Sherman Antitrust Act

1083:

enactment and during fifty years of litigation of the Sherman Act give no hint that such was its purpose. They do not suggest that, in general, state laws or law enforcement machinery were inadequate to prevent local obstructions or interferences with interstate transportation, or presented any problem requiring the interposition of federal authority. In 1890, when the Sherman Act was adopted, there were only a few federal statutes imposing penalties for obstructing or misusing interstate transportation. With an expanding commerce, many others have since been enacted safeguarding transportation in interstate commerce as the need was seen, including statutes declaring conspiracies to interfere or actual interference with interstate commerce by violence or threats of violence to be felonies. The law was enacted in the era of "trusts" and of "combinations" of businesses and of capital organized and directed to control of the market by suppression of competition in the marketing of goods and services, the monopolistic tendency of which had become a matter of public concern. The goal was to prevent restraints of free competition in business and commercial transactions which tended to restrict production, raise prices, or otherwise control the market to the detriment of purchasers or consumers of goods and services, all of which had come to be regarded as a special form of public injury. For that reason the phrase "restraint of trade," which, as will presently appear, had a well understood meaning in common law, was made the means of defining the activities prohibited. The addition of the words "or commerce among the several States" was not an additional kind of restraint to be prohibited by the Sherman Act, but was the means used to relate the prohibited restraint of trade to interstate commerce for constitutional purposes, Atlantic Cleaners & Dyers v. United States, 286 U. S. 427, 286 U. S. 434, so that Congress, through its commerce power, might suppress and penalize restraints on the competitive system which involved or affected interstate commerce. Because many forms of restraint upon commercial competition extended across state lines so as to make regulation by state action difficult or impossible, Congress enacted the Sherman Act, 21 Cong.Rec. 2456. It was in this sense of preventing restraints on commercial competition that Congress exercised "all the power it possessed." Atlantic Cleaners & Dyers v. United States, supra, 286 U. S. 435.

2488:

strife or unrest, which have the intent or the necessary effect of burdening or obstructing commerce. . . ." The Anti-Racketeering Act, 48 Stat. 979, 18 U.S.C. §§ 420a-420e (1934), is designed to protect trade and commerce against interference by violence and threats. § 420a provides that "any person who, in connection with or in relation to any act in any way or in any degree affecting trade or commerce or any article or commodity moving or about to move in trade or commerce --" "(a) Obtains or attempts to obtain, by the use of or attempt to use or threat to use force, violence, or coercion, the payment of money or other valuable considerations . . . not including, however, the payment of wages by a bonafide employer to a bona fide employee; or" "(b) Obtains the property of another, with his consent, induced by wrongful use of force or fear, or under color of official right; or" "(c) Commits or threatens to commit an act of physical violence or physical injury to a person or property in furtherance of a plan or purpose to violate subsections (a) or (b); or" "(d) Conspires or acts concertedly with any other person or persons to commit any of the foregoing acts; shall, upon conviction thereof, be guilty of a felony and shall be punished by imprisonment from one to ten years or by a fine of $ 10,000 or both." But the application of the provisions of § 420a to labor unions is restricted by § 420d, which provides: "Jurisdiction of offenses. Any person charged with violating section 420a of this title may be prosecuted in any district in which any part of the offense has been committed by him or by his actual associates participating with him in the offense or by his fellow conspirators:

2483:

1136 (1909), 18 U.S.C. §§ 388–390; white slave traffic, 36 Stat. 825 (1910), 18 U.S.C. §§ 397–404; transportation of prize-fight films, 37 Stat. 240 (1912), 18 U.S.C. §§ 405–407; larceny of goods moving in interstate commerce, 37 Stat. 670 (1913), 18 U.S.C. § 409; violent interference with foreign commerce, 40 Stat. 221 (1917), 18 U.S.C. § 381; transportation of stolen motor vehicles, 41 Stat. 324 (1919), 18 U.S.C. § 408; transportation of kidnapped persons, 47 Stat. 326 (1932), 18 U.S.C. § 408a–408c; threatening communication in interstate commerce, 48 Stat. 781 (1934), 18 U.S.C. § 408d; transportation of stolen or feloniously taken goods, securities or money, 48 Stat. 794 (1934), 18 U.S.C. § 415; transporting strikebreakers, 49 Stat. 1899 (1936), 18 U.S.C. § 407a; destruction or dumping of farm products received in interstate commerce, 44 Stat. 1355 (1927), 7 U.S.C. § 491.

