2267:
point to the molecular gas not being stripped but instead being compressed by the ram pressure. Increased
2336:
speeds of at least 11 km/s (7 mi/s) and often much faster. Despite moving through the rarified
1359:. The first term in the brackets is the isotropic thermal pressure, and the second is the ram pressure.
35:(brown) trailing behind (toward upper right) the galaxy, versus the dust-free (blue-white) leading edge.
2712:
2404:
the enormous ram pressure experienced by the leading face of the meteoroid converts the body's immense
2066:
2978:"The effect of ram pressure on the molecular gas of galaxies: three case studies in the Virgo cluster"
2536:
141:
2275:
More recently, it has been shown that ram pressure can also lead to the removal of gas in isolated
368:
50:
medium, caused by relative bulk motion of the fluid rather than random thermal motion. It causes a
1332:
251:
3395:
208:
588:
539:
2736:
2182:
3190:
Wright, Anna C; Brooks, Alyson M; Weisz, Daniel R; Christensen, Charlotte R (1 January 2019).
3141:"The HI content of isolated ultra-diffuse galaxies: A sign of multiple formation mechanisms?"
2325:
3280:
3166:
3375:
3363:
3324:
3276:
3162:
3058:
2999:
2934:
2865:
2676:
2624:
2548:
2155:
1708:
568:
246:
121:
2283:(the so-called cosmic web stripping process). Although the typical overdensity within the
8:
2341:
2082:
3367:
3062:
3003:
2938:
2869:
2680:
2628:
2552:
3351:
3320:
3302:
3203:
3152:
3121:
3103:
3048:
2989:
2958:
2924:
2897:
2855:
2796:
2776:
2665:"On the Infall of Matter Into Clusters of Galaxies and Some Effects on Their Evolution"
2642:
2614:
2440:
2209:
1385:
1365:
617:
519:
188:
168:
28:
3071:
3036:
278:
is the sum of this ram pressure and the isotropic thermal pressure (in the absence of
3400:
3306:
3294:
3238:
3125:
3117:
3017:
2950:
2889:
2881:
2822:
2800:
2791:
2764:
2694:
2646:
2515:
2401:
635:
614:
the gravitational acceleration. The
Eulerian rate of change of momentum in direction
2962:
3371:
3354:; Boyd, John W.; Bugos, Glenn E. (2007-01-01). "H. Julian Allen: An Appreciation".
3284:
3213:
3170:
3113:
3076:
3066:
3007:
2942:
2901:
2873:
2786:
2760:
2684:
2632:
2576:
2556:
2541:
Proceedings of the Royal
Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences
2483:â a non-rigid parachute airfoil inflated by wind, also known as a ram-air parachute
2444:
2417:
2369:
2357:
2337:
2333:
3175:
3140:
2877:
2474:
2300:
2288:
2070:
2060:
1327:
356:
2637:
2602:
2468:
2456:
2393:
2389:
2385:
2365:
2308:
2296:
2276:
2251:
Recent radio observation of carbon monoxide (CO) emission from three galaxies (
2236:
2078:
51:
2356:, rather it is simply a consequence of many molecules and atoms being made to
3389:
3298:
3021:
2954:
2885:
2698:
2264:
2240:
3218:
3191:
3012:
2977:
19:
2893:
2814:
2561:
2304:
2244:
2052:
1323:
2929:
2860:
2349:
2329:
1768:
32:
3080:
2408:
into a force blowing it apart over a nearly instantaneous span of time.
245:
are the components of the fluid velocity in these directions. The total
3289:
3264:
2421:
2345:
2292:
2284:
2280:
2047:
359:(RAT). RATs generate power by rotation of the turbine via ram pressure.
1463:{\displaystyle -\oint _{S}\rho {\vec {u}}\cdot \mathrm {d} {\vec {S}}}
351:
2486:
2397:
2361:
2239:. Spiral galaxies that have fallen at least to the core of both the
279:
3034:
2843:
3208:
3157:
2994:
2946:
2781:
2689:
2664:
2619:
2480:
2405:
2353:
2260:
2256:
2252:
2228:
43:
24:
3235:
Fundamental
Planetary Science: Physics, Chemistry and Habitability
3108:
3053:
2759:
2268:
3139:
Papastergis, E.; Adams, E. A. K.; Romanowsky, A. J. (May 2017).
3265:"Air penetration enhances fragmentation of entering meteoroids"
2074:
55:
2314:
2713:"Metal Enrichment Processes - S. Schindler & A. Diaferio"
2287:
is significantly lower than that found in the environment of
47:
3189:
2844:"Gone with the Wind: The Origin of S0 Galaxies in Clusters"
2413:
2400:
or nuclear explosives. Rather, at a critical moment in its
2368:. Larger or more solid meteorites may explode instead in a
3138:
3093:
54:
force to be exerted on the body. Ram pressure is given in
3237:. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. p. 293.
