94:
4733:
682:(MOE). It reportedly quickly proved to be controversial, especially amongst non-Koreans. Fouser evaluated the system as prioritizing use for Koreans; it had a one-to-one correspondence from Hangul to Latin script, and did not account for the pronunciation changes that Hangul itself did not reflect. The system also tended to produce romanizations that bore superficial resemblance to words in English, some of which were seen as odd or humorous.
409:. In spite of this, some scholars found issue with these early systems. More systems by Westerners emerged, based on English, French, and German phonology. Japanese scholars also developed their own romanizations for Korean, many of which were built on the work of Siebold and Dallet. In 1933, the first romanization system developed by Koreans, which was appended to the
878:(1996): This actually is two different standards under one name: one for North Korea (DPRK) and the other for South Korea (ROK). The initial submission to the ISO was based heavily on Yale and was a joint effort between both states, but they could not agree on the final draft. A superficial comparison between the two is available here:
482:
Other challenges were fundamental to properties of the Korean language and script, which make the language not easily mappable onto the Latin script. McCune and
Reischauer claimed in 1939 that there are eight to ten vowels in Korean (this topic was still debated by that point). As there are only five
80:
The earliest romanization systems for Korean emerged around the mid-19th century. Due to a number of factors, including the properties of the Korean language and alphabet, as well as social and geopolitical issues, a single settled standard did not emerge. By 1934, there were 27 extant romanization
720:
by the 1980s and 1990s, complaints about MR reportedly grew. The breves used in MR were not easily accessible on a standard keyboard. Some took to replacing the breve with alternate characters or simply omitting it altogether; the diversity of practice and ambiguity if breves were not used led to
910:
would be one of them. Hanja was deemed too hard to learn, while Hangul was claimed to be inconvenient for typesetting and handwriting. Since removing of Hanja would result in much ambiguity, it was proposed that
Chinese words would be replaced by words of Korean origin (compare
921:
325:
system is based on but deviates from MR. Unlike in MR, it addresses word division in seven pages of detail. Syllables of given names are always separated with a hyphen, which is expressly never done by MR. Sound changes are ignored more often than in
475:); they published separate guidances. Eventually, the Korean Language Society's standard became the basis for the standards of both North and South Korea. Other references for spelling included those used in Gale's dictionary, guidances from the
3285:
Translation of a comparative
Vocabulary of the Chinese, Corean and Japanese, to Which is Added the thousand Character Classic, in Chinese and Corean, the Whole Accompanied by Copious Indexes of All the Chinese and English Words Occurring in the
689:, which were to be held in Seoul. In 1984, a slightly revised version of McCune–Reischauer was adopted. Some South Koreans reportedly had negative reactions to the system, which they viewed as confusing and overly beholden to pronunciation.
361:
that was used in his translation of a book on the
Chinese, Korean, and Japanese languages. Medhurst's romanization scheme was otherwise not significantly used. In 1874, the Dallet system was introduced; it was based around French-language
767:
announced that South Korea would adopt a new system: Revised
Romanization (RR). Road signs and textbooks were required to follow these rules as soon as possible, at a cost estimated by the government to be at least US$ 500–600 million.
599:
668:
439:
by the 1930s, Korean continued to lack such a standard. This led to significant diversity and inconsistencies in romanizations, not only between scholars but reportedly even within the writings of individual authors.
927:
661:, romanization was reportedly seen as a minor concern, compared to improving domestic literacy in Hangul. Meanwhile, romanization systems continued to emerge; by 1997, there were more than 40 romanization systems.
679:
811:
410:
4358:
664:
In 1956, North Korea became the first of the two Koreas to promulgate an official romanization system. This system combines features of the Dallet and 1933 Unifed systems. It was revised in 1986.
725:(ISO) requested both North and South Korea to work together on developing a standard romanization. The two countries held a series of meeting, during which they failed to reach a consensus.
739:
466:
932:
232:
829:
455:. Attempts were made to standardize the Korean language, but these efforts were made by multiple authorities. Two rivaling societies for standardizing Korean emerged: the
501:. Also, in many cases, pronunciation does not exactly match what is written in Hangul; similar phenomena occurs with all other major scripts as well. For example, due to
859:
209:
700:. The system became widely adopted by the international academic linguistics community, although few others adopted it. Fouser argues that while the system allowed for
627:
4058:
3712:
was applying for his sons' passports to go abroad, he mistakenly wrote their surname as "SIM". He later realized his mistake, but it was too late to change.]
916:
786:
227:
704:, it is "unsightly", is suited to those who already know Hangul, and does not adequately communicate pronunciation, even in comparison to the MOE system.
864:
744:
654:
214:
4230:"Korean Rŏmaniz'atiŏn: Is It Finally Time for The Library Of Congress to Stop Promoting Mccune-Reischauer and Adopt the Revised Romanization Scheme?"