1976:, in which the Court rejected a facial Sherman Act preemption challenge to a statute requiring that persons selling liquor to wholesalers affirm that the price charged was no higher than the lowest price at which sales were made anywhere in the United States during the previous month. Since the attack was a facial one, and the state law required no per se violations, no preemption could occur. The Court also rejected the possibility of preemption due to Sherman Act violations stemming from misuse of the statute. The Court stated that rather than imposing "irresistible economic pressure" on sellers to violate the Sherman Act, the statute "appears firmly anchored to the assumption that the Sherman Act will deter any attempts by the appellants to preserve their ... price level by conspiring to raise the prices at which liquor is sold elsewhere in the country". Thus, 2507:. . . with such penalties and provisions . . . as will tend to preserve freedom of trade and production, the natural competition of increasing production, the lowering of prices by such competition . . ." (19 Cong.Rec. 6041). This resolution explicitly presented the economic theory of the proponents of such legislation. The various bills introduced between 1888 and 1890 follow the theory of this resolution. Many bills sought to make void all arrangements "made with a view, or which tend, to prevent full and free competition in the production, manufacture, or sale of articles of domestic growth or production, . . ." S. 3445; S. 3510; H.R. 11339; all of the 50th Cong., 1st Sess. (1888) were bills of this type. In the 51st Cong. (1889), the bills were in a similar vein. 7739: 40: 7746: 2057:, described the Sherman Act as stifling innovation and harming society. "No one will ever know what new products, processes, machines, and cost-saving mergers failed to come into existence, killed by the Sherman Act before they were born. No one can ever compute the price that all of us have paid for that Act which, by inducing less effective use of capital, has kept our standard of living lower than would otherwise have been possible." Greenspan summarized the nature of antitrust law as "a jumble of economic irrationality and ignorance". Greenspan at that time was a disciple and friend of 1708:, composed the market only of alarm companies with services in every state, tailoring out any local competitors; the defendant stood alone in this market, but had the court added up the entire national market, it would have had a much smaller share of the national market for alarm services that the court purportedly used. The appellate courts affirmed this finding; however, today, an appellate court would likely find this definition to be flawed. Modern courts use a more sophisticated market definition that does not permit as manipulative a definition. 2738: 2731: 2717: 2727: 2138:, "Senator John Sherman of Ohio was motivated to introduce an antitrust bill in late 1889 partly as a way of enacting revenge on his political rival, General and former Governor Russell Alger of Michigan, because Sherman believed that Alger personally had cost him the presidential nomination at the 1888 Republican national convention ... Sherman was able to pursue his revenge motive by combining it with the broader Republican goals of preserving high tariffs and attacking the trusts." 1901:

that the statutory requirements create "an unacceptable and unnecessary risk of anticompetitive effect", and does not occur simply because it is possible to use the statute in an anticompetitive manner. It should not mean that preemption is impossible whenever both procompetitive and anticompetitive results are conceivable. The per se rule "reflects the judgment that such cases are not sufficiently common or important to justify the time and expense necessary to identify them".

1996:

statutory restraint unreasonably restrain trade. If they do, preemption is warranted unless the statute passes the appropriate state action tests. But, when the statutory conduct combines with other practices in a larger conspiracy to restrain trade, or when the statute is used to violate the antitrust laws in a market in which such a use is not compelled by the state statute, the private party might be subjected to antitrust liability without preemption of the statute.

10337: 10301: 8000: 712: 10347: 2493:

are expressed in existing statutes of the United States." It is significant that Chapter 9 of the Criminal Code, dealing with "Offenses Against Foreign And Interstate Commerce" and relating specifically to acts of interstate transportation or its obstruction, makes no mention of the Sherman Act, which is made a part of the Code which deals with social, economic and commercial results of interstate activity, notwithstanding its criminal penalty."

2122:, does not condemn the entire regime, but expresses concern with the potential that it could be applied to create inefficiency, rather than to avoid inefficiency. Posner further believes, along with a number of others, including Bork, that genuinely inefficient cartels and coercive monopolies, the target of the act, would be self-corrected by market forces, making the strict penalties of antitrust legislation unnecessary. Conversely, liberal 2503:

such competition. On July 10, 1888, the Senate adopted without discussion a resolution offered by Senator Sherman which directed the Committee on Finance to inquire into, and report in connection with, revenue bills "such measures as it may deem expedient to set aside, control, restrain or prohibit all arrangements, contracts, agreements, trusts, or combinations between persons or corporations, made with a view, or which tend to prevent