2842:
Quilis, Vicent; Moore, Ben; Bower, Richard (2000-06-01).
2037:
2821:. Cambridge: University of Cambridge. pp. 295â296.
1732:
is the velocity component perpendicular to the surface.
1473:
and the momentum per second it carries into the body is
1735:
2975:
2663:
Gunn, James E.; Richard, J.; Gott, III (1972-08-01).
2212:
2185:
2158:
2094:
1711:
1648:
1482:
1411:
1388:
1368:
1335:
1056:
921:
647:
620:
591:
571:
542:
522:
380:
294:
254:
211:
191:
171:
144:
124:
67:
2813:
912:
Substituting the conservation of mass, expressed as
2914:
2451:used an insight about ram pressure to propose the
2396:. Large meteoroids do not explode in the sense of
2291:, the high relative speed between a dwarf and the
2218:
2198:
2171:
2141:
2042:
1724:
1693:
1627:
1462:
1394:
1374:
1351:
1311:
1035:
901:
626:
606:
577:
557:
528:
505:
334:
270:
237:
197:
177:
157:
130:
106:
3350:
3196:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
2982:Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
3387:
3232:
3192:"Reignition of star formation in dwarf galaxies"
2841:
2477:â a propeller used by aircraft to generate power
1694:{\displaystyle P_{\text{ram}}=1/2\rho u_{n}^{2}}
2662:
185:direction through a surface with normal in the
16:Pressure due to movement through a fluid medium
2535:Dowling, Timothy E.; Bradley, Mary E. (2023).
2534:
2509:
2142:{\displaystyle P_{r}\approx 1/2\rho _{e}v^{2}}
107:{\displaystyle P_{\text{ram}}=\rho u_{i}u_{j}}
3262:
2765:"Jellyfish galaxy candidates at low redshift"
2489:- ram-pressure stripping of gas from galaxies
3263:Tabetah, M. E.; Melosh, H. J. (March 2018).
2601:Cramer, William J.; et al. (Jan 2019).
2364:and most simply burn up or are ablated into
335:{\displaystyle P_{\text{ram}}=1/2\rho u^{2}}
2537:"Ram pressure in astronomy and engineering"
2315:Ram pressure and atmospheric entry/re-entry
3233:Lissauer, Jack J.; de Pater, Imke (2013).
2514:. Cambridge University Press. p. 18.
2512:Principles of astrophysical fluid dynamics
2420:, a speed comparable to that of explosive
2051:Tails in spiral galaxy D100, found in the
31:(off image, toward bottom left). Note the
3288:
3217:
3207:
3174:
3156:
3107:
3070:
3052:
3011:
2993:
2928:
2859:
2790:
2780:
2688:
2636:
2618:
2560:
3319:
2431:
2055:, are created by ram-pressure stripping.
2046:
350:
18:
165:is the momentum flux per second in the
3388:
3376:10.1146/annurev.fluid.39.052506.084853
2600:
2510:Clarke, Cathie; Carswell, Bob (2007).
2375:
2038:Astrophysical examples of ram pressure
1777:= 147 (100 mph = 147 ft/sec)
3258:
3256:
3254:
2505:
2503:
1823:= 44.7 (100 mph = 44.7 m/s)
2658:
2656:
1736:Example - sea level ram air pressure
3269:Meteoritics & Planetary Science
3037:"Dwarf Galaxies and the Cosmic Web"
2065:Within astronomy and astrophysics,
1851:Air density for selected altitudes
46:exerted on a body moving through a
13:
3325:"H. Julian Allen: An Appreciation"
3251:
2500:
2352:quickly rises. This is not due to
2206:the intracluster gas density, and
1615:
1565:
1561:
1527:
1444:
1221:
1217:
1157:
1153:
1116:
1108:
1067:
1063:
1017:
993:
951:
933:
925:
860:
845:
810:
802:
787:
779:
747:
732:
714:
706:
658:
654:
461:
422:
404:
387:
14:
3412:
2737:"Ram Pressure Stripping | COSMOS"
2653:
2307:and the subsequent reignition of
1751:
3356:Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics
2427:
2319:
3344:
3313:
3226:
3183:
3132:
3087:
3028:
2969:
2908:
2835:
2085:would experience a pressure of
2043:Galactic ram pressure stripping
2807:
2753:
2729:
2705:
2594:
2569:
2528:
1537:
1517:
1502:
1454:
1434:
1199:
1173:
1092:
1076:
1012:
996:
981:
975:
963:
954:
683:
667:
598:
549:
497:
479:
470:
464:
449:
440:
425:
396:
158:{\displaystyle P_{\text{ram}}}
1:
2878:10.1126/science.288.5471.1617
2817:; Gallagher, III, J. (2007).