616:
534:
or
Japanese perspectives; Korean place names were often rendered using pronunciations from the Chinese or Japanese languages. Furthermore, after
414:
722:
632:
764:
451:
Even into the 20th century, there were significant variations in pronunciation and spelling in the Korean language itself, often due to the
4546:
427:
Systems continued to be developed to address various perceived shortcomings in other systems. By 1934, according to
Japanese linguist
4395:
Comparison table of IPA, Yale, McCune–Reischauer, Lukoff, South Korea
Ministry of Education, Joseon Gwahagwon, Revised Romanization
879:
284:
4541:
4201:
729:
673:
4447:
4154:
4307:"The Present State of Korean Romanization System in Y2K : Case of Fugitive G: Why to K? :Case of Fugitive G: Why to K?"
3700:[Father's surname is Shim, son's is Sim... What is the story behind the "Hercules" father and son?] (in Korean).
549:
Regardless of romanization systems, many
Koreans chose and continue to choose to spell their names in Latin script in an
4394:
3974:
749:. A large debate reportedly emerged, with more systems being proposed and some proposing reverting to previous systems.
4349:
405:
357:, whom was living in Japan. Another early romanization system was an 1835 unnamed and unpublished system by missionary
4389:
Comparison table of ISO TR/11941, North Korean national system (1992), Revised
Romanization, McCune–Reischauer, Yale
1126:
with a different purpose. The usage of only lowercase letters was also not unusual, as it was the Latin alphabet of
304:("MR"; 1939): Basis for various romanization systems. Almost universally used by international academic journals on
903:
543:
483:
vowels in the Latin script, the other vowel sounds had to be rendered either using multiple letters in the form of
4758:
4680:
4173:
3866:
2862:
2851:
539:
476:
4753:
4402:
2856:
886:
758:
331:
311:
204:
199:
74:
66:
41:
20:
1133:
Some words written in the Soviet Latin alphabet: gu lli, nongdhion haggio, nong ʙ, zængsan, gugga diaʙondiyi.
538:, the "official" names of many places were considered to be those in the Japanese language. In addition, the
277:
2797:
2757:
2717:
2677:
2637:
2597:
2557:
2517:
2477:
2437:
2397:
2357:
2317:
2277:
2237:
2197:
2157:
2117:
2077:
2037:
1997:
1912:
1871:
1831:
1791:
1751:
1711:
1671:
1631:
1591:
1551:
1511:
1471:
1431:
1391:
1351:
1311:
1271:
1231:
1191:
685:
Eventually, the South Korean government took to reevaluating the use of the system in anticipation of the
2874:
912:
844:
802:
697:
448:
The task of developing a standard romanization scheme for Korean was complicated by a number of factors.
399:
337:
253:
4723:
4675:
4665:
4660:
4620:
4578:
4558:
4440:
530:
Some challenges were social and geopolitical. Reportedly, early scholars often wrote about Korea from
4655:
4650:
4593:
4563:
4485:
535:
354:
4306:
4275:
3992:
3697:
4630:
4605:
4553:
4516:
502:
436:
4670:
4588:
4583:
4536:
4531:
4521:
3264:
456:
270:
221:
3296:. Holstein claims this is the first romanization system, but Fouser provides an earlier example.
791:
101:
4690:
4615:
4573:
4511:
4391:(PDF file from UN Group of Experts on Geographical Names Working Group on Romanization Systems)
4017:
3293:
387:
124:
3357:
386:
over the letter "e". The first system to see significant usage was the Ross system, named for
4705:
4635:
4610:
4526:
4475:
4433:
4266:
4174:"Updates to the Report on the Current Status of UN Romanization Systems for Geographic Names"
4129:"Ким Герман.Рассказы о родном языке.Рассказ 4.Неудавшаяся революция в корейской письменности"
2869:
823:
592:
574:
542:
implemented various restrictions on the use of the Korean language around the mid-1930s; the
484:
358:
301:
194:
62:
4695:
686:
554:
432:
4417:
3397:
61:
There are multiple romanization systems in common use. The two most prominent systems are
8:
4710:
4645:
4625:
4470:
4229:
3405:
646:
608:
322:
318:
171:
3918:
3706:심정수는 이주 과정에서 여권 신청서를 작성할 때 실수로 아들들의 성을 'SIM'으로 적었다고 한다. 뒤늦게 실수를 알았지만, 다시 이름을 바꾸기는 어려웠다.
621:
419:
77:
since 1992. RR is the official system of South Korea, and has been in use since 2000.
