Ascidiacea - Knowledge

464: 1243:. They are also recorded from Lower Jurassic (Bonet and Benveniste-Velasquez, 1971; Buge and Monniot, 1972) and the Tertiary from France (Deflandre-Riguard, 1949, 1956; Durand, 1952; Deflandre and Deflandre-Rigaud, 1956; Bouche, 1962; Lezaud, 1966; Monniot and Buge, 1971; Varol and Houghton, 1996). Older (Triassic) records are ambiguous. The representatives of the genus Cystodytes (family Polycitoridae) have been described from the Pliocene of France by Monniot (1970, 1971) and Deflandre-Rigaud (1956), and from Eocene of France by Monniot and Buge (1971), and lately from the Late Eocene of S Australia by Łukowiak (2012). 114: 971:. Self-fertilized eggs develop with a substantially higher frequency of anomalies during cleavage than cross-fertilized eggs (23% vs. 1.6%). Also, a significantly lower percentage of larvae derived from self-fertilized eggs metamorphose, and the growth of the colonies derived from their metamorphosis is significantly lower. These findings suggest that self-fertilization gives rise to inbreeding depression associated with developmental deficits that are likely caused by expression of deleterious recessive mutations. 137: 762: 1640: 658:. The gonads are located in the abdomen or postabdomen, and include one testis and one ovary, each of which opens via a duct into the cloaca. Broadly speaking, the ascidians can be divided into species which exist as independent animals (the solitary ascidians) and those which are interdependent (the colonial ascidians). Different species of ascidians can have markedly different reproductive strategies, with colonial forms having mixed modes of reproduction. 1252: 640: 1045: 987:

In other species, the postabdomen can elongate and break up into a string of separate buds, which can eventually form a new colony. In some, the pharyngeal part of the animal degenerates, and the abdomen breaks up into patches of germinal tissue, each combining parts of the epidermis, peritoneum, and

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is highly self-fertile. However, non-self sperm out-compete self-sperm in fertilization competition assays. Gamete recognition is not absolute allowing some self-fertilization. It was speculated that self-incompatibility evolved to avoid inbreeding depression, but that selfing ability was retained to

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is a hermaphrodite that releases sperm and eggs into the surrounding seawater almost simultaneously. It is self-sterile, and thus has been used for studies on the mechanism of self-incompatibility. Self/non-self-recognition molecules play a key role in the process of interaction between sperm and the

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affinities. But one group, the molgulid ascidians, have evolved tailless species on at least four separate occasions, and even direct development. A notochord is formed early in development and always consists of a row of exactly 40 cells. The nerve tube enlarges in the main body, and will eventually

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can be reached in as little as a few weeks. Since the larva is more advanced than its adult, this type of metamorphosis is called 'retrogressive metamorphosis'. This feature is a landmark for the 'theory of retrogressive metamorphosis or ascidian larva theory'; the true chordates are hypothesized to

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Sea squirts are rounded or cylindrical animals ranging from about 0.5 to 10 cm (0.20 to 3.94 in) in size. One end of the body is always firmly fixed to rock, coral, or some similar solid surface. The lower surface is pitted or ridged, and in some species has root-like extensions that help

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of sea squirts is simple, rapid, and easily manipulated. Because each embryo contains relatively few cells, complex processes can be studied at the cellular level, while remaining in the context of the whole embryo. The eggs of some species contain little yolk and are therefore transparent making

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The heart is a curved muscular tube lying in the postabdomen, or close to the stomach. Each end opens into a single vessel, one running to the endostyle, and the other to the dorsal surface of the pharynx. The vessels are connected by a series of sinuses, through which the blood flows. Additional

617:. The number of cells within the central nervous system is very small. The neural tube is composed of the sensory vesicle, the neck, the visceral or tail ganglion, and the caudal nerve cord. The anteroposterior regionalization of the neural tube in ascidians is comparable to that in vertebrates. 535:

just below the atrial siphon. In some highly developed colonial species, clusters of individuals may share a single cloaca, with all the atrial siphons opening into it, although the buccal siphons all remain separate. A series of glands lie on the outer surface of the intestine, opening through

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Unusually, the heart of sea squirts alternates the direction in which it pumps blood every three to four minutes. There are two excitatory areas, one at each end of the heart, with first one being dominant, to push the blood through the ventral vessel, and then the other, pushing it dorsally.

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The upper surface of the animal, opposite to the part gripping the substratum, has two openings, or siphons. When removed from the water, the animal often violently expels water from these siphons, hence the common name of "sea squirt". The body itself can be divided into up to three regions,

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takes place: this results in macroscopic tadpole-like larvae. When mature, these larvae exit the atrial siphon of the adult and then settle close to the parent colony (often within meters). The combined effect of short sperm range and philopatric larval dispersal results in local population

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Trauma or predation often results in fragmentation of a colony into subcolonies. Subsequent zooid replication can lead to coalescence and circulatory fusion of the subcolonies. Closely related colonies which are proximate to each other may also fuse if they coalesce and if they are

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The pharynx is surrounded by an atrium, through which water is expelled through a second, usually smaller, siphon. Cords of connective tissue cross the atrium to maintain the general shape of the body. The outer body wall consists of connective tissue, muscle fibres, and a simple

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Many colonial sea squirts are also capable of asexual reproduction, although the means of doing so are highly variable between different families. In the simplest forms, the members of the colony are linked only by rootlike projections from their undersides known as

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is mechanistically similar to self-incompatibility systems in flowering plants. Self-incompatibility promotes out-crossing, and thus provides the adaptive advantage at each generation of masking deleterious recessive mutations (i.e. genetic complementation).

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develop into microscopic larvae that may be carried great distances by oceanic currents. The larvae of sessile forms which survive eventually settle and complete maturation on the substratum- then they may bud asexually to form a colony of zooids.

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There are 2,300 species of ascidians and three main types: solitary ascidians, social ascidians that form clumped communities by attaching at their bases, and compound ascidians that consist of many small individuals (each individual is called a

967:(protogynous) hermaphrodite, and in a colony, eggs are ovulated about two days before the peak of sperm emission. Thus self-fertilization is avoided, and cross-fertilization is favored. Although avoided, self-fertilization is still possible in 420:, along with proteins and calcium salts. Unlike the shells of molluscs, the tunic is composed of living tissue and often has its own blood supply. In some colonial species, the tunics of adjacent individuals are fused into a single structure. 1095:

have been invaded by non-native sea squirts that have been introduced by accident from the iceaneic shipping industry. Several factors, including quick attainment of sexual maturity, tolerance of a wide range of environments, and a lack of

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are left behind as the sperm enters and drives through the coat; this translocation of the mitochondria might provide the necessary force for penetration. The sperm swims through the perivitelline space, finally reaching the egg

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and contains numerous perforations, or stigmata, arranged in a grid-like pattern around its circumference. The beating of the cilia sucks water through the siphon, and then through the stigmata. A long ciliated groove, or

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structures of closely related individuals/inbred colonies. Generations of colonies which are restricted in dispersal are thought to accumulate adaptions to local conditions, thereby providing advantages over newcomers.

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The dramatic rearrangement of egg cytoplasm following fertilization, called ooplasmic segregation, determines the dorsoventral and anteroposterior axes of the embryo. There are at least three types of sea squirt egg

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Gasparini F, Manni L, Cima F, Zaniolo G, Burighel P, Caicci F, Franchi N, Schiavon F, Rigon F, Campagna D, Ballarin L (July 2014). "Sexual and asexual reproduction in the colonial ascidian Botryllus schlosseri".

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Sawada H, Morita M, Iwano M (August 2014). "Self/non-self recognition mechanisms in sexual reproduction: new insight into the self-incompatibility system shared by flowering plants and hermaphroditic animals".

