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destination. When viewing this from an evolutionary standpoint, many theories and explanations come into consideration. If these are the result for every migration and breeding season, the expected results should be a shift towards a larger male population through sexual selection. Sexual selection is strong when the factor of environmental selection is also introduced. Environmental selection may support a smaller chick size if those chicks were born in an area that allowed them to grow to a larger size, even though under normal conditions they would not be able to reach this optimal size for migration. When the environment gives advantages and disadvantages of this sort, the strength of selection is weakened and the environmental forces are given greater morphological weight. The sexual dimorphism could also produce a change in timing of migration leading to differences in mating success within the bird population. When the dimorphism produces that large of a variation between the sexes and between the members of the sexes, multiple evolutionary effects can take place. This timing could even lead to a speciation phenomenon if the variation becomes strongly drastic and favorable towards two different outcomes. Sexual dimorphism is maintained by the counteracting pressures of natural selection and sexual selection. For example, sexual dimorphism in coloration increases the vulnerability of bird species to predation by
European sparrowhawks in Denmark. Presumably, increased sexual dimorphism means males are brighter and more conspicuous, leading to increased predation. Moreover, the production of more exaggerated ornaments in males may come at the cost of suppressed immune function. So long as the reproductive benefits of the trait due to sexual selection are greater than the costs imposed by natural selection, then the trait will propagate throughout the population. Reproductive benefits arise in the form of a larger number of offspring, while natural selection imposes costs in the form of reduced survival. This means that even if the trait causes males to die earlier, the trait is still beneficial so long as males with the trait produce more offspring than males lacking the trait. This balance keeps dimorphism alive in these species and ensures that the next generation of successful males will also display these traits that are attractive to females.
1061:, a type of cichlid fish. In this fish, the males are characterized as being up to 60 times larger than the females. The male's increased size is believed to be advantageous because males collect and defend empty snail shells in each of which a female breeds. Males must be larger and more powerful in order to collect the largest shells. The female's body size must remain small because in order for her to breed, she must lay her eggs inside the empty shells. If she grows too large, she will not fit in the shells and will be unable to breed. The female's small body size is also likely beneficial to her chances of finding an unoccupied shell. Larger shells, although preferred by females, are often limited in availability. Hence, the female is limited to the growth of the size of the shell and may actually change her growth rate according to shell size availability. In other words, the male's ability to collect large shells depends on his size. The larger the male, the larger the shells he is able to collect. This then allows for females to be larger in his brooding nest which makes the difference between the sizes of the sexes less substantial. Male–male competition in this fish species also selects for large size in males. There is aggressive competition by males over territory and access to larger shells. Large males win fights and steal shells from competitors. Another example is the
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hormones occur during puberty and adulthood and serve to 'activate' certain behaviors when appropriate, such as territoriality during breeding season. Organizational hormones occur only during a critical period early in development, either just before or just after hatching in most birds, and determine patterns of behavior for the rest of the bird's life. Such behavioral differences can cause disproportionate sensitivities to anthropogenic pressures. Females of the whinchat in
Switzerland breed in intensely managed grasslands. Earlier harvesting of the grasses during the breeding season lead to more female deaths. Populations of many birds are often male-skewed and when sexual differences in behavior increase this ratio, populations decline at a more rapid rate. Also not all male dimorphic traits are due to hormones like testosterone, instead they are a naturally occurring part of development, for example plumage. In addition, the strong hormonal influence on phenotypic differences suggests that the genetic mechanism and genetic basis of these sexually dimorphic traits may involve transcription factors or cofactors rather than regulatory sequences.
2079:
1110:
1289:, and some species of flightless birds. Plumage dimorphism, in the form of ornamentation or coloration, also varies, though males are typically the more ornamented or brightly colored sex. Such differences have been attributed to the unequal reproductive contributions of the sexes. This difference produces a stronger female choice since they have more risk in producing offspring. In some species, the male's contribution to reproduction ends at copulation, while in other species the male becomes the main (or only) caregiver. Plumage polymorphisms have evolved to reflect these differences and other measures of reproductive fitness, such as body condition or survival. The male phenotype sends signals to females who then choose the 'fittest' available male.
1991:, (black myotis bat) where females are substantially larger than males in terms of body weight, skull measurement, and forearm length. The interaction between the sexes and the energy needed to produce viable offspring makes it favorable for females to be larger in this species. Females bear the energetic cost of producing eggs, which is much greater than the cost of making sperm by the males. The fecundity advantage hypothesis states that a larger female is able to produce more offspring and give them more favorable conditions to ensure their survival; this is true for most ectotherms. A larger female can provide parental care for a longer time while the offspring matures. The gestation and lactation periods are fairly long in
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1999:
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1101:, known as two-spotted gobies. Traditional hypotheses suggest that male–male competition drives selection. However, selection for ornamentation within this species suggests that showy female traits can be selected through either female–female competition or male mate choice. Since carotenoid-based ornamentation suggests mate quality, female two-spotted guppies that develop colorful orange bellies during breeding season are considered favorable to males. The males invest heavily in offspring during incubation, which leads to the sexual preference in colorful females due to higher egg quality.
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2140:
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537:
496:, size, weight, color, markings, or behavioral or cognitive traits. Male-male reproductive competition has evolved a diverse array of sexually dimorphic traits. Aggressive utility traits such as "battle" teeth and blunt heads reinforced as battering rams are used as weapons in aggressive interactions between rivals. Passive displays such as ornamental feathering or song-calling have also evolved mainly through sexual selection. These differences may be subtle or exaggerated and may be subjected to
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594:. At first sight, one might mistake peacocks and peahens for completely different species because of the vibrant colours and the sheer size of the male's plumage; the peahen is of a subdued brown coloration. The plumage of the peacock increases its vulnerability to predators because it is a hindrance in flight, and it renders the bird conspicuous in general. Similar examples are manifold, such as in
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1924:
found in insects. In mammals this results in more frequent and severe infections in males and higher rates of autoimmune disorders in females. One potential cause may be differences in gene expression of immune cells between the sexes. Another explanation is that endocrinological differences between the sexes impact the immune system – for example, testosterone acts as an immunosuppressive agent.
1676:
1666:
1911:), the structural connectome of women are significantly "better" connected than the connectome of men. It was shown that the graph-theoretical differences are due to the sex and not to the differences in the cerebral volume, by analyzing the data of 36 females and 36 males, where the brain volume of each man in the group was smaller than the brain volume of each woman in the group.
1612:. Pinnipeds are known for early differential growth and maternal investment since the only nutrients for newborn pups is the milk provided by the mother. For example, the males are significantly larger (about 10% heavier and 2% longer) than the females at birth in sea lion pups. The pattern of differential investment can be varied principally prenatally and post-natally.
1995:, the females suckling their offspring until they reach nearly adult size. They would not be able to fly and catch prey if they did not compensate for the additional mass of the offspring during this time. Smaller male size may be an adaptation to increase maneuverability and agility, allowing males to compete better with females for food and other resources.
926:. These structures are impressive because of the exaggerated sizes. There is a direct correlation between male horn lengths and body size and higher access to mates and fitness. In other beetle species, both males and females may have ornamentation such as horns. Generally, insect sexual size dimorphism (SSD) within species increases with body size.
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success. Males have a propensity to be larger than females of a comparable age but it is unclear whether the size increase is due to a growth spurt at the time of the sexual transition or due to the history of faster growth in sex changing individuals. Larger males are able to stifle the growth of females and control environmental resources.
1031:, use this method. Some males evolved ornamentation including binding the female with silk, having proportionally longer legs, modifying the female's web, mating while the female is feeding, or providing a nuptial gift in response to sexual cannibalism. Male body size is not under selection due to cannibalism in all spider species such as
679:, only the male fish develops an organ at the anal-urogenital region that produces antimicrobial substances. During parental care, males rub their anal-urogenital regions over their nests' internal surfaces, thereby protecting their eggs from microbial infections, one of the most common causes for mortality in young fish.
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discouraging further visits from pollinators. This is advantageous to both parties because it avoids damaging the developing fruit and wasting the pollinator's effort on unrewarding visits. In effect, the strategy ensures that pollinators can expect a reward every time they visit an appropriately advertising flower.
2014:
also display extreme sexual dimorphism. Females are more typical in appearance to other fish, whereas males are tiny rudimentary creatures with stunted digestive systems. A male must find a female and fuse with her: he then lives parasitically, becoming little more than a sperm-producing body in what
1952:
In theory, larger females are favored by competition for mates, especially in polygamous species. Larger females offer an advantage in fertility, since the physiological demands of reproduction are limiting in females. Hence there is a theoretical expectation that females tend to be larger in species
1923:
Sexual dimorphism in immune function is a common pattern in vertebrates and also in a number of invertebrates. Most often, females are more 'immunocompetent' than males. This trait is not consistent among all animals, but differs depending on taxonomy, with the most female-biased immune systems being
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advantage. Females have a higher sensitivity to pain due to aforementioned nerve differences that increase the sensation, and females thus require higher levels of pain medication after injury. Hormonal changes in females affect pain sensitivity, and pregnant women have the same sensitivity as males.
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show a range of sexual dimorphism, with average body mass between the sexes differing by roughly 15%. Substantial discussion in academic literature considers potential evolutionary advantages associated with sexual competition (both intrasexual and intersexual), as well as short- and long-term sexual
1080:
Social organization plays a large role in the changing of sex by the fish. It is often seen that a fish will change its sex when there is a lack of a dominant male within the social hierarchy. The females that change sex are often those who attain and preserve an initial size advantage early in life.
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often include the sex-change from female to male where there is a strong connection between growth, the sex of an individual, and the mating system within which it operates. In protogynous mating systems where males dominate mating with many females, size plays a significant role in male reproductive
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The handicap principle states that a male who survives despite possessing some sort of handicap thus proves that the rest of his genes are "good alleles". If males with "bad alleles" could not survive the handicap, females may evolve to choose males with this sort of handicap; the trait is acting as
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found in a 2004 study that "men and women apparently achieve similar IQ results with different brain regions, suggesting that there is no singular underlying neuroanatomical structure to general intelligence and that different types of brain designs may manifest equivalent intellectual performance".
1506:, which likely provided a function in sexual display. A biometric study of 36 skulls found sexual dimorphism was exhibited in the crest of 3 species of hadrosaurids. The crests could be categorized as full (male) or narrow (female) and may have given some advantage in intrasexual mating-competition.
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Such differences in form and reproductive roles often cause differences in behavior. As previously stated, males and females often have different roles in reproduction. The courtship and mating behavior of males and females are regulated largely by hormones throughout a bird's lifetime. Activational
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in the left hemisphere of the brain in comparison to males. Males on average have larger brains than females; however, when adjusted for total brain volume, the gray matter differences between sexes are almost nonexistent. Thus, the percentage of gray matter appears to be more related to brain size
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The difference in strength relative to body mass is less pronounced in trained individuals. In
Olympic weightlifting, male records vary from 5.5Ă— body mass in the lowest weight category to 4.2Ă— in the highest weight category, while female records vary from 4.4Ă— to 3.8Ă—, a weight-adjusted difference
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According to Scott D. Sampson, if ceratopsids were to exhibit sexual dimorphism, modern ecological analogues suggest it would be found in display structures, such as horns and frills. No convincing evidence for sexual dimorphism in body size or mating signals is known in ceratopsids, although there
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Possible mechanisms have been proposed to explain macroevolution of sexual size dimorphism in birds. These include sexual selection, selection for fecundity in females, niche divergence between the sexes, and allometry, but their relative importance is still not fully understood . Sexual dimorphism
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Ray-finned fish are an ancient and diverse class, with the widest degree of sexual dimorphism of any animal class. Fairbairn notes that "females are generally larger than males but males are often larger in species with male–male combat or male paternal care ... from dwarf males to males more than
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spectrum. Hence, the male birds, although appearing yellow to humans, actually have a violet-tinted plumage that is seen by females. This plumage is thought to be an indicator of male parental abilities. Perhaps this is a good indicator for females because it shows that they are good at obtaining a
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The sexy son hypothesis states that females may initially choose a trait because it improves the survival of their young, but once this preference has become widespread, females must continue to choose the trait, even if it becomes harmful. Those that do not will have sons that are unattractive to
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observed that "because it is easier to manipulate hormone levels than the expression of sex chromosome genes, the effects of hormones have been studied much more extensively, and are much better understood, than the direct actions in the brain of sex chromosome genes." It concluded that while "the
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in search of sexually dimorphic characteristics requires the supply of complete and articulated skeletal and tissue remains. As terrestrial organisms, dinosaur carcasses are subject to ecological and geographical influence that inevitably constitutes the degree of preservation. The availability of
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is an ontogenetic frog with dramatic differences in both color and pattern between the sexes. At sexual maturity, the males display a bright green with white dorsolateral lines. In contrast, the females are rusty red to silver with small spots. The bright coloration in the male population attracts
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groups where midsized animals tend to exhibit markedly more sexual dimorphism than larger ones. However, it has been proposed that these differences can be better explained by intraspecific and ontogenic variation rather than sexual dimorphism. In addition, many sexually dimorphic traits that may
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Sexual dimorphism may also only appear during mating season; some species of birds only show dimorphic traits in seasonal variation. The males of these species will molt into a less bright or less exaggerated color during the off-breeding season. This occurs because the species is more focused on
1233:, do not display sexual dimorphism through their plumage, and instead can be distinguished by other physiological or behavioural characteristics. Generally, male Mute swans, or cobs, are taller and larger than females, or pens, and have thicker necks and a more pronounced 'knob' above their bill.
1914:
Sexual dimorphism was also described in the gene level and shown to extend from the sex chromosomes. Overall, about 6500 genes have been found to have sex-differential expression in at least one tissue. Many of these genes are not directly associated with reproduction, but rather linked to more
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leads to exaggerated dimorphic traits that are used predominantly in competition over mates. The increased fitness resulting from ornamentation offsets its cost to produce or maintain, suggesting complex evolutionary implications, but the costs and evolutionary implications vary from species to
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Migratory patterns and behaviors also influence sexual dimorphisms. This aspect also stems back to size dimorphism in species. It has been shown that the larger males are better at coping with the difficulties of migration and thus are more successful in reproducing when reaching the breeding
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was 53.4 mm vs. 40 mm in females. Different sizes of the heads in anoles have been explained by differences in the estrogen pathway. The sexual dimorphism in lizards is generally attributed to the effects of sexual selection, but other mechanisms including ecological divergence and
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matures; specialist pollinators are very much inclined to concentrate on the exact appearance of the flowers they serve, which saves their time and effort and serves the interests of the plant accordingly. Some such plants go even further and change their appearance once fertilized, thereby
1304:: black breeders, brown breeders, and brown auxiliaries. These differences arise in response to the bird's body condition: if they are healthy they will produce more androgens thus becoming black breeders, while less healthy birds produce less androgens and become brown auxiliaries. The
2169:" and give rise to healthy offspring. In some species, however, females seem to choose males with traits that do not improve offspring survival rates, and even traits that reduce it (potentially leading to traits like the peacock's tail). Two hypotheses for explaining this fact are the
1877:. Sexual differentiation in the human brain from the undifferentiated state is triggered by testosterone from the fetal testis. Testosterone is converted to estrogen in the brain through the action of the enzyme aromatase. Testosterone acts on many brain areas, including the
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general biological features. In addition, it has been shown that genes with sex-specific expression undergo reduced selection efficiency, which leads to higher population frequencies of deleterious mutations and contributes to the prevalence of several human diseases.
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In many non-monogamous species, the benefit to a male's reproductive fitness of mating with multiple females is large, whereas the benefit to a female's reproductive fitness of mating with multiple males is small or nonexistent. In these species, there is a
1981:
argue that this difference in behaviour leads to radically different selection pressures on the two sexes, evidently favouring smaller males. Cases where the male is larger than the female have been studied as well, and require alternative explanations.
758:
have visibly different sexes, with the effect of eliciting the most efficient behavior from pollinators, who then use the most efficient strategy in visiting each gender of flower instead of searching, say, for pollen in a nectar-bearing female flower.
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differentiating effects of gonadal secretions seem to be dominant," the existing body of research "support the idea that sex differences in neural expression of X and Y genes significantly contribute to sex differences in brain functions and disease."
1485:. Crocodilian skeletons were examined to determine whether there is a skeletal component that is distinctive between both sexes, to help provide an insight on the physical disparities between male and female theropods. Findings revealed the caudal
892:
also displays male-biased sexual dimorphism. The selection for larger size in males rather than females in this species may have resulted due to their aggressive territorial behavior and subsequent differential mating success. Another example is
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Consequently, sexual dimorphism has important ramifications for conservation. However, sexual dimorphism is not only found in birds and is thus important to the conservation of many animals. Such differences in form and behavior can lead to
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had one of the most bizarre cases of sexual dimorphism in a bird; the larger female (right) had a long, curved bill adapted to probe into deep holes in living wood, while the smaller male (left) had a short, chisel-like bill to strip dead
636:
Frogs constitute another conspicuous illustration of the principle. There are two types of dichromatism for frog species: ontogenetic and dynamic. Ontogenetic frogs are more common and have permanent color changes in males or females.
866:
Insects display a wide variety of sexual dimorphism between taxa including size, ornamentation and coloration. The female-biased sexual size dimorphism observed in many taxa evolved despite intense male-male competition for mates. In
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where the female has a glandular area on her back that can serve to feed a male, which clings to her (although males can survive away from females, they generally are not free-living). This is taken to the logical extreme in the
1323:, the female chicks grow faster than the males, resulting in booby parents producing the smaller sex, the males, during times of food shortage. This then results in the maximization of parental lifetime reproductive success. In
2864:
Donnellan, S. C., & Mahony, M. J. (2004). Allozyme, chromosomal, and morphological variability in the
Litoria lesueuri species group (Anura : Hylidae), including a description of a new species. Australian Journal of
1088:, males develop larger body size at maturity, including an increase in body depth, hump height, and snout length. Females experience minor changes in snout length, but the most noticeable difference is the huge increase in
1854:
Acute pain tolerance is also more consistent over a lifetime in females than males, despite these hormonal changes. Despite differences in physical feeling, both sexes have similar psychological tolerance to (or ability to
955:
also displays sexual dichromatism; males have yellow and iridescent wings, while female wings are white and non-iridescent. Naturally selected deviation in protective female coloration is displayed in mimetic butterflies.
2054:, the southern yellowjacket. In this wasp species, the female workers are the smallest, the male workers are slightly larger, and the female queens are significantly larger than her female workers and male counterparts.
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of male crocodiles, used to anchor the penis muscles, were significantly larger than those of females. There have been criticisms of these findings, but it remains a subject of debate among advocates and adversaries.
1013:, food-limited females cannibalize more frequently. Therefore, there is a high risk of low fitness for males due to pre-copulatory cannibalism, which led to male selection of larger females for two reasons: higher
2406:
845:). Each pollen grain accordingly may be seen as a male plant in its own right; it produces a sperm cell and is dramatically different from the female plant, the megagametophyte that produces the female gamete.
5381:
Martin U, GrĂĽebler HS, MĂĽller M, Spaar R, Horch P, Naef-Daenzer B (2008). "Female biased mortality caused by anthropogenic nest loss contributes to population decline and adult sex ratio of a meadow bird".
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article for more on this subject.) Strict graph-theoretical analysis of the human brain connections revealed that in numerous graph-theoretical parameters (e.g., minimum bipartition width, edge number, the
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6050:
Salogni E, Galimberti F, Sanvito S, Miller EH (March 2019). "Male and female pups of the highly sexually dimorphic northern elephant seal (Mirounga angustirostris) differ slightly in body size".
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in birds can be manifested in size or plumage differences between the sexes. Sexual size dimorphism varies among taxa, with males typically being larger, though this is not always the case, e.g.
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food supply from which the carotenoid is obtained. There is a positive correlation between the chromas of the tail and breast feathers and body condition. Carotenoids play an important role in
2874:
Bell, R. C., & Zamudio, K. R. (2012). Sexual dichromatism in frogs: natural selection, sexual selection, and unexpected diversity. Proceedings of the Royal
Society B: Biological Sciences.
574:
and coloration, though not always apparent. A difference in the coloration of sexes within a given species is called sexual dichromatism, commonly seen in many species of birds and reptiles.
1084:
In other cases with fish, males will go through noticeable changes in body size, and females will go through morphological changes that can only be seen inside of the body. For example, in
1368:- (two)) has been proposed for bird species in which "both sexes have basically the same plumage pattern, though the female is clearly distinguishable by reason of her paler or washed-out
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1128:. The sexual dimorphism in amphibians and reptiles may be reflected in any of the following: anatomy; relative length of tail; relative size of head; overall size as in many species of
5418:
Owens, I. P. F., Short, R.V.,. (1995). Hormonal basis of sexual dimorphism in birds: Implications for new theories of sexual selection. Trends in
Ecology & Evolution., 10(REF), 44.
1755:), but males, on average, surpass them in height in later adolescence and adulthood. In the United States, adult males are on average 9% taller and 16.5% heavier than adult females.