2493:
346:
138:is the density of the fluid;
3145:Astronomy & Astrophysics
1817:sea level air density (kg/m)
1352:{\displaystyle \delta _{ij}}
271:{\displaystyle \sigma _{ij}}
7:
3176:10.1051/0004-6361/201730795
3072:10.1088/2041-8205/763/2/L41
2462:
1804:
238:{\displaystyle u_{i},u_{j}}
10:
3417:
3118:10.1088/0004-6256/147/1/13
2792:10.3847/0004-6256/151/3/78
2058:
634:at a point is thus (using
607:{\displaystyle {\vec {g}}}
558:{\displaystyle {\vec {u}}}
23:Ram pressure stripping in
3041:The Astrophysical Journal
2917:The Astrophysical Journal
2669:The Astrophysical Journal
2607:The Astrophysical Journal
2199:{\displaystyle \rho _{e}}
1864:
1861:
1858:
1855:
3332:NASA Ames History Office
3096:The Astronomical Journal
2819:Galaxies in The Universe
2769:The Astronomical Journal
2638:10.3847/1538-4357/aaefff
2279:that plunge through the
369:Cauchy momentum equation
27:as it falls towards the
3281:2018M&PS...53..493T
3167:2017A&A...601L..10P
2436:Apollo 7 Command Module
1859:Air density (slugs/ft)
1767:sea level air density (
585:the fluid density, and
516:for isotropic pressure
2581:www.spacetelescope.org
2577:"Wading through water"
2562:10.1098/rspa.2022.0504
2437:
2358:occupy a smaller space
2220:
2200:
2173:
2143:
2056:
1846:(pressure in Pa = N/m)
1726:
1695:
1629:
1464:
1396:
1376:
1353:
1313:
1047:this is equivalent to
1037:
903:
628:
608:
579:
559:
530:
507:
360:
336:
272:
239:
199:
179:
159:
132:
108:
36:
3219:10.1093/mnras/sty2759
3013:10.1093/mnras/stw3162
2741:astronomy.swin.edu.au
2435:
2392:is given a rating in
2227:seen in the image of
2221:
2201:
2179:is the ram pressure,
2174:
2172:{\displaystyle P_{r}}
2144:
2081:moving through a hot
2073:first suggested that
2050:
1727:
1725:{\displaystyle u_{n}}
1696:
1630:
1465:
1397:
1382:bounded by a surface
1377:
1354:
1314:
1038:
904:
629:
609:
580:
578:{\displaystyle \rho }
560:
531:
508:
354:
337:
273:
240:
200:
180:
160:
133:
131:{\displaystyle \rho }
109:
22:
2717:ned.ipac.caltech.edu
2388:yields, as when the
2380:The use of the term
2210:
2183:
2156:
2092:
1800:(pressure in lbf/ft)
1744:ram air pressure at
1709:
1646:
1480:
1409:
1386:
1366:
1333:
1054:
919:
645:
618:
589:
569:
540:
520:
378:
292:
252:
247:Cauchy stress tensor
209:
189:
169:
142:
122:
65:
3368:2007AnRFM..39....1V
3352:Vincenti, Walter G.
3321:Vincenti, Walter G.
3063:2013ApJ...763L..41B
3004:2017MNRAS.466.1382L
2939:2000ApJ...540..113B
2870:2000Sci...288.1617Q
2854:(5471): 1617â1620.
2681:1972ApJ...176....1G
2629:2019ApJ...870...63C
2553:2023RSPSA.47920504D
2418:hypersonic velocity
2376:Airburst explosions
2083:intracluster medium
1865:Air density (kg/m)
1852:
1690:
565:is fluid velocity,
3290:10.1111/maps.13034
2453:blunt-body concept
2441:Harry Julian Allen
2438:
2326:Earth's atmosphere
2216:
2196:
2169:
2139:
2057:
1850:
1722:
1691:
1676:
1625:
1460:
1392:
1372:
1349:
1309:
1307:
1033:
899:
897:
624:
604:
575:
555:
526:
503:
361:
332:
268:
235:
195:
175:
155:
128:
104:
37:
29:Virgo Supercluster
3244:978-0-521-61855-7
2402:atmospheric entry
2390:Tunguska airburst
2324:Meteoroids enter
2219:{\displaystyle v}
2035:
2034:
1656:
1579:
1540:
1520:
1505:
1457:
1437:
1395:{\displaystyle S}
1375:{\displaystyle V}
1235:
1171:
1130:
1074:
1031:
978:
957:
940:
874:
824:
794:
754:
721:
665:
636:Einstein notation
627:{\displaystyle i}
601:
552:
529:{\displaystyle p}
500:
482:
467:
452:
428:
411:
399:
302:
198:{\displaystyle j}
178:{\displaystyle i}
152:
75:
3408:
3380:
3379:
3348:
3342:
3341:
3339:
3338:
3329:
3317:
3311:
3310:
3292:
3260:
3249:
3248:
3230:
3224:
3223:
3221:
3211:
3202:(1): 1176â1189.