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lined with small clefts opening into a surrounding atrium. The mouth and anus are originally at opposite ends of the animal, with the mouth only moving to its final (posterior) position during metamorphosis.

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close to the digestive tract. The morula cells help to form the tunic, and can often be found within the tunic substance itself. In some species, the morula cells possess pigmented reducing agents containing

1992:. In: Shenkar, N.; Gittenberger, A.; Lambert, G.; Rius, M.; Moreira Da Rocha, R.; Swalla, B. J.; Turon, X. (2017). Ascidiacea World Database. Accessed through: World Register of Marine Species on 2017-09-15. 1918:, which is expected to provide information about complex developmental processes and regulation of genes in vertebrates. Gene expression in embryos of sea squirts can be conveniently inhibited using 504:

food particles as they pass through the stigmata, and is collected in the ridge on the dorsal surface. The ridge bears a groove along one side, which passes the collected food downwards and into the

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The picture is more complicated for the philopatrically dispersed ascidians: sperm from a nearby colony (or from a zooid of the same colony) enter the atrial siphon and fertilization takes place

807:(very short-range dispersal). Broadcast spawners release sperm and ova into the water column and fertilization occurs near to the parent colonies. Some species are also viviparous. Resultant 832:. Ascidians were among the first animals to be able to immunologically distinguish self from non-self as a mechanism to prevent unrelated colonies from fusing to them and parasitizing them. 925:

side of the embryo. In the second phase, the myoplasm moves to the subequatorial zone and extends into a crescent, which marks the future posterior of the embryo. The ectoplasm with the

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Fedonkin, M. A.; Vickers-Rich, P.; Swalla, B. J.; Trusler, P.; Hall, M. (2012). "A new metazoan from the Vendian of the White Sea, Russia, with possible affinities to the ascidians".

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Although there is no true brain, the largest ganglion is located in the connective tissue between the two siphons, and sends nerves throughout the body. Beneath this ganglion lies an

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grow from the body to permanently attach the animal to the substratum. The siphons of the juvenile ascidian become orientated to optimise current flow through the feeding apparatus.

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Different colonial ascidian species produce sexually derived offspring by one of two dispersal strategies – colonial species are either broadcast spawners (long-range dispersal) or

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nested inside Ascidiacea. A grouping of Thaliacea and Ascidiacea to the exclusion of Appendicularia had already been suggested for a long time, under the name of Acopa. Brusca

1695:). When served raw, they have a chewy texture and peculiar flavor likened to "rubber dipped in ammonia" which has been attributed to a naturally occurring chemical known as 435:

As its name implies, the pharyngeal region is occupied mainly by the pharynx. The large buccal siphon opens into the pharynx, acting like a mouth. The pharynx itself is

917:. In the first phase of ooplasmic segregation, the myoplasmic actin-filament network contracts to rapidly move the peripheral cytoplasm (including the myoplasm) to the 775:

Some ascidians, especially in Molgulidae family, have direct development in which the embryo develops directly into the juvenile without developing a tailed larva.

995:, for instance, the individual essentially splits into two, with the pharynx growing a new digestive tract and the original digestive tract growing a new pharynx. 984:. Buds containing food storage cells can develop within the stolons and, when sufficiently separated from the 'parent', may grow into a new adult individual. 2239: 545:

sinuses run from that on the dorsal surface, supplying blood to the visceral organs, and smaller vessels commonly run from both sides into the tunic.

4155: 3258: 4181: 432:. In many sea squirts, the postabdomen, or even the entire abdomen, are absent, with their respective organs being located more anteriorly. 4281: 1200:

Ascidians are soft-bodied animals, and for this reason, their fossil record is almost entirely lacking. The earliest reliable ascidians is

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position: as an approximation of ancestral chordates, they can provide insight into the link between chordates and ancestral non-chordate

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that empties into the pharynx. The gland is formed from the nerve tube, and is therefore homologous to the spinal cord of vertebrates.

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the animal grip the surface. The body wall is covered by a smooth thick tunic, which is often quite rigid. The tunic consists of

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Buge, E.; Monniot, F. O. (1972). "Nouveaux Spicules D'Ascidiesde L'Ypresien du Bassin de Paris et du Toarcien des Deux-Sevres".

1028:, is employed in the repair of AP sites during early embryonic development. Lack of such repair leads to abnormal development. 2573:"CiApex1 has AP endonuclease activity and abrogated AP site repair disrupts early embryonic development in Ciona intestinalis" 2352:

Bates, William R. (1988). "Polarization of ooplasmic segregation and dorsal-ventral axis determination in ascidian embryos".

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and entering the egg. This prompts rapid modification of the vitelline coat, through processes such as the egg's release of

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Stach, T; Turbeville, J.M. (December 2002). "Phylogeny of Tunicata inferred from molecular and morphological characters".

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Igarashi, Kento; Funakoshi, Masafumi; Kato, Seiji; Moriwaki, Takahito; Kato, Yuichi; Zhang-Akiyama, Qiu-Mei (2019-04-27).

3472: 2148:"Vanadocytes, cells hold the key to resolving the highly selective accumulation and reduction of vanadium in ascidians" 193: 2251:

Ogura, Y; Sasakura, Y (2013). "Ascidians as excellent models for studying cellular events in the chordate body plan".

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The larva selects and settles on appropriate surfaces using receptors sensitive to light, orientation to gravity, and

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Sea squirts lack special sense organs, although the body wall incorporates numerous individual receptors for touch,

4243: 1007: 740:: various organs (such as the larval tail and fins) are lost while others rearrange to their adult positions, the 4186: 3284: 2976:Łukowiak, M. (2012). "First Record of Late Eocene Ascidians (Ascidiacea, Tunicata) from Southeastern Australia". 1855:

imaging. Its maternally-derived proteins are naturally associated with pigment (in a few species only), so cell

553:, is excreted directly from the blood through the walls of the pharynx, and expelled through the atrial siphon. 4301: 2473:

Jiang D, Smith WC (October 2005). "Self- and cross-fertilization in the solitary ascidian Ciona savignyi".

4291: 4077: 4064: 2622:"The Simple Chordate Ciona intestinalis Has a Reduced Complement of Genes Associated with Fanconi Anemia" 1212: 881:

in waves, mostly from internal stores. The temporary large increase in calcium concentration prompts the

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As a general rule, the larva possesses a long tail, containing muscles, a hollow dorsal nerve tube and a

428:, while the abdomen contains most of the other bodily organs, and the postabdomen contains the heart and 2925:

Porter, S. M. (2010). "Calcite and aragonite seas and the de novo acquisition of carbonate skeletons".

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from other individuals. A fertilized egg spends 12 hours to a few days developing into a free-swimming

375: 136: 17: 4235: 3347:"Novel genes involved in Ciona intestinalis embryogenesis: Characterization of gene knockdown embryos" 2620:

Stanley, Edward C.; Azzinaro, Paul A.; Vierra, David A.; Howlett, Niall G.; Irvine, Steven Q. (2016).

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Several factors make sea squirts good models for studying the fundamental developmental processes of

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In yet others, budding begins shortly after the larva has settled onto the substrate. In the family

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Sea squirts feed by taking in water through a tube, the oral siphon. The water enters the mouth and

4248: 894: 444:, runs along one side of the pharynx, and a projecting ridge along the other. The endostyle may be 1989: 1159:"). As chemical defenses, many sea squirts intake and maintain an extremely high concentration of 1088:

function in adult tissues. This property has made some species sensitive indicators of pollution.

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nucleus ends up at the animal hemisphere while the endoplasm ends up in the vegetal hemisphere.