2030:, where the male injects itself into the female's body and becomes nothing more than sperm producing cells, to the point that the superorder used to be mistaken for hermaphroditic.
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The relationship between sex differences in the brain and human behavior is a subject of controversy in psychology and society at large. Many females tend to have a higher ratio of
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and lower rates of cannibalism. In addition, female fecundity is positively correlated with female body size and large female body size is selected for, which is seen in the family
6736:
3761:
Emlen DJ, Marangelo J, Ball B, Cunningham CW (May 2005). "Diversity in the weapons of sexual selection: horn evolution in the beetle genus
Onthophagus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)".
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1881:, to create the masculinized brain pattern. The brains of pregnant females carrying male fetuses may be shielded from the masculinizing effects of androgen through the action of
4893:
Bravo CR, Bautista-Sopelana LM, Alonso JC (2024). "Revisiting niche divergence hypothesis in sexually dimorphic birds: Is diet overlap correlated with sexual size dimorphism?".
1169:
fecundity selection provide alternative explanations. The development of color dimorphism in lizards is induced by hormonal changes at the onset of sexual maturity, as seen in
1547:
found evidence of sexual dimorphism in the shape of the dermal plates. Two plate morphs were described: one was short, wide, and oval-shaped, the other taller and narrower.
4811:"A significant component of ageing (DNA damage) is reflected in fading breeding colors: an experimental test using innate antioxidant mimetics in painted dragon lizards"
899:, which is a species of sweat bee that shows drastic physical dimorphisms between male offspring. Not all dimorphism has to have a drastic difference between the sexes.
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2455:
7143:
1940:
have a better muscle regeneration efficiency than male ones. There are reports of several metabolic differences between male and female cells and they also respond to
1736:, females have, on average, 50–60% of the upper body strength of males, and 80-90% of the lower body strength of males, relative to body size, but females have higher
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1308:
of the male is thus determined by his success during each year's non-breeding season, causing reproductive success to vary with each year's environmental conditions.
1205:. Male breeding coloration is likely an indicator to females of the underlying level of oxidative DNA damage (a significant component of aging) in potential mates.
4796:
Pinto, A., Wiederhecker, H., & Colli, G. (2005). Sexual dimorphism in the
Neotropical lizard, Tropidurus torquatus (Squamata, Tropiduridae). Amphibia-Reptilia.
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strategies. According to Daly and Wilson, "The sexes differ more in human beings than in monogamous mammals, but much less than in extremely polygamous mammals."
10901:
9404:
8476:
5839:"Evidence for Sexual Dimorphism in the Plated Dinosaur Stegosaurus mjosi (Ornithischia, Stegosauria) from the Morrison Formation (Upper Jurassic) of Western USA"
5482:"Experimental Manipulation of Maternal Effort Produces Differential Effects in Sons and Daughters: Implications for Adaptive Sex Ratios in the Blue-footed Booby"
1604:
show some of the greatest sexual size differences of mammals, because of sexual selection and environmental factors like breeding location. The mating system of
5116:
Lindsay WR, Webster MS, Varian CW, Schwabl H (2009). "Plumage colour acquisition and behaviour are associated with androgens in a phenotypically plastic bird".
6787:
Lopes AM, Ross N, Close J, Dagnall A, Amorim A, Crow TJ (April 2006). "Inactivation status of PCDH11X: sexual dimorphisms in gene expression levels in brain".
3924:
Wiklund C, Lindfors V, Forsberg J (1996). "Early Male
Emergence and Reproductive Phenology of the Adult Overwintering Butterfly Gonepteryx rhamni in Sweden".
877:
females are similarly larger than males. The reason for the sexual dimorphism is due to provision size mass, in which females consume more pollen than males.
6093:
Ono KA, Boness DJ (January 1996). "Sexual dimorphism in sea lion pups: differential maternal investment, or sex-specific differences in energy allocation?".
3089:
Progress in Botany / Fortschritte der
Botanik: Structural Botany Physiology Genetics Taxonomy Geobotany / Struktur Physiologie Genetik Systematik Geobotanik
7268:
Szalkai B, Varga B, Grolmusz V (June 2018). "Brain size bias compensated graph-theoretical parameters are also better in women's structural connectomes".
1748:). A study, carried out by analyzing annual world rankings from 1980 to 1996, found that males' running times were, on average, 10% faster than females'.
1724:
is about 6 percent higher in adolescent males than females and increases to about 10 percent higher after puberty. Females tend to convert more food into
4348:
2200:
1571:), and also behaviour of adult individuals. Hormones significantly affect human brain formation, and also brain development at puberty. A 2004 review in
11390:
11247:
6136:
Tarnawski BA, Cassini GH, Flores DA (2014). "Skull allometry and sexual dimorphism in the ontogeny of the southern elephant seal (Mirounga leonina)".
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Berns CM, Adams DC (11 November 2012). "Becoming Different But Staying Alike: Patterns of Sexual Size and Shape Dimorphism in Bills of Hummingbirds".
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that are fertilized if they contact one of the thousands of free-floating flowers released by a male. Sexual dimorphism is most often associated with
11215:
6567:
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Prenter J, Elwood RW, Montgomery WI (December 1999). "Sexual Size Dimorphism and Reproductive Investment by Female Spiders: A Comparative Analysis".
3597:
Paxton RJ, Giovanetti M, Andrietti F, Scamoni E, Scanni B (1 October 1999). "Mating in a communal bee, Andrena agilissima (Hymenoptera Andrenidae)".
811:, a type of hemp, which have higher photosynthesis rates in males while growing but higher rates in females once the plants become sexually mature.
2078:
1342:, defined as sex differences in space and resource use. Most sexual segregation research has been done on ungulates, but such research extends to
6571:
5667:
Coulson G, MacFarlane AM, Parsons SE, Cutter J (2006). "Evolution of sexual segregation in mammalian herbivores: kangaroos as marsupial models".
2319:
8354:
4267:
Ota K, Kohda M, Sato T (June 2010). "Unusual allometry for sexual size dimorphism in a cichlid where males are extremely larger than females".
2119:, because small sperm enable organisms to produce a large number of sperm, and make males (or male function of hermaphrodites) more redundant.
1745:
3345:"The genetic mating system of a sea spider with male-biased sexual size dimorphism: evidence for paternity skew despite random mating success"
873:, for example, the female is larger/broader than males, with males being 8–10 mm in size and females being 10–12 mm in size. In the
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10650:
7711:"Sex of the cell dictates its response: differential gene expression and sensitivity to cell death inducing stress in male and female cells"
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and lizards; the presence of specific sex-related behaviour is common to many lizards; and vocal qualities which are frequently observed in
814:
Every sexually reproducing extant species of the vascular plant has an alternation of generations; the plants we see about us generally are
9950:
5696:
González-SolĂs J, Croxall JP, Wood AG (2000). "Sexual dimorphism and sexual segregation in foraging strategies of northern giant petrels,
9770:
9397:
1733:
2045:. There is some evidence that, in these genera, the dimorphism may be tied to a sex chromosome, or to chemical signalling from females.
821:, but their offspring are not the seeds that people commonly recognize as the new generation. The seed actually is the offspring of the
672:
have colorful spots and ornamentations, while females are generally grey. Female guppies prefer brightly colored males to duller males.
9760:
4647:"Does female nuptial coloration reflect egg carotenoids and clutch quality in the Two-Spotted Goby (Gobiusculus flavescens, Gobiidae)?"
4135:
Wilder SM, Rypstra AL (2008). "Sexual size dimorphism mediates the occurrence of state-dependent sexual cannibalism in a wolf spider".
880:
In some species, there is evidence of male dimorphism, but it appears to be for distinctions of roles. This is seen in the bee species
665:
explains that females prefer more elaborate males and select against males that are dull in color, independent of the species' vision.
1037:, but is more prominently selected for in less dimorphic species of spiders, which often selects for larger male size. In the species
12091:
8841:
4864:
3140:
Romero GA, Nelson CE (June 1986). "Sexual dimorphism in Catasetum orchids: forcible pollen emplacement and male flower competition".
2252:
53:, male (left) and female (right), illustrating the dramatic difference in plumage between sexes, a manifestation of sexual dimorphism
6253:
6175:"Equality for the sexes in human evolution? Early hominid sexual dimorphism and implications for mating systems and social behavior"
5514:
3199:
1162:
lizards show prominent size dimorphism with males typically being significantly larger than females. For instance, the average male
12379:
11981:
11154:
10609:
9289:
2115:
and the usually large number of small male gametes relative to the larger female gametes usually lies in the development of strong
5605:
1732:
and expendable circulating energy reserves. According to Tim Hewett, director of research in the department of sports medicine at
9073:
8989:
7611:"A role for cell sex in stem cell-mediated skeletal muscle regeneration: female cells have higher muscle regeneration efficiency"
4553:
Hendry A, Berg OK (1999). "Secondary sexual characters, energy use, senescence, and the cost of reproduction in sockeye salmon".
1629:
1330:
females are also the larger sex, and the growth rates of female chicks are more susceptible to limited environmental conditions.
141:
6966:
Marner L, Nyengaard JR, Tang Y, Pakkenberg B (July 2003). "Marked loss of myelinated nerve fibers in the human brain with age".
4310:
Sato T (1994). "Active accumulation of spawning substrate: a determinant of extreme polygyny in a shell-brooding cichlid fish".
3114:
9960:
9649:
9390:
7896:
4512:
Adams S, Williams AJ (2001). "A preliminary test of the transitional growth spurt hypothesis using the protogynous coral trout
908:
Weaponry leads to increased fitness by increasing success in male–male competition in many insect species. The beetle horns in
2965:
2136:
for whatever traits enable a male to have more matings. The male may therefore come to have different traits from the female.
1893:
than it is to sex. Differences in brain physiology between sexes do not necessarily relate to differences in intellect. Haier
1849:
argue that females, interacting with other females and multiple offspring in social groups, have experienced such traits as a
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11871:
11846:
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11605:
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6603:
6551:
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6303:
5762:
3283:
3124:
3097:
2262:
2033:
Some plant species also exhibit dimorphism in which the females are significantly larger than the males, such as in the moss
918:
also has distinct sexual and male dimorphism in head horns. Another beetle with a distinct horn-related sexual dimorphism is
749:
bee pollinators. The bees will then avoid other male flowers but may visit the female, which looks different from the males.
456:
3087:
1744:
of only 10–20%, and an absolute difference of about 30% (i.e., 492 kg vs 348 kg for unlimited weight classes; see
12071:
11279:
10274:
6887:
3713:"Evolution of male dimorphic allometry in a population of the Japanese horned beetle Trypoxylus dichotomus septentrionalis"
1319:
Sexual dimorphism may also influence differences in parental investment during times of food scarcity. For example, in the
5005:"The effect of dietary carotenoid access on sexual dichromatism and plumage pigment composition in the American goldfinch"
1455:
that allowed them to keep their tails elevated to aid in copulation. Discovering that this fusion occurred in only 50% of
11851:
11776:
11703:
11679:
11627:
11000:
9920:
5289:
5231:
Kissner KJ, Weatherhead PJ, Francis CM (January 2003). "Sexual size dimorphism and timing of spring migration in birds".
3508:
Danforth B (1991). "The morphology and behavior of dimorphic males in Perdita portalis (Hymenoptera : Andrenidae)".
2211:
7182:
4195:"Female preference for multi-modal courtship: multiple signals are important for male mating success in peacock spiders"
4172:"Males under attack: Sexual cannibalism and its consequences for male morphology and behaviour in an orb-weaving spider"
2884:
Ryan MJ, Rand AS (April 1993). "Species Recognition and Sexual Selection as a Unitary Problem in Animal Communication".
1521:
possessed sexes that were distinguishable based on frill and nasal prominence size. This is consistent with other known
12511:
12463:
12096:
11482:
11235:
10662:
10322:
4251:
3570:
Kukuk PF (1 October 1996). "Male Dimorphism in Lasioglossum (Chilalictus) hemichalceum: The Role of Larval Nutrition".
1247:). The difference between the sexes is apparent in the casque on the top of their bill. This pair is on display at the
7517:
Grossman C (1989). "Possible underlying mechanisms of sexual dimorphism in the immune response, fact and hypothesis".
6340:"The gender difference in distance running performance has plateaued: an analysis of world rankings from 1980 to 1996"
5780:"Males Resemble Females: Re-Evaluating Sexual Dimorphism in Protoceratops andrewsi (Neoceratopsia, Protoceratopsidae)"
1350:, and birds. Sex-specific conservation plans have even been suggested for species with pronounced sexual segregation.
11891:
5617:
5384:
5004:
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2303:
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in which there is a small-headed morph, capable of flight, and large-headed morph, incapable of flight, for males.
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11708:
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9659:
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2063:
658:
609:. Males are chromatically more yellow than females. It is believed that this is obtained by the ingestion of green
395:
230:
3813:
Teder, T., & Tammaru, T. (2005). "Sexual size dimorphism within species increases with body size in insects".
2122:
Volvocine algae have been useful in understanding the evolution of sexual dimorphism and species like the beetle
772:
on opening, then shed the exhausted anthers after a day or two and perhaps change their colours as well while the
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10969:
10893:
10168:
7107:
Lüders E, Steinmetz H, Jäncke L (December 2002). "Brain size and grey matter volume in the healthy human brain".
7011:"Sex differences in brain gray and white matter in healthy young adults: correlations with cognitive performance"
2542:
1081:
In either case, females which change sex to males are larger and often prove to be a good example of dimorphism.
17:
996:, for example, adult females have a larger body size than adult males. Size dimorphism shows a correlation with
12384:
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11107:
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8254:
Hanschen, Erik R.; Herron, Matthew D.; Wiens, John J.; Nozaki, Hisayoshi; Michod, Richard E. (September 2018).
5972:
Cassini MH (January 2020). "A mixed model of the evolution of polygyny and sexual size dimorphism in mammals".
3477:"Late embryogenesis and immature development of Osmia rufa cornigera (Rossi) (Hymenoptera : Megachilidae)"
3225:"Wind of change: new insights on the ecology and evolution of pollination and mating in wind-pollinated plants"
2015:
amounts to an effectively hermaphrodite composite organism. A similar situation is found in the Zeus water bug
1977:. As an example, in some species, females are sedentary, and so males must search for them. Fritz Vollrath and
1405:
323:
8380:
Parker GA (May 1982). "Why are there so many tiny sperm? Sperm competition and the maintenance of two sexes".
7974:
Shaw AJ (2000). "Population ecology, population genetics, and microevolution". In Shaw AJ, Goffinet B (eds.).
4385:
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12121:
12058:
11509:
11378:
11319:
11172:
10759:
10503:
10242:
9324:
8839:
Figuerola J (1999). "A comparative study on the evolution of reversed size dimorphism in monogamous waders".
5669:
2154:, such as large size or weapons; or they could be traits that females, for whatever reason, prefer in mates.
1752:
1644:
768:
have what amounts to serial sexual dimorphism. The flowers of such species might, for example, present their
375:
10704:
8197:"Evolutionary trajectories explain the diversified evolution of isogamy and anisogamy in marine green algae"
7810:"Sexual size dimorphism in Myotis nigricans (Schinz, 1821) (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae) from south Brazil"
7658:
Mittelstrass K, Ried JS, Yu Z, Krumsiek J, Gieger C, Prehn C, et al. (August 2011). McCarthy MI (ed.).
3877:"Female Bicyclus anynana butterflies choose males on the basis of their dorsal UV-reflective eyespot pupils"
12304:
12076:
11896:
11519:
11487:
11395:
11112:
10614:
9634:
9339:
9139:
9122:
6762:
6582:. Vol. 306. Baltimore: University Park Press (original from the University of Michigan). p. 511.
5558:
Main MB (March 2008). "Reconciling competing ecological explanations for sexual segregation in ungulates".
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493:
390:
200:
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990:
groups exhibit sexual dimorphism, but it is most widely studied in the spiders. In the orb-weaving spider
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11351:
11182:
10776:
9068:
9063:
9058:
9053:
8982:
6678:
3204:
2927:
Rubolini D, Spina F, Saino N (2004). "Protandry and sexual dimorphism in trans-Saharan migratory birds".
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1573:
136:
131:
126:
121:
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12011:
11881:
11861:
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10878:
10052:
9841:
9277:
9117:
8930:
8732:
5118:
4312:
2226:
2221:
2097:
942:
923:
333:
195:
8145:
3401:
2327:
1043:, the males are known for their characteristic colorful fan which attracts the females during mating.
668:
Similar sexual dimorphism and mating choice are also observed in many fish species. For example, male
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12402:
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12111:
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11911:
11876:
11652:
10672:
10469:
10279:
10047:
9940:
9828:
9619:
9107:
8949:
6911:
5153:
Petrie M (1994). "Improved growth and survival of offspring of peacocks with more elaborate trains".
4895:
4698:"The relationship between sexual size dimorphism and habitat use in Greater Antillean Anolis lizards"
2814:
2758:"Plumage colour in nestling blue tits: sexual dichromatism, condition dependence and genetic effects"
2206:
2155:
2128:, where the females are larger than the males, are used to study its underlying genetic mechanisms.
1811:
1640:
1427:
have looked for sexual dimorphism among dinosaurs using statistics and comparison to ecologically or
1069:
895:
449:
185:
31:
10801:
6633:
5245:
4747:"The oestrogen pathway underlies the evolution of exaggerated male cranial shapes in Anolis lizards"
3775:
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2434:
12324:
12208:
12081:
11901:
11834:
11696:
11669:
11524:
11299:
11262:
11095:
10959:
10931:
10906:
10863:
10766:
10699:
10574:
10447:
10415:
10388:
10378:
9836:
9048:
8961:
7364:"Reduced selection and accumulation of deleterious mutations in genes exclusively expressed in men"
6942:
6244:
5606:"Sex differences in population genetics, home range size and habitat use of the parti-colored bat (
4068:
2124:
2017:
1237:
805:
Sexual dimorphism in plants can also be dependent on reproductive development. This can be seen in
676:
178:
116:
10579:
7854:"Allometry of litter mass in bats: comparisons with maternal size, wing morphology, and phylogeny"
6830:
Lombardo MV, Ashwin E, Auyeung B, Chakrabarti B, Taylor K, Hackett G, et al. (January 2012).
643:
is an example of a dynamic frog with temporary color changes in males during the breeding season.
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12329:
12195:
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11991:
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11786:
11657:
11645:
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9913:
9329:
8771:
6291:
5904:
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These traits could be ones that allow him to fight off other males for control of territory or a
1057:
557:
380:
6737:"Acute Pain Tolerance Is More Consistent Over Time in Women Than Men, According to New Research"
6015:
Cappozzo HL, Campagna C, Monserrat J (1991). "Sexual Dimorphism in Newborn Southern Sea Lions".
4412:"Differing mechanisms underlie sexual size-dimorphism in two populations of a sex-changing fish"
12446:
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9245:
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8975:
7058:
Leonard CM, Towler S, Welcome S, Halderman LK, Otto R, Eckert MA, Chiarello C (December 2008).
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2195:
1617:
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1517:
1243:
1113:
1097:
301:
296:
104:
99:
10645:
7960:
7313:"The landscape of sex-differential transcriptome and its consequent selection in human adults"
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10104:
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9882:
9877:
9718:
9547:
9349:
6676:
McLaughlin M, Shryer T (8 August 1988). "Men vs women: the new debate over sex differences".
5287:
Møller AP, Nielsen JT (2006). "Prey vulnerability in relation to sexual coloration of prey".
1998:
782:
400:
6575:
6283:
2652:"Visual pigments and oil droplets from six classes of photoreceptor in the retinas of birds"
2599:"Visual pigments and oil droplets from six classes of photoreceptor in the retinas of birds"
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Penaloza C, Estevez B, Orlanski S, Sikorska M, Walker R, Smith C, et al. (June 2009).
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6583:
6492:
6186:
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6024:
5850:
5754:
5711:
5626:
5567:
5393:
5298:
5164:
5054:"Realized reproductive success of polygynous red-winged blackbirds revealed by DNA markers"
4904:
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4596:
4527:
4478:
4423:
3933:
3724:
3606:
3517:
3356:
3149:
2831:
2496:
2421:
2139:
1899:
1721:
1503:
1305:
1297:
1201:. Male coloration appears to reflect innate anti-oxidation capacity that protects against
791:
645:
481:
442:
340:
10689:
10559:
9382:
8957:
7609:
Deasy BM, Lu A, Tebbets JC, Feduska JM, Schugar RC, Pollett JB, et al. (April 2007).
951:
is reflected by female selection on the basis of dorsal UV-reflective eyespot pupils. The
8:
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12043:
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10944:
10792:
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10694:
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10484:
10237:
10180:
10042:
10025:
10003:
9722:
9639:
9610:
9181:
9149:
8802:
Bonduriansky R (January 2007). "The evolution of condition-dependent sexual dimorphism".
8579:
4070:
Discovering the daily activity pattern of Zygiella x-notata and its relationship to light
3300:
Bonduriansky R (January 2007). "The evolution of condition-dependent sexual dimorphism".