3187:
3181:
3180:
3178:
3160:
3136:
3130:
3129:
3111:
3091:
3085:
3084:
3074:
3056:
3032:
3026:
3025:
3015:
2997:
2988:(2): 1382â1398.
2973:
2967:
2966:
2932:
2930:astro-ph/0004078
2912:
2906:
2905:
2863:
2861:astro-ph/0006031
2839:
2833:
2832:
2811:
2805:
2804:
2794:
2784:
2761:Poggianti, B. M.
2757:
2751:
2750:
2748:
2747:
2733:
2727:
2726:
2724:
2723:
2709:
2703:
2702:
2692:
2660:
2651:
2650:
2640:
2622:
2598:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2587:
2573:
2567:
2566:
2564:
2532:
2526:
2525:
2507:
2445:Alfred J. Eggers
2225:
2223:
2222:
2217:
2205:
2203:
2202:
2197:
2195:
2194:
2178:
2176:
2175:
2170:
2168:
2167:
2148:
2146:
2145:
2140:
2138:
2137:
2128:
2127:
2115:
2104:
2103:
2031:
2026:
2025:
2018:
2017:
2010:
2009:
2000:
1995:
1994:
1987:
1986:
1979:
1978:
1969:
1964:
1959:
1958:
1951:
1950:
1941:
1936:
1931:
1930:
1923:
1922:
1913:
1908:
1903:
1902:
1895:
1888:
1883:
1878:
1877:
1853:
1849:
1816:
1766:
1765:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1723:
1721:
1720:
1700:
1698:
1697:
1692:
1689:
1684:
1669:
1658:
1657:
1654:
1634:
1632:
1631:
1626:
1618:
1613:
1609:
1608:
1607:
1595:
1594:
1580:
1578:
1577:
1576:
1560:
1558:
1557:
1542:
1541:
1533:
1530:
1522:
1521:
1513:
1507:
1506:
1498:
1495:
1494:
1469:
1467:
1466:
1461:
1459:
1458:
1450:
1447:
1439:
1438:
1430:
1424:
1423:
1401:
1399:
1398:
1393:
1381:
1379:
1378:
1373:
1358:
1356:
1355:
1350:
1348:
1347:
1318:
1316:
1315:
1310:
1308:
1304:
1303:
1288:
1284:
1283:
1282:
1273:
1272:
1254:
1253:
1236:
1234:
1233:
1232:
1216:
1205:
1198:
1197:
1188:
1187:
1172:
1170:
1169:
1168:
1152:
1147:
1146:
1131:
1129:
1128:
1127:
1114:
1106:
1091:
1090:
1075:
1073:
1062:
1042:
1040:
1039:
1034:
1032:
1030:
1029:
1028:
1015:
1011:
1010:
991:
980:
979:
971:
959:
958:
950:
941:
939:
931:
923:
908:
906:
905:
900:
898:
891:
890:
875:
873:
872:
871:
858:
857:
856:
843:
841:
840:
825:
823:
822:
821:
808:
800:
795:
793:
785:
777:
775:
774:
759:
755:
753:
745:
744:
743:
730:
722:
720:
712:
704:
702:
701:
682:
681:
666:
664:
653:
633:
631:
630:
625:
613:
611:
610:
605:
603:
602:
594:
584:
582:
581:
576:
564:
562:
561:
556:
554:
553:
545:
535:
533:
532:
527:
512:
510:
509:
504:
502:
501:
493:
484:
483:
475:
469:
468:
460:
454:
453:
445:
430:
429:
421:
412:
410:
402:
401:
400:
392:
385:
355:An example of a
341:
339:
338:
333:
331:
330:
315:
304:
303:
300:
277:
275:
274:
269:
267:
266:
244:
242:
241:
236:
234:
233:
221:
220:
204:
202:
201:
196:
184:
182:
181:
176:
164:
162:
161:
156:
154:
153:
150:
137:
135:
134:
129:
113:
111:
110:
105:
103:
102:
93:
92:
77:
76:
73:
3416:
3415:
3411:
3410:
3409:
3407:
3406:
3405:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3383:
3349:
3345:
3336:
3334:
3327:
3318:
3314:
3261:
3252:
3245:
3231:
3227:
3188:
3184:
3137:
3133:
3092:
3088:
3033:
3029:
2974:
2970:
2913:
2909:
2840:
2836:
2829:
2812:
2808:
2758:
2754:
2745:
2743:
2735:
2734:
2730:
2721:
2719:
2711:
2710:
2706:
2661:
2654:
2599:
2595:
2585:
2583:
2575:
2574:
2570:
2533:
2529:
2522:
2508:
2501:
2496:
2475:Ram air turbine
2465:
2459:-era capsules.