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runs upwards from the stomach parallel to the oesophagus and eventually opens, through a short

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along its margins. The mucus then flows in a sheet across the surface of the pharynx, trapping

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Satoh N (2003). "The ascidian tadpole larva: comparative molecular development and genomics".

2010: 791:. Colonies can survive for decades. An ascidian colony consists of individual elements called 4217: 1848: 1843: 1823: 1725: 1260: 1156: 914: 820: 492:

The pharynx forms the first part of the digestive system. The endostyle produces a supply of

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although these are not clearly distinct in most species. The pharyngeal region contains the

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also has a set of genes that encode proteins homologous to those employed in the repair of

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Bernstein, H; Hopf, FA; Michod, RE (1987). "The Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex".

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Molgula pugetiensis is a Pacific tailless ascidian within the Roscovita clade of molgulids

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are small and easily manipulated; comparisons with the genomes of other organisms such as

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vitelline coat of the egg. It appears that self/non-self recognition in ascidians such as

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provides valuable information regarding chordate evolution. A collection of over 480,000

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Chen, J. -Y.; Huang, D. -Y.; Peng, Q. -Q.; Chi, H. -M.; Wang, X. -Q.; Feng, M. (2003).

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Papadopoulou, C; Kanias, GD (1977). "Tunicate species as marine pollution indicators".

2646: 2621: 2602: 2553: 2506: 2490: 2315: 2276: 2181: 2054: 1971: 1884: 1810: 1023: 841: 445: 131: 122: 3137:"Phylogenomics resolves the evolutionary chronicle of our squirting closest relatives" 3040: 2870: 2826: 2791: 2438: 4204: 4090: 3458: 3397: 3368: 3319: 3237: 3230: 3168: 3117: 3044: 2950: 2946: 2831: 2764: 2690: 2651: 2594: 2557: 2545: 2498: 2452: 2442: 2408: 2369: 2365: 2323: 2268: 2222: 2173: 2126: 2058: 2046: 2038: 1975: 1730: 1208: 898: 546: 3331: 3214: 3005: 2962: 2776: 2606: 2510: 2341:

Colonial Allorecognition, Hemolytic Rejection, and Viviparity in Botryllid Ascidians

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The exceptional filtering capability of adult sea squirts causes them to accumulate

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The ascidian central nervous system is formed from a plate that rolls up to form a

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cause significant economic problems, and sea squirt invasions have disrupted the

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life and extends to form a fin along the tail in the larva. The larva also has a

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collecting tubules into the stomach, although their precise function is unclear.

327: 225: 209: 2725: 2295: 400:) into a water chamber called the atrium, then exits through the atrial siphon. 3743: 3715: 3622: 3187: 2404: 1890: 1734: 1688: 1559: 1380: 1221: 767: 628: 621: 348: 338: 258: 235: 217: 3153: 1967: 4265: 4040: 3986: 3891: 3754: 3698: 3432: 3227: 3102: 2042: 2015:

Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution

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Alié, Alexandre; Hiebert, Laurel S.; Scelzo, Marta; Tiozzo, Stefano (2021).

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animals after their larval phase: they then remain firmly attached to their

3866: 3821: 3726: 3670: 3507: 3444: 3372: 3323: 3172: 3121: 3048: 2954: 2835: 2760: 2655: 2598: 2549: 2502: 2412: 2327: 2272: 2226: 2177: 2145: 2050: 1871: 1867: 1718: 1701: 1277: 1180: 918: 910: 874: 857: 678: 601:) giving it a green colour. In that case the cells are also referred to as 341: 324: 3450: 2768: 2456: 2373: 2264: 4142: 4049: 3783: 3683: 3389: 2741:

Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences

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Carlisle, D. B. (1968-08-13). "Vanadium and other metals in ascidians".

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of several natural sub-tidal areas by smothering native animal species.

1100:, allow sea squirt populations to grow rapidly. Unwanted populations on 3918: 3771: 3656: 3610: 3544: 3363: 3346: 2637: 2494: 2319: 2217: 2200: 2168: 2159: 1919: 1903: 1875: 1827: 1116: 1069: 1055: 992: 870: 853: 644: 590: 565: 561: 505: 457: 280: 90: 55: 2541: 1268:

The ascidians were on morphological evidence treated as sister to the

1139:. Some are also eaten by humans in many parts of the world, including 959:

is a colonial tunicate able to reproduce both sexually and asexually.

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Ascidians are found all over the world, usually in shallow water with

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Lambert, G (2007). "Invasive sea squirts: A growing global problem".

2125:. Philadelphia, PA: Holt-Saunders International. pp. 1028–1042. 1914:

have been sequenced and are available to support further analysis of

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which is then passed into the rest of the pharynx by the beating of

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Group of non-vertebrate marine filter feeders comprising sea squirts

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Rowthorn, Chris; Andrew Bender; John Ashburne; Sara Benson (2003).

3206: 2201:"Organization of Hox genes in ascidians: Present, past, and future" 2146:

Michibata, Hitoshi; Uyama Taro; Ueki Tatsuya; Kanamore Kan (2002).

1899: 1714: 1663: 1455: 1451: 1273: 1251: 1231: 1205: 1160: 1132: 1124: 1120: 1097: 906: 902: 745: 733: 721: 697: 694: 689: 594: 501: 397: 367: 355: 334: 267: 178: 168: 85: 80: 65: 60: 50: 2886:"A review and classification of fossil didemnid ascidian spicules" 403:

Some authors now include the thaliaceans in Ascidiacea, making it

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harmful to predators and invaders. Some of these metabolites are

1003: 741: 729: 709: 670: 639: 550: 512: 449: 425: 394: 390: 347:. Ascidians are characterized by a tough outer "tunic" made of a 100: 75: 3822:

Lissamphibia (modern amphibians: frogs, salamanders, caecilians)

1466:. treat Ascidiacea as a monophyletic group including Thaliacea. 661:

Solitary ascidians release many eggs from their atrial siphons;

3899: 3856: 3845: 3495: 2011:"The eventful history of nonembryonic development in tunicates" 1907: 1879: 1276:, but molecular evidence has suggested that ascidians could be 1240: 1152: 1092: 1085: 1077: 981: 926: 808: 701: 532: 524: 158: 3440:

Ascidian Network for In Situ Expression and Embryological Data

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Recent studies have suggested an alternate phylogeny, placing

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digestive tract, and capable of growing into new individuals.

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the atrium. Embryos are then brooded within the atrium where

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Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish: sharks, rays, chimaeras)

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Sea squirts are the natural prey of many animals, including

1044: 3924: 2792:"The first tunicate from the Early Cambrian of South China" 2075:

Brusca, Richard C.; Giribet, Gonzalo; Moore, Wendy (2023).

1911: 1168: 1128: 1101: 852:, the sperm passes through the follicle cells and binds to 736:

for attachment. Adhesive secretion prompts an irreversible

586: 528: 2296:"Direct Development in the Ascidian Molgula retortiformis" 1802:– it is consumed both raw and in seafood stews similar to 1662:

Various ascidians are eaten by humans around the world as

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in seawater takes place with the coincidental release of

126:, commonly known as the vase tunicate or as a sea squirt 3417: 708:

and a pigmented cup above the mouth, which opens into a

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Hamada, M.; Wada, S.; Kobayashi, K.; Satoh, N. (2007).

2433:. Advances in Genetics. Vol. 24. pp. 323–70. 2008: 1164: 677:, which then takes no more than 36 hours to settle and 3086:"Immunity in Protochordates: The Tunicate Perspective" 1866:

Sea squirts are also valuable because of their unique

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gland of vertebrates, despite its differing function.