3209:
3048:
2170:
2003:
1324:
1293:
1292:
Sexual dimorphism is a product of both genetics and environmental factors. An example of
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1183:
1073:
888:
662:
571:
536:
221:
10395:
8595:
8489:
8444:
8393:
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8114:
8006:. Vol. 2. Nichinan, Miyazaki, Japan: The Hattori botanical Laboratory. p. 891.
7915:
7778:
7569:
7477:
7460:
Gal-Oz ST, Maier B, Yoshida H, Seddu K, Elbaz N, Czysz C, et al. (September 2019).
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6190:
6106:
6028:
5854:
5715:
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4908:
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Sanger TJ, Seav SM, Tokita M, Langerhans RB, Ross LM, Losos JB, Abzhanov A (June 2014).
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3610:
3521:
3360:
3153:
2835:
2500:
2425:
2107:
The first step towards sexual dimorphism is the size differentiation of sperm and eggs (
929:
Sexual dimorphism within insects is also displayed by dichromatism. In butterfly genera
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12253:
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11996:
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9417:
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9272:
9257:
8868:
8854:
8827:
8615:
8555:
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8509:
8501:
8413:
8313:"Anisogamy Does Not Always Promote the Evolution of Mating Competition Traits in Males"
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8255:
8231:
8196:
8126:
8071:
8066:
8043:
7935:
7877:
7790:
7763:
Vollrath F, Parker GA (1992). "Sexual dimorphism and distorted sex ratios in spiders".
7737:
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7686:
7659:
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7610:
7591:
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7312:
7293:
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1263:
is an example of a bird where the female (right) is more colorful than the male (left).
1197:. are brightly conspicuous in their breeding coloration, but male colour declines with
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1027:
997:
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901:
882:
874:
345:
328:
313:
207:
8881:
6209:
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5723:
5337:
Adkins-Regan E (2007). "Hormones and the development of sex differences in behavior".
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Females may choose males that appear strong and healthy, thus likely to possess "good
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5012:
Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Part B, Biochemistry & Molecular Biology
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1850:
1320:
1018:
992:
952:
707:
501:
350:
158:
153:
8872:
8831:
8580:"Rapid evolution of sexual size dimorphism facilitated by Y-linked genetic variance"
8513:
8417:
7943:
7829:
7201:"Graph Theoretical Analysis Reveals: Women's Brains Are Better Connected than Men's"
6995:
6816:
6613:
6522:
6122:
6079:
5541:
5466:
5360:
5318:
5270:
5139:
4381:
4333:
4296:
4156:
3697:
3537:
3436:
3329:
3185:
941:, dimorphic wing patterns evolved due to sex-limited expression, which mediates the
11743:
11684:
11473:
11416:
10724:
10291:
10269:
10077:
9443:
9252:
9134:
8858:
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8540:
8493:
8448:
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8267:
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7681:
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7526:
7489:
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7383:
7334:
7324:
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7277:
7240:
7230:
7178:
7158:
7116:
7079:
7071:
7030:
7022:
6975:
6851:
6847:
6843:
6796:
6710:
6591:
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6500:
6351:
6204:
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6153:
6145:
6110:
6059:
6032:
5981:
5958:
5938:
5876:
5858:
5809:
5791:
5778:
Maiorino, Leonardo; Farke, Andrew A.; Kotsakis, Tassos; Piras, Paolo (7 May 2015).
5719:
5678:
5634:
5575:
5529:
5493:
5444:
5401:
5348:
5306:
5250:
5211:
5184:
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5127:
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5019:
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4276:
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4144:
4096:
4039:
4029:
3988:
3980:
3941:
3896:
3888:
3847:
3839:
3780:
3732:
3675:
3614:
3551:
Jaycox Elbert R (1967). "Territorial Behavior Among Males of Anthidium Bamngense".
3525:
3488:
3416:
3372:
3364:
3309:
3244:
3236:
3157:
3060:
3019:
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2720:
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2610:
2579:
2514:
2504:
2439:
2362:
2291:
2231:
2101:
2069:
2050:
1987:
1941:
1826:
1751:
In early adolescence, females are on average taller than males (as females tend to
1452:
1125:
978:
974:, displaying typical sexual differences in spiders, with dramatically smaller males
947:
905:
is a mining bee where the females only have a slightly larger head than the males.
754:
710:
species generally look similar to one another because plants provide rewards (e.g.
638:
595:
575:
497:
308:
11615:
10569:
5131:
5052:
Gibbs HL, Weatherhead PJ, Boag PT, White BN, Tabak LM, Hoysak DJ (December 1990).
4989:
4148:
3618:
3161:
1526:
have existed in ceratopsians include soft tissue variations such as coloration or
12483:
12374:
12339:
12248:
12136:
12030:
11986:
11966:
11839:
11555:
11534:
11289:
11085:
10709:
10536:
10525:
10479:
10422:
10371:
10151:
9955:
9471:
9425:
9334:
9316:
9262:
9206:
8726:
8545:
8350:
8122:
8052:
7676:
7235:
6936:
6832:"Fetal testosterone influences sexually dimorphic gray matter in the human brain"
6379:
5863:
5796:
5702:
5638:
5405:
4878:
4859:
4436:
2822:
2151:
1609:
1424:
1301:
1260:
1218:
1068:
Sexual dimorphism also occurs in hermaphroditic fish. These species are known as
1055:
There are cases where males are substantially larger than females. An example is
1033:
970:
807:
688:
630:
545:
385:
366:
318:
262:
8751:
3000:"A male sexually dimorphic trait provides antimicrobials to eggs in blenny fish"
1675:
1124:
In amphibians and reptiles, the degree of sexual dimorphism varies widely among
492:
species, which consist of most animals and some plants. Differences may include
11976:
11956:
11866:
11559:
11451:
11326:
10925:
10797:
10739:
10099:
10094:
10032:
10010:
9555:
9476:
9090:
8603:
8452:
8201:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
8169:
7485:
6505:
6480:
6444:
6179:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
4589:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2489:
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America
2093:
1904:
1779:
1691:
1653:
1601:
1389:
1354:
1085:
1065:, in which males are considerably larger than females and possess longer fins.
1039:
1009:
1001:
982:
Hammock Spiders (Pityohyphantes sp.) courting. Female left and male right.
787:
692:
624:. This diet also affects the sexually dimorphic colours in the human-invisible
562:
163:
8089:
Dies Alvarez ME, Rushton AW, Gozalo R, Pillola GL, Linan E, Ahlberg P (2010).
7329:
7281:
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6907:
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6800:
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5481:
5352:
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4973:
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3736:
3420:
3368:
2564:
Slagsvold T, Lifjeld JT (1985). "Variation in plumage colour of the Great tit
2181:
most females (since the preference is widespread) and so receive few matings.
1665:
12566:
12478:
12421:
12411:
11971:
11791:
11751:
11747:
11738:
11581:
11550:
11539:
11529:
11456:
11358:
11252:
11127:
11005:
10964:
10810:
10564:
10232:
10227:
9818:
9513:
9463:
9304:
9235:
9201:
9112:
9078:
8279:
8192:
8177:
6901:
6652:
6537:
6412:
6279:
6232:
6071:
5993:
5872:
5805:
5515:"Sex-specific growth in chicks of the sexually dimorphic Black-tailed Godwit"
4981:
3744:
3626:
3493:
3476:
3428:
2647:
2041:
1970:
1568:
1555:
In a large proportion of mammal species, males are larger than females. Both
1539:
1428:
1416:
1381:
1282:
1202:
1164:
964:
858:
430:
411:
355:
291:
257:
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50:
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7809:
7075:
6714:
6278:
Daly M, Wilson M (1996). "Evolutionary psychology and marital conflict". In
6199:
5216:
5199:
4916:
3712:
3664:"Sexual and male horn dimorphism in Copris ochus (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae)"
2950:
2509:
1786:, hence greater oxygen-carrying capacity. They also have higher circulating
1300:. Red-backed fairywren males can be classified into three categories during
1255:
12268:
11569:
11546:
11122:
11070:
11015:
10848:
10843:
10437:
10195:
9691:
9674:
9605:
9565:
9481:
9453:
9438:
9371:
9223:
9100:
9095:
9041:
8883:
Sex, Size, and Gender Roles: Evolutionary Studies of Sexual Size Dimorphism
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8336:
8297:
8240:
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7931:
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7644:
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7446:
7397:
7348:
7289:
7254:
7170:
7128:
7093:
7044:
6987:
6865:
6808:
6514:
6462:
6413:"United States National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999–2002"
6218:
5950:
5890:
5823:
5587:
5458:
5262:
5095:
5069:
5031:
4934:
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4723:
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4288:
4228:
4210:
4116:
4053:
4002:
3984:
3910:
3892:
3861:
3843:
3792:
3689:
3386:
3321:
3258:
3177:
3033:
3015:
2913:
2799:
2773:
2742:
2724:
2667:
2614:
2528:
2402:
2376:
2023:
1978:
1933:
1908:
1767:
1712:
1465:
1373:
1213:
853:
599:
485:
279:
173:
168:
109:
61:
11193:
8933:
was created from a revision of this article dated 30 August 2019
8409:
7626:
7538:
7060:"Size matters: cerebral volume influences sex differences in neuroanatomy"
6722:
6365:
6149:
6114:
6063:
5035:
2693:
2632:
2451:
1334:
survival than on reproduction, causing a shift into a less ornate state.
945:
and leads to increased fitness in males. The sexual dichromatic nature of
520:
12407:
12319:
12263:
12101:
11886:
11585:
11404:
11149:
11020:
10749:
10284:
10114:
10020:
9978:
9867:
9862:
9593:
8880:
Székely T, Lislevand T, Figuerola J, Fairbairn D, Blanckenhorn W (2007).
7727:
6543:
3240:
2159:
2073:
1889:
1862:
1830:
1787:
1499:
1486:
1441:
1286:
1005:
834:
826:
723:
715:
651:
633:
for many animals, so carotenoid dependent signals might indicate health.
625:
610:
425:
212:
46:
38:
10589:
8529:"Evolution of sexes from an ancestral mating-type specification pathway"
5610:, Linnaeus 1758) in Switzerland and their consequences for conservation"
4925:
4410:
McCormick MI, Ryen CA, Munday PL, Walker SP (May 2010). Briffa M (ed.).
3680:
3663:
3583:
1221:, showing that the male is much larger and more colorful than the female
914:
are enlarged growths of the head or thorax expressed only in the males.
12354:
12349:
12066:
11801:
11341:
11010:
10911:
10833:
10820:
10454:
10254:
10141:
10119:
10072:
10067:
10015:
9983:
9898:
9887:
9857:
9750:
9711:
9706:
9686:
9413:
8863:
8075:
7881:
7388:
7363:
6158:
4108:
4034:
3953:
3529:
3169:
3072:
2905:
2851:
2781:
2367:
2350:
2011:
1974:
1937:
1834:
1783:
1530:, which would be unlikely to have been preserved in the fossil record.
1482:
1447:
1137:
869:
838:
818:
746:
621:
614:
79:
30:"Sex differences" redirects here. For sexual dimorphism in humans, see
7437:
7412:
6979:
5985:
5579:
5533:
12016:
11144:
10995:
10604:
10222:
9970:
9813:
9803:
9780:
9727:
9624:
9614:
9525:
9498:
9486:
9448:
9211:
9186:
9176:
9164:
8505:
7786:
7660:"Discovery of sexual dimorphisms in metabolic and genetic biomarkers"
7462:"ImmGen report: sexual dimorphism in the immune system transcriptome"
6595:
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Behnke H, LĂĽttge U, Esser K, Kadereit JW, Runge M (6 December 2012).
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2086:
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1842:
1815:
1791:
1771:
1737:
1605:
1595:
1478:
1415:
well-preserved remains is not a probable outcome as a consequence of
1241:
Skeletons of female (left) and Male (right) black-casqued hornbills (
1230:
1129:
1014:
1000:, which is prominent in spiders (it is also found in insects such as
734:
728:
509:
267:
247:
235:
7923:
7872:
7853:
7578:
7553:
5942:
5682:
4349:"Mate choice and sexual conflict in the size dimorphic water spider
4100:
3945:
3064:
2897:
2843:
484:
characteristics, including characteristics not directly involved in
12468:
12228:
11933:
11047:
10249:
9745:
9701:
9696:
9573:
9530:
9518:
9503:
9433:
9228:
9129:
8815:
8328:
8271:
7217:
3313:
2083:
2035:
1846:
1838:
1799:
1795:
1763:
1522:
1411:
1347:
1062:
987:
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764:
742:
606:
284:
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Kelly CD, Stoehr AM, Nunn C, Smyth KN, Prokop ZM (December 2018).
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5200:"Protandry and sexual dimorphism in trans-saharan migratory birds"
4469:
Warner RR (June 1988). "Sex change and the size-advantage model".
3969:"Mimetic butterflies support Wallace's model of sexual dimorphism"
3451:"hackberry emperor – Asterocampa celtis (Boisduval & Leconte)"
3402:"On managing the red mason bee (Osmia bicornis) in apple orchards"
2483:
Zi J, Yu X, Li Y, Hu X, Xu C, Wang X, et al. (October 2003).
586:
constitute conspicuous illustrations of the principle. The ornate
544:. The male mallard has an unmistakable bottle-green head when his
12369:
10432:
10146:
9785:
9681:
9196:
9169:
8021:. Vol. 1. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 196.
1870:
1560:
1527:
1225:
1145:
1133:
937:
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but approximately 6% of species have separate males and females (
587:
583:
541:
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477:
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2351:"Quantifying avian sexual dichromatism: a comparison of methods"
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9508:
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8756:(1st ed.). Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer Associates.
8146:"Darwin's sexual selection: Understanding his ideas in context"
7708:
7413:"Sexual dimorphism in immunity across animals: a meta-analysis"
2166:
1958:
1954:
1878:
1855:
1819:
1729:
1700:
1481:
possessed a retractable penis, a feature similar to modern day
1420:
1198:
1141:
842:
830:
822:
815:
795:
773:
719:
711:
700:
696:
617:
591:
529:
489:
420:
274:
8190:
6441:
Sexual Dimorphism in Human and Mammalian Biology and Pathology
6049:
5666:
1985:
One example of this type of sexual size dimorphism is the bat
1181:. Sexual dimorphism in size is also seen in frog species like
10353:
9491:
8778:(3rd ed.). Malden, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishing.
7057:
6965:
1803:
1775:
1564:
1556:
1469:
skeletons indicated that this is a sexually dimorphic trait.
1159:
1153:
1149:
1089:
669:
8310:
7897:"Insect behaviour: reversal of sex roles in nuptial feeding"
6286:
Sex, Power, Conflict: Evolutionary and Feminist Perspectives
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3760:
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Johnsen A, Delhey K, Andersson S, Kempenaers B (June 2003).
570:
Common and easily identified types of dimorphism consist of
9412:
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7978:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 379–380.
7142:
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5905:"Stegosaurus plates may have differed between male, female"
5115:
2257:. Vol. 2. Academic Press. 21 January 2019. p. 7.
1962:
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that are monogamous. Females are larger in many species of
1807:
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Another example of sexual dichromatism is that of nestling
7657:
6693:
McEwen BS (March 1981). "Neural gonadal steroid actions".
5777:
4744:
4644:
4585:"Male mate choice selects for female coloration in a fish"
3400:
Gruber B, Eckel K, Everaars J, Dormann CF (30 June 2011).
3399:
1095:
Sexual selection was observed for female ornamentation in
9737:
8998:
8578:
Kaufmann P, Wolak ME, Husby A, Immonen E (October 2021).
8577:
8253:
6337:
6014:
5695:
5380:
5230:
5051:
5003:
McGraw KJ, Hill GE, Stradi R, Parker RS (February 2002).
4409:
3216:
3085:
2997:
2597:
Bowmaker JK, Heath LA, Wilkie SE, Hunt DM (August 1997).
1966:
1932:
Phenotypic differences between sexes are evident even in
1725:
1343:
732:
orchids are one interesting exception to this rule. Male
473:
70:
8256:"Multicellularity Drives the Evolution of Sexual Traits"
8044:"Experimental taxonomy of some British species of genus
6938:
Brain Storm: The Flaws in the Science of Sex Differences
5512:
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7144:"The neuroanatomy of general intelligence: sex matters"
4860:"The macroevolution of sexual size dimorphism in birds"
4086:
3923:
3112:
2998:
Giacomello E, Marchini D, Rasotto MB (September 2006).
2645:
2596:
2048:
Another complicated example of sexual dimorphism is in
1822:(except in pregnant women, who follow a male pattern).
699:). Sexual dimorphism is common in dioecious plants and
590:
of peacocks, as used in the courting display, attracts
8967:
6135:
5002:
3661:
3133:
3113:
Ramawat KG, Merillon JM, Shivanna KR (19 April 2016).
2348:
1841:
at a faster rate than males, hence they develop fewer
862:
mating. The male is a brighter yellow than the female.
798:
dispersal in males vs pollen capture in females, e.g.
7808:
Bornholdt R, Oliveira LR, Fabián ME (November 2008).
7608:
7106:
6786:
5437:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
4815:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
4702:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
4089:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
3763:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
3192:
2886:
Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution
2706:
2006:, an anglerfish, with male attached near vent (arrow)
1296:
determined by environmental conditions exists in the
657:
Females often show a preference for exaggerated male
8010:
7410:
7361:
7310:
7267:
7198:
7008:
6535:
6338:
Sparling PB, O'Donnell EM, Snow TK (December 1998).
5430:
4192:
4015:
3828:"On the origins of sexual dimorphism in butterflies"
3756:
3754:
2143:
Male (left), offspring (center), and female (right)
1104:
4695:
4193:Girard MB, Elias DO, Kasumovic MM (December 2015).
3657:
3655:
3049:"Dioecy and its correlates in the flowering plants"
2349:Armenta JK, Dunn PO, Whittingham LA (August 2008).
2201:
List of homologues of the human reproductive system
1810:after injury. In males, pain-causing injury to the
1563:
affect the formation of many animal brains before "
7894:
7758:
7756:
5197:
4696:Butler MA, Schoener TW, Losos JB (February 2000).
3662:Sugiura S, Yamaura Y, Makihara H (November 2007).
3474:
2926:
2707:Senar JC, Figuerola J, Pascual J (February 2002).
1699:Comparison between male (left) and female (right)
27:Evolved difference in sex-specific characteristics
7997:
7995:
7651:
6474:
6472:
5433:"The genetic basis of sexual dimorphism in birds"
5431:Coyne JA, Kay EH, Pruett-Jones S (January 2008).
4169:
4009:
3874:
3751:
1936:from tissues. For example, female muscle-derived
1865:, a difference between sexes was observed in the
1092:size, which accounts for about 25% of body mass.
959:
12564:
7141:
6675:
4582:
3652:
3275:Gender and sexual dimorphism in flowering plants
2563:
1969:, birds of prey and certain mammals such as the
1515:is evidence that the more primitive ceratopsian
8526:
8191:Togashi T, Bartelt JL, Yoshimura J, Tainaka K,
7753:
4804:
4802:
3222:
2709:"Brighter yellow blue tits make better parents"
1802:). These differences lead to faster healing of
1694:, showing both male (left) and female (right).
552:
7992:
7762:
7545:
6469:
5603:
4346:
3825:
3046:
2815:"Carotenoids, parasites, and sexual selection"
2545:. National Geographic Society. 19 October 2023
2383:
1947:
1710:According to Clark Spencer Larsen, modern day
11209:
9914:
9398:
8983:
8667:
8665:
8474:Bell G (1985). "On the function of flowers".
7702:
7192:
6928:
6434:
6432:
5743:
5513:Loonstra AJ, Verhoeven MA, Piersma T (2018).
5426:
5424:
5286:
4511:
4134:
3550:
1360:- means one-and-one-half, so halfway between
450:
8801:
8143:
8099:Pompeckj, 1901: a problematic determination"
8016:
7961:Mechanism of Fertilization: Plants to Humans
7895:Arnqvist G, Jones TM, Elgar MA (July 2003).
7311:Gershoni M, Pietrokovski S (February 2017).
7261:
6934:
6481:"Why the sexes don't feel pain the same way"
5771:
5336:
4799:
4266:
3342:
3299:
3139:
2963:
2277:
1120:) adult female (left) and adult male (right)
752:Various other dioecious exceptions, such as
11223:
8677:
8650:
8638:
8626:
7851:
6344:Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise
4640:
4638:
4578:
4576:
3572:Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society
3553:Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society
2485:"Coloration strategies in peacock feathers"
2407:"Mate selection-a selection for a handicap"
2320:"Dictionary of Human Evolution and Biology"
1734:Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center
1502:have generally centered on the distinctive
613:larvae, which contain large amounts of the
11216:
11202:
9921:
9907:
9405:
9391:
8990:
8976:
8701:
8689:
8662:
7602:
6566:
6429:
6277:
5421:
5376:
5374:
5372:
5370:
5111:
5109:
5107:
5105:
4959:
4552:
4018:"Sexual dimorphism in the Arachnid orders"
4016:McLean CJ, Garwood RJ, Brassey CA (2018).
2568:in relation to habitat, season and food".