4490:
4359:"Nationalism and Globalism in Transliteration Systems: Romanization Debates in Korea"
4320:
4289:
4241:
4208:
4150:
3379:
650:
597:
McCune–Reischauer (MR) is a system that was first introduced in 1939, in the journal
394:
3935:
314:(1992): The official romanization in North Korea, some differences with standard MR.
4568:
3369:
1122:
was commonly used in Soviet Roman-derived alphabets due to some alphabets having a
701:
693:
604:
4737:
4407:
1127:
1119:
452:
403:. This system went on to achieve some adoption; it was reportedly adopted by the
93:
55:
31:
4506:
3892:
4685:
4598:
4128:
3870:
3709:
612:
305:
178:
70:
611:; the two developed the system together in consultation with Korean linguists
424:
published "The International Phonetic Transcription of Korean Speech Sounds".
353:
Possibly the earliest romanization system was an 1832 system by German doctor
4747:
4480:
4324:
4311:
4293:
4280:
4245:
3978:
3701:
3383:
428:
4337:
4254:
4456:
3312:
The first alternative is used before a vowel; the second is used elsewhere.
899:
875:
531:
383:
379:
258:
51:
4372:(1/4). Seoul National University Language Education Institute 서울대학교 언어교육원.
583:
family, a father's surname was rendered as "Shim" and the son's as "Sim".
4338:"The Romanization of the Korean Language Based on Its Phonetic Structure"
1123:
833:
573:. In some cases, single families romanized their surnames differently on
341:
118:
4700:
658:
157:
4388:
3677:
3374:
3252:
Wēn hasinun sen sayk.kkal kwa kwulk.ki ey cheykhu hasimyen toypnita.
3225:
3061:
907:
498:
375:
363:
161:
1136:
The alphabet saw criticism from Koreans and was never put into use.
443:
4732:
3129:
738:) proposed its own new system. Concurrently, Bok Moon Kim produced
717:
713:
146:
142:
4412:
3549:
3547:
3545:
678:
published a romanization system, which has since been dubbed the
152:
4276:"Romanization of Korean: Do Armchair Linguists Have the Answer?"
3665:
3607:
3605:
3243:(Wonhasineun seon saegkkalgwa gulggie chekeuhasimyeon doebnida.)
4425:
3629:
3617:
3542:
3289:
3190:
3092:
2846:
1031:
390:, which was designed in 1882. It saw adoption by missionaries.
108:
3241:
Wonhasineun seon saekkkalgwa gulkkie chekeuhasimyeon doemnida.
4328:
4297:
3653:
3602:
3590:
3358:"How to romanize Korean characters in international journals"
640:
506:
133:
3813:
3811:
3731:
19:
For the official system of romanization in North Korea, see
3916:
3433:
3431:
2881:
544:
Korean Language Society was also persecuted in one incident
413:, was promulgated by the Korean Language Society. In 1935,
4145:
Noma, Hideki (2005). "Korean". In Strazny, Philipp (ed.).
3248:
Wŏnhasinŭn sŏn saekkalgwa kulkie ch'ek'ŭhasimyŏn toemnida.
297:
The following systems are currently the most widely used:
4088:
4076:
3847:
3808:
3796:
3784:
3559:
3518:
3508:
3506:
3504:
3418:
3416:
431:'s count, there were at least 27 extant systems. Whereas
334:("RR"; 2000): South Korea's official romanization system.
3933:
3750:
3748:
3746:
3721:
3719:
3580:
3578:
3576:
3574:
3489:
3428:
655:
Both Koreas began to develop separate language standards
435:
had already become the widely accepted standard for the
308:. Modified version used for South Korea from 1984–2000.
4149:. Vol. 1. Taylor & Francis. pp. 579–584.
3772:
3760:
3479:
3477:
3475:
3473:
3471:
3469:
3467:
3465:
3452:
3450:
3448:
3446:
4342:
Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch
3501:
3413:
3288:. It was a translation of an 18th century text by the
600:
Transactions of the Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch
340:(1942): Standard for almost exclusively international
4721:
4039:
4027:
3957:
3955:
3953:
3951:
3949:
3835:
3743:
3716:
3641:
3571:
3530:
883:
National Academy of the Korean Language System (1997)
3462:
3443:
522:
516:
45:
856:
Lee Hyun Bok's Computer-Communication System (1994)
696:introduced a system that has since been dubbed the
4255:"The McCune-Reischauer Korean Romanization System"
4100:
3946:
3823:
752:
444:Challenges for developing a standard romanization
4745:
4336:McCune, George M.; Reischauer, Edwin O. (1939).
4335:
3737:
3698:"아버지 성은 'SHIM', 아들은 'SIM'...'헤라클래스' 부자에 무슨 사연이?"