393:, flows through mucus-covered gill slits (also called 3195:

Publications of the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory

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are easily labeled, allowing scientists to visualize

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Over the last few hundred years, most of the world's

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Gittenberger, A.; Shenkar, N.; Sanamyan, K. (2015).

2428: 848:cells that produce sperm-attracting substances. In 688:, both features clearly indicative of the animal's 3423:Encyclopedia of Marine Life of Britain and Ireland 3229: 2706:Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 2668: 2074: 756: 2389: 2120: 1705:is farmed in parts of Korea where it is known as 1215:). There are also two enigmatic species from the 869:into the seawater, so no more sperm can bind and 576:. The nephrocytes collect waste material such as 4263: 2789: 3382: 3083: 3018: 2796:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 2522: 2520: 2468: 2466: 2385: 2383: 1833: 1709:and is added to various seafood dishes such as 1280:within the Tunicata, as shown in the following 3520: 2424: 2422: 1941: 1939: 953:allow reproduction at low population density. 560:There are four different types of blood cell: 3466: 2883: 2250: 1219:period with some affinity to the ascidians – 2517: 2463: 2380: 1258:'s interpretation of several ascidians from 932: 909:, and myoplasm containing pigment granules, 840:Sea squirt eggs are surrounded by a fibrous 3669: 3480: 3084:Franchi, Nicola; Ballarin, Loriano (2017). 2848: 2419: 1936: 1830:, but is now used mainly for fishing bait. 3909: 3473: 3459: 3188:"Phylogenetic Speculation of the Tunicata" 2918: 2472: 2198: 753:have evolved from sexually mature larvae. 700:of the adult. The tunic develops early in 112: 41:Cambrian "Stage 3" – Recent (but see text) 3362: 3162: 3152: 3111: 3101: 2909: 2825: 2815: 2645: 2588: 2216: 2199:Ikuta, Tetsuro; Saiga, Hidetoshi (2005). 2167: 728:(small, finger-like nervous projections) 283:included but traditionally excluded taxa 2975: 2842: 2783: 2738: 1638: 1250: 1043: 760: 638: 462: 3601:Thaliacea (pyrosomes, salps, doliolids) 3185: 3134: 2703: 2004: 2002: 2000: 1998: 1842:, such as cell-fate specification. The 1822:. It was once used as a food source by 974: 885:and structural changes of development. 14: 4264: 3338: 2924: 873:is avoided. After fertilization, free 798: 4016: 4015: 3454: 3388: 3301: 3063:"Pyura sp. Evolution and Systematics" 3021:Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 2351: 2293: 2116: 2114: 2112: 2110: 2108: 2106: 1878:from simple chordates. The sequenced 1155:(where they are sold under the name " 654:and conspicuous mature ascidians are 593:), giving the blood a red colour, or 539: 362:(salps, doliolids and pyrosomes) and 4236:29C75547-3A4D-F45B-8CBC-1C16A4D6D543 4197:f0202bcf-3144-4f73-9794-de1a9c5788f0 3282: 3256: 2104: 2102: 2100: 2098: 2096: 2094: 2092: 2090: 2088: 2086: 2070: 2068: 1995: 508:opening at the base of the pharynx. 4282:Cambrian Series 2 first appearances 3257:Gold, Jonathan (26 November 2008). 2884:Varol, O.; Houghton, S. D. (1996). 856:on the vitelline coat. The sperm's 778: 487: 24: 2626:Evolutionary Bioinformatics Online 1054:) being used as a substrate for a 783:Colonial ascidians reproduce both 511:The esophagus runs downwards to a 25: 4313: 4287:Extant Cambrian first appearances 3411: 2431:Molecular Genetics of Development 2152:Microscopy Research and Technique 2083: 2065: 1022:1 (APEX1), an enzyme produced by 608: 3744:Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish) 3291:. University of New South Wales. 2947:10.1111/j.1472-4669.2010.00246.x 1195: 835: 358:over 2.5%. While members of the 135: 43: 3295: 3276: 3250: 3221: 3179: 3128: 3077: 3055: 3012: 2969: 2877: 2732: 2697: 2662: 2613: 2564: 2345: 2334: 2287: 757:Direct development in ascidians 634: 515:in the abdomen, which secretes 460:directly underlying the tunic. 3428:A fate map of the ascidian egg 3283:Hill, M.A. (22 October 2016). 3186:Tokioka, Takasi (1971-06-30). 2244: 2233: 2192: 2139: 1982: 1874:, as well as the evolution of 1163:in the blood, have a very low 631:, and the detection of light. 366:(larvaceans) swim freely like 13: 1: 3041:10.1016/s1055-7903(02)00305-6 2890:Journal of Micropalaeontology 2871:10.1016/S0016-6995(72)80007-X 2439:10.1016/S0065-2660(08)60012-7 2393:Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun 1925: 998: 3418:The Dutch Ascidians Homepage 3383:General and cited references 2691:10.1016/0025-326x(77)90431-3 2366:10.1016/0012-1606(88)90417-4 1930: 1834:Model organisms for research 1246: 1190: 1183:and are of potential use in 744:enlarges, and organs called 378:, such as rocks and shells. 7: 3575:Appendicularia (larvaceans) 3396:. Oxford University Press. 2726:10.1016/j.jembe.2006.10.009 2577:Genes & Genetic Systems 1882:of the related sea squirts 1657: 1006:sites are a common form of 10: 4318: 4002:denote paraphyletic groups 3881:Squamata (scaled reptiles) 3065:. University of Queensland 2405:10.1016/j.bbrc.2014.05.099 2294:Bates, William R. (1995). 2121:Barnes, Robert D. (1982). 1235:from the Onega Peninsula, 1039: 1034:DNA interstrand crosslinks 1004:Apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) 410: 386:) forming large colonies. 4024: 3973: 3919:Crocodilia (crocodilians) 3890: 3875:Rhynchocephalia (tuatara) 3865: 3854: 3841: 3830: 3817: 3806: 3792: 3781: 3767: 3752: 3739: 3724: 3711: 3696: 3665: 3654: 3618: 3609: 3590: 3583: 3570: 3557: 3553: 3542: 3516: 3490: 3154:10.1186/s12915-018-0517-4 3135:Giribet, Gonzalo (2018). 