1845:diseases and succumb for shorter periods.
1829:(stored and circulating), as well as more
457:
443:
8960:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
8862:
8842:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
8838:
8724:
8554:
8544:
8349:
8287:
8230:
8220:
8065:
7871:
7828:
7736:
7726:
7685:
7675:
7634:
7577:
7551:
7493:
7436:
7387:
7338:
7328:
7244:
7234:
7216:
7083:
7034:
6855:
6504:
6438:
6355:
6208:
6198:
6157:
6092:
5880:
5862:
5813:
5795:
5497:
5448:
5332:
5330:
5328:
5282:
5280:
5244:
5215:
5085:
4947:
4924:
4886:
4877:
4865:Biological Journal of the Linnean Society
4851:
4826:
4770:
4713:
4680:
4670:
4618:
4608:
4546:
4445:
4435:
4241:
4218:
4130:
4128:
4126:
4043:
4033:
3992:
3900:
3851:
3774:
3679:
3492:
3376:
3248:
3200:"Eel Grass (aka wild celery, tape grass)"
3092:. Springer Science & Business Media.
3023:
2940:
2789:
2749:
2732:
2683:
2622:
2518:
2508:
2433:
2389:
2366:
1818:, while in females it occurs through the
794:in plants due to selection for efficient
786:have floating flowers attached by a long
12380:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
11155:Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance
9928:
8941:, and does not reflect subsequent edits.
8924:
8527:Geng S, De Hoff P, Umen JG (July 2014).
8001:
7516:
7362:Gershoni M, Pietrokovski S (July 2014).
4857:
4792:
4790:
4635:
4583:Amundsen T, Forsgren E (November 2001).
4573:
3875:Robertson KA, Monteiro A (August 2005).
3639:
3507:
3501:
2920:
2883:
2482:
2158:poses no deep theoretical questions but
2138:
2077:
1997:
1620:, is one of the most dimorphic mammals.
1585:
1266:
1254:
1236:
1224:
1212:
1108:
977:
963:
852:
556:
535:
519:
45:
8749:
8683:
8656:
8644:
8632:
8144:Padian K, Horner JR (1 November 2014).
7199:Szalkai B, Varga B, Grolmusz V (2015).
6959:
6318:
5971:
5739:
5737:
5735:
5733:
5599:
5597:
5553:
5551:
5479:
5367:
5102:
4080:
3106:
1690:Stylised illustration of humans on the
1630:Sexual dimorphism in non-human primates
14:
12565:
8770:
8707:
8695:
8671:
8379:
8041:
7135:
6692:
6172:
5928:
5836:
5325:
5277:
5152:
4468:
4123:
3265:
2812:
2401:
1399:
11872:Psychological effects of Internet use
11197:
10918:Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion
9902:
9776:Hypothalamic–pituitary–prolactin axis
9386:
8971:
6894:
6646:
6478:
5837:Saitta, Evan Thomas (22 April 2015).
5198:Rubolini D, Spina F, Saino N (2004).
4787:
3966:
3710:
3569:
3475:Rust R, Torchio P, Trostle G (1989).
3271:
2964:Short RV, Balaban E (4 August 1994).
2100:, which related sexual dimorphism to
762:Some plants, such as some species of
8473:
8430:
7973:
7002:
6968:The Journal of Comparative Neurology
6900:
6760:
6380:"National Health Statistics Reports"
6231:
5730:
5594:
5557:
5548:
4309:
3711:Hongo, Yoshihito (1 December 2007).
3343:Barreto FS, Avise JC (August 2011).
3223:Friedman J, Barrett SC (June 2009).
2478:
2476:
11852:Digital media use and mental health
9771:Hypothalamic–pituitary–gonadal axis
9086:Heterogametic sex / Homogametic sex
6536:Durden-Smith J, deSimone D (1983).
6321:"Why Pull-Ups Are Harder for Women"
6095:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
5290:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
3826:Oliver JC, Monteiro A (July 2011).
3717:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
3510:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
3349:Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology
2355:The Journal of Experimental Biology
2212:Sex differences in human psychology
1594:, the male being larger with a big
1477:It has been hypothesized that male
1353:The term sesquimorphism (the Latin
512:indistinguishable from each other.
24:
11483:Automatic and controlled processes
10323:Evolutionary developmental biology
8911:
8855:10.1111/j.1095-8312.1999.tb01926.x
8794:
8067:10.1111/j.1469-8137.1965.tb07546.x
7027:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.19-10-04065.1999
6387:National Health Statistics Reports
6319:Rettner, Rachel (3 January 2014).
6037:10.1111/j.1748-7692.1991.tb00113.x
4715:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2000.tb00026.x
4540:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2001.tb02350.x
4170:Foellmer MW, Fairbairn DJ (2004).
3785:10.1111/j.0014-3820.2005.tb01044.x
2584:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1985.tb05661.x
2296:10.1016/B978-0-12-373553-9.00233-9
2185:a hard-to-fake signal of fitness.
1918:
1837:. Additionally, they produce more
1674:
1664:
1652:
1144:, and lizards, as well as in some
25:
12604:
11892:Smartphones and pedestrian safety
8892:
8353:; Cardé, Ring T. (22 July 2009).
6935:Jordan-Young R (September 2010).
5724:10.1034/j.1600-0706.2000.900220.x
5604:Safi K, König B, Kerth G (2007).
4471:Trends in Ecology & Evolution
4066:
2967:The Differences Between the Sexes
2543:"Birds-of-Paradise: Beauty Kings"
2473:
1118:Graptemys pseudogeographica kohni
1105:Amphibians and non-avian reptiles
508:, when both biological sexes are
12543:
12530:
12518:
12517:
11917:Mobile phones and driving safety
11177:
11168:
11167:
9367:
9366:
9160:Evolution of sexual reproduction
8923:
8571:
8520:
8467:
8424:
8373:
8343:
8304:
8247:
8184:
8137:
8082:
8035:
7967:
7953:
7888:
7845:
7801:
7510:
7453:
7404:
7355:
7304:
7163:10.1016/j.neuroimage.2004.11.019
7121:10.1097/00001756-200212030-00040
7100:
7051:
6872:
6823:
6780:
6754:
6729:
6686:
6669:
6640:
6560:
6529:
6405:
6372:
6357:10.1097/00005768-199812000-00011
6331:
6312:
5450:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2007.00254.x
5255:10.1046/j.1420-9101.2003.00479.x
4828:10.1111/j.1558-5646.2012.01617.x
4751:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
4672:10.1111/j.1365-2435.2006.01151.x
4199:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
3973:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
3881:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
3832:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
3599:Ethology Ecology & Evolution
2762:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
2713:Proceedings. Biological Sciences
2254:Encyclopedia of Animal Behaviour
2064:Evolution of sexual reproduction
1774:. On average, males have larger
1766:, with about 30 percent greater
1728:, while males convert more into
1498:Studies of sexual dimorphism in
1229:Some bird species, such as this
1052:12 times heavier than females."
659:secondary sexual characteristics
528:, on the right, is courting the
504:. The opposite of dimorphism is
231:Evolution of sexual reproduction
78:
11820:Computer-mediated communication
10980:Extended evolutionary synthesis
10169:Gene-centered view of evolution
8019:Mosses of Eastern North America
7830:10.1590/S1519-69842008000400028
7519:Journal of Steroid Biochemistry
6271:
6237:"The evolution of human mating"
6225:
6166:
6129:
6086:
6043:
6008:
5965:
5922:
5897:
5830:
5689:
5660:
5506:
5473:
5412:
5233:Journal of Evolutionary Biology
5224:
5191:
5146:
5045:
4996:
4953:
4941:
4738:
4689:
4505:
4462:
4403:
4340:
4303:
4260:
4235:
4186:
4163:
4060:
3960:
3917:
3868:
3819:
3807:
3704:
3633:
3590:
3563:
3544:
3468:
3443:
3393:
3336:
3293:
3079:
3047:Renner SS, Ricklefs RE (1995).
2991:
2957:
2877:
2868:
2858:
2806:
2700:
2639:
2590:
1806:and lower sensitivity to nerve
1217:Female (left) and male (right)
968:Female (left) and male (right)
488:. The condition occurs in most
12097:Empathising–systemising theory
11400:female intrasexual competition
11337:Evolutionarily stable strategy
11108:Hologenome theory of evolution
10975:History of molecular evolution
10201:Evolutionarily stable strategy
10090:Last universal common ancestor
9268:Sexual reproduction in animals
8584:Nature Ecology & Evolution
8433:Journal of Theoretical Biology
8382:Journal of Theoretical Biology
6848:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4389-11.2012
3642:Chinese Bulletin of Entomology
3116:Reproductive Biology of Plants
2970:. Cambridge University Press.
2557:
2535:
2414:Journal of Theoretical Biology
2395:
2342:
2312:
2271:
2245:
2203:
1406:Sexual dimorphism in dinosaurs
960:Spiders and sexual cannibalism
566:male (left) and female (right)
324:Sexual reproduction in animals
13:
1:
12457:Standard social science model
11510:Cognitive tradeoff hypothesis
10902:Renaissance and Enlightenment
8017:Crum HA, Anderson LE (1980).
5753:. Calton, Staffordshire, UK:
5670:Australian Journal of Zoology
5132:10.1016/j.anbehav.2009.02.027
5024:10.1016/S1096-4959(01)00500-0
4347:SchĂĽtz D, Taborsky M (2005).
4242:Fairbairn D (28 April 2013).
4176:Evolutionary Ecology Research
4149:10.1016/j.anbehav.2007.12.023
3619:10.1080/08927014.1999.9522820
3162:10.1126/science.232.4757.1538
2238:
1746:Olympic weightlifting records
1645:Sex differences in psychology
1538:A 2015 study on specimens of
1386:P. motinensis motinensis
1191:Male painted dragon lizards,
780:Females of the aquatic plant
654:sign to potential predators.
494:secondary sex characteristics
12305:Missing heritability problem
11897:Social aspects of television
11520:Evolution of nervous systems
11488:Computational theory of mind
11113:Missing heritability problem
10740:Gamete differentiation/sexes
9140:Sex as a biological variable
9123:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
8546:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001904
8402:10.1016/0022-5193(82)90225-9
8123:10.1080/11035897.2010.481363
7817:Brazilian Journal of Biology
7677:10.1371/journal.pgen.1002215
7531:10.1016/0022-4731(89)90088-5
7236:10.1371/journal.pone.0130045
6679:U.S. News & World Report
6252:(3): 502–512. Archived from
5931:Nature Reviews. Neuroscience
5864:10.1371/journal.pone.0123503
5797:10.1371/journal.pone.0126464
5639:10.1016/j.biocon.2007.01.011
5406:10.1016/j.biocon.2008.09.008
4491:10.1016/0169-5347(88)90176-0
4437:10.1371/journal.pone.0010616
2444:10.1016/0022-5193(75)90111-3
2057:
1973:, and baleen whales such as
1883:sex hormone-binding globulin
1825:Females typically have more
1758:Males typically have larger
1581:
553:Ornamentation and coloration
201:Simultaneous hermaphroditism
7:
12551:Evolutionary biology portal
7852:Hayssen V, Kunz TH (1996).
7615:The Journal of Cell Biology
7554:"Biology: Cell sex matters"
7552:Pollitzer E (August 2013).
7015:The Journal of Neuroscience
6836:The Journal of Neuroscience
6138:Canadian Journal of Zoology
6052:Canadian Journal of Zoology
4555:Canadian Journal of Zoology
3205:University of Massachusetts
2278:Ralls K, Mesnick S (2009).
2188:
1948:Reproductively advantageous
1623:
1574:Nature Reviews Neuroscience
1179:S. undulates erythrocheilus
515:
10:
12609:
12512:Evolutionary psychologists
12385:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
12300:Human–animal communication
12012:Ovulatory shift hypothesis
11862:Imprinted brain hypothesis
11830:Human–computer interaction
10745:Life cycles/nuclear phases
10297:Trivers–Willard hypothesis
9761:Reproductive endocrinology
9278:Penile-vaginal intercourse
9118:Sequential hermaphroditism
8733:Princeton University Press
8717:
8604:10.1038/s41559-021-01530-z
8453:10.1016/j.jtbi.2010.01.019
8170:10.1016/j.crpv.2014.09.001
7486:10.1038/s41467-019-12348-6
7270:Brain Imaging and Behavior
6912:W. W. Norton & Company
6506:10.1038/d41586-019-00895-3
4879:10.1093/biolinnean/blad168
3053:American Journal of Botany
2227:Sexually dimorphic nucleus
2222:Sexual dimorphism measures
2098:theory of sexual selection
2067:
2061:
1753:go through puberty earlier
1638:
1627:
1550:
1435:Apatosaurus and Diplodocus
1403:
943:intralocus sexual conflict
924:Japanese rhinoceros beetle
848:
334:Penile-vaginal intercourse
196:Sequential hermaphroditism
36:
29:
12506:
12432:Environmental determinism
12403:Cultural selection theory
12395:
12290:Evolutionary epistemology
12277:
12204:evolutionary neuroscience
12166:
12159:
12057:
11932:
11877:Rank theory of depression
11800:
11724:
11626:
11432:
11425:
11379:Parent–offspring conflict
11288:
11231:
11163:
11063:
10988:
10892:
10819:
10775:
10630:
10534:
10351:
10310:
10243:Parent–offspring conflict
10179:
10048:Earliest known life forms
9969:
9936:
9850:
9829:Human reproductive system
9827:
9794:
9759:
9736:
9648:
9546:
9462:
9424:
9362:
9315:
9148:
9108:Testis-determining factor
9005:
8097:Paradoxides mediterraneus
8093:Paradoxides brachyrhachis
7330:10.1186/s12915-017-0352-z
7282:10.1007/s11682-017-9720-0
6801:10.1007/s00439-006-0134-0
6479:Dance A (27 March 2019).
6173:Larsen CS (August 2003).
5353:10.1007/s10336-007-0188-3
5347:(Supplement 1): S17–S26.
5311:10.1007/s00265-006-0160-x
4974:10.1007/s11692-012-9206-3
4896:Journal of Animal Ecology
4858:Caron FS, Pie MR (2024).
4353:(Araneae: Argyronetidae)"
4281:10.1007/s12038-010-0030-6
3737:10.1007/s00265-007-0459-2
3421:10.1007/s13592-011-0059-z
3369:10.1007/s00265-011-1170-x
2987:– via Google Books.
2650:, Hunt DM (August 1997).
2324:Human-biology.key-spot.ru
2207:Sex differences in humans
1685:
1651:
1641:Sex differences in humans
1634:
1148:; an ornament as in many
1070:sequential hermaphrodites
1004:). In the size dimorphic
896:Lasioglossum hemichalceum
718:to visit another similar
682:
540:Male (bottom) and female
186:Testis-determining factor
32:Sex differences in humans
12325:Cultural group selection
12209:Biocultural anthropology
11902:Societal impacts of cars
11835:Media naturalness theory
11525:Fight-or-flight response
11096:Cultural group selection
10960:The eclipse of Darwinism
10932:On the Origin of Species
10907:Transmutation of species
9049:Sex-determination system
8962:Medical Subject Headings
8095:Linnarsson, 1883 versus
6943:Harvard University Press
6651:(2nd ed.). Boston:
6245:Acta Psychologica Sinica
2018:Phoreticovelia disparata
1927:
1608:varies from polygamy to
1431:related modern animals.
1208:
1136:; coloration as in many
179:Sex chromosome anomalies
117:Sex-determination system
37:Not to be confused with
12525:Evolutionary psychology
12489:Sociocultural evolution
12330:Dual inheritance theory
11787:Personality development
11248:Theoretical foundations
11225:Evolutionary psychology
11101:Dual inheritance theory
10940:History of paleontology
8997:
8804:The American Naturalist
8356:Encyclopedia of Insects
8317:The American Naturalist
8260:The American Naturalist
8222:10.1073/pnas.1203495109
6715:10.1126/science.6259728
6292:Oxford University Press
6200:10.1073/pnas.1633678100
5618:Biological Conservation
5499:10.1093/beheco/13.4.443
5385:Biological Conservation
4917:10.1111/1365-2656.14058
4519:Journal of Fish Biology
3302:The American Naturalist
2646:Bowmaker JK, Heath LA,
2510:10.1073/pnas.2133313100
1873:/Y gene pair unique to
1858:with and ignore) pain.
1114:Mississippi map turtles
1058:Lamprologus callipterus
1046:
661:in mate selection. The
472:is the condition where
12588:Polymorphism (biology)
12447:Social constructionism
12442:Psychological nativism
12417:Biological determinism
12365:Recent human evolution
12360:Punctuated equilibrium
12183:Behavioral epigenetics
12178:evolutionary economics
12147:Variability hypothesis
12092:Emotional intelligence
11825:Engineering psychology
11515:Evolution of the brain
10789:Punctuated equilibrium
10110:Non-adaptive radiation
10058:Evolutionary arms race
9851:Diseases and disorders
9660:Sexual differentiation
9032:Sexual differentiation
8919:
8899:Listen to this article
8498:10.1098/rspb.1985.0031
8150:Comptes Rendus Palevol
8004:New Manual of Bryology
7964:, edited by Brian Dale
6282:, Malamuth NM (eds.).
5700:, during incubation".
5340:Journal of Ornithology
5070:10.1098/rspb.1998.0308
4763:10.1098/rspb.2014.0329
4610:10.1073/pnas.211439298
4567:10.1139/cjz-77-11-1663
4514:Plectropomus maculatus
4361:Journal of Arachnology
4326:10.1006/anbe.1994.1286
4269:Journal of Biosciences
4211:10.1098/rspb.2015.2222
3985:10.1098/rspb.2008.0171
3893:10.1098/rspb.2005.3142
3844:10.1098/rspb.2010.2220
3494:10.1051/apido:19890408
3016:10.1098/rsbl.2006.0492
2774:10.1098/rspb.2003.2375
2725:10.1098/rspb.2001.1882
2668:10.1098/rspb.1998.0316
2615:10.1098/rspb.1998.0315
2217:Sexual differentiation
2147:
2089:
2026:crustaceans, like the
2007:
1680:
1670:
1658:
1618:southern elephant seal
1598:
1592:northern elephant seal
1518:Protoceratops andrewsi
1277:
1264:
1252:
1234:
1222:
1121:
1098:Gobiusculus flavescens
1074:reproductive histories
983:
975:
863:
567:
549:
533:
302:Internal fertilization
297:External fertilization
100:Sexual differentiation
54:
12474:Multilineal evolution
12437:Nature versus nurture
12396:Theoretical positions
12244:Functional psychology
12239:Evolutionary medicine
12214:Biological psychiatry
11922:Texting while driving
11912:Lead–crime hypothesis
11772:Cognitive development
11757:Caregiver deprivation
11268:Gene selection theory
11081:Evolutionary medicine
10955:Mendelian inheritance
10663:Biological complexity
10651:Programmed cell death
10343:Phenotypic plasticity
10063:Evolutionary pressure
10053:Evidence of evolution
9951:Timeline of evolution
9883:Premature ejaculation
9878:Hard flaccid syndrome
9548:Human sexual activity
9074:Temperature-dependent
8918:
8725:Andersson MB (1994).
7949:on 15 September 2004.
7627:10.1083/jcb.200612094
7466:Nature Communications
7368:Nature Communications
7076:10.1093/cercor/bhn052
6890:on 23 September 2015.
6150:10.1139/cjz-2013-0106
6115:10.1007/s002650050214
6064:10.1139/cjz-2018-0220
6017:Marine Mammal Science
5755:T. & A. D. Poyser
5217:10.1093/beheco/arh048
4682:10536/DRO/DU:30038904
3967:Kunte K (July 2008).
2951:10.1093/beheco/arh048
2156:Male–male competition
2142:
2082:Sexual dimorphism in
2081:
2001:
1678:
1668:
1656:
1589:
1463:skeletons and 25% of
1410:Examining fossils of
1270:
1258:
1240:
1228:
1216:
1112:
981:
967:
920:Allomyrina dichotoma,
856:
783:Vallisneria americana
706:Males and females in
560:
539:
523:
142:Temperature-dependent
49:
12427:Cultural determinism
12234:Evolutionary biology
12219:Cognitive psychology
12167:Academic disciplines
11815:Cognitive ergonomics
11782:Language acquisition
11762:Childhood attachment
11575:Wason selection task
11469:Behavioral modernity
11258:Cognitive revolution
11241:Evolutionary thought
11055:Teleology in biology
10950:Blending inheritance
10328:Genetic assimilation
10191:Artificial selection
9930:Evolutionary biology
9873:Erectile dysfunction
8950:More spoken articles
7859:Journal of Mammalogy
7728:10.1096/fj.08-119388
6439:Glucksman A (1981).
5648:on 25 September 2017
4962:Evolutionary Biology
3278:. Berlin: Springer.