3683:
3671:
3659:
3635:
3623:
3611:
3596:
3553:
1139:
928:system of transcribing Korean words into Russian
69:(RR). MR is almost universally used in academic
850:Korean Romanization for Data Application (1992)
4418:Another online Roman to Korean transliteration
915:). The new alphabet, made by famous Koreanist
723:International Organization for Standardization
4441:
3867:"2005년까지 연차적으로 도로표지판을 바꾸는 데 5000억~6000억원이 들고"
278:
3993:"Shibu Shohei System of Korean Romanisation"
3231:
3196:
3163:
3134:
3097:
3066:
3035:
3006:
2977:
2948:
2915:
2886:
898:In the 1920s–1930s various languages of the
733:
578:
510:
492:
470:
460:
35:
4384:Comparison tables of the different systems:
4202:"Argument for horizontal writing of Hangul"
893:
4448:
4434:
3967:
3934:Société asiatique (Paris, France) (1864).
3308:
3306:
3304:
3302:
641:After the liberation and division of Korea
285:
271:
4168:
4166:
3373:
1145:Comparison of romanization of consonants
81:systems, and by 1997 there were over 40.
4252:
3778:
3766:
3725:
3512:
3495:
3483:
3219:Hānkwuk un nēy kyēycel i ttwulyes hata.
3299:
3210:(Hangug-eun ne gyejeol-i ttulyeoshada.)
730:National Academy of the Korean Language
366:. It was the first to use the digraphs
4746:
4413:Online Roman to Korean transliteration
4356:
4179:. United Nations. 2004. pp. 20–22
4163:
4140:
4138:
4094:
4082:
4045:
4033:
3853:
3841:
3817:
3802:
3790:
3754:
3647:
3584:
3565:
3536:
3524:
3456:
3437:
3332:Nothing in syllable-initial position,
4429:
4273:
4196:
4194:
3328:
3326:
3324:
3322:
3320:
3318:
1951:Comparison of romanization of vowels
378:for Korean romanization; it used the
16:Writing Korean using the Latin script
4464:By publisher (for several languages)
4227:
4144:
4118:Советское языкознание, т.1. Л., 1935
3829:
3390:
586:
4304:
4135:
4106:
3961:
3422:
3355:
908:language of Koreans of the Far East
838:Ministry of Education system (1959)
13:
4350:Royal Asiatic Society Korea Branch
4191:
3695:
3315:
3228:the line color and width you want.
3206:Hangugeun ne gyejeori tturyeotada.
812:Unified Han'gŭl Orthography System
669:South Korean Ministry of Education
411:Unified Han'gŭl Orthography System
406:Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies
397:introduced his system in his work
75:the official system of North Korea
14:
4770:
4377:
3917:Société des missions étrangères.
3215:Han'gugŭn ne kyejŏri tturyŏthada.
4731:
4455:
4274:Klein, Edward F. (August 1982).
92:
84:
4234:Journal of East Asian Libraries
4228:Doll, Chris (October 1, 2017).
4121:
4112:
4051:
4010:
3985:
3975:"Korean Romanization Reference"
3927:
3910:
3885:
3859:
3689:
765:Ministry of Culture and Tourism
707:
577:. For example, within a single
73:, and a variant of it has been
4403:Lukoff's system (simple table)
3936:"Aperçu de la langue coréenne"
3349:
3277:
904:switched to the Latin alphabet
887:Revised Romanization of Korean
841:The Shibu Shohei System (1961)
763:On July 7, 2000, the NAKL and
759:Revised Romanization of Korean
753:Revised Romanization of Korean
734:
536:Korea went under Japanese rule
511:
493:
471:
461:
332:Revised Romanization of Korean
200:Romanization of Korean (North)
36:
21:Romanization of Korean (North)
1:
4500:By language or writing system
4397:(PDF file from Glossika Inc.)
4065:(in Korean), February 8, 2022
3343:
1140:Comparison of various systems
4305:Lee, Sang-Oak (March 2001).
3920:Dictionnaire coréen-français
3738:McCune & Reischauer 1939
3684:McCune & Reischauer 1939
3672:McCune & Reischauer 1939
3660:McCune & Reischauer 1939
3636:McCune & Reischauer 1939
3624:McCune & Reischauer 1939
3612:McCune & Reischauer 1939
3597:McCune & Reischauer 1939
3554:McCune & Reischauer 1939
3398:"ALA-LC Romanization Tables"
3356:Huh, Sun (August 16, 2017).
906:and it was planned that the
853:You Mahn-gun's System (1992)
780:Medhurst romanization (1835)
680:Ministry of Education system
540:Japanese colonial government
477:Government-General of Chōsen
205:Revised Romanization (South)
7:
4147:Encyclopedia of Linguistics
3258:
2835:
913:linguistic purism in Korean
845:Yale romanization of Korean
777:Siebold romanization (1832)
740:his own romanization system
657:. Just after the 1950–1953
523:
517:
479:, and a French dictionary.