2430:
2394:megatons of TNT
2378:
2370:meteor airburst
2322:
2317:
2301:galaxy clusters
2289:galaxy clusters
2211:
2208:
2207:
2190:
2186:
2184:
2181:
2180:
2163:
2159:
2157:
2154:
2153:
2133:
2129:
2123:
2119:
2111:
2099:
2095:
2093:
2090:
2089:
2071:J. Richard Gott
2063:
2061:Tidal stripping
2045:
2040:
2029:
2023:
2021:
2015:
2013:
2007:
2005:
1998:
1992:
1990:
1984:
1982:
1976:
1974:
1967:
1962:
1956:
1954:
1948:
1946:
1939:
1934:
1928:
1926:
1920:
1918:
1911:
1906:
1900:
1898:
1893:
1886:
1881:
1875:
1873:
1814:
1807:
1763:
1761:
1754:
1738:
1716:
1712:
1710:
1707:
1706:
1685:
1680:
1665:
1653:
1649:
1647:
1644:
1643:
1614:
1603:
1599:
1590:
1586:
1585:
1581:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1559:
1553:
1549:
1532:
1531:
1526:
1512:
1511:
1497:
1496:
1490:
1486:
1481:
1478:
1477:
1449:
1448:
1443:
1429:
1428:
1419:
1415:
1410:
1407:
1406:
1387:
1384:
1383:
1367:
1364:
1363:
1340:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1330:
1328:Kronecker delta
1306:
1305:
1299:
1295:
1278:
1274:
1268:
1264:
1246:
1242:
1241:
1237:
1228:
1224:
1220:
1215:
1203:
1202:
1193:
1189:
1183:
1179:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1142:
1138:
1123:
1119:
1115:
1107:
1105:
1095:
1086:
1082:
1066:
1061:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1051:
1024:
1020:
1016:
1006:
1002:
992:
990:
970:
969:
949:
948:
932:
924:
922:
920:
917:
916:
896:
895:
886:
882:
867:
863:
859:
852:
848:
844:
842:
836:
832:
817:
813:
809:
801:
799:
786:
778:
776:
770:
766:
757:
756:
746:
739:
735:
731:
729:
713:
705:
703:
697:
693:
686:
677:
673:
657:
652:
648:
646:
643:
642:
619:
616:
615:
593:
592:
590:
587:
586:
570:
567:
566:
544:
543:
541:
538:
537:
521:
518:
517:
492:
491:
474:
473:
459:
458:
444:
443:
420:
419:
403:
391:
390:
386:
384:
379:
376:
375:
371:for a fluid is
357:ram air turbine
349:
326:
322:
311:
299:
295:
293:
290:
289:
259:
255:
253:
250:
249:
229:
225:
216:
212:
210:
207:
206:
190:
187:
186:
170:
167:
166:
149:
145:
143:
140:
139:
123:
120:
119:
98:
94:
88:
84:
72:
68:
66:
63:
62:
17:
12:
11:
5:
3414:
3404:
3403:
3398:
3396:Fluid dynamics
3382:
3381:
3343:
3312:
3275:(3): 493â504.
3250:
3243:
3225:
3182:
3131:
3086:
3027:
2968:
2947:10.1086/309323
2923:(1): 113â121.