1900:sex and intelligence
1778:, 10 percent higher
1722:basal metabolic rate
1328:Limosa limosa limosa
1325:Black-tailed Godwits
1306:reproductive success
1298:red-backed fairywren
1203:oxidative DNA damage
646:Hyperolius ocellatus
12494:Unilineal evolution
12259:Population genetics
12044:Sexy son hypothesis
11982:Hormonal motivation
11962:Concealed ovulation
11503:Dual process theory
11374:Parental investment
11118:Molecular evolution
11076:Ecological genetics
10945:Transitional fossil
10735:Sexual reproduction
10575:endomembrane system
10504:pollinator-mediated
10460:dolphins and whales
10238:Parental investment
9652:reproductive system
9640:Vaginal lubrication
9418:sexual reproduction
9290:Hormonal motivation
9263:Fungal reproduction
9182:Reproductive system
8596:2021NatEE...5.1394K
8490:1985RSPSB.224..223B
8445:2010JThBi.264...24Y
8394:1982JThBi..96..281P
8213:2012PNAS..10913692T
8162:2014CRPal..13..709P
8115:2010GFF...132...95D
7916:2003Natur.424..387A
7779:1992Natur.360..156V
7570:2013Natur.500...23P
7478:2019NatCo..10.4295G
7429:2018EcolL..21.1885K
7380:2014NatCo...5.4438G
7227:2015PLoSO..1030045S
6707:1981Sci...211.1303M
6588:1983Natur.306..511.
6497:2019Natur.567..448D
6191:2003PNAS..100.9103L
6107:1996BEcoS..38...31O
6029:1991MMamS...7..385C
5855:2015PLoSO..1023503S
5716:2000Oikos..90..390G
5631:2007BCons.137...28S
5608:Vespertilio murinus
5572:2008Ecol...89..693M
5398:2008BCons.141.3040G
5303:2006BEcoS..60..227M
5169:1994Natur.371..598P
4909:2024JAnEc..93..460B
4663:2006FuEco..20..689S
4601:2001PNAS...9813155A
4532:2001JFBio..59..183A
4483:1988TEcoE...3..133W
4428:2010PLoSO...510616M
4351:Argyroneta aquatica
3979:(1643): 1617–1624.
3938:1996Oikos..75..227W
3887:(1572): 1541–1546.
3838:(1714): 1981–1988.
3729:2007BEcoS..62..245H
3681:10.2108/zsj.24.1082
3611:1999EtEcE..11..371P
3522:1991BEcoS..29..235D
3361:2011BEcoS..65.1595B
3154:1986Sci...232.1538R
2836:1994Oikos..70..309L
2501:2003PNAS..10012576Z
2426:1975JThBi..53..205Z
2280:"Sexual dimorphism"
2196:Bateman's principle
2171:sexy son hypothesis
2145:Sumatran orangutans
2004:triplewart seadevil
1814:occurs through the
1451:had interconnected
1412:non-avian dinosaurs
1400:Non-avian dinosaurs
1294:sexual polymorphism
1249:Museum of Osteology
1175:Sceloporus gadoviae
1171:Psamodromus algirus
1025:species, including
889:Anthidium manicatum
800:Leucadendron rubrum
663:sexy son hypothesis
319:Fungal reproduction
222:Sexual reproduction
12452:Social determinism
12335:Fisher's principle
12295:Great ape language
12285:Cultural evolution
12254:Philosophy of mind
12087:Division of labour
12049:Westermarck effect
11997:Mating preferences
11907:Distracted driving
11641:Literary criticism
11498:Domain specificity
11478:modularity of mind
11091:Cultural evolution
10206:Fisher's principle
10135:Handicap principle
10125:Parallel evolution
9989:Adaptive radiation
9650:Development of the
9561:Sexual intercourse
9295:Human reproduction
9273:Sexual intercourse
9258:Plant reproduction
8920:
8750:Futuyma D (2005).
8359:. Academic Press.
7389:10.1038/ncomms5438
6447:. pp. 66–75.
5486:Behavioral Ecology
5480:Velando A (2002).
5204:Behavioral Ecology
5041:on 28 August 2005.
4757:(1784): 20140329.
4651:Functional Ecology
4205:(1820): 20152222.
4035:10.7717/peerj.5751
3668:Zoological Science
3530:10.1007/bf00163980
3455:entnemdept.ufl.edu
3241:10.1093/aob/mcp035
2929:Behavioral Ecology
2813:Lozano GA (1994).
2571:Journal of Zoology
2405:(September 1975).
2368:10.1242/jeb.013094
2361:(Pt 15): 2423–30.
2330:on 7 November 2017
2175:handicap principle
2148:
2134:selection pressure
2090:
2039:and the liverwort
2008:
1907:property, minimum
1681:
1671:
1659:
1599:
1394:P. ammodendri
1340:sexual segregation
1278:
1265:
1253:
1244:Ceratogymna atrata
1235:
1223:
1194:Ctenophorus pictus
1122:
1028:Argiope bruennichi
998:sexual cannibalism
984:
976:
922:also known as the
911:Onthophagus taurus
902:Andrena agilissima
883:Macrotera portalis
864:
650:females and is an
568:
550:
534:
480:exhibit different
346:Human reproduction
329:Sexual intercourse
314:Plant reproduction
208:Intersex (biology)
55:
12573:Sexual dimorphism
12560:
12559:
12538:Psychology portal
12502:
12501:
12345:Hologenome theory
12315:Unit of selection
12310:Primate cognition
12224:Cognitive science
12155:
12154:
12026:Sexual attraction
12002:Mating strategies
11767:Cinderella effect
11697:Moral foundations
11601:Visual perception
11493:Domain generality
11462:Facial expression
11410:Sexual dimorphism
11369:Natural selection
11315:Hamiltonian spite
11191:
11190:
10807:Uniformitarianism
10760:Sex-determination
10265:Sexual dimorphism
10260:Natural selection
10164:Unit of selection
10130:Signalling theory
9896:
9895:
9665:Sexual dimorphism
9630:Postpartum period
9380:
9379:
9300:Lordosis behavior
9015:Sexual dimorphism
8916:
8886:. pp. 16–26.
8785:978-1-4051-0345-9
8763:978-0-87893-187-3
8742:978-0-691-00057-2
8590:(10): 1394–1402.
8484:(1235): 223–266.
8366:978-0-08-092090-0
8042:Briggs D (1965).
8028:978-0-231-04516-2
7985:978-0-521-66097-6
7976:Bryophyte Biology
7773:(6400): 156–159.
7438:10.1111/ele.13164
7423:(12): 1885–1894.
6980:10.1002/cne.10714
6952:978-0-674-05730-2
6921:978-0-393-06838-2
6701:(4488): 1303–11.
6662:978-0-316-81236-8
6649:Internal Medicine
6647:Stein JH (1987).
6605:978-0-8391-1622-6
6553:978-0-87795-484-2
6539:Sex and the Brain
6491:(7749): 448–450.
6454:978-0-12-286960-0
6393:. 22 October 2008
6305:978-0-19-510357-1
6259:on 12 August 2011
5986:10.1111/mam.12171
5764:978-0-85661-048-6
5698:Macronectes halli
5580:10.1890/07-0645.1
5534:10.1111/ibi.12541
5392:(12): 3040–3049.
5163:(6498): 598–599.
4561:(11): 1663–1675.
3674:(11): 1082–1085.
3285:978-3-540-64597-9
3272:Geber MA (1999).
3148:(4757): 1538–40.
3126:978-1-4822-0133-8
3099:978-3-642-79844-3
2768:(1521): 1263–70.
2461:on 10 August 2017
2264:978-0-12-813252-4
2117:sperm competition
1965:, many reptiles,
1827:white blood cells
1708:
1707:
1372:Examples include
1321:blue-footed booby
993:Zygiella x-notata
875:hackberry emperor
827:microgametophytes
741:violently attach
714:) that encourage
708:insect-pollinated
640:Ranoidea lesueuri
596:birds of paradise
502:natural selection
470:Sexual dimorphism
467:
466:
351:Lordosis behavior
154:Heterogametic sex
95:Sexual dimorphism
16:(Redirected from
12600:
12583:Sexual selection
12547:
12534:
12521:
12520:
12164:
12163:
12160:Related subjects
11947:Adult attachment
11474:Cognitive module
11430:
11429:
11417:Social selection
11391:Costly signaling
11386:Sexual selection
11273:Modern synthesis
11218:
11211:
11204:
11195:
11194:
11181:
11171:
11170:
10970:Modern synthesis
10730:Multicellularity
10725:Mosaic evolution
10610:auditory ossicle
10292:Social selection
10275:Flowering plants
10270:Sexual selection
9923:
9916:
9909:
9900:
9899:
9635:Mechanics of sex
9444:Follicular phase
9414:Human physiology
9407:
9400:
9393:
9384:
9383:
9370:
9369:
9330:Animal sexuality
9253:Sexual selection
8992:
8985:
8978:
8969:
8968:
8940:
8938:
8927:
8926:
8917:
8907:
8905:
8900:
8887:
8876:
8866:
8835:
8789:
8767:
8746:
8728:Sexual Selection
8711:
8705:
8699:
8693:
8687:
8681:
8675:
8669:
8660:
8654:
8648:
8642:
8636:
8630:
8624:
8623:
8575:
8569:
8568:
8558:
8548:
8524:
8518:
8517:
8471:
8465:
8464:
8428:
8422:
8421:
8377:
8371:
8370:
8351:Resh, Vincent H.
8347:
8341:
8340:
8308:
8302:
8301:
8291:
8251:
8245:
8244:
8234:
8224:
8188:
8182:
8181:
8141:
8135:
8134:
8086:
8080:
8079:
8069:
8039:
8033:
8032:
8014:
8008:
8007:
7999:
7990:
7989:
7971:
7965:
7957:
7951:
7950:
7948:
7942:. Archived from
7901:
7892:
7886:
7885:
7875:
7849:
7843:
7842:
7832:
7814:
7805:
7799:
7798:
7787:10.1038/360156a0
7760:
7751:
7750:
7740:
7730:
7706:
7700:
7699:
7689:
7679:
7655:
7649:
7648:
7638:
7606:
7600:
7599:
7581:
7549:
7543:
7542:
7525:(1–6): 241–251.
7514:
7508:
7507:
7497:
7457:
7451:
7450:
7440:
7408:
7402:
7401:
7391:
7359:
7353:
7352:
7342:
7332:
7308:
7302:
7301:
7265:
7259:
7258:
7248:
7238:
7220:
7196:
7190:
7189:
7187:
7181:. Archived from
7148:
7139:
7133:
7132:
7104:
7098:
7097:
7087:
7055:
7049:
7048:
7038:
7006:
7000:
6999:
6963:
6957:
6956:
6932:
6926:
6925:
6910:(1st ed.).
6898:
6892:
6891:
6886:. Archived from
6876:
6870:
6869:
6859:
6827:
6821:
6820:
6784:
6778:
6777:
6775:
6773:
6758:
6752:
6751:
6749:
6747:
6733:
6727:
6726:
6690:
6684:
6683:
6673:
6667:
6666:
6644:
6638:
6637:
6631:
6627:
6625:
6617:
6596:10.1038/306511b0
6581:
6578:Biology of Women
6564:
6558:
6557:
6533:
6527:
6526:
6508:
6476:
6467:
6466:
6436:
6427:
6426:
6424:
6422:
6417:
6409:
6403:
6402:
6400:
6398:
6384:
6376:
6370:
6369:
6359:
6335:
6329:
6328:
6316:
6310:
6309:
6289:
6275:
6269:
6268:
6266:
6264:
6258:
6241:
6229:
6223:
6222:
6212:
6202:
6170:
6164:
6163:
6161:
6133:
6127:
6126:
6090:
6084:
6083:
6047:
6041:
6040:
6012:
6006:
6005:
5969:
5963:
5962:
5926:
5920:
5919:
5917:
5915:
5901:
5895:
5894:
5884:
5866:
5834:
5828:
5827:
5817:
5799:
5775:
5769:
5768:
5745:Summers-Smith JD
5741:
5728:
5727:
5693:
5687:
5686:
5664:
5658:
5657:
5655:
5653:
5647:
5641:. Archived from
5614:
5601:
5592:
5591:
5555:
5546:
5545:
5519:
5510:
5504:
5503:
5501:
5477:
5471:
5470:
5452:
5428:
5419:
5416:
5410:
5409:
5378:
5365:
5364:
5334:
5323:
5322:
5284:
5275:
5274:
5248:
5228:
5222:
5221:
5219:
5195:
5189:
5188:
5177:10.1038/371598a0
5150:
5144:
5143:
5126:(6): 1525–1532.
5119:Animal Behaviour
5113:
5100:
5099:
5089:
5064:(4986): 1394–7.
5049:
5043:
5042:
5040:
5034:. Archived from
5009:
5000:
4994:
4993:
4957:
4951:
4945:
4939:
4938:
4928:
4890:
4884:
4883:
4881:
4855:
4849:
4848:
4830:
4806:
4797:
4794:
4785:
4784:
4774:
4742:
4736:
4735:
4717:
4693:
4687:
4686:
4684:
4674:
4642:
4633:
4632:
4622:
4612:
4595:(23): 13155–60.
4580:
4571:
4570:
4550:
4544:
4543:
4509:
4503:
4502:
4466:
4460:
4459:
4449:
4439:
4407:
4401:
4400:
4398:
4396:
4391:on 20 March 2012
4390:
4384:. Archived from
4374:10.1636/S03-56.1
4357:
4344:
4338:
4337:
4313:Animal Behaviour
4307:
4301:
4300:
4264:
4258:
4257:
4239:
4233:
4232:
4222:
4190:
4184:
4183:
4167:
4161:
4160:
4137:Animal Behaviour
4132:
4121:
4120:
4095:(6): 1987–1994.
4084:
4078:
4077:
4075:
4064:
4058:
4057:
4047:
4037:
4013:
4007:
4006:
3996:
3964:
3958:
3957:
3921:
3915:
3914:
3904:
3872:
3866:
3865:
3855:
3823:
3817:
3811:
3805:
3804:
3778:
3769:(5): 1060–1084.
3758:
3749:
3748:
3708:
3702:
3701:
3683:
3659:
3650:
3649:
3637:
3631:
3630:
3594:
3588:
3587:
3567:
3561:
3560:
3548:
3542:
3541:
3505:
3499:
3498:
3496:
3472:
3466:
3465:
3463:
3461:
3447:
3441:
3440:
3406:
3397:
3391:
3390:
3380:
3355:(8): 1595–1604.
3340:
3334:
3333:
3297:
3291:
3289:
3269:
3263:
3262:
3252:
3229:Annals of Botany
3220:
3214:
3213:
3212:on 12 July 2011.
3208:. Archived from
3196:
3190:
3189:
3137:
3131:
3130:
3110:
3104:
3103:
3083:
3077:
3076:
3044:
3038:
3037:
3027:
2995:
2989:
2988:
2986:
2984:
2961:
2955:
2954:
2944:
2924:
2918:
2917:
2881:
2875:
2872:
2866:
2862:
2856:
2855:
2819:
2810:
2804:
2803:
2793:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2736:
2719:(1488): 257–61.
2704:
2698:
2697:
2687:
2643:
2637:
2636:
2626:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2561:
2555:
2554:
2552:
2550:
2539:
2533:
2532:
2522:
2512:
2480:
2471:
2470:
2468:
2466:
2460:
2454:. Archived from
2437:
2411:
2399:
2393:
2387:
2381:
2380:
2370:
2346:
2340:
2339:
2337:
2335:
2326:. Archived from
2316:
2310:
2309:
2290:(1): 1005–1011.
2275:
2269:
2268:
2249:
2232:Gynandromorphism
2102:sexual selection
2070:Sexual selection
2051:Vespula squamosa
2010:Some species of
1988:Myotis nigricans
1812:peripheral nerve
1788:clotting factors
1649:
1648:
1614:Mirounga leonina
1590:Male and female
1453:caudal vertebrae
1429:phylogenetically
1378:Passer melanurus
1371:
1126:taxonomic groups
1002:praying mantises
953:common brimstone
948:Bicyclus anynana
835:megagametophytes
792:wind-pollination
755:Loxostylis alata
689:flowering plants
576:Sexual selection
546:breeding plumage
498:sexual selection
459:
452:
445:
381:Animal sexuality
309:Sexual selection
87:Biological terms
82:
57:
56:
21:
12608:
12607:
12603:
12602:
12601:
12599:
12598:
12597:
12563:
12562:
12561:
12556:
12498:
12484:Neoevolutionism
12391:
12375:Species complex
12340:Group selection
12278:Research topics
12273:
12249:Neuropsychology
12151:
12137:Substance abuse
12059:Sex differences
12053:
11967:Coolidge effect
11928:
11840:Neuroergonomics
11805:
11796:
11720:
11622:
11556:Folk psychology
11437:
11421:
11291:
11284:
11227:
11222:
11192:
11187:
11159:
11086:Group selection
11059:
10984:
10888:
10815:
10777:Tempo and modes
10771:
10626:
10530:
10347:
10306:
10182:
10175:
10152:Species complex
9965:
9956:History of life
9932:
9927:
9897:
9892:
9846:
9823:
9790:
9763:and infertility
9762:
9755:
9732:
9651:
9644:
9542:
9472:Spermatogenesis
9458:
9426:Menstrual cycle
9420:
9411:
9381:
9376:
9358:
9345:Differentiation
9335:Human sexuality
9325:Plant sexuality
9311:
9207:Spermatogenesis
9151:
9144:
9007:
9001:
8996:
8954:
8953:
8942:
8936:
8934:
8931:This audio file
8928:
8921:
8912:
8909:
8903:
8902:
8898:
8895:
8890:
8797:
8795:Further reading
8792:
8786:
8764:
8743:
8720:
8715:
8714:
8706:
8702:
8694:
8690:
8682:
8678:
8670:
8663:
8655:
8651:
8643:
8639:
8631:
8627:
8576:
8572:
8539:(7): e1001904.
8525:
8521:
8472:
8468:
8429:
8425:
8378:
8374:
8367:
8348:
8344:
8309:
8305:
8266:(3): E93–E105.
8252:
8248:
8207:(34): 13692–7.
8195:(August 2012).
8189:
8185:
8142:
8138:
8087:
8083:
8053:New Phytologist
8040:
8036:
8029:
8015:
8011:
8000:
7993:
7986:
7972:
7968:
7958:
7954:
7946:
7924:10.1038/424387a
7899:
7893:
7889:
7873:10.2307/1382823
7850:
7846:
7812:
7806:
7802:
7761:
7754:
7707:
7703:
7670:(8): e1002215.
7656:
7652:
7607:
7603:
7579:10.1038/500023a
7550:
7546:
7515:
7511:
7458:
7454:
7417:Ecology Letters
7409:
7405:
7360:
7356:
7309:
7305:
7266:
7262:
7211:(7): e0130045.
7197:
7193:
7188:on 24 May 2010.
7185:
7146:
7140:
7136:
7105:
7101:
7070:(12): 2920–31.
7064:Cerebral Cortex
7056:
7052:
7021:(10): 4065–72.
7007:
7003:
6964:
6960:
6953:
6933:
6929:
6922:
6904:(August 2010).
6899:
6895:
6878:
6877:
6873:
6828:
6824:
6785:
6781:
6771:
6769:
6759:
6755:
6745:
6743:
6735:
6734:
6730:
6691:
6687:
6674:
6670:
6663:
6645:
6641:
6629:
6628:
6619:
6618:
6606:
6565:
6561:
6554:
6534:
6530:
6477:
6470:
6455:
6437:
6430:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6411:
6410:
6406:
6396:
6394:
6382:
6378:
6377:
6373:
6336:
6332:
6317:
6313:
6306:
6276:
6272:
6262:
6260:
6256:
6239:
6230:
6226:
6171:
6167:
6134:
6130:
6091:
6087:
6048:
6044:
6013:
6009:
5970:
5966:
5943:10.1038/nrn1494
5927:
5923:
5913:
5911:
5903:
5902:
5898:
5849:(4): e0123503.
5835:
5831:
5790:(5): e0126464.
5776:
5772:
5765:
5742:
5731:
5694:
5690:
5683:10.1071/ZO05062
5665:
5661:
5651:
5649:
5645:
5612:
5602:
5595:
5556:
5549:
5517:
5511:
5507:
5478:
5474:
5429:
5422:
5417:
5413:
5379:
5368:
5335:
5326:
5285:
5278:
5246:10.1.1.584.2867
5229:
5225:
5196:
5192:
5151:
5147:
5114:
5103:
5050:
5046:
5038:
5007:
5001:
4997:
4958:
4954:
4946:
4942:
4891:
4887:
4872:(5): in press.