400:A Korean-English Dictionary
338:Yale romanization of Korean
46:
10:
4775:
4357:Fouser, Robert J. (1999).
4221:
3893:"Charles Dallet, Histoire"
3283:English title of work was
756:
728:In 1991, the South Korean
590:
557:is variously romanized as
348:
18:
4499:
4463:
3233:원하시는 선 색깔과 굵기에 체크하시면 됩니다.
3232:
3197:
3164:
3135:
3098:
3067:
3036:
3007:
2978:
2949:
2916:
2887:
926:, who would later make a
860:Bok Moon Kim romanization
579:
355:Philipp Franz von Siebold
210:Bok Moon Kim romanization
3270:
3189:Korea has four distinct
894:Kholodovich romanization
820:Jung romanization (1936)
721:confusion. In 1986, the
509:is written in Korean as
437:romanization of Japanese
4253:Holstein, John (1999).
3265:Cyrillization of Korean
3160:(an) easy (+ noun)
771:
503:linguistic assimilation
457:Korean Language Society
374:, and the first to use
4759:Romanization of Korean
4366:Language Research 어학연구
3981:on September 26, 2009.
3294:Bureau of Interpreters
1117:
575:South Korean passports
312:Romanization of Korean
125:New Korean Orthography
102:Korean writing systems
28:romanization of Korean
4754:Korean writing system
4267:Royal Asiatic Society
3686:, pp. 20–21, 23.
943:USSR Korean Alphabet
939:
917:Aleksandr Kholodovich
832:(1945), developed by
808:Eckardt system (1923)
553:manner. For example,
467:Chŏson Ŏhak Yŏn'guhoe
359:Walter Henry Medhurst
4408:Gangmun Romanization
3897:anthony.sogang.ac.kr
3696:김용 (July 12, 2023).
783:Dallet system (1874)
687:1988 Summer Olympics
433:Hepburn romanization
67:Revised Romanization
50:) is the use of the
4097:, pp. 169–170.
4085:, pp. 170–171.
3873:. September 1, 2000
3856:, pp. 167–169.
3820:, pp. 165–166.
3805:, pp. 163–164.
3793:, pp. 162–163.
3568:, pp. 160–161.
3527:, pp. 159–160.
3440:, pp. 164–165.
3425:, p. 246, 255.
3406:Library of Congress
1952:
1146:
1124:letter similar to b
944:
937:, looked like this:
872:HanSe System (1996)
830:Lukoff romanization
817:Ogura system (1934)
712:With the spread of
647:liberation of Korea
645:With 1945 came the
609:Edwin O. Reischauer
323:Library of Congress
3292:government agency
2863:RR transliteration
1950:
1144:
942:
799:Ross system (1882)
603:. It is named for
521:), but pronounced
453:dialects of Korean
228:Kholodovich system
54:to transcribe the
4719:
4718:
4214:on March 7, 2014.
4156:978-1-57958-450-4
4063:위키백과, 우리 모두의 백과사전
3940:Journal asiatique
3498:, pp. 12–13.
3336:syllable-finally.
3256:
3255:
3130:character, letter
3111:
3032:to/in the kitchen
2945:
2866:
2833:
2832:
1948:
1947:
1115:
1114:
824:McCune–Reischauer
796:dictionary (1880)
787:Félix-Clair Ridel
593:McCune–Reischauer
587:McCune–Reischauer
395:James Scarth Gale
302:McCune–Reischauer
295:
294:
195:McCune–Reischauer
63:McCune–Reischauer
4766:
4736:
4735:
4727:
4450:
4443:
4436:
4427:
4426:
4373:
4363:
4353:
4332:
4301:
4270:
4249:
4216:
4215:
4213:
4207:. Archived from
4206:
4198:
4189:
4188:
4186:
4184:
4178:
4170:
4161:
4160:
4142:
4133:
4132:
4125:
4119:
4116:
4110:
4104:
4098:
4092:
4086:
4080:
4074:
4073:
4072:
4070:
4055:
4049:
4043:
4037:
4031:
4025:
4024:
4022:
4014:
4008:
4007:
4005:
4003:
3989:
3983:
3982:
3977:. Archived from
3971:
3965:
3959:
3944:
3943:
3931:
3925:
3924:
3914:
3908:
3907:
3905:
3903:
3889:
3883:
3882:
3880:
3878:
3863:
3857:
3851:
3845:
3839:
3833:
3827:
3821:
3815:
3806:
3800:
3794:
3788:
3782:
3776:
3770:
3764:
3758:
3752:
3741:
3735:
3729:
3723:
3714:
3713:
3693:
3687:
3681:
3675:
3674:, pp. 9–12.