1547: 1169: 1516:" Such conduct "would always or almost always tend to restrict competition and decrease output". When a per se rule is applied (in contrast to a rule of reason analysis), a civil violation of the antitrust laws is found merely by proving that the conduct occurred and that it fell within a per se category. Conduct considered unlawful per se includes horizontal price-fixing, horizontal market division, and concerted refusals to deal. 1605: 679: 2108:" Dilorenzo writes: "Protectionists did not want prices paid by consumers to fall. But they also understood that to gain political support for high tariffs they would have to assure the public that industries would not combine to increase prices to politically prohibitive levels. Support for both an antitrust law and tariff hikes would maintain high prices while avoiding the more obvious bilking of consumers." 1921:, automobile manufacturers and retail franchisees contended that the Sherman Act preempted a statute requiring manufacturers to secure the permission of a state board before opening a new dealership if and only if a competing dealer protested. They argued that a conflict existed because the statute permitted "auto dealers to invoke state power for the purpose of restraining intrabrand competition". 1765: 2328:"This focus of U.S. competition law, on protection of competition rather than competitors, is not necessarily the only possible focus or purpose of competition law. For example, it has also been said that competition law in the European Union (EU) tends to protect the competitors in the marketplace, even at the expense of market efficiencies and consumers."< 1530:

se. Taking a "quick look", economic harm is presumed from the questionable nature of the conduct, and the burden is shifted to the defendant to prove harmlessness or justification. The quick-look became a popular way of disposing of cases where the conduct was in a grey area between illegality "per se" and demonstrable harmfulness under the "rule of reason".

2399: 3293:, 100 N.M. 216, 668 P.2d 1093, 1099 (1983) (rejecting a facial attack on a statute but reserving a decision on whether the actual application of the statute might violate the antitrust laws), appeal dismissed, 104 S. Ct. 1581 (1984). But see infra note 149 for a discussion on the possibility of a much more limited rule of reason preemption analysis. 1024:(i.e. three times as much money in damages as the violation cost them). Over time, the federal courts have developed a body of law under the Sherman Act making certain types of anticompetitive conduct per se illegal, and subjecting other types of conduct to case-by-case analysis regarding whether the conduct unreasonably restrains trade. 2516:

of transit of articles in interstate commerce, . . ." When the antitrust bill (S. 1, 51st Cong., 1st Sess.) came before Congress for debate, the debates point to a similar purpose. Senator Sherman asserted the bill prevented only "business combinations" "made with a view to prevent competition", 21 Cong.Rec. 2457, 2562;

1878:, 445 U.S. 97, 105 (1980), the Supreme Court established a two-part test for applying the doctrine: "First, the challenged restraint must be one clearly articulated and affirmatively expressed as state policy; second, the policy must be actively supervised by the State itself." Id. (citation and quotation marks omitted). 2515:

Bills and Debates in Congress relating to Trusts (1909), Vol. 1, pp. 1025–1031. Only one, which was never enacted, S. 1268 in the 52d Cong., 1st Sess. (1892), introduced by Senator Peffer, sought to prohibit "every willful act . . . which shall have the effect to in any way interfere with the freedom

2482:

regulation of; interstate carriage of lottery tickets, 28 Stat. 963 (1895), 18 U.S.C. § 387; Transportation of obscene books, 29 Stat. 512 (1897), 18 U.S.C. § 396; transportation of illegally killed game, 31 Stat. 188 (1900), 18 U.S.C. §§ 392–395; interstate shipment of intoxicating liquors, 35 Stat.

1934:

would permit charging different prices. They reasoned that the Robinson-Patman Act is a qualification of our "more basic national policy favoring free competition" and that any state statute altering "the competitive balance that Congress struck between the Robinson-Patman and Sherman Acts" should be

1908:, ambiguous guideline regarding preemption by Section 1 is the Court's statement that a "state statute is not preempted by the federal antitrust laws simply because the state scheme might have an anticompetitive effect". The meaning of this statement is clarified by examining the three cases cited in 1893:

If the statute does not mandate conduct violating a per se rule, the conduct is analyzed under the rule of reason, which requires an examination of the conduct's actual effects on competition. If unreasonable anticompetitive effects are created, the required conduct violates Section 1 and the statute

1694:

Second, courts have employed more sophisticated and principled definitions of markets. Market definition is necessary, in rule of reason cases, for the plaintiff to prove a conspiracy is harmful. It is also necessary for the plaintiff to establish the market relationship between conspirators to prove

2502:

Footnote 15 appears here: "The history of the Sherman Act, as contained in the legislative proceedings, is emphatic in its support for the conclusion that "business competition" was the problem considered, and that the act was designed to prevent restraints of trade which had a significant effect on

2468:

Footnote 13 appears here: "Three statutes covered in 1890 the Congressional action in relation to obstructions to interstate commerce. A penalty was imposed for the refusal to transmit a telegraph message (R.S. § 5269, 17 Stat. 366 (1872)) for transporting nitroglycerine and other explosives without

2420:

Homan, Industrial Combination as Surveyed in Recent Literature, 44 Quart.J.Econ., 345 (1930). With few exceptions, the articles, scientific and popular, reflected the popular idea that the Act was aimed at the prevention of monopolistic practices and restraints upon trade injurious to purchasers and