4856:
4852:
4807:
4800:
4795:
4788:
4743:
4739:
4694:
4690:
4643:
4636:
4581:
4574:
4551:
4547:
4510:
4506:
4467:
4463:
4408:
4404:
4394:
4392:
4388:
4355:
4345:
4341:
4308:
4304:
4265:
4261:
4254:
4240:
4236:
4191:
4187:
4168:
4164:
4133:
4124:
4101:10.2307/2640458
4085:
4081:
4073:
4065:
4061:
4014:
4010:
3965:
3961:
3946:10.2307/3546246
3922:
3918:
3873:
3869:
3824:
3820:
3812:
3808:
3776:10.1.1.133.7557
3759:
3752:
3709:
3705:
3660:
3653:
3638:
3634:
3595:
3591:
3568:
3564:
3549:
3545:
3506:
3502:
3473:
3469:
3459:
3457:
3449:
3448:
3444:
3404:
3398:
3394:
3341:
3337:
3298:
3294:
3286:
3270:
3266:
3221:
3217:
3198:
3197:
3193:
3138:
3134:
3127:
3111:
3107:
3100:
3084:
3080:
3065:10.2307/2445418
3045:
3041:
3004:Biology Letters
2996:
2992:
2982:
2980:
2978:
2962:
2958:
2942:10.1.1.498.7541
2925:
2921:
2898:10.2307/2410076
2882:
2878:
2873:
2869:
2863:
2859:
2844:10.2307/3545643
2817:
2811:
2807:
2754:
2750:
2705:
2701:
2662:(16): 2183–94.
2656:Vision Research
2644:
2640:
2609:(16): 2183–94.
2603:Vision Research
2595:
2591:
2562:
2558:
2548:
2546:
2541:
2540:
2536:
2495:(22): 12576–8.
2481:
2474:
2464:
2462:
2458:
2435:10.1.1.586.3819
2409:
2400:
2396:
2388:
2384:
2347:
2343:
2333:
2331:
2318:
2317:
2313:
2306:
2276:
2272:
2265:
2251:
2250:
2246:
2241:
2236:
2191:
2076:
2066:
2060:
1950:
1930:
1921:
1919:Immune function
1695:
1647:
1639:Main articles:
1637:
1632:
1626:
1610:serial monogamy
1584:
1553:
1425:paleontologists
1408:
1402:
1369:
1302:breeding season
1261:eclectus parrot
1219:common pheasant
1211:
1107:
1049:
1034:Nephila pilipes
971:Argiope appensa
962:
851:
808:Cannabis sativa
685:
677:redlip blennies
631:immune function
600:argus pheasants
555:
518:
463:
396:Differentiation
386:Human sexuality
376:Plant sexuality
263:Spermatogenesis
159:Homogametic sex
42:
35:
28:
23:
22:
18:Sex differences
15:
12:
11:
5:
12606:
12596:
12595:
12590:
12585:
12580:
12578:Animal anatomy
12575:
12558:
12557:
12555:
12554:
12541:
12528:
12515:
12507:
12504:
12503:
12500:
12499:
12497:
12496:
12491:
12486:
12481:
12476:
12471:
12466:
12461:
12460:
12459:
12454:
12449:
12444:
12439:
12434:
12429:
12424:
12419:
12405:
12399:
12397:
12393:
12392:
12390:
12389:
12388:
12387:
12382:
12377:
12372:
12367:
12362:
12357:
12352:
12347:
12342:
12337:
12332:
12327:
12322:
12312:
12307:
12302:
12297:
12292:
12287:
12281:
12279:
12275:
12274:
12272:
12271:
12266:
12261:
12256:
12251:
12246:
12241:
12236:
12231:
12226:
12221:
12216:
12211:
12206:
12189:
12180:
12170:
12168:
12161:
12157:
12156:
12153:
12152:
12150:
12149:
12144:
12139:
12134:
12129:
12124:
12119:
12114:
12109:
12104:
12099:
12094:
12089:
12084:
12079:
12074:
12069:
12063:
12061:
12055:
12054:
12052:
12051:
12046:
12041:
12028:
12019:
12014:
12009:
12004:
11999:
11994:
11989:
11984:
11979:
11974:
11969:
11964:
11959:
11954:
11949:
11944:
11938:
11936:
11930:
11929:
11927:
11926:
11925:
11924:
11919:
11914:
11909:
11899:
11894:
11889:
11884:
11879:
11874:
11869:
11867:Mind-blindness
11864:
11859:
11854:
11849:
11844:
11843:
11842:
11837:
11832:
11827:
11822:
11811:
11809:
11798:
11797:
11795:
11794:
11789:
11784:
11779:
11774:
11769:
11764:
11759:
11754:
11741:
11736:
11730:
11728:
11722:
11721:
11719:
11718:
11713:
11712:
11711:
11701:
11700:
11699:
11689:
11688:
11687:
11682:
11677:
11667:
11662:
11661:
11660:
11650:
11649:
11648:
11643:
11632:
11630:
11624:
11623:
11621:
11620:
11619:
11618:
11613:
11608:
11598:
11593:
11588:
11579:
11578:
11577:
11572:
11562:
11560:theory of mind
11553:
11544:
11543:
11542:
11537:
11532:
11522:
11517:
11512:
11507:
11506:
11505:
11500:
11495:
11490:
11485:
11471:
11466:
11465:
11464:
11459:
11454:
11443:
11441:
11427:
11423:
11422:
11420:
11419:
11414:
11413:
11412:
11407:
11402:
11393:
11383:
11382:
11381:
11371:
11366:
11361:
11356:
11355:
11354:
11344:
11339:
11334:
11329:
11327:Baldwin effect
11324:
11323:
11322:
11317:
11312:
11302:
11296:
11294:
11286:
11285:
11283:
11282:
11277:
11276:
11275:
11270:
11265:
11260:
11255:
11245:
11244:
11243:
11232:
11229:
11228:
11221:
11220:
11213:
11206:
11198:
11189:
11188:
11186:
11185:
11175:
11164:
11161:
11160:
11158:
11157:
11152:
11147:
11142:
11137:
11136:
11135:
11125:
11120:
11115:
11110:
11105:
11104:
11103:
11098:
11093:
11083:
11078:
11073:
11067:
11065:
11061:
11060:
11058:
11057:
11052:
11051:
11050:
11045:
11040:
11039:
11038:
11028:
11023:
11018:
11013:
11008:
10998:
10992:
10990:
10986:
10985:
10983:
10982:
10977:
10972:
10967:
10962:
10957:
10952:
10947:
10942:
10937:
10936:
10935:
10926:Charles Darwin
10923:
10922:
10921:
10909:
10904:
10898:
10896:
10890:
10889:
10887:
10886:
10881:
10876:
10871:
10866:
10864:Non-ecological
10861:
10856:
10851:
10846:
10841:
10836:
10831:
10825:
10823:
10817:
10816:
10814:
10813:
10804:
10795:
10781:
10779:
10773:
10772:
10770:
10769:
10764:
10763:
10762:
10757:
10752:
10747:
10742:
10732:
10727:
10722:
10717:
10712:
10707:
10702:
10697:
10692:
10687:
10682:
10681:
10680:
10670:
10665:
10660:
10655:
10654:
10653:
10648:
10637:
10635:
10628:
10627:
10625:
10624:
10623:
10622:
10617:
10615:nervous system
10612:
10607:
10602:
10594:
10593:
10592:
10587:
10582:
10577:
10572:
10567:
10557:
10552:
10547:
10541:
10539:
10532:
10531:
10529:
10528:
10523:
10518:
10513:
10508:
10507:
10506:
10496:
10495:
10494:
10489:
10488:
10487:
10482:
10472:
10467:
10462:
10457:
10452:
10451:
10450:
10445:
10435:
10425:
10420:
10419:
10418:
10408:
10403:
10398:
10393:
10392:
10391:
10381:
10376:
10375:
10374:
10364:
10358:
10356:
10349:
10348:
10346:
10345:
10340:
10335:
10330:
10325:
10320:
10314:
10312:
10308:
10307:
10305:
10304:
10299:
10294:
10289:
10288:
10287:
10282:
10277:
10267:
10262:
10257:
10252:
10247:
10246:
10245:
10240:
10230:
10225:
10220:
10219:
10218:
10208:
10203:
10198:
10193:
10187:
10185:
10177:
10176:
10174:
10173:
10172:
10171:
10161:
10156:
10155:
10154:
10149:
10139:
10138:
10137:
10127:
10122:
10117:
10115:Origin of life
10112:
10107:
10102:
10100:Microevolution
10097:
10095:Macroevolution
10092:
10087:
10082:
10081:
10080:
10070:
10065:
10060:
10055:
10050:
10045:
10040:
10035:
10033:Common descent
10030:
10029:
10028:
10018:
10013:
10011:Baldwin effect
10008:
10007:
10006:
10001:
9991:
9986:
9981:
9975:
9973:
9967:
9966:
9964:
9963:
9958:
9953:
9948:
9943:
9937:
9934:
9933:
9926:
9925:
9918:
9911:
9903:
9894:
9893:
9891:
9890:
9885:
9880:
9875:
9870:
9865:
9860:
9854:
9852:
9848:
9847:
9845:
9844:
9839:
9833:
9831:
9825:
9824:
9822:
9821:
9816:
9811:
9806:
9800:
9798:
9792:
9791:
9789:
9788:
9783:
9778:
9773:
9767:
9765:
9757:
9756:
9754:
9753:
9748:
9742:
9740:
9734:
9733:
9731:
9730:
9725:
9716:
9715:
9714:
9709:
9704:
9699:
9694:
9689:
9679:
9678:
9677:
9672:
9667:
9656:
9654:
9646:
9645:
9643:
9642:
9637:
9632:
9627:
9622:
9617:
9608:
9603:
9602:
9601:
9596:
9588:
9583:
9582:
9581:
9576:
9568:
9563:
9558:
9556:Sexual arousal
9552:
9550:
9544:
9543:
9541:
9540:
9539:
9538:
9533:
9523:
9522:
9521:
9516:
9511:
9506:
9496:
9495:
9494:
9489:
9484:
9479:
9477:spermatogonium
9468:
9466:
9460:
9459:
9457:
9456:
9451:
9446:
9441:
9436:
9430:
9428:
9422:
9421:
9410:
9409:
9402:
9395:
9387:
9378:
9377:
9375:
9374:
9363:
9360:
9359:
9357:
9356:
9355:
9354:
9353:
9352:
9347:
9342:
9327:
9321:
9319:
9313:
9312:
9310:
9309:
9308:
9307:
9302:
9297:
9292:
9287:
9282:
9281:
9280:
9265:
9260:
9255:
9250:
9249:
9248:
9243:
9233:
9232:
9231:
9226:
9216:
9215:
9214:
9209:
9199:
9194:
9189:
9184:
9179:
9174:
9173:
9172:
9167:
9156:
9154:
9146:
9145:
9143:
9142:
9137:
9132:
9127:
9126:
9125:
9120:
9110:
9105:
9104:
9103:
9098:
9091:Sex chromosome
9088:
9083:
9082:
9081:
9076:
9071:
9066:
9061:
9056:
9046:
9045:
9044:
9039:
9029:
9028:
9027:
9022:
9011:
9009:
9003:
9002:
8995:
8994:
8987:
8980:
8972:
8966:
8965:
8958:Sex+dimorphism
8943:
8929:
8922:
8910:
8897:
8896:
8894:
8893:External links
8891:
8889:
8888:
8877:
8836:
8816:10.1086/510214
8798:
8796:
8793:
8791:
8790:
8784:
8768:
8762:
8747:
8741:
8721:
8719:
8716:
8713:
8712:
8700:
8688:
8676:
8661:
8649:
8637:
8625:
8570:
8519:
8466:
8423:
8372:
8365:
8342:
8329:10.1086/727968
8323:(2): 230–253.
8303:
8272:10.1086/698301
8246:
8183:
8156:(8): 709–715.
8136:
8081:
8060:(3): 366–386.
8034:
8027:
8009:
7991:
7984:
7966:
7952:
7887:
7866:(2): 476–490.
7844:
7823:(4): 897–904.
7800:
7752:
7721:(6): 1869–79.
7701:
7650:
7601:
7564:(7460): 23–4.
7544:
7509:
7452:
7403:
7354:
7303:
7276:(3): 663–673.
7260:
7191:
7134:
7115:(17): 2371–4.
7099:
7050:
7001:
6958:
6951:
6927:
6920:
6893:
6884:biolreprod.org
6871:
6822:
6789:Human Genetics
6779:
6753:
6728:
6685:
6668:
6661:
6639:
6630:|journal=
6604:
6559:
6552:
6528:
6468:
6453:
6445:Academic Press
6428:
6404:
6371:
6350:(12): 1725–9.
6330:
6311:
6304:
6270:
6224:
6185:(16): 9103–4.
6165:
6128:
6085:
6058:(3): 241–250.
6042:
6023:(4): 385–394.
6007:
5980:(1): 112–120.
5964:
5921:
5896:
5829:
5770:
5763:
5729:
5710:(2): 390–398.
5688:
5677:(3): 217–224.
5659:
5593:
5566:(3): 693–704.
5547:
5505:
5492:(4): 443–449.
5472:
5420:
5411:
5366:
5324:
5297:(2): 227–233.
5276:
5223:
5210:(4): 592–601.
5190:
5145:
5101:
5044:
4995:
4968:(2): 246–260.
4952:
4948:Andersson 1994
4940:
4903:(4): 460–474.
4885:
4850:
4821:(8): 2475–83.
4798:
4786:
4737:
4688:
4657:(4): 689–698.
4634:
4572:
4545:
4526:(1): 183–185.
4504:
4461:
4402:
4368:(3): 767–775.
4339:
4320:(3): 669–678.
4302:
4259:
4253:978-0691141961
4252:
4234:
4185:
4162:
4143:(2): 447–454.
4122:
4079:
4059:
4008:
3959:
3932:(2): 227–240.
3916:
3867:
3818:
3806:
3750:
3723:(2): 245–253.
3703:
3651:
3632:
3605:(4): 371–382.
3589:
3578:(4): 147–157.
3562:
3543:
3516:(4): 235–247.
3500:
3487:(4): 359–367.
3467:
3442:
3415:(5): 564–576.
3392:
3335:
3314:10.1086/510214
3292:
3284:
3264:
3235:(9): 1515–27.
3215:
3191:
3132:
3125:
3105:
3098:
3078:
3059:(5): 596–606.
3039:
2990:
2976:
2956:
2935:(4): 592–601.
2919:
2892:(2): 647–657.
2876:
2867:
2857:
2830:(2): 309–311.
2805:
2748:
2699:
2638:
2589:
2578:(3): 321–328.
2556:
2534:
2472:
2394:
2390:Andersson 1994
2382:
2341:
2311:
2304:
2284:Academic Press
2270:
2263:
2243:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2234:
2229:
2224:
2219:
2214:
2209:
2204:
2198:
2192:
2190:
2187:
2094:Charles Darwin
2062:Main article:
2059:
2056:
1949:
1946:
1934:cultured cells
1929:
1926:
1920:
1917:
1905:expander graph
1782:count, higher
1780:red blood cell
1762:and branching
1706:
1705:
1692:Pioneer plaque
1683:
1682:
1672:
1661:
1660:
1657:Pioneer plaque
1636:
1633:
1628:Main article:
1625:
1622:
1602:Marine mammals
1583:
1580:
1552:
1549:
1504:cranial crests
1404:Main article:
1401:
1398:
1390:saxaul sparrow
1382:rufous sparrow
1355:numeral prefix
1210:
1207:
1106:
1103:
1086:sockeye salmon
1048:
1045:
1040:Maratus volans
1010:Tigrosa helluo
961:
958:
850:
847:
825:generation of
693:hermaphroditic
684:
681:
563:Orgyia antiqua
554:
551:
532:, on the left.