3669:
3663:
3657:
3651:
3645:
3639:
3633:
3627:
3621:
3615:
3609:
3600:
3594:
3588:
3582:
3569:
3563:
3557:
3551:
3540:
3534:
3528:
3522:
3516:
3510:
3499:
3493:
3487:
3481:
3460:
3454:
3441:
3435:
3426:
3420:
3411:
3410:
3402:
3394:
3388:
3387:
3377:
3375:10.6087/kcse.100
3353:
3337:
3330:
3313:
3310:
3297:
3281:
3235:
3234:
3200:
3199:
3167:
3166:
3138:
3137:
3109:
3101:
3100:
3070:
3069:
3039:
3038:
3010:
3009:
2981:
2980:
2952:
2951:
2943:
2919:
2918:
2890:
2889:
2860:
2840:
2839:
2799:
2759:
2719:
2679:
2639:
2599:
2559:
2519:
2479:
2439:
2399:
2359:
2319:
2279:
2239:
2199:
2159:
2119:
2079:
2039:
1999:
1953:
1949:
1914:
1873:
1833:
1793:
1753:
1713:
1673:
1633:
1593:
1553:
1513:
1473:
1433:
1393:
1353:
1313:
1273:
1233:
1193:
1147:
1143:
945:
941:
936:
925:
868:
795:
748:
737:
736:
694:Samuel E. Martin
677:
636:
625:
605:George M. McCune
582:
581:
526:
520:
514:
513:
496:
495:
474:
473:
464:
463:
423:
287:
280:
273:
236:
218:
96:
89:
88:
49:
47:romaja pyogibeop
39:
38:
4774:
4773:
4769:
4768:
4767:
4765:
4764:
4763:
4744:
4743:
4742:
4730:
4722:
4720:
4715:
4495:
4459:
4454:
4423:
4380:
4361:
4224:
4219:
4211:
4204:
4200:
4199:
4192:
4182:
4180:
4176:
4172:
4171:
4164:
4157:
4143:
4136:
4127:
4126:
4122:
4117:
4113:
4105:
4101:
4093:
4089:
4081:
4077:
4068:
4066:
4057:
4056:
4052:
4044:
4040:
4032:
4028:
4020:
4016:
4015:
4011:
4001:
3999:
3991:
3990:
3986:
3973:
3972:
3968:
3960:
3947:
3932:
3928:
3915:
3911:
3901:
3899:
3891:
3890:
3886:
3876:
3874:
3865:
3864:
3860:
3852:
3848:
3840:
3836:
3828:
3824:
3816:
3809:
3801:
3797:
3789:
3785:
3781:, pp. 4–5.
3777:
3773:
3769:, pp. 1–2.
3765:
3761:
3753:
3744:
3736:
3732:
3724:
3717:
3694:
3690:
3682:
3678:
3670:
3666:
3658:
3654:
3646:
3642:
3638:, pp. 5–6.
3634:
3630:
3626:, pp. 4–5.
3622:
3618:
3610:
3603:
3595:
3591:
3583:
3572:
3564:
3560:
3556:, pp. 2–3.
3552:
3543:
3535:
3531:
3523:
3519:
3515:, pp. 1–3.
3511:
3502:
3494:
3490:
3482:
3463:
3455:
3444:
3436:
3429:
3421:
3414:
3400:
3396:
3395:
3391:
3362:Science Editing
3354:
3350:
3346:
3341:
3340:
3331:
3316:
3311:
3300:
3282:
3278:
3273:
3261:
3242:
3208:
3198:한국은 네 계절이 뚜렷하다.
3174:
3145:
3114:
3087:wikhi payk.kwa
3077:
3046:
3017:
2988:
2959:
2942:
2926:
2897:
2859:
2838:
1142:
1130:, for example.
1128:Adyghe language
1116:
930:
919:
896:
862:
814:appendix (1933)
789:
774:
761:
755:
742:
710:
671:
643:
630:
619:
595:
589:
446:
417:
351:
291:
245:Transliteration
230:
212:
117:Chosŏn'gŭl (in
87:
56:Korean language
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4772:
4762:
4761:
4756:
4741:
4740:
4717:
4716:
4714:
4713:
4708:
4703:
4698:
4693:
4688:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4663:
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4653:
4648:
4643:
4638:
4633:
4628:
4623:
4618:
4613:
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4596:
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4509:
4503:
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4494:
4493:
4488:
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4478:
4473:
4467:
4465:
4461:
4460:
4453:
4452:
4445:
4438:
4430:
4421:
4420:
4415:
4410:
4405:
4400:
4399:
4398:
4392:
4379:
4378:External links
4376:
4375:
4374:
4354:
4333:
4319:(1): 246–267.