2671:Marine Pollution Bulletin 1968:10.1134/S0031030112010042 1769:), for example, raw with 1577: 1557: 1550: 1534: 1527: 1507: 1500: 1484: 1477: 1454:as sister to the rest of 1398: 1378: 1371: 1351: 1344: 1329: 1322: 1302: 1295: 1104:, ship hulls, and farmed 1048:A gold-mouth sea squirt ( 933:Promotion of out-crossing 650:Almost all ascidians are 519:that digest the food. An 287: 279: 206: 201: 132:Scientific classification 130: 120: 111: 34: 3980:Ascidiacea (sea squirts) 3772:Actinistia (coelacanths) 3285:"Sea Squirt Development" 3103:10.3389/fimmu.2017.00674 1202:Shankouclava shankouense 1175:cells, and (or) produce 877:are released in the egg 771:, with budding juveniles 315:, commonly known as the 3530:Leptocardii (lancelets) 3433:Ciona savignyi Database 3090:Frontiers in Immunology 2978:Journal of Paleontology 2817:10.1073/pnas.1431177100 1948:Paleontological Journal 1863:from beginning to end. 1634: 1225:from the Nama Group of 724:end touches a surface, 480:Triphyllozoon inornatum 473:sits in a bed of white 3684:Hyperoartia (lampreys) 2761:10.1098/rspb.1968.0054 2205:Developmental Dynamics 1721:, not far from Masan. 1654: 1265: 1065: 772: 663:external fertilization 647: 643:A tunicate group from 484: 4218:Paleobiology Database 3447:on Sealife Collection 2354:Developmental Biology 2265:10.1086/BBLv224n3p227 1844:embryonic development 1642: 1261:Kunstformen der Natur 1254: 1177:secondary metabolites 1047: 915:endoplasmic reticulum 821:embryonic development 764: 642: 580:and accumulate it in 466: 3900:Testudines (turtles) 2590:10.1266/ggs.18-00043 2123:Invertebrate Zoology 1773:, or in salads with 1167:of the tunic due to 975:Asexual reproduction 957:Botryllus schlosseri 901:and fine particles, 844:coat and a layer of 4302:Paraphyletic groups 3994:Reptilia (reptiles) 3702:(jawed vertebrates) 3394:The Variety of Life 3232:Lonely Planet Japan 3033:2002MolPE..25..408S 2990:2012JPal...86..521L 2939:2010Gbio....8..256P 2911:10.1144/jm.15.2.135 2902:1996JMicP..15..135V 2863:1972Geobi...5...83B 2808:2003PNAS..100.8314C 2753:1968RSPSB.171...31C 2718:2007JEMBE.342....3L 2683:1977MarPB...8..229P 2300:Biological Bulletin 2035:10.1002/jez.b.22940 2027:2021JEZB..336..250A 1960:2012PalJ...46....1F 1675:) is cultivated in 1673:Halocynthia roretzi 1171:in easily ruptured 1135:, fish, birds, and 1061:Nembrotha lineolata 799:Sexual reproduction 4292:Cambrian chordates 3846:Mammalia (mammals) 3758:(lobe-finned fish) 3730:(bony vertebrates) 3364:10.1002/dvdy.21181 2638:10.4137/EBO.S37920 2218:10.1002/dvdy.20374 2169:10.1002/jemt.10042 1885:Ciona intestinalis 1811:Pyura praeputialis 1717:is a specialty of 1655: 1266: 1084:as well as impede 1066: 938:Ciona intestinalis 921:, which marks the 773: 720:stimuli. When its 648: 540:Circulatory system 485: 370:, sea squirts are 123:Ciona intestinalis 4259: 4258: 4205:Open Tree of Life 4018:Taxon identifiers 4009: 4008: 3991:³orders of class 3977:¹orders of class 3969: 3968: 3965: 3964: 3961: 3960: 3957: 3956: 3953: 3952: 3949: 3948: 3945: 3944: 3941: 3940: 3937: 3936: 3933: 3932: 3797:Dipnoi (lungfish) 3692: 3691: 3650: 3649: 3646: 3645: 3642: 3641: 3638: 3637: 3538: 3537: 3236:. Lonely Planet. 2802:(14): 8314–8318. 2542:10.1002/dvg.22802 1824:Aboriginal people 1798:) is used in the 1731:Mediterranean Sea 1729:species from the 1631: 1630: 1622: 1621: 1613: 1612: 1604: 1603: 1595: 1594: 1447: 1446: 1438: 1437: 1429: 1428: 1420: 1419: 1411: 1410: 1209:Maotianshan Shale 681:into a juvenile. 549:, in the form of 547:Nitrogenous waste 310: 309: 304: 295: 246: 230: 222: 214: 197: 106: 16:(Redirected from 4309: 4277:Chordate classes 4252: 4251: 4239: 4238: 4226: 4225: 4213: 4212: 4200: 4199: 4190: 4189: 4177: 4176: 4164: 4163: 4151: 4150: 4138: 4137: 4125: 4124: 4112: 4111: 4099: 4098: 4086: 4085: 4073: 4072: 4060: 4059: 4058: 4045: 4044: 4043: 4013: 4012: 3907: 3906: 3863: 3862: 3859: 3839: 3838: 3835: 3815: 3814: 3811: 3790: 3789: 3786: 3765: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3737: 3736: 3733: 3731: 3709: 3708: 3705: 3703: 3679:Myxini (hagfish) 3667: 3666: 3663: 3662: 3659: 3616: 3615: 3588: 3587: 3568: 3567: 3563: 3555: 3554: 3551: 3550: 3547: 3518: 3517: 3475: 3468: 3461: 3452: 3451: 3407: 3377: 3376: 3366: 3342: 3336: 3335: 3299: 3293: 3292: 3280: 3274: 3273: 3271: 3269: 3254: 3248: 3247: 3235: 3225: 3219: 3218: 3192: 3183: 3177: 3176: 3166: 3156: 3132: 3126: 3125: 3115: 3105: 3081: 3075: 3074: 3072: 3070: 3059: 3053: 3052: 3016: 3010: 3009: 2998:10.1666/11-112.1 2973: 2967: 2966: 2922: 2916: 2915: 2913: 2881: 2875: 2874: 2846: 2840: 2839: 2829: 2819: 2787: 2781: 2780: 2736: 2730: 2729: 2701: 2695: 2694: 2666: 2660: 2659: 2649: 2617: 2611: 2610: 2592: 2568: 2562: 2561: 2524: 2515: 2514: 2470: 2461: 2460: 2426: 2417: 2416: 2387: 2378: 2377: 2349: 2343: 2338: 2332: 2331: 2291: 2285: 2284: 2248: 2242: 2237: 2231: 2230: 2220: 2196: 2190: 2189: 2171: 2143: 2137: 2136: 2118: 2081: 2080: 2072: 2063: 2062: 2006: 1993: 1986: 1980: 1979: 1943: 1800:cuisine of Chile 1647:) served raw as 1553: 1552: 1530: 1529: 1503: 1502: 1480: 1479: 1470: 1469: 1374: 1373: 1347: 1346: 1325: 1324: 1298: 1297: 1288: 1287: 1051:Polycarpa aurata 905:containing yolk 779:Colonial species 488:Digestive system 470:Polycarpa aurata 302: 293: 240: 228: 220: 212: 202:Groups included 192: 140: 139: 116: 105: 42: 38:Temporal range: 37: 32: 31: 21: 4317: 4316: 4312: 4311: 4310: 4308: 4307: 4306: 4262: 4261: 4260: 4255: 4247: 4242: 4234: 4229: 4221: 4216: 4208: 4203: 4195: 4193: 4185: 4180: 4172: 4167: 4159: 4154: 4146: 4141: 4133: 4128: 4120: 4115: 4107: 4102: 4094: 4089: 4081: 4076: 4068: 4063: 4054: 4053: 4048: 4039: 4038: 4033: 4020: 4010: 4005: 3985:²subclasses of 3929: 3905: 3886: 3855: 3850: 3831: 3826: 3807: 3802: 3782: 3777: 3757: 3756: 3753: 3748: 3729: 3728: 3725: 3720: 3701: 3700: 3697: 3688: 3655: 3634: 3629:Aplousobranchia 3605: 3595:Stolidobranchia 3579: 3561: 3560: 3543: 3534: 3522:Cephalochordata 3512: 3486: 3479: 3414: 3404: 3385: 3380: 3343: 3339: 3316:10.1038/nrg1042 3300: 3296: 3281: 3277: 3267: 3265: 3255: 3251: 3244: 3226: 3222: 3190: 3184: 3180: 3133: 3129: 3082: 3078: 3068: 3066: 3061: 3060: 3056: 3017: 3013: 2974: 2970: 2923: 2919: 2882: 2878: 2847: 2843: 2788: 2784: 2747:(1022): 31–42. 