517:
514:
510:phenotypically
465:
464:
462:
461:
454:
447:
439:
436:
435:
434:
433:
428:
423:
415:
414:
408:
407:
406:
405:
404:
403:
398:
393:
383:
378:
370:
369:
363:
362:
361:
360:
359:
358:
353:
348:
343:
338:
337:
336:
321:
316:
311:
306:
305:
304:
299:
289:
288:
287:
282:
272:
271:
270:
265:
255:
250:
245:
244:
243:
238:
225:
224:
218:
217:
216:
215:
210:
205:
204:
203:
198:
188:
183:
182:
181:
176:
171:
164:Sex chromosome
161:
156:
151:
150:
149:
144:
139:
134:
129:
124:
114:
113:
112:
107:
97:
89:
88:
84:
83:
75:
74:
66:
65:
51:Mandarin ducks
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
12605:
12594:
12591:
12589:
12586:
12584:
12581:
12579:
12576:
12574:
12571:
12570:
12568:
12553:
12552:
12546:
12542:
12540:
12539:
12533:
12529:
12527:
12526:
12516:
12514:
12513:
12509:
12508:
12505:
12495:
12492:
12490:
12487:
12485:
12482:
12480:
12479:Neo-Darwinism
12477:
12475:
12472:
12470:
12467:
12465:
12464:Functionalism
12462:
12458:
12455:
12453:
12450:
12448:
12445:
12443:
12440:
12438:
12435:
12433:
12430:
12428:
12425:
12423:
12422:Connectionism
12420:
12418:
12415:
12414:
12413:
12412:indeterminism
12409:
12406:
12404:
12401:
12400:
12398:
12394:
12386:
12383:
12381:
12378:
12376:
12373:
12371:
12368:
12366:
12363:
12361:
12358:
12356:
12353:
12351:
12348:
12346:
12343:
12341:
12338:
12336:
12333:
12331:
12328:
12326:
12323:
12321:
12318:
12317:
12316:
12313:
12311:
12308:
12306:
12303:
12301:
12298:
12296:
12293:
12291:
12288:
12286:
12283:
12282:
12280:
12276:
12270:
12267:
12265:
12262:
12260:
12257:
12255:
12252:
12250:
12247:
12245:
12242:
12240:
12237:
12235:
12232:
12230:
12227:
12225:
12222:
12220:
12217:
12215:
12212:
12210:
12207:
12205:
12201:
12197:
12193:
12190:
12188:
12184:
12181:
12179:
12175:
12172:
12171:
12169:
12165:
12162:
12158:
12148:
12145:
12143:
12140:
12138:
12135:
12133:
12132:Schizophrenia
12130:
12128:
12125:
12123:
12120:
12118:
12117:Mental health
12115:
12113:
12110:
12108:
12105:
12103:
12100:
12098:
12095:
12093:
12090:
12088:
12085:
12083:
12080:
12078:
12075:
12073:
12070:
12068:
12065:
12064:
12062:
12060:
12056:
12050:
12047:
12045:
12042:
12040:
12036:
12032:
12029:
12027:
12023:
12020:
12018:
12015:
12013:
12010:
12008:
12005:
12003:
12000:
11998:
11995:
11993:
11992:Mate guarding
11990:
11988:
11985:
11983:
11980:
11978:
11975:
11973:
11970:
11968:
11965:
11963:
11960:
11958:
11955:
11953:
11952:Age disparity
11950:
11948:
11945:
11943:
11940:
11939:
11937:
11935:
11931:
11923:
11920:
11918:
11915:
11913:
11910:
11908:
11905:
11904:
11903:
11900:
11898:
11895:
11893:
11890:
11888:
11885:
11883:
11882:Schizophrenia
11880:
11878:
11875:
11873:
11870:
11868:
11865:
11863:
11860:
11858:
11855:
11853:
11850:
11848:
11845:
11841:
11838:
11836:
11833:
11831:
11828:
11826:
11823:
11821:
11818:
11817:
11816:
11813:
11812:
11810:
11808:
11807:Mental health
11803:
11802:Human factors
11799:
11793:
11792:Socialization
11790:
11788:
11785:
11783:
11780:
11778:
11775:
11773:
11770:
11768:
11765:
11763:
11760:
11758:
11755:
11753:
11752:paternal bond
11749:
11745:
11742:
11740:
11737:
11735:
11732:
11731:
11729:
11727:
11723:
11717:
11714:
11710:
11707:
11706:
11705:
11702:
11698:
11695:
11694:
11693:
11690:
11686:
11683:
11681:
11678:
11676:
11673:
11672:
11671:
11668:
11666:
11663:
11659:
11656:
11655:
11654:
11651:
11647:
11644:
11642:
11639:
11638:
11637:
11634:
11633:
11631:
11629:
11625:
11617:
11616:NaĂŻve physics
11614:
11612:
11609:
11607:
11604:
11603:
11602:
11599:
11597:
11594:
11592:
11589:
11587:
11583:
11582:Motor control
11580:
11576:
11573:
11571:
11568:
11567:
11566:
11563:
11561:
11557:
11554:
11552:
11548:
11545:
11541:
11540:Ophidiophobia
11538:
11536:
11533:
11531:
11530:Arachnophobia
11528:
11527:
11526:
11523:
11521:
11518:
11516:
11513:
11511:
11508:
11504:
11501:
11499:
11496:
11494:
11491:
11489:
11486:
11484:
11481:
11480:
11479:
11475:
11472:
11470:
11467:
11463:
11460:
11458:
11457:Display rules
11455:
11453:
11450:
11449:
11448:
11445:
11444:
11442:
11440:
11435:
11431:
11428:
11424:
11418:
11415:
11411:
11408:
11406:
11403:
11401:
11397:
11394:
11392:
11389:
11388:
11387:
11384:
11380:
11377:
11376:
11375:
11372:
11370:
11367:
11365:
11362:
11360:
11359:Kin selection
11357:
11353:
11350:
11349:
11348:
11345:
11343:
11340:
11338:
11335:
11333:
11330:
11328:
11325:
11321:
11318:
11316:
11313:
11311:
11308:
11307:
11306:
11303:
11301:
11298:
11297:
11295:
11293:
11287:
11281:
11278:
11274:
11271:
11269:
11266:
11264:
11261:
11259:
11256:
11254:
11253:Adaptationism
11251:
11250:
11249:
11246:
11242:
11239:
11238:
11237:
11234:
11233:
11230:
11226:
11219:
11214:
11212:
11207:
11205:
11200:
11199:
11196:
11184:
11180:
11176:
11174:
11166:
11165:
11162:
11156:
11153:
11151:
11148:
11146:
11143:
11141:
11138:
11134:
11131:
11130:
11129:
11128:Phylogenetics
11126:
11124:
11121:
11119:
11116:
11114:
11111:
11109:
11106:
11102:
11099:
11097:
11094:
11092:
11089:
11088:
11087:
11084:
11082:
11079:
11077:
11074:
11072:
11069:
11068:
11066:
11062:
11056:
11053:
11049:
11046:
11044:
11041:
11037:
11034:
11033:
11032:
11031:Structuralism
11029:
11027:
11024:
11022:
11019:
11017:
11014:
11012:
11009:
11007:
11006:Catastrophism
11004:
11003:
11002:
10999:
10997:
10994:
10993:
10991:
10987:
10981:
10978:
10976:
10973:
10971:
10968:
10966:
10965:Neo-Darwinism
10963:
10961:
10958:
10956:
10953:
10951:
10948:
10946:
10943:
10941:
10938:
10934:
10933:
10929:
10928:
10927:
10924:
10920:
10919:
10915:
10914:
10913:
10910:
10908:
10905:
10903:
10900:
10899:
10897:
10895:
10891:
10885:
10882:
10880:
10879:Reinforcement
10877:
10875:
10872:
10870:
10867:
10865:
10862:
10860:
10857:
10855:
10852:
10850:
10847:
10845:
10842:
10840:
10837:
10835:
10832:
10830:
10827:
10826:
10824:
10822:
10818:
10812:
10811:Catastrophism
10808:
10805:
10803:
10802:Macromutation
10799:
10798:Micromutation
10796:
10794:
10790:
10786:
10783:
10782:
10780:
10778:
10774:
10768:
10765:
10761:
10758:
10756:
10753:
10751:
10748:
10746:
10743:
10741:
10738:
10737:
10736:
10733:
10731:
10728:
10726:
10723:
10721:
10718:
10716:
10713:
10711:
10708:
10706:
10705:Immune system
10703:
10701:
10698:
10696:
10693:
10691:
10688:
10686:
10683:
10679:
10676:
10675:
10674:
10671:
10669:
10666:
10664:
10661:
10659:
10656:
10652:
10649:
10647:
10644:
10643:
10642:
10639:
10638:
10636:
10634:
10629:
10621:
10618:
10616:
10613:
10611:
10608:
10606:
10603:
10601:
10598:
10597:
10595:
10591:
10588:
10586:
10583:
10581:
10578:
10576:
10573:
10571:
10568:
10566:
10565:symbiogenesis
10563:
10562:
10561:
10558:
10556:
10553:
10551:
10548:
10546:
10543:
10542:
10540:
10538:
10533:
10527:
10524:
10522:
10519:
10517:
10514:
10512:
10509:
10505:
10502:
10501:
10500:
10497:
10493:
10490:
10486:
10483:
10481:
10478:
10477:
10476:
10473:
10471:
10468:
10466:
10463:
10461:
10458:
10456:
10453:
10449:
10446:
10444:
10441:
10440:
10439:
10436:
10434:
10431:
10430:
10429:
10426:
10424:
10421:
10417:
10414:
10413:
10412:
10409:
10407:
10404:
10402:
10399:
10397:
10394:
10390:
10387:
10386:
10385:
10382:
10380:
10377:
10373:
10370:
10369:
10368:
10365:
10363:
10360:
10359:
10357:
10355:
10350:
10344:
10341:
10339:
10336:
10334:
10331:
10329:
10326:
10324:
10321:
10319:
10316:
10315:
10313:
10309:
10303:
10300:
10298:
10295:
10293:
10290:
10286:
10283:
10281:
10278:
10276:
10273:
10272:
10271:
10268:
10266:
10263:
10261:
10258:
10256:
10253:
10251:
10248:
10244:
10241:
10239:
10236:
10235:
10234:
10233:Kin selection
10231:
10229:
10228:Genetic drift
10226:
10224:
10221:
10217:
10214:
10213:
10212:
10209:
10207:
10204:
10202:
10199:
10197:
10194:
10192:
10189:
10188:
10186:
10184:
10178:
10170:
10167:
10166:
10165:
10162:
10160:
10157:
10153:
10150:
10148:
10145:
10144:
10143:
10140:
10136:
10133:
10132:
10131:
10128:
10126:
10123:
10121:
10118:
10116:
10113:
10111:
10108:
10106:
10103:
10101:
10098:
10096:
10093:
10091:
10088:
10086:
10083:
10079:
10076:
10075:
10074:
10071:
10069:
10066:
10064:
10061:
10059:
10056:
10054:
10051:
10049:
10046:
10044:
10041:
10039:
10036:
10034:
10031:
10027:
10024:
10023:
10022:
10019:
10017:
10014:
10012:
10009:
10005:
10002:
10000:
9997:
9996:
9995:
9992:
9990:
9987:
9985:
9982:
9980:
9977:
9976:
9974:
9972:
9968:
9962:
9959:
9957:
9954:
9952:
9949:
9947:
9944:
9942:
9939:
9938:
9935:
9931:
9924:
9919:
9917:
9912:
9910:
9905:
9904:
9901:
9889:
9886:
9884:
9881:
9879:
9876:
9874:
9871:
9869:
9866:
9864:
9861:
9859:
9856:
9855:
9853:
9849:
9843:
9840:
9838:
9835:
9834:
9832:
9830:
9826:
9820:
9819:Breastfeeding
9817:
9815:
9812:
9810:
9807:
9805:
9802:
9801:
9799:
9797:
9793:
9787:
9784:
9782:
9779:
9777:
9774:
9772:
9769:
9768:
9766:
9764:
9758:
9752:
9749:
9747:
9744:
9743:
9741:
9739:
9735:
9729:
9726:
9724:
9720:
9717:
9713:
9710:
9708:
9705:
9703:
9700:
9698:
9695:
9693:
9690:
9688:
9685:
9684:
9683:
9680:
9676:
9673:
9671:
9668:
9666:
9663:
9662:
9661:
9658:
9657:
9655:
9653:
9647:
9641:
9638:
9636:
9633:
9631:
9628:
9626:
9623:
9621:
9618:
9616:
9612:
9611:Fertilization
9609:
9607:
9604:
9600:
9597:
9595:
9592:
9591:
9589:
9587:
9584:
9580:
9577:
9575:
9572:
9571:
9569:
9567:
9564:
9562:
9559:
9557:
9554:
9553:
9551:
9549:
9545:
9537:
9534:
9532:
9529:
9528:
9527:
9524:
9520:
9517:
9515:
9512:
9510:
9507:
9505:
9502:
9501:
9500:
9497:
9493:
9490:
9488:
9485:
9483:
9480:
9478:
9475:
9474:
9473:
9470:
9469:
9467:
9465:
9464:Gametogenesis
9461:
9455:
9452:
9450:
9447:
9445:
9442:
9440:
9437:
9435:
9432:
9431:
9429:
9427:
9423:
9419:
9415:
9408:
9403:
9401:
9396:
9394:
9389:
9388:
9385:
9373:
9365:
9364:
9361:
9351:
9348:
9346:
9343:
9341:
9338:
9337:
9336:
9333:
9332:
9331:
9328:
9326:
9323:
9322:
9320:
9318:
9314:
9306:
9305:Pelvic thrust
9303:
9301:
9298:
9296:
9293:
9291:
9288:
9286:
9283:
9279:
9276:
9275:
9274:
9271:
9270:
9269:
9266:
9264:
9261:
9259:
9256:
9254:
9251:
9247:
9244:
9242:
9239:
9238:
9237:
9236:Fertilization
9234:
9230:
9227:
9225:
9222:
9221:
9220:
9217:
9213:
9210:
9208:
9205:
9204:
9203:
9202:Gametogenesis
9200:
9198:
9195:
9193:
9190:
9188:
9185:
9183:
9180:
9178:
9175:
9171:
9168:
9166:
9163:
9162:
9161:
9158:
9157:
9155:
9153:
9147:
9141:
9138:
9136:
9135:parasexuality
9133:
9131:
9128:
9124:
9121:
9119:
9116:
9115:
9114:
9113:Hermaphrodite
9111:
9109:
9106:
9102:
9099:
9097:
9094:
9093:
9092:
9089:
9087:
9084:
9080:
9079:Haplodiploidy
9077:
9075:
9072:
9070:
9067:
9065:
9062:
9060:
9057:
9055:
9052:
9051:
9050:
9047:
9043:
9040:
9038:
9035:
9034:
9033:
9030:
9026:
9023:
9021:
9018:
9017:
9016:
9013:
9012:
9010:
9004:
9000:
8993:
8988:
8986:
8981:
8979:
8974:
8973:
8970:
8963:
8959:
8956:
8955:
8951:
8947:
8932:
8885:
8884:
8878:
8874:
8870:
8865:
8860:
8856:
8852:
8848:
8844:
8843:
8837:
8833:
8829:
8825:
8821:
8817:
8813:
8809:
8805:
8800:
8799:
8787:
8781:
8777:
8773:
8769:
8765:
8759:
8755:
8754:
8748:
8744:
8738:
8734:
8730:
8729:
8723:
8722:
8710:, p. 332
8709:
8704:
8698:, p. 330
8697:
8692:
8686:, p. 335
8685:
8680:
8674:, p. 328
8673:
8668:
8666:
8659:, p. 332
8658:
8653:
8647:, p. 331
8646:
8641:
8635:, p. 330
8634:
8629:
8621:
8617:
8613:
8609:
8605:
8601:
8597:
8593:
8589:
8585:
8581:
8574:
8566:
8562:
8557:
8552:
8547:
8542:
8538:
8534:
8530:
8523:
8515:
8511:
8507:
8503:
8499:
8495:
8491:
8487:
8483:
8479:
8478:
8470:
8462:
8458:
8454:
8450:
8446:
8442:
8438:
8434:
8427:
8419:
8415:
8411:
8407:
8403:
8399:
8395:
8391:
8388:(2): 281–94.
8387:
8383:
8376:
8368:
8362:
8358:
8357:
8352:
8346:
8338:
8334:
8330:
8326:
8322:
8318:
8314:
8307:
8299:
8295:
8290:
8285:
8281:
8277:
8273:
8269:
8265:
8261:
8257:
8250:
8242:
8238:
8233:
8228:
8223:
8218:
8214:
8210:
8206:
8202:
8198:
8194:
8187:
8179:
8175:
8171:
8167:
8163:
8159:
8155:
8151:
8147:
8140:
8132:
8128:
8124:
8120:
8116:
8112:
8109:(2): 95–104.
8108:
8104:
8100:
8098:
8094:
8085:
8077:
8073:
8068:
8063:
8059:
8055:
8054:
8049:
8047:
8038:
8030:
8024:
8020:
8013:
8005:
7998:
7996:
7987:
7981:
7977:
7970:
7963:
7962:
7956:
7945:
7941:
7937:
7933:
7929:
7925:
7921:
7917:
7913:
7910:(6947): 387.
7909:
7905:
7898:
7891:
7883:
7879:
7874:
7869:
7865:
7861:
7860:
7855:
7848:
7840:
7836:
7831:
7826:
7822:
7818:
7811:
7804:
7796:
7792:
7788:
7784:
7780:
7776:
7772:
7768:
7767:
7759:
7757:
7748:
7744:
7739:
7734:
7729:
7724:
7720:
7716:
7715:FASEB Journal
7712:
7705:
7697:
7693:
7688:
7683:
7678:
7673:
7669:
7665:
7664:PLOS Genetics
7661:
7654:
7646:
7642:
7637:
7632:
7628:
7624:
7620:
7616:
7612:
7605:
7597:
7593:
7589:
7585:
7580:
7575:
7571:
7567:
7563:
7559:
7555:
7548:
7540:
7536:
7532:
7528:
7524:
7520:
7513:
7505:
7501:
7496:
7491:
7487:
7483:
7479:
7475:
7471:
7467:
7463:
7456:
7448:
7444:
7439:
7434:
7430:
7426:
7422:
7418:
7414:
7407:
7399:
7395:
7390:
7385:
7381:
7377:
7373:
7369:
7365:
7358:
7350:
7346:
7341:
7336:
7331:
7326:
7322:
7318:
7314:
7307:
7299:
7295:
7291:
7287:
7283:
7279:
7275:
7271:
7264:
7256:
7252:
7247:
7242:
7237:
7232:
7228:
7224:
7219:
7214:
7210:
7206:
7202:
7195:
7184:
7180:
7176:
7172:
7168:
7164:
7160:
7156:
7152:
7145:
7138:
7130:
7126:
7122:
7118:
7114:
7110:
7103:
7095:
7091:
7086:
7081:
7077:
7073:
7069:
7065:
7061:
7054:
7046:
7042:
7037:
7032:
7028:
7024:
7020:
7016:
7012:
7005:
6997:
6993:
6989:
6985:
6981:
6977:
6974:(2): 144–52.
6973:
6969:
6962:
6954:
6948:
6944:
6940:
6939:
6931:
6923:
6917:
6913:
6909:
6908:
6903:
6897:
6889:
6885:
6881:
6875:
6867:
6863:
6858:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6842:(2): 674–80.
6841:
6837:
6833:
6826:
6818:
6814:
6810:
6806:
6802:
6798:
6795:(3): 267–75.
6794:
6790:
6783:
6768:
6764:
6757:
6742:
6738:
6732:
6724:
6720:
6716:
6712:
6708:
6704:
6700:
6696:
6689:
6681:
6680:
6672:
6664:
6658:
6654:
6653:Little, Brown
6650:
6643:
6635:
6623:
6615:
6611:
6607:
6601:
6597:
6593:
6589:
6585:
6580:
6579:
6573:
6569:
6563:
6555:
6549:
6545:
6541:
6540:
6532:
6524:
6520:
6516:
6512:
6507:
6502:
6498:
6494:
6490:
6486:
6482:
6475:
6473:
6464:
6460:
6456:
6450:
6446:
6442:
6435:
6433:
6414:
6408:
6392:
6388:
6381:
6375:
6367:
6363:
6358:
6353:
6349:
6345:
6341:
6334:
6326:
6322:
6315:
6307:
6301:
6297:
6293:
6288:
6287:
6281:
6274:
6255:
6251:
6247:
6246:
6238:
6234:
6228:
6220:
6216:
6211:
6206:
6201:
6196:
6192:
6188:
6184:
6180:
6176:
6169:
6160:
6155:
6151:
6147:
6143:
6139:
6132:
6124:
6120:
6116:
6112:
6108:
6104:
6100:
6096:
6089:
6081:
6077:
6073:
6069:
6065:
6061:
6057:
6053:
6046:
6038:
6034:
6030:
6026:
6022:
6018:
6011:
6003:
5999:
5995:
5991:
5987:
5983:
5979:
5975:
5974:Mammal Review
5968:
5960:
5956:
5952:
5948:
5944:
5940:
5936:
5932:
5925:
5910:
5906:
5900:
5892:
5888:
5883:
5878:
5874:
5870:
5865:
5860:
5856:
5852:
5848:
5844:
5840:
5833:
5825:
5821:
5816:
5811:
5807:
5803:
5798:
5793:
5789:
5785:
5781:
5774:
5766:
5760:
5756:
5752:
5751:
5746:
5740:
5738:
5736:
5734:
5725:
5721:
5717:
5713:
5709:
5705:
5704:
5699:
5692:
5684:
5680:
5676:
5672:
5671:
5663:
5644:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5619:
5611:
5609:
5600:
5598:
5589:
5585:
5581:
5577:
5573:
5569:
5565:
5561:
5554:
5552:
5543:
5539:
5535:
5531:
5528:(1): 89–100.
5527:
5523:
5516:
5509:
5500:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5476:
5468:
5464:
5460:
5456:
5451:
5446:
5442:
5438:
5434:
5427:
5425:
5415:
5407:
5403:
5399:
5395:
5391:
5387:
5386:
5377:
5375:
5373:
5371:
5362:
5358:
5354:
5350:
5346:
5342:
5341:
5333:
5331:
5329:
5320:
5316:
5312:
5308:
5304:
5300:
5296:
5292:
5291:
5283:
5281:
5272:
5268:
5264:
5260:
5256:
5252:
5247:
5242:
5239:(1): 154–62.
5238:
5234:
5227:
5218:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5194:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5174:
5170:
5166:
5162:
5158:
5157:
5149:
5141:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5121:
5120:
5112:
5110:
5108:
5106:
5097:
5093:
5088:
5083:
5079:
5075:
5071:
5067:
5063:
5059:
5055:
5048:
5037:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5021:
5017:
5013:
5006:
4999:
4991:
4987:
4983:
4979:
4975:
4971:
4967:
4963:
4956:
4950:, p. 269
4949:
4944:
4936:
4932:
4927:
4922:
4918:
4914:
4910:
4906:
4902:
4898:
4897:
4889:
4880:
4875:
4871:
4867:
4866:
4861:
4854:
4846:
4842:
4838:
4834:
4829:
4824:
4820:
4816:
4812:
4805:
4803:
4793:
4791:
4782:
4778:
4773:
4768:
4764:
4760:
4756:
4752:
4748:
4741:
4733:
4729:
4725:
4721:
4716:
4711:
4708:(1): 259–72.
4707:
4703:
4699:
4692:
4683:
4678:
4673:
4668:
4664:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4648:
4641:
4639:
4630:
4626:
4621:
4616:
4611:
4606:
4602:
4598:
4594:
4590:
4586:
4579:
4577:
4568:
4564:
4560:
4556:
4549:
4541:
4537:
4533:
4529:
4525:
4521:
4520:
4515:
4508:
4500:
4496:
4492:
4488:
4484:
4480:
4476:
4472:
4465:
4457:
4453:
4448:
4443:
4438:
4433:
4429:
4425:
4422:(5): e10616.
4421:
4417:
4413:
4406:
4387:
4383:
4379:
4375:
4371:
4367:
4363:
4362:
4354:
4352:
4343:
4335:
4331:
4327:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4314:
4306:
4298:
4294:
4290:
4286:
4282:
4278:
4275:(2): 257–65.
4274:
4270:
4263:
4255:
4249:
4246:. Princeton.
4245:
4238:
4230:
4226:
4221:
4216:
4212:
4208:
4204:
4200:
4196:
4189:
4181:
4177:
4173:
4166:
4158:
4154:
4150:
4146:
4142:
4138:
4131:
4129:
4127:
4118:
4114:
4110:
4106:
4102:
4098:
4094:
4090:
4083:
4072:
4071:
4063:
4055:
4051:
4046:
4041:
4036:
4031:
4027:
4023:
4019:
4012:
4004:
4000:
3995:
3990:
3986:
3982:
3978:
3974:
3970:
3963:
3955:
3951:
3947:
3943:
3939:
3935:
3931:
3927:
3920:
3912:
3908:
3903:
3898:
3894:
3890:
3886:
3882:
3878:
3871:
3863:
3859:
3854:
3849:
3845:
3841:
3837:
3833:
3829:
3822:
3816:
3810:
3802:
3798:
3794:
3790:
3786:
3782:
3777:
3772:
3768:
3764:
3757:
3755:
3746:
3742:
3738:
3734:
3730:
3726:
3722:
3718:
3714:
3707:
3699:
3695:
3691:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3673:
3669:
3665:
3658:
3656:
3647:
3643:
3636:
3628:
3624:
3620:
3616:
3612:
3608:
3604:
3600:
3593:
3585:
3581:
3577:
3573:
3566:
3559:(4): 565–570.
3558:
3554:
3547:
3539:
3535:
3531:
3527:
3523:
3519:
3515:
3511:
3504:
3495:
3490:
3486:
3482:
3478:
3471:
3456:
3452:
3446:
3438:
3434:
3430:
3426:
3422:
3418:
3414:
3410:
3403:
3396:
3388:
3384:
3379:
3374:
3370:
3366:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3350:
3346:
3339:
3331:
3327:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3296:
3287:
3281:
3277:
3276:
3268:
3260:
3256:
3251:
3246:
3242:
3238:
3234:
3230:
3226:
3219:
3211:
3207:
3206:
3201:
3195:
3187:
3183:
3179:
3175:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3159:
3155:
3151:
3147:
3143:
3136:
3128:
3122:
3119:. CRC Press.