4302:
4271:
4250:
4223:
4220:
4218:
4217:
4190:
4162:
4155:
4134:
4120:
4111:
4109:, p. 246.
4099:
4087:
4075:
4050:
4048:, p. 171.
4038:
4036:, p. 172.
4026:
4009:
3997:www.tufs.ac.jp
3984:
3966:
3964:, p. 249.
3945:
3926:
3909:
3884:
3871:Monthly Chosun
3858:
3846:
3844:, p. 166.
3834:
3822:
3807:
3795:
3783:
3771:
3759:
3757:, p. 162.
3742:
3730:
3715:
3710:Shim Jeong-soo
3688:
3676:
3664:
3652:
3650:, p. 157.
3640:
3628:
3616:
3601:
3589:
3587:, p. 161.
3570:
3558:
3541:
3539:, p. 160.
3529:
3517:
3500:
3488:
3461:
3459:, p. 159.
3442:
3427:
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757:Main article:
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613:Choe Hyeon-bae
591:Main article:
588:
585:
497:) or by using
445:
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306:Korean studies
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254:Yale (scholar)
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71:Korean studies
15:
9:
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3:
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4312:Korea Journal
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4281:Korea Journal
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4183:September 30,
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4059:"김복문 로마자 표기법"
4054:
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3726:Holstein 1999
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3108:
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3096:
3094:
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3086:
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3081:
3079:
3078:(wikibaeggwa)
3074:
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3065:
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2985:
2983:
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2944:(uninflected)
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2019:
2016:
2013:
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2001:
1996:
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1712:/t͡ɕʰ/~/t͡sʰ/
1710:
1707:
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1699:
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1672:/t͈͡ɕ/~/t͈͡s/
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1007:
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998:
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992:
989:
986:
983:
980:
977:
974:
971:
968:
965:
962:
959:
956:
953:
950:
948:Latin script
947:
946:
938:
934:
929:
923:
918:
914:
909:
905:
901:
888:
885:
882:
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877:
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793:
788:
785:
782:
779:
776:
775:
769:
766:
760:
750:
746:
741:
731:
726:
724:
719:
715:
705:
703:
702:reversibility
699:
695:
690:
688:
683:
681:
675:
670:
667:In 1959, the
665:
662:
660:
656:
652:
649:, as well as
648:
638:
634:
629:
623:
618:
617:Jeong In-seop
614:
610:
606:
602:
601:
594:
584:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
552:
547:
545:
541:
537:
533:
528:
525:
519:
508:
504:
500:
490:
486:
480:
478:
468:
458:
454:
449:
441:
438:
434:
430:
429:Shinpei Ogura
425:
421:
416:
415:Jeong In-seop
412:
408:
407:
402:
401:
396:
391:
389:
385:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
360:
356:
343:
339:
336:
333:
330:
324:
320:
316:
313:
310:
309:
307:
303:
300:
299:
298:
288:
283:
281:
276:
274:
269:
268:
266:
265:
260:
257:
255:
252:
251:
250:
249:
246:
243:
242:
234:
229:
226:
223:
220:
216:
211:
208:
206:
203:
201:
198:
196:
193:
192:
191:
190:
187:
186:Transcription
184:
183:
180:
177:
176:
173:
170:
169:
163:
159:
156:
154:
151:
148:
144:
141:
140:
139:
138:
135:
132:
131:
126:
123:
120:
116:
115:
114:
113:
110:
107:
106:
103:
100:
99:
95:
91:
90:
85:Major systems
82:
78:
76:
72:
68:
64:
59:
57:
53:
48:
43:
33:
29:
22:
4640:
4547:in Singapore
4457:Romanization
4422:
4383:
4369:
4365:
4345:
4341:
4327:– via
4316:
4310:
4296:– via
4288:(8): 16–23.
4285:
4279:
4262:
4259:Transactions
4258:
4237:
4233:
4209:the original
4181:. Retrieved
4146:
4123:
4114:
4102:
4090:
4078:
4069:February 27,
4067:, retrieved
4062:
4053:
4041:
4029:
4012:
4000:. Retrieved
3996:
3987:
3979:the original
3969:
3939:
3929:
3919:
3912:
3900:. Retrieved
3896:
3887:
3875:. Retrieved
3861:
3849:
3837:
3832:, p. 8.
3825:
3798:
3786:
3774:
3762:
3733:
3728:, p. 2.
3705:
3691:
3679:
3667:
3662:, p. 7.
3655:
3643:
3631:
3619:
3614:, p. 1.
3599:, p. 2.
3592:
3561:
3532:
3520:
3491:
3486:, p. 3.