2737: 2733: 2702: 2698: 2677:(10): 229–231. 2667: 2663: 2618: 2614: 2569: 2565: 2525: 2518: 2487:10.2307/3593128 2471: 2464: 2449: 2427: 2420: 2388: 2381: 2350: 2346: 2339: 2335: 2312:10.2307/1542063 2292: 2288: 2249: 2245: 2238: 2234: 2197: 2193: 2144: 2140: 2133: 2119: 2084: 2073: 2066: 2007: 1996: 1987: 1983: 1944: 1937: 1933: 1928: 1916:gene expression 1836: 1795:Pyura chilensis 1660: 1643:Sea pineapple ( 1637: 1632: 1623: 1614: 1605: 1596: 1580:Aplousobranchia 1510:Stolidobranchia 1448: 1439: 1430: 1421: 1412: 1354:Stolidobranchia 1305:Aplousobranchia 1249: 1204:from the Lower 1198: 1193: 1185:pharmaceuticals 1042: 1030:C. intestinalis 1025:C. intestinalis 1020:AP endonuclease 1012:DNA replication 1001: 977: 943:C. intestinalis 935: 863:plasma membrane 838: 830:histocompatible 801: 781: 759: 750:Sexual maturity 637: 611: 542: 490: 413: 226:Stolidobranchia 210:Aplousobranchia 191: 134: 107: 104: 103: 98: 93: 88: 83: 78: 73: 68: 63: 58: 53: 48: 40: 39: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4315: 4305: 4304: 4299: 4294: 4289: 4284: 4279: 4274: 4257: 4256: 4254: 4253: 4240: 4227: 4214: 4201: 4191: 4178: 4165: 4152: 4139: 4126: 4113: 4100: 4087: 4074: 4061: 4046: 4030: 4028: 4022: 4021: 4007: 4006: 4004: 4003: 3997: 3989: 3983: 3974: 3971: 3970: 3967: 3966: 3963: 3962: 3959: 3958: 3955: 3954: 3951: 3950: 3947: 3946: 3943: 3942: 3939: 3938: 3935: 3934: 3931: 3930: 3928: 3927: 3922: 3915: 3913: 3904: 3903: 3896: 3894: 3888: 3887: 3885: 3884: 3878: 3871: 3869: 3860: 3852: 3851: 3849: 3848: 3842: 3836: 3828: 3827: 3825: 3824: 3818: 3812: 3804: 3803: 3801: 3800: 3793: 3787: 3779: 3778: 3776: 3775: 3768: 3762: 3750: 3749: 3747: 3746: 3740: 3734: 3722: 3721: 3719: 3718: 3712: 3706: 3694: 3693: 3690: 3689: 3687: 3686: 3681: 3675: 3673: 3660: 3652: 3651: 3648: 3647: 3644: 3643: 3640: 3639: 3636: 3635: 3633: 3632: 3626: 3623:Phlebobranchia 3619: 3613: 3607: 3606: 3604: 3603: 3598: 3591: 3585: 3581: 3580: 3578: 3577: 3571: 3565: 3548: 3540: 3539: 3536: 3535: 3533: 3532: 3526: 3524: 3514: 3513: 3511: 3510: 3504: 3498: 3491: 3488: 3487: 3478: 3477: 3470: 3463: 3455: 3449: 3448: 3441: 3435: 3430: 3425: 3420: 3413: 3412:External links 3410: 3409: 3408: 3402: 3384: 3381: 3379: 3378: 3357:(7): 1820–31. 3337: 3310:(4): 285–295. 3294: 3275: 3249: 3242: 3220: 3207:10.5134/175655 3178: 3127: 3076: 3054: 3027:(3): 408–428. 3011: 2984:(3): 521–526. 2968: 2933:(4): 256–277. 2917: 2896:(2): 135–149. 2876: 2841: 2782: 2731: 2696: 2661: 2612: 2563: 2516: 2462: 2447: 2418: 2379: 2344: 2333: 2286: 2243: 2232: 2191: 2138: 2131: 2082: 2064: 2021:(3): 250–266. 1994: 1981: 1934: 1932: 1929: 1927: 1924: 1891:Ciona savignyi 1835: 1832: 1826:living around 1751:limone di mare 1659: 1656: 1636: 1633: 1629: 1628: 1625: 1624: 1620: 1619: 1616: 1615: 1611: 1610: 1607: 1606: 1602: 1601: 1598: 1597: 1593: 1592: 1589: 1588: 1576: 1573: 1572: 1569: 1568: 1560:Phlebobranchia 1556: 1551: 1549: 1545: 1544: 1541: 1540: 1533: 1528: 1526: 1523: 1522: 1519: 1518: 1506: 1501: 1499: 1495: 1494: 1491: 1490: 1487:Appendicularia 1483: 1478: 1476: 1468: 1452:Appendicularia 1445: 1444: 1441: 1440: 1436: 1435: 1432: 1431: 1427: 1426: 1423: 1422: 1418: 1417: 1414: 1413: 1409: 1408: 1405: 1404: 1397: 1394: 1393: 1390: 1389: 1381:Phlebobranchia 1377: 1372: 1370: 1367: 1366: 1363: 1362: 1350: 1345: 1343: 1340: 1339: 1336: 1335: 1332:Appendicularia 1328: 1323: 1321: 1318: 1317: 1314: 1313: 1301: 1296: 1294: 1286: 1274:Appendicularia 1248: 1245: 1197: 1194: 1192: 1189: 1181:toxic to cells 1041: 1038: 1000: 997: 976: 973: 950:Ciona savignyi 934: 931: 837: 834: 800: 797: 780: 777: 768:Didemnum molle 758: 755: 652:hermaphrodites 636: 633: 629:chemoreception 622:exocrine gland 610: 609:Nervous system 607: 582:renal vesicles 541: 538: 489: 486: 412: 409: 364:Appendicularia 349:polysaccharide 345:filter feeders 308: 307: 306: 305: 299:Appendicularia 296: 285: 284: 277: 276: 275: 274: 273: 272: 263: 247: 236:Cheungkongella 231: 223: 218:Phlebobranchia 215: 204: 203: 199: 198: 186: 182: 181: 176: 172: 171: 166: 162: 161: 156: 152: 151: 146: 142: 141: 128: 127: 118: 117: 109: 108: 99: 94: 89: 84: 79: 74: 69: 64: 59: 54: 49: 44: 36: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4314: 4303: 4300: 4298: 4295: 4293: 4290: 4288: 4285: 4283: 4280: 4278: 4275: 4273: 4270: 4269: 4267: 4250: 4245: 4241: 4237: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4219: 4215: 4211: 4206: 4202: 4198: 4192: 4188: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4170: 4166: 4162: 4157: 4153: 4149: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4131: 4127: 4123: 4118: 4114: 4110: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4079: 4075: 4071: 4066: 4062: 4057: 4051: 4047: 4042: 4036: 4032: 4031: 4029: 4027: 4023: 4019: 4014: 4001: 3998: 3996: 3995: 3990: 3988: 3987:Sarcopterygii 3984: 3982: 3981: 3976: 3975: 3972: 3926: 3923: 3920: 3917: 3916: 3914: 3912: 3908: 3901: 3898: 3897: 3895: 3893: 3892:Archelosauria 3889: 3882: 3879: 3876: 3873: 3872: 3870: 3868: 3864: 3861: 3858: 3853: 3847: 3844: 3843: 3840: 3837: 3834: 3829: 3823: 3820: 3819: 3816: 3813: 3810: 3805: 3798: 3795: 3794: 3791: 3788: 3785: 3780: 3773: 3770: 3769: 3766: 3763: 3760: 3755:Sarcopterygii 3751: 3745: 3742: 3741: 3738: 3735: 3732: 3723: 3717: 3714: 3713: 3710: 