2907:
2834:
2827:
2806:
2752:
2728:
2704:
2690:10.1086/151605
2652:
2593:
2568:
2527:
2521:978-0521853316
2520:
2498:
2497:
2495:
2492:
2491:
2490:
2484:
2478:
2472:
2469:Ram-air intake
2464:
2461:
2429:
2426:
2386:nuclear weapon
2377:
2374:
2366:tiny fragments
2321:
2318:
2316:
2313:
2309:star formation
2297:dwarf galaxies
2277:dwarf galaxies
2237:star formation
2215:
2193:
2189:
2166:
2162:
2150:
2149:
2136:
2132:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2107:
2102:
2098:
2079:galaxy cluster
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2033:
2032:
2027:
2019:
2011:
2002:
2001:
1996:
1988:
1980:
1971:
1970:
1965:
1960:
1952:
1943:
1942:
1937:
1932:
1924:
1915:
1914:
1909:
1904:
1896:
1890:
1889:
1884:
1879:
1871:
1867:
1866:
1863:
1860:
1857:
1856:Altitude (ft)
1848:
1847:
1837:
1824:
1818:
1806:
1803:
1802:
1801:
1791:
1778:
1772:
1753:
1752:Imperial units
1750:
1737:
1734:
1719:
1715:
1703:
1702:
1688:
1683:
1679:
1675:
1672:
1668:
1664:
1661:
1652:
1636:
1635:
1624:
1621:
1617:
1612:
1606:
1602:
1598:
1593:
1589:
1584:
1575:
1571:
1567:
1563:
1556:
1552:
1548:
1545:
1539:
1536:
1529:
1525:
1519:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1501:
1493:
1489:
1485:
1471:
1470:
1456:
1453:
1446:
1442:
1436:
1433:
1427:
1422:
1418:
1414:
1391:
1371:
1346:
1343:
1339:
1320:
1319:
1302:
1298:
1294:
1291:
1287:
1281:
1277:
1271:
1267:
1263:
1260:
1257:
1252:
1249:
1245:
1240:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1219:
1214:
1211:
1208:
1206:
1204:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1186:
1182:
1178:
1175:
1167:
1163:
1159:
1155:
1150:
1145:
1141:
1137:
1134:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1113:
1110:
1104:
1101:
1098:
1096:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1081:
1078:
1072:
1069:
1065:
1060:
1059:
1045:
1044:
1027:
1023:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1005:
1001:
998:
995:
989:
986:
983:
977:
974:
968:
965:
962:
956:
953:
947:
944:
938:
935:
930:
927:
910:
909:
894:
889:
885:
881:
878:
870:
866:
862:
855:
851:
847:
839:
835:
831:
828:
820:
816:
812:
807:
804:
798:
792:
789:
784:
781:
773:
769:
765:
762:
760:
758:
752:
749:
742:
738:
734:
728:
725:
719:
716:
711:
708:
700:
696:
692:
689:
687:
685:
680:
676:
672:
669:
663:
660:
656:
651:
650:
623:
600:
597:
574:
551:
548:
525:
514:
513:
499:
496:
490:
487:
481:
478:
472:
466:
463:
457:
451:
448:
442:
439:
436:
433:
427:
424:
418:
415:
409:
406:
398:
395:
389:
383:
348:
345:
344:
343:
329:
325:
321:
318:
314:
310:
307:
298:
265:
262:
258:
232:
228:
224:
219:
215:
194:
174:
148:
127:
116:
115:
101:
97:
91:
87:
83:
80:
71:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3413:
3402:
3399:
3397:
3394:
3393:
3391:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3365:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3347:
3333:
3326:
3322:
3316:
3308:
3304:
3300:
3296:
3291:
3286:
3282:
3278:
3274:
3270:
3266:
3259:
3257:
3255:
3246:
3240:
3236:
3229:
3220:
3215:
3210:
3205:
3201:
3197:
3193:
3186:
3177:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3159:
3154:
3150:
3146:
3142:
3135:
3127:
3123:
3119:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3101:
3097:
3090:
3082:
3078:
3073:
3068:
3064:
3060:
3055:
3050:
3046:
3042:
3038:
3031:
3023:
3019:
3014:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2996:
2991:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2972:
2964:
2960:
2956:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2931:
2926:
2922:
2918:
2911:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2883:
2879:
2875:
2871:
2867:
2862:
2857:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2838:
2830:
2828:9780521671866
2824:
2820:
2816:
2810:
2802:
2798:
2793:
2788:
2783:
2778:
2774:
2770:
2766:
2762:
2756:
2742:
2738:
2732:
2718:
2714:
2708:
2700:
2696:
2691:
2686:
2682:
2678:
2674:
2670:
2666:
2659:
2657:
2648:
2644:
2639:
2634:
2630:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2597:
2582:
2578:
2572:
2563:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2531:
2523:
2517:
2513:
2506:
2504:
2499:
2488:
2485:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2473:
2470:
2467:
2466:
2460:
2458:
2454:
2450:
2446:
2442:
2434:
2428:In spacecraft
2425:
2423:
2419:
2415:
2409:
2407:
2403:
2399:
2395:
2391:
2387:
2383:
2373:
2371:
2367:
2363:
2362:to the ground
2359:
2355:
2351:
2347:
2343:
2339:
2338:upper reaches
2335:
2332:traveling at
2331:
2327:
2320:In meteoroids
2312:
2310:
2306:
2302:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2286:
2282:
2278:
2273:
2270:
2266:
2265:Virgo cluster
2262:
2258:
2254:
2249:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2232:
2230:
2213:
2191:
2187:
2164:
2160:
2134:
2130:
2124:
2120:
2116:
2112:
2108:
2105:
2100:
2096:
2088:
2087:
2086:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2067:James E. Gunn
2062:
2054:
2049:
2028:
2020:
2012:
2004:
2003:
1997:
1989:
1981:
1973:
1972:
1966:
1961:
1953:
1945:
1944:
1938:
1933:
1925:
1917:
1916:
1910:
1905:
1897:
1892:
1891:
1885:
1880:
1872:
1869:
1868:
1862:Altitude (m)
1854:
1845:
1841:
1838:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1825:
1822:
1819:
1812:
1809:
1808:
1799:
1795:
1792:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1779:
1776:
1773:
1770:
1759:
1756:
1755:
1749:
1747:
1743:
1733:
1717:
1713:
1686:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1670:
1666:
1662:
1659:
1650:
1642:
1641:
1640:
1622:
1619:
1610:
1604:
1600:
1596:
1591:
1587:
1582:
1573:
1569:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1543:
1534:
1523:
1514:
1508:
1499:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1476:
1475:
1474:
1451:
1440:
1431:
1425:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1405:
1404:
1403:
1389:
1369:
1360:
1344:
1341:
1337:
1329:
1325:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1289:
1285:
1279:
1275:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1258:
1255:
1250:
1247:
1243:
1238:
1229:
1225:
1212:
1209:
1207:
1194:
1190:
1184:
1180:
1176:
1165:
1161:
1148:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1132:
1124:
1120:
1111:
1102:
1099:
1097:
1087:
1083:
1079:
1070:
1050:
1049:
1048:
1025:
1021:
1007:
1003:
999:
987:
984:
972:
966:
960:
945:
942:
936:
928:
915:
914:
913:
892:
887:
883:
879:
876:
868:
864:
853:
849:
837:
833:
829:
826:
818:
814:
805:
796:
790:
782:
771:
767:
763:
761:
750:
740:
736:
726:
723:
717:
709:
698:
694:
690:
688:
678:
674:
670:
661:
641:
640:
639:
637:
621:
595:
572:
546:
523:
494:
488:
485:
476:
455:
446:
437:
434:
431:
416:
413:
407:
393:
381:
374:
373:
372:
370:
366:
365:Eulerian form
358:
353:
327:
323:
319:
316:
312:
308:
305:
296:
288:
287:
286:
283:
281:
263:
260:
256:
248:
230:
226:
222:
217:
213:
192:
172:
146:
125:
99:
95:
89:
85:
81:
78:
69:
61:
60:
59:
57:
53:
49:
45:
41:
34:
30:
26:
21:
3359:
3355:
3346:
3335:. Retrieved
3331:
3315:
3272:
3268:
3234:
3228:
3199:
3195:
3185:
3148:
3144:
3134:
3099:
3095:
3089:
3081:10486/662000
3044:
3040:
3030:
2985:
2981:
2971:
2920:
2916:
2910:
2851:
2847:
2837:
2818:
2809:
2772:
2768:
2755:
2744:. Retrieved
2740:
2731:
2720:. Retrieved
2716:
2707:
2672:
2668:
2610:
2606:
2596:
2584:. Retrieved
2580:
2571:
2544:
2540:
2530:
2511:
2439:
2410:
2381:
2379:
2323:
2305:dwarf galaxy
2274:
2250:
2233:
2151:
2064:
2053:Coma Cluster
1843:
1839:
1834:
1830:
1826:
1820:
1810:
1797:
1793:
1788:
1784:
1780:
1774:
1757:
1746:100 mph
1745:
1741:
1740:What is the
1739:
1704:
1637:
1472:
1361:
1324:product rule
1321:
1046:
911:
515:
362:
284:
117:
40:Ram pressure
39:
38:
3362:(1): 1â17.
2350:temperature
2340:of Earth's
2330:outer space
205:direction.
3390:Categories
3337:2017-03-06
3209:1802.03019
3158:1703.05610
3047:(2): L41.
2995:1701.02750
2815:Sparke, L.