3118:
3117:
3109:
3101:
3095:
3091:
3090:
3082:
3074:
3070:
3066:
3062:
3058:
3054:
3050:
3043:
3035:
3031:
3026:
3021:
3017:
3013:
3009:
3005:
3001:
2994:
2979:
2977:9780521448789
2973:
2969:
2968:
2960:
2952:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2934:
2930:
2923:
2915:
2911:
2907:
2903:
2899:
2895:
2891:
2887:
2880:
2871:
2861:
2853:
2849:
2845:
2841:
2837:
2833:
2829:
2825:
2824:
2816:
2809:
2801:
2797:
2792:
2787:
2783:
2779:
2775:
2771:
2767:
2763:
2759:
2752:
2744:
2740:
2735:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2710:
2703:
2695:
2691:
2686:
2681:
2677:
2673:
2669:
2665:
2661:
2657:
2653:
2649:
2642:
2634:
2630:
2625:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2608:
2604:
2600:
2593:
2585:
2581:
2577:
2573:
2572:
2567:
2560:
2544:
2538:
2530:
2526:
2521:
2516:
2511:
2506:
2502:
2498:
2494:
2490:
2486:
2479:
2477:
2457:
2453:
2449:
2445:
2441:
2436:
2431:
2427:
2423:
2420:(1): 205–14.
2419:
2415:
2408:
2404:
2398:
2391:
2386:
2378:
2374:
2369:
2364:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2345:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2315:
2307:
2305:9780123735539
2301:
2297:
2293:
2289:
2285:
2281:
2274:
2266:
2260:
2256:
2255:
2248:
2244:
2233:
2230:
2228:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2218:
2215:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2199:
2197:
2194:
2193:
2186:
2182:
2178:
2176:
2172:
2168:
2163:
2161:
2157:
2153:
2146:
2141:
2137:
2135:
2129:
2127:
2126:
2120:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2105:
2103:
2099:
2096:advanced the
2095:
2088:
2085:
2080:
2075:
2071:
2065:
2055:
2053:
2052:
2046:
2044:
2043:
2042:Sphaerocarpos
2038:
2037:
2031:
2029:
2025:
2020:
2019:
2013:
2005:
2000:
1996:
1994:
1990:
1989:
1983:
1980:
1976:
1972:
1971:spotted hyena
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1945:
1944:differently.
1943:
1939:
1935:
1925:
1916:
1912:
1910:
1906:
1901:
1896:
1891:
1886:
1884:
1880:
1876:
1872:
1868:
1867:transcription
1864:
1859:
1857:
1852:
1848:
1844:
1840:
1836:
1832:
1828:
1823:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1805:
1801:
1797:
1793:
1789:
1785:
1781:
1777:
1773:
1769:
1765:
1761:
1756:
1754:
1749:
1747:
1741:
1740:than males.
1739:
1735:
1731:
1727:
1723:
1718:
1715:
1714:
1704:
1702:
1698:
1693:
1689:
1684:
1679:Female pelvis
1677:
1673:
1667:
1663:
1662:
1655:
1650:
1646:
1642:
1631:
1621:
1619:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1579:
1576:
1575:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1558:
1548:
1546:
1545:
1542:
1541:Hesperosaurus
1536:
1535:
1534:Stegosaurians
1531:
1529:
1524:
1520:
1519:
1512:
1511:
1507:
1505:
1501:
1496:
1495:
1491:
1488:
1484:
1480:
1475:
1474:
1470:
1468:
1467:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1450:
1449:
1444:
1443:
1437:
1436:
1432:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1421:fossilization
1418:
1417:decomposition
1413:
1407:
1397:
1395:
1391:
1387:
1383:
1379:
1375:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1356:
1351:
1349:
1345:
1341:
1335:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1309:
1307:
1303:
1299:
1295:
1290:
1288:
1284:
1283:birds of prey
1274:
1269:
1262:
1257:
1250:
1246:
1245:
1239:
1232:
1227:
1220:
1215:
1206:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1195:
1189:
1187:
1185:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1167:
1166:
1165:Anolis sagrei
1161:
1157:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1119:
1115:
1111:
1102:
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1036:
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1030:
1029:
1024:
1020:
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1012:
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973:
972:
966:
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949:
944:
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927:
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921:
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904:
903:
898:
897:
891:
890:
885:
884:
878:
876:
872:
871:
861:
860:
859:Colias dimera
855:
846:
844:
840:
836:
832:
828:
824:
820:
817:
812:
810:
809:
803:
801:
797:
793:
789:
785:
784:
778:
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771:
767:
766:
760:
757:
756:
750:
748:
744:
740:
737:
736:
731:
730:
725:
722:, completing
721:
717:
713:
709:
704:
702:
698:
694:
690:
680:
678:
673:
671:
666:
664:
660:
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648:
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634:
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627:
623:
619:
616:
612:
608:
603:
601:
597:
593:
589:
585:
580:
577:
573:
572:ornamentation
565:
564:
559:
547:
543:
538:
531:
527:
522:
513:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
482:morphological
479:
475:
471:
460:
455:
453:
448:
446:
441:
440:
438:
437:
432:
431:Hermaphrodite
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
418:
417:
416:
413:
412:Sexual system
410:
409:
402:
399:
397:
394:
392:
389:
388:
387:
384:
382:
379:
377:
374:
373:
372:
371:
368:
365:
364:
357:
356:Pelvic thrust
354:
352:
349:
347:
344:
342:
339:
335:
332:
331:
330:
327:
326:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
303:
300:
298:
295:
294:
293:
292:Fertilization
290:
286:
283:
281:
278:
277:
276:
273:
269:
266:
264:
261:
260:
259:
258:Gametogenesis
256:
254:
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246:
242:
239:
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226:
223:
220:
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214:
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206:
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199:
197:
194:
193:
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191:Hermaphrodite
189:
187:
184:
180:
177:
175:
172:
170:
167:
166:
165:
162:
160:
157:
155:
152:
148:
147:Haplodiploidy
145:
143:
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138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
119:
118:
115:
111:
108:
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98:
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81:
77:
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73:
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68:
67:
63:
59:
58:
52:
48:
44:
40:
33:
19:
12549:
12536:
12523:
12510:
12269:Sociobiology
12127:Neuroscience
12107:Intelligence
11653:Anthropology
11606:Color vision
11591:Multitasking
11570:Flynn effect
11565:Intelligence
11547:Folk biology
11409:
11290:Evolutionary
11140:Polymorphism
11123:Astrobiology
11071:Biogeography
11026:Saltationism
11016:Orthogenesis
11001:Alternatives
10930:
10916:
10849:Cospeciation
10844:Cladogenesis
10793:Saltationism
10750:Mating types
10673:Color vision
10658:Avian flight
10580:mitochondria
10318:Canalisation
10264:
10196:Biodiversity
9941:Introduction
9723:Paternal age
9719:Maternal age
9692:Tanner scale
9675:Virilization
9670:Feminization
9664:
9620:Implantation
9606:Insemination
9590:Ejaculation
9566:Masturbation
9482:spermatocyte
9454:Luteal phase
9439:Menstruation
9224:spermatozoon
9152:reproduction
9101:Y chromosome
9096:X chromosome
9042:Virilization
9037:Feminization
9014:
8882:
8846:
8840:
8807:
8803:
8775:
8752:
8727:
8703:
8691:
8684:Futuyma 2005
8679:
8657:Futuyma 2005
8652:
8645:Futuyma 2005
8640:
8633:Futuyma 2005
8628:
8587:
8583:
8573:
8536:
8533:PLOS Biology
8532:
8522:
8481:
8475:
8469:
8439:(1): 24–36.
8436:
8432:
8426:
8385:
8381:
8375:
8355:
8345:
8320:
8316:
8306:
8263:
8259:
8249:
8204:
8200:
8186:
8153:
8149:
8139:
8106:
8102:
8096:
8092:
8084:
8057:
8051:
8045:
8037:
8018:
8012:
8003:
7975:
7969:
7959:
7955:
7944:the original
7907:
7903:
7890:
7863:
7857:
7847:
7820:
7816:
7803:
7770:
7764:
7718:
7714:
7704:
7667:
7663:
7653:
7621:(1): 73–86.
7618:
7614:
7604:
7561:
7557:
7547:
7522:
7518:
7512:
7469:
7465:
7455:
7420:
7416:
7406:
7371:
7367:
7357:
7320:
7316:
7306:
7273:
7269:
7263:
7208:
7204:
7194:
7183:the original
7157:(1): 320–7.
7154:
7150:
7137:
7112:
7108:
7102:
7067:
7063:
7053:
7018:
7014:
7004:
6971:
6967:
6961:
6937:
6930:
6906:
6896:
6888:the original
6883:
6874:
6839:
6835:
6825:
6792:
6788:
6782:
6770:. Retrieved
6766:
6761:Woznicki K.
6756:
6744:. Retrieved
6740:
6731:
6698:
6694:
6688:
6677:
6671:
6648:
6642:
6577:
6562:
6542:. New York:
6538:
6531:
6488:
6484:
6440:
6419:. Retrieved
6407:
6395:. Retrieved
6390:
6386:
6374:
6347:
6343:
6333:
6324:
6314:
6285:
6273:
6261:. Retrieved
6254:the original
6249:
6243:
6227:
6182:
6178:
6168:
6141:
6137:
6131:
6101:(1): 31–41.
6098:
6094:
6088:
6055:
6051:
6045:
6020:
6016:
6010:
5977:
5973:
5967:
5937:(9): 701–8.
5934:
5930:
5924:
5912:. Retrieved
5909:ScienceDaily
5908:
5899:
5846:
5842:
5832:
5787:
5783:
5773:
5750:The Sparrows
5749:
5707:
5701:
5697:
5691:
5674:
5668:
5662:
5650:. Retrieved
5643:the original
5625:(1): 28–36.
5622:
5616:
5607:
5563:
5559:
5525:
5521:
5508:
5489:
5485:
5475:
5443:(1): 214–9.
5440:
5436:
5414:
5389:
5383:
5344:
5338:
5294:
5288:
5236:
5232:
5226:
5207:
5203:
5193:
5160:
5154:
5148:
5123:
5117:
5061:
5057:
5047:
5036:the original
5018:(2): 261–9.
5015:
5011:
4998:
4965:
4961:
4955:
4943:
4926:10261/360371
4900:
4894:
4888:
4869:
4863:
4853:
4818:
4814:
4754:
4750:
4740:
4705:
4701:
4691:
4654:
4650:
4592:
4588:
4558:
4554:
4548:
4523:
4517:
4513:
4507:
4477:(6): 133–6.
4474:
4470:
4464:
4419:
4415:
4405:
4393:. Retrieved
4386:the original
4365:
4359:
4350:
4342:
4317:
4311:
4305:
4272:
4268:
4262:
4243:
4237:
4202:
4198:
4188:
4179:
4175:
4165:
4140:
4136:
4092:
4088:
4082:
4076:(MS thesis).
4069:
4062:
4025:
4021:
4011:
3976:
3972:
3962:
3929:
3925:
3919:
3884:
3880:
3870:
3835:
3831:
3821:
3814:
3809:
3766:
3762:
3720:
3716:
3706:
3671:
3667:
3645:
3641:
3635:
3602:
3598:
3592:
3575:
3571:
3565:
3556:
3552:
3546:
3513:
3509:
3503:
3484:
3480:
3470:
3458:. Retrieved
3454:
3445:
3412:
3408:
3395:
3352:
3348:
3338:
3305:
3301:
3295:
3274:
3267:
3232:
3228:
3218:
3210:the original
3203:
3194:
3145:
3141:
3135:
3115:
3108:
3088:
3081:
3056:
3052:
3042:
3010:(3): 330–3.
3007:
3003:
2993:
2981:. Retrieved
2966:
2959:
2932:
2928:
2922:
2889:
2885:
2879:
2870:
2860:
2827:
2821:
2808:
2765:
2761:
2751:
2716:
2712:
2702:
2659:
2655:
2641:
2606:
2602:
2592:
2575:
2569:
2565:
2559:
2547:. Retrieved
2537:
2492:
2488:
2463:. Retrieved
2456:the original
2417:
2413:
2397:
2385:
2358:
2354:
2344:
2332:. Retrieved
2328:the original
2323:
2314:
2287:
2283:
2273:
2253:
2247:
2183:
2179:
2164:
2149:
2130:
2125:C. maculatus
2123:
2121:
2106:
2091:
2049:
2047:
2040:
2034:
2032:
2024:Rhizocephala
2016:
2009:
1993:M. nigricans
1992:
1986:
1984:
1979:Geoff Parker
1951:
1931:
1922:
1913:
1909:vertex cover
1894:
1887:
1875:Homo sapiens
1874:
1860:
1833:and B and T
1831:granulocytes
1824:
1757:
1750:
1742:
1720:The average
1719:
1713:Homo sapiens
1711:
1709:
1696:
1687:
1686:
1613:
1600:
1572:
1554:
1543:
1540:
1537:
1533:
1532:
1516:
1513:
1510:Ceratopsians
1509:
1508:
1497:
1493:
1492:
1483:crocodilians
1476:
1472:
1471:
1466:Camarasaurus
1464:
1460:
1456:
1446:
1440:
1438:
1434:
1433:
1409:
1393:
1385:
1384:(subspecies
1377:
1374:Cape sparrow
1365:
1364:- (one) and
1361:
1357:
1352:
1336:
1332:
1327:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1291:
1287:hummingbirds
1279:
1271:The extinct
1242:
1192:
1190:
1182:
1178:
1174:
1170:
1163:
1158:
1123:
1117:
1096:
1094:
1083:
1079:
1067:
1056:
1054:
1050:
1038:
1032:
1026:
1022:
1008:
991:
985:
969:
946:
936:
930:
928:
919:
916:Copris ochus
915:
909:
907:
900:
894:
887:
881:
879:
868:
865:
857:
813:
806:
804:
799:
788:flower stalk
781:
779:
763:
761:
753:
751:
733:
727:
705:
686:
674:
667:
656:
644:
639:
635:
611:Lepidopteran
604:
581:
569:
561:
506:monomorphism
505:
486:reproduction
476:of the same
469:
468:
280:spermatozoon
174:Y chromosome
169:X chromosome
110:Virilization
105:Feminization
94:
69:
43:
12408:Determinism
12320:Coevolution
12264:Primatology
12102:Gender role
12007:Orientation
11887:Screen time
11744:Affectional
11726:Development
11405:Mate choice
11332:By-products
11300:Adaptations
11263:Cognitivism
11150:Systematics
11021:Mutationism
10839:Catagenesis
10767:Snake venom
10700:Eusociality
10678:in primates
10668:Cooperation
10596:In animals
10416:butterflies
10389:Cephalopods
10379:Brachiopods
10311:Development
10285:Mate choice
10038:Convergence
10021:Coevolution
9979:Abiogenesis
9868:Dyspareunia
9863:Dysorgasmia
9809:Development
8864:10261/44557
8849:(1): 1–18.
8810:(1): 9–19.
8708:Ridley 2004
8696:Ridley 2004
8672:Ridley 2004
7472:(1): 4295.
7317:BMC Biology
7109:NeuroReport
6544:Arbor House
6325:LiveScience
6159:11336/29893
3460:15 November
3308:(1): 9–19.
2566:Parus major
2549:22 November
2392:, p. 8
2160:mate choice
2074:Mate choice
1890:gray matter
1863:human brain
1847:Ethologists
1835:lymphocytes
1768:lung volume
1669:Male pelvis
1494:Ornithopoda
1457:Apatosaurus
1442:Apatosaurus
1072:. In fish,
1006:wolf spider
839:embryo sacs
819:sporophytes
724:pollination
716:pollinators
626:ultraviolet
615:carotenoids
548:is present.
426:Gonochorism
213:Mating type
39:Gonochorism
12567:Categories
12355:Population
12350:Lamarckism
12196:behavioral
12174:Behavioral
12122:Narcissism
12067:Aggression
11857:Hypophobia
11847:Depression
11734:Attachment
11716:Universals
11680:Psychology
11658:Biological
11646:Musicology
11636:Aesthetics
11535:Basophobia
11342:Exaptation
11320:Reciprocal
11011:Lamarckism
10989:Philosophy
10912:David Hume
10874:Peripatric
10869:Parapatric
10854:Ecological
10834:Anagenesis
10829:Allopatric
10821:Speciation
10785:Gradualism
10710:Metabolism
10570:chromosome
10560:Eukaryotes
10338:Modularity
10255:Population
10181:Population
10142:Speciation
10120:Panspermia
10073:Extinction
10068:Exaptation
10043:Divergence
10016:Cladistics
10004:Reciprocal
9984:Adaptation
9888:Vaginismus
9858:Anorgasmia
9712:Adrenarche
9707:Spermarche
9687:Gonadarche
9285:Copulation
9006:Biological
8946:Audio help
8937:2019-08-30
7218:1501.00727
7151:NeuroImage
6294:. p.
5652:2 February
4182:: 163–181.
3648:: 721–725.
3481:Apidologie
3409:Apidologie
2983:3 November
2334:3 November
2239:References
2087:trilobites
2068:See also:
2012:anglerfish
1975:blue whale
1938:stem cells
1843:infectious
1839:antibodies
1784:hemoglobin
1500:hadrosaurs
1461:Diplodocus
1448:Diplodocus
1184:P. bibroni
1138:amphibians
870:Osmia rufa
747:euglossine
652:aposematic
622:zeaxanthin
341:Copulation
12593:Asymmetry
12200:cognitive
12192:Affective
12077:Cognition
12031:Sexuality
12017:Pair bond
11777:Education
11434:Cognition
11352:Inclusive
11292:processes
11280:Criticism
11145:Protocell
10996:Darwinism
10884:Sympatric
10633:processes
10521:Tetrapods
10470:Kangaroos
10396:Dinosaurs
10333:Inversion
10302:Variation
10223:Gene flow
10216:Inclusive
10026:Mutualism
9971:Evolution
9814:Lactation
9804:Thelarche
9781:Andrology
9728:Menopause
9625:Pregnancy
9615:Fertility
9570:Erection
9526:Germ cell
9499:Oogenesis
9487:spermatid
9449:Ovulation
9340:Mechanics
9317:Sexuality
9212:Oogenesis
9187:Sex organ
9177:Germ cell
9165:Anisogamy
8776:Evolution
8753:Evolution
8620:237242736
8280:0003-0147
8178:1631-0683
8131:129620469
6632:ignored (
6622:cite book
6144:: 19–31.
6072:0008-4301
6002:208557639
5994:0305-1838
5873:1932-6203
5806:1932-6203
5241:CiteSeerX
4982:0071-3260
4845:205783815
4067:Smith T.
4028:: e5751.
3801:221736269
3771:CiteSeerX
3745:1432-0762
3627:0394-9370
3429:0044-8435
2937:CiteSeerX
2648:Wilkie SE
2430:CiteSeerX
2113:Anisogamy
2109:anisogamy
2092:In 1871,
2058:Evolution
2028:Sacculina
1898:(See the
1851:selective
1816:microglia
1800:platelets
1792:vitamin K
1772:body mass
1738:endurance
1606:pinnipeds
1596:proboscis
1582:Pinnipeds
1479:theropods
1473:Theropoda
1370:colour".
1348:kangaroos
1231:mute swan
1019:Araneidae
1015:fecundity
735:Catasetum
729:Catasetum
703:species.
607:blue tits
579:species.
490:dioecious
391:Mechanics
367:Sexuality
268:Oogenesis
248:Germ cell
236:Anisogamy
12469:Memetics
12229:Ethology
12187:genetics
12022:Physical
11987:Jealousy
11942:Activity
11748:maternal
11704:Religion
11692:Morality
11670:Language
11551:taxonomy
11364:Mismatch
11310:Cheating
11305:Altruism
11173:Category
11048:Vitalism
11043:Theistic
11036:Spandrel
10720:Morality
10715:Monogamy
10590:plastids
10555:Flagella
10511:Reptiles
10492:sea cows
10475:primates
10384:Molluscs
10362:Bacteria
10250:Mutation
10183:genetics
10159:Taxonomy
10105:Mismatch
10085:Homology
9999:Cheating
9994:Altruism
9751:Vivipary
9721: /
9702:Menarche
9697:Pubarche
9579:Clitoral
9531:gonocyte
9504:oogonium
9434:Menarche
9372:Category
9350:Activity
9246:Internal
9241:External
9130:Intersex
8948: ·
8873:85330510
8832:17439073
8824:17206580
8774:(2004).
8772:Ridley M
8612:34413504
8565:25003332
8514:84275261
8461:20097207
8418:29879237
8337:38306281
8298:30125231
8241:22869736
8046:Dicranum
7932:12879056
7839:19197511
7747:19190082
7696:21852955
7645:17420291
7588:23903733
7504:31541153
7447:30288910
7398:25014762
7374:: 4438.
7349:28173793
7323:(1): 7.
7290:28447246
7255:26132764
7205:PLOS ONE
7171:15734366
7129:12488829
7094:18440950
7045:10234034
6996:35293796
6988:12794739
6866:22238103
6817:19323646
6809:16425037
6682:: 50–58.
6614:28060318
6574:(1981).
6568:Gersh ES
6523:85527866
6515:30918396
6397:21 April
6235:(2007).
6219:12886010
6123:25307359
6080:91796880
5951:15322528
5914:12 March
5891:25901727
5843:PLOS ONE
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