3707: 3704: 3699:Gnathostomata 3695: 3685: 3682: 3680: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3672: 3668: 3664: 3661: 3658: 3653: 3630: 3627: 3624: 3621: 3620: 3617: 3614: 3612: 3608: 3602: 3599: 3596: 3593: 3592: 3589: 3586: 3582: 3576: 3573: 3572: 3569: 3566: 3564: 3562:(Urochordata) 3556: 3552: 3549: 3546: 3541: 3531: 3528: 3527: 3525: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3508:Deuterostomia 3505: 3503: 3499: 3497: 3493: 3492: 3489: 3484: 3476: 3471: 3469: 3464: 3462: 3457: 3456: 3453: 3446: 3442: 3439: 3436: 3434: 3431: 3429: 3426: 3424: 3421: 3419: 3416: 3415: 3405: 3403:0-19-860426-2 3399: 3395: 3391: 3387: 3386: 3374: 3370: 3365: 3360: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3341: 3333: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3304:Nat Rev Genet 3298: 3290: 3286: 3279: 3264: 3260: 3253: 3245: 3243:1-74059-162-3 3239: 3234: 3233: 3224: 3216: 3212: 3208: 3204: 3200: 3196: 3189: 3182: 3174: 3170: 3165: 3160: 3155: 3150: 3146: 3142: 3138: 3131: 3123: 3119: 3114: 3109: 3104: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3087: 3080: 3064: 3058: 3050: 3046: 3042: 3038: 3034: 3030: 3026: 3022: 3015: 3007: 3003: 2999: 2995: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2979: 2972: 2964: 2960: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2932: 2928: 2921: 2912: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2880: 2872: 2868: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2845: 2837: 2833: 2828: 2823: 2818: 2813: 2809: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2786: 2778: 2774: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2735: 2727: 2723: 2719: 2715: 2711: 2707: 2700: 2692: 2688: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2665: 2657: 2653: 2648: 2643: 2639: 2635: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2616: 2608: 2604: 2600: 2596: 2591: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2574: 2567: 2559: 2555: 2551: 2547: 2543: 2539: 2536:(1): 105–20. 2535: 2531: 2523: 2521: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2500: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2481:(2): 107–12. 2480: 2476: 2469: 2467: 2458: 2454: 2450: 2448:9780120176243 2444: 2440: 2436: 2432: 2425: 2423: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2402: 2399:(3): 1142–8. 2398: 2394: 2386: 2384: 2375: 2371: 2367: 2363: 2360:(1): 98–107. 2359: 2355: 2348: 2342: 2337: 2329: 2325: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2309: 2305: 2301: 2297: 2290: 2282: 2278: 2274: 2270: 2266: 2262: 2259:(3): 227–36. 2258: 2254: 2247: 2241: 2236: 2228: 2224: 2219: 2214: 2211:(2): 382–89. 2210: 2206: 2202: 2195: 2187: 2183: 2179: 2175: 2170: 2165: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2142: 2134: 2132:0-03-056747-5 2128: 2124: 2117: 2115: 2113: 2111: 2109: 2107: 2105: 2103: 2101: 2099: 2097: 2095: 2093: 2091: 2089: 2087: 2078: 2077:Invertebrates 2071: 2069: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2048: 2044: 2040: 2036: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2005: 2003: 2001: 1999: 1991: 1985: 1977: 1973: 1969: 1965: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1942: 1940: 1935: 1923: 1921: 1917: 1913: 1909: 1905: 1901: 1897: 1893: 1892: 1887: 1886: 1881: 1877: 1873: 1872:deuterostomes 1869: 1864: 1862: 1861:embryogenesis 1858: 1854: 1850: 1845: 1841: 1831: 1829: 1825: 1821: 1817: 1813: 1812: 1807: 1805: 1804:bouillabaisse 1801: 1797: 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568:amoebocytes, 567: 563: 558: 554: 552: 548: 537: 534: 530: 526: 522: 518: 514: 509: 507: 503: 499: 495: 482: 481: 476: 472: 471: 467:The colorful 465: 461: 459: 453: 451: 447: 443: 438: 433: 431: 427: 421: 419: 408: 406: 401: 399: 396: 392: 387: 385: 379: 377: 373: 369: 365: 361: 357: 352: 350: 346: 343: 340: 336: 333: 329: 326: 322: 318: 314: 303:Lahille, 1890 300: 297: 294:Nielsen, 1995 292: 289: 288: 286: 282: 281:Cladistically 278: 270: 269: 264: 261: 260: 255: 254: 252: 248: 244: 238: 237: 232: 229:Lahille, 1886 227: 224: 221:Lahille, 1887 219: 216: 213:Lahille, 1887 211: 208: 207: 205: 200: 195: 190: 187: 184: 183: 180: 177: 174: 173: 170: 167: 164: 163: 160: 157: 154: 153: 150: 147: 144: 143: 138: 133: 129: 125: 124: 119: 115: 110: 102: 97: 92: 87: 82: 77: 72: 67: 62: 57: 52: 47: 33: 30: 19: 4025: 3999: 3992: 3979: 3978: 3925:Aves (birds) 3867:Lepidosauria 3727:Euteleostomi 3671:Cyclostomata 3506:Superphylum 3393: 3390:Tudge, Colin 3354: 3350: 3340: 3307: 3303: 3297: 3288: 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Tunicate 1664:delicacies. 1548:Enterogona 1213:South China 1117:nudibranchs 1036:in humans. 897:containing 867:glycosidase 805:philopatric 693:become the 615:neural tube 603:vanadocytes 599:hemovanadin 570:nephrocytes 562:lymphocytes 506:oesophageal 321:sea squirts 175:Subphylum: 4272:Ascidiacea 4266:Categories 4070:Ascidiacea 4056:Ascidiacea 4026:Ascidiacea 3657:Vertebrata 3611:Enterogona 3545:Olfactores 3445:Ascidiacea 3443:Photos of 3289:Embryology 2927:Geobiology 2712:(1): 3–4. 2475:Biol. Bull 2160:Wiley-Liss 1926:References 1920:Morpholino 1904:pufferfish 1851:ideal for 1828:Botany Bay 1157:sea violet 1137:sea otters 1070:pollutants 1056:nudibranch 1008:DNA damage 999:DNA repair 993:Didemnidae 965:sequential 871:polyspermy 854:glycosides 645:East Timor 591:hemoglobin 566:phagocytic 502:planktonic 458:epithelium 446:homologous 395:pharyngeal 376:substratum 356:salinities 313:Ascidiacea 194:Blainville 189:Ascidiacea 35:Ascidiacea 18:Sea squirt 4297:Ediacaran 3809:Tetrapoda 3502:Bilateria 3263:LA Weekly 3201:(1): 47. 3147:(1): 49. 