3404:
3392:
3365:
3361:
3351:
3333:
3284:
3279:
3247:
3240:
3214:
3209:
3205:
3179:
3172:
3150:
3143:
3119:
3112:
3106:
3082:
3075:
3051:
3044:
3022:
3015:
2993:
2986:
2964:
2957:
2931:
2924:
2902:
2895:
2865:in brackets)
1135:
1132:
1118:
900:Soviet Union
897:
876:ISO/TR 11941
762:
727:
711:
708:Computer age
691:
684:
666:
663:
651:its division
644:
598:
596:
570:
566:
562:
558:
550:
548:
529:
505:, the state
488:
481:
450:
447:
426:
404:
398:
392:
371:
367:
352:
296:
259:ISO/TR 11941
244:
185:
172:Mixed script
79:
60:
52:Latin script
27:
25:
4095:Fouser 1999
4083:Fouser 1999
4046:Fouser 1999
4034:Fouser 1999
4002:January 19,
3902:January 19,
3854:Fouser 1999
3842:Fouser 1999
3818:Fouser 1999
3803:Fouser 1999
3791:Fouser 1999
3755:Fouser 1999
3648:Fouser 1999
3585:Fouser 1999
3566:Fouser 1999
3537:Fouser 1999
3525:Fouser 1999
3457:Fouser 1999
3438:Fouser 1999
3083:wikibaekkwa
3076:wikibaekgwa
2912:on the wall
1632:/t͡ɕ/~/t͡s/
1120:Lowercase ʙ
931: [
920: [
863: [
834:Fred Lukoff
803:Gale system
790: [
743: [
698:Yale system
672: [
631: [
628:Kim Seon-gi
620: [
532:Sinocentric
418: [
231: [
213: [
119:North Korea
44::
34::
4748:Categories
4711:Vietnamese
4579:Macedonian
4559:Belarusian
3942:: 287–325.
3708:[When
3344:References
659:Korean War
499:diacritics
465:) and the
376:diacritics
237:(Cyrillic)
224:(Cyrillic)
222:Kontsevich
4656:Maldivian
4651:Malayalam
4626:Inuktitut
4594:Ukrainian
4564:Bulgarian
4542:in Taiwan
4325:0023-3900
4294:0023-3900
4246:1087-5093
3830:Doll 2017
3384:2288-8063
3368:(2): 81.
3115:(hangeul)
3062:Knowledge
3056:puekh ey
3047:(bueok-e)
2927:(byeog-e)
1911:silent /
714:computers
692:In 1968,
393:In 1897,
388:John Ross
364:phonology
342:linguists
162:Hyangchal
65:(MR) and
4738:Language
4676:Sanskrit
4631:Japanese
4606:Georgian
4554:Cyrillic
4517:Armenian
4476:BGN/PCGN
4107:Lee 2001
3962:Lee 2001
3423:Lee 2001
3259:See also
3146:(geulja)
3113:han-geul
2998:pakk ey
2989:(bakk-e)
2936:pyek ey
2836:Examples
718:Internet
716:and the
485:digraphs
4686:Tibetan
4671:Persian
4661:Marathi
4589:Serbian
4584:Russian
4537:Chinese
4532:Burmese
4522:Bengali
4507:Amharic
4352:: 1–55.
4269:: 1–22.
4240:(165).
4222:Sources
4018:"KORDA"
3877:May 22,
3191:seasons
3184:swīwun
3175:(swiun)
3155:kulqca
3124:hānkul
3120:han'gŭl
3107:hangeul
3018:(bueok)
3003:kitchen
2974:outside
2941:outside
2898:(byeog)
2870:McC-Rsr
2843:English
1983:Mahngun
1177:Mahngun
735:국립국어연구원
732:(NAKL;
555:이/리 (李)
472:조선어학연구회
349:History
321:/ U.S.
179:Braille
153:Gugyeol
37:로마자 표기법
4724:Portal
4706:Uyghur
4691:Telugu
4681:Syriac
4666:Nepali
4641:Korean
4616:Hebrew
4574:Kyrgyz
4569:Kazakh
4527:Berber
4512:Arabic
4471:ALA-LC
4323:
4292:
4244:
4153:
3382:
3290:Joseon
3180:shwiun
3151:kŭlcha
3144:geulja
3093:Hangul
3052:puŏk'e
3045:bueoke
3027:puekh
2960:(bakk)
2925:byeoge
2847:Hangul
2398:/ɰi/~~
1980:Lukoff
1956:Hangul
1174:Lukoff
1150:Hangul
1032:Hangul
889:(2000)
869:(1996)
847:(1968)
826:(1939)
805:(1897)
626:, and
551:ad hoc
524:sil-la
518:sin-la
487:(e.g.
319:ALA-LC
109:Hangul
40:;
32:Korean
4636:Khmer
4621:Hindi
4611:Greek
4599:Uzbek
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