2782:1504.07105
2746:2017-02-25
2722:2017-02-25
2620:1811.04916
2586:28 January
2494:References
2422:detonation
2346:shock wave
2342:atmosphere
2334:hypersonic
2299:away from
2293:cosmic web
2285:cosmic web
2281:cosmic web
2059:See also:
1322:using the
347:Derivation
3307:134398508
3299:1086-9379
3126:119245124
3109:1310.6838
3102:(1): 13.
3054:1211.0536
3022:0035-8711
2955:0004-637X
2886:0036-8075
2801:118693682
2775:(3): 78.
2699:0004-637X
2647:119218554
2487:Blue blob
2382:explosion
2263:) in the
2188:ρ
2121:ρ
2106:≈
1870:sea level
1742:sea level
1674:ρ
1597:ρ
1566:∂
1562:∂
1551:∫
1547:−
1538:→
1524:⋅
1518:→
1509:ρ
1503:→
1488:∮
1484:−
1455:→
1441:⋅
1435:→
1426:ρ
1417:∮
1413:−
1338:δ
1293:ρ
1262:ρ
1244:δ
1222:∂
1218:∂
1213:−
1177:ρ
1158:∂
1154:∂
1149:−
1136:ρ
1117:∂
1109:∂
1103:−
1080:ρ
1068:∂
1064:∂
1018:∂
1000:ρ
994:∂
988:−
976:→
967:ρ
961:⋅
955:→
952:∇
946:−
934:∂
929:ρ
926:∂
880:ρ
861:∂
846:∂
830:ρ
827:−
811:∂
803:∂
797:−
788:∂
783:ρ
780:∂
748:∂
733:∂
727:ρ
715:∂
710:ρ
707:∂
671:ρ
659:∂
655:∂
599:→
573:ρ
550:→
498:→
489:ρ
480:→
465:→
462:∇
456:⋅
450:→
438:ρ
435:−
426:→
423:∇
417:−
405:∂
397:→
388:∂
382:ρ
320:ρ
280:viscosity
257:σ
126:ρ
82:ρ
3401:Pressure
3323:(2007).
2963:14938118
2894:10834835
2613:(2): 2.
2547:(2270).
2481:Parafoil
2463:See also
2406:momentum
2398:chemical
2354:friction
2261:NGC 4522
2257:NGC 4402
2253:NGC 4330
2229:NGC 4402
2075:galaxies
1829:= 0.5 Ă
1805:SI units
1783:= 0.5 Ă
1326:and the
536:, where
58:form as
44:pressure
25:NGC 4402
3364:Bibcode
3277:Bibcode
3163:Bibcode
3151:: L10.
3059:Bibcode
3000:Bibcode
2935:Bibcode
2902:6653020
2866:Bibcode
2848:Science
2677:Bibcode
2625:Bibcode
2549:Bibcode
367:of the
3305:
3297:
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3124:
3020:
2961:
2953:
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2518:
2457:Apollo
2259:, and
2152:where
2030:0.0171
1999:0.1967
1968:0.6531
1940:0.9047
1912:1.0556
1887:1.2250
1815:1.2250
1705:where
118:where
56:tensor
3328:(PDF)
3303:S2CID
3204:arXiv
3153:arXiv
3122:S2CID
3104:arXiv
3049:arXiv
2990:arXiv
2959:S2CID
2925:arXiv
2898:S2CID
2856:arXiv
2797:S2CID
2777:arXiv
2675:: 1.
2643:S2CID
2615:arXiv
2328:from
2241:Virgo
2077:in a
2014:0.000
1983:0.000
1955:0.001
1927:0.001
1899:0.002
1874:0.002
1798:25.68
1769:slugs
1762:0.002
48:fluid
42:is a
3295:ISSN
3239:ISBN
3018:ISSN
2951:ISSN
2890:PMID
2882:ISSN
2823:ISBN
2695:ISSN
2588:2019
2516:ISBN
2449:NACA
2443:and
2414:sail
2245:Coma
2243:and
2069:and
2016:0331
1985:3817
1963:6096
1957:2673
1935:3048
1929:7555
1907:1524
1901:0482
1894:5000
1876:3769
1844:1224
1771:/ft)
1764:3769
363:The
52:drag
33:dust
3372:doi
3285:doi
3214:doi
3200:482
3171:doi
3149:601
3114:doi
3100:147
3077:hdl
3067:doi
3045:763
3008:doi
2986:466
2943:doi
2921:540
2874:doi
2852:288
2787:doi
2773:151
2685:doi
2673:176
2633:doi
2611:870
2557:doi
2545:479
2447:of
2024:480
2008:000
2006:100
1993:240
1977:000
1949:000
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1655:ram
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301:ram
282:).
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