2558:205772576 2253:Biol Bull 2059:213181394 2043:1552-5015 1976:128415270 1931:Citations 1900:nematodes 1840:chordates 1820:Australia 1775:olive oil 1697:cynthiaol 1584:ascidians 1564:ascidians 1537:Thaliacea 1514:ascidians 1460:Thaliacea 1401:Thaliacea 1385:ascidians 1358:ascidians 1309:ascidians 1282:cladogram 1270:Thaliacea 1247:Phylogeny 1237:White Sea 1217:Ediacaran 1191:Evolution 1133:sea stars 1121:flatworms 1110:ecosystem 1106:shellfish 1098:predators 907:platelets 895:ectoplasm 891:cytoplasm 879:cytoplasm 842:vitelline 785:asexually 706:statocyst 702:embryonic 686:notochord 578:uric acid 531:, into a 521:intestine 475:bryozoans 448:with the 442:endostyle 418:cellulose 360:Thaliacea 332:subphylum 317:ascidians 291:Thaliacea 155:Kingdom: 149:Eukaryota 4109:46582350 4035:Wikidata 3559:Tunicata 3496:Animalia 3494:Kingdom 3483:chordate 3392:(2000). 3373:17557306 3351:Dev. Dyn 3332:27548417 3324:12671659 3268:29 March 3215:55491438 3173:29703197 3122:28649250 3049:12450747 3006:85670041 2963:35969031 2955:20550583 2836:12835415 2777:12974097 2656:27279728 2607:89619858 2599:30930342 2550:25044771 2511:23558774 2503:16260770 2413:24878524 2328:29281303 2281:25037395 2273:23995746 2227:15844201 2186:15127292 2178:11921344 2051:32190983 1922:oligos. 1857:lineages 1816:cunjevoi 1715:bibimbap 1707:mideoduk 1658:Culinary 1474:Tunicata 1456:Tunicata 1292:Tunicata 1232:Burykhia 1206:Cambrian 1161:vanadium 1125:molluscs 903:endoderm 899:vesicles 846:follicle 789:sexually 746:ampullae 734:adhesive 726:papillae 722:anterior 698:ganglion 695:cerebral 690:chordate 595:vanadium 498:flagella 437:ciliated 398:stigmata 368:plankton 335:Tunicata 268:Burykhia 251:Ausiidae 179:Tunicata 169:Chordata 165:Phylum: 159:Animalia 145:Domain: 4041:Q190090 4000:italics 3833:Amniota 3485:classes 3481:Extant 3438:ANISEED 3164:5924484 3113:5465252 3096:: 674. 3069:3 April 3029:Bibcode 2986:Bibcode 2935:Bibcode 2898:Bibcode 2859:Bibcode 2851:Geobios 2804:Bibcode 2769:4385858 2749:Bibcode 2714:Bibcode 2679:Bibcode 2647:4898443 2530:Genesis 2495:3593128 2457:3324702 2374:3141234 2320:1542063 2023:Bibcode 1956:Bibcode 1908:mammals 1880:genomes 1783:parsley 1711:agujjim 1693:meongge 1650:sashimi 1227:Namibia 1173:bladder 1127:, rock 1093:harbors 1078:embryos 1040:Ecology 982:stolons 809:zygotes 742:pharynx 730:secrete 718:tactile 710:pharynx 671:tadpole 656:sessile 551:ammonia 517:enzymes 513:stomach 450:thyroid 426:pharynx 411:Anatomy 391:pharynx 372:sessile 330:in the 323:, is a 185:Class: 4210:125647 4194:NZOR: 4174:158854 4122:1ASCIC 3857:Sauria 3400: 3371: 3330: 3322: 3240: 3213: 3171: 3161: 3120: 3110: 3047: 3004: 2961: 2953: 2834: 2827:166226 2824: 2775: 2767: 2654: 2644: 2605: 2597: 2556: 2548: 2509: 2501: 2493: 2455: 2445: 2411: 2372: 2326: 2318: 2279: 2271: 2225: 2184: 2176: 2129: 2057: 2049: 2041: 1974: 1767:φούσκα 1763:fouska 1759:Greece 1757:) and 1743:violet 1735:France 1687:) and 1685:maboya 1498:Acopa 1458:, and 1264:, 1904 1241:Russia 1153:Europe 1151:, and 1086:enzyme 1082:larvae 927:zygote 923:dorsal 913:, and 817:within 793:zooids 673:-like 533:cloaca 525:rectum 430:gonads 339:marine 245:, 2001 243:et al. 196:, 1824 4244:WoRMS 4231:Plazi 4223:91601 4156:IRMNG 4148:47811 4096:BMH46 3584:Acopa 3328:S2CID 3211:S2CID 3191:(PDF) 3002:S2CID 2959:S2CID 2773:S2CID 2603:S2CID 2554:S2CID 2507:S2CID 2491:JSTOR 2316:JSTOR 2277:S2CID 2182:S2CID 2158:(6). 2055:S2CID 1972:S2CID 1912:cDNAs 1896:flies 1847:them 1790:piure 1779:lemon 1771:lemon 1747:Italy 1689:Korea 1677:Japan 1464:et al 1222:Ausia 1149:Chile 1145:Korea 1141:Japan 1129:crabs 1102:docks 1074:toxic 963:is a 675:larva 667:sperm 494:mucus 384:zooid 328:class 259:Ausia 4249:1839 4187:7713 4182:NCBI 4169:ITIS 4161:1057 4130:GBIF 4117:EPPO 4078:BOLD 3398:ISBN 3369:PMID 3320:PMID 3270:2017 3238:ISBN 3169:PMID 3118:PMID 3071:2017 3045:PMID 2951:PMID 2832:PMID 2765:PMID 2652:PMID 2595:PMID 2546:PMID 2499:PMID 2453:PMID 2443:ISBN 2409:PMID 2370:PMID 2324:PMID 2269:PMID 2223:PMID 2174:PMID 2127:ISBN 2047:PMID 2039:ISSN 1906:and 1888:and 1788:The 1781:and 1681:hoya 1645:hoya 1635:Uses 1272:and 1229:and 1169:acid 1080:and 1058:'s ( 1014:and 787:and 587:iron 572:and 529:anus 527:and 241:Shu 46:PreꞒ 4135:356 4104:EoL 4091:CoL 4065:AFD 3359:doi 3355:236 3312:doi 3203:doi 3159:PMC 3149:doi 3108:PMC 3098:doi 3037:doi 2994:doi 2943:doi 2906:doi 2867:doi 2822:PMC 2812:doi 2800:100 2757:doi 2745:171 2722:doi 2710:342 2687:doi 2642:PMC 2634:doi 2585:doi 2538:doi 2483:doi 2479:209 2435:doi 2401:doi 2397:450 2362:doi 2358:130 2308:doi 2304:188 2261:doi 2257:224 2213:doi 2209:233 2164:doi 2031:doi 2019:336 1964:doi 1818:in 1745:), 1076:to 732:an 319:or 4268:: 4246:: 4233:: 4220:: 4207:: 4184:: 4171:: 4158:: 4145:: 4132:: 4119:: 4106:: 4093:: 4083:61 4080:: 4067:: 4052:: 4037:: 3367:. 3353:. 3349:. 3326:. 3318:. 3306:. 3287:. 3261:. 3209:. 3199:19 3197:. 3193:. 3167:. 3157:. 3145:16 3143:. 3139:. 3116:. 3106:. 3092:. 3088:. 3043:. 3035:. 3025:25 3023:. 3000:. 2992:. 2982:86 2980:. 2957:. 2949:. 2941:. 2929:. 2904:. 2894:15 2892:. 2888:. 2865:. 2853:. 2830:. 2820:. 2810:. 2798:. 2794:. 2771:. 2763:. 2755:. 2743:. 2720:. 2708:. 2685:. 2673:. 2650:. 2640:. 2630:12 2628:. 2624:. 2601:. 2593:. 2581:94 2579:. 2575:. 2552:. 2544:. 2534:53 2532:. 2519:^ 2505:. 2497:. 2489:. 2477:. 2465:^ 2451:. 2441:. 2421:^ 2407:. 2395:. 2382:^ 2368:. 2356:. 2322:. 2314:. 2302:. 2298:. 2275:. 2267:. 2255:. 2221:. 2207:. 2203:. 2180:. 2172:. 2156:56 2154:. 2150:. 2085:^ 2067:^ 2053:. 2045:. 2037:. 2029:. 2017:. 2013:. 1997:^ 1970:. 1962:. 1952:46 1950:. 1938:^ 1902:, 1898:, 1806:. 1785:. 1777:, 1765:, 1753:, 1741:, 1699:. 1683:, 1586:) 1566:) 1516:) 1387:) 1360:) 1311:) 1284:. 1187:. 1165:pH 1147:, 1143:, 1131:, 1123:, 1119:, 1018:. 893:: 605:. 564:, 483:). 407:. 351:. 301:? 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