2077:

said "trusts have made products cheaper, have reduced prices; but if the price of oil, for instance, were reduced to one cent a barrel, it would not right the wrong done to people of this country by the trusts which have destroyed legitimate competition and driven honest men from legitimate business

2022:

And see the statement of Senator Edmunds, chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee which reported out the bill in the form in which it passed, that in drafting that bill the committee thought that "we would frame a bill that should be clearly within our constitutional power, that we would make its

1529:

A "quick look" analysis under the rule of reason may be used when "an observer with even a rudimentary understanding of economics could conclude that the arrangements in question would have an anticompetitive effect on customers and markets", yet the violation is also not one considered unlawful per

2069:

Rand, who described herself as "a radical for capitalism", opposed antitrust law not only on economic grounds but also morally, as a violation of property rights, asserting that the "meaning and purpose" of antitrust law is "the penalizing of ability for being ability, the penalizing of success for

2008:

No attempt is made to invade the legislative authority of the several States or even to occupy doubtful grounds. No system of laws can be devised by Congress alone which would effectually protect the people of the United States against the evils and oppression of trusts and monopolies. Congress has

1950:

Merely another way of stating that the ... statute will have an anticompetitive effect. In this sense, there is a conflict between the statute and the central policy of the Sherman Act – 'our charter of economic liberty'. ... Nevertheless, this sort of conflict cannot itself constitute a sufficient

1900:

sets out guidelines to aid in preemption analysis. Preemption should not occur "simply because in a hypothetical situation a private party's compliance with the statute might cause him to violate the antitrust laws". This language suggests that preemption occurs only if economic analysis determines

1523:

determine whether Section 1 is violated. The court analyzes "facts peculiar to the business, the history of the restraining, and the reasons why it was imposed", to determine the effect on competition in the relevant product market. A restraint violates Section 1 if it unreasonably restrains trade.

1027:

The law attempts to prevent the artificial raising of prices by restriction of trade or supply. "Innocent monopoly", or monopoly achieved solely by merit, is legal, but acts by a monopolist to artificially preserve that status, or nefarious dealings to create a monopoly, are not. The purpose of the

2492:

That no court of the United States shall construe or apply any of the provisions of sections 420a to 420e of this title in such manner as to impair, diminish, or in any manner affect the rights of bona fide labor organizations in lawfully carrying out the legitimate objects thereof, as such rights

2487:

National Labor Relations Act, 49 Stat. 449 (1935), 29 U.S.C., Ch. 7, § 151, "Findings and declaration of policy. The denial by employers of the right of employees to organize and the refusal by employers to accept the procedure of collective bargaining lead to strikes and other forms of industrial

1131:

The Sherman Act is divided into three sections. Section 1 delineates and prohibits specific means of anticompetitive conduct, while Section 2 deals with end results that are anti-competitive in nature. Thus, these sections supplement each other in an effort to prevent businesses from violating the

2785:

The truth is that our categories of analysis of anticompetitive effect are less fixed than terms like 'per se', 'quick look', and 'rule of reason' tend to make them appear. We have recognized, for example, that 'there is often no bright line separating per se from rule of reason analysis,' since

2544:

4089; Representative Wilson spoke in favor of the bill against combinations among "competing producers to control the supply of their product, in order that they may dictate the terms on which they shall sell in the market, and may secure release from the stress of competition among themselves,"

2030:

Now we are dealing with an offense against interstate or international commerce, which the State cannot regulate by penal enactment, and we find the United States without any common law. The great thing that this bill does, except affording a remedy, is to extend the common-law principles, which

1666:

A modern trend has increased difficulty for antitrust plaintiffs as courts have come to hold plaintiffs to increasing burdens of pleading. Under older Section 1 precedent, it was not settled how much evidence was required to show a conspiracy. For example, a conspiracy could be inferred based on

1507:

These are violations that meet the strict characterization of Section 1 ("agreements, conspiracies or trusts in restraint of trade"). A per se violation requires no further inquiry into the practice's actual effect on the market or the intentions of those individuals who engaged in the practice.

2130:

criticized the judiciary for interpreting and enforcing the antitrust law unequally: "From the beginning it has been applied by judges hostile to its purposes, friendly to the empire builders who wanted it emasculated ... trusts that were dissolved reintegrated in new forms ... It is

1720:

and innocent monopoly. The act is not meant to punish businesses that come to dominate their market passively or on their own merit, only those that intentionally dominate the market through misconduct, which generally consists of conspiratorial conduct of the kind forbidden by Section 1 of the

1995:

Thus, when a state requires conduct analyzed under the rule of reason, a court must carefully distinguish rule of reason analysis for preemption purposes from the analysis for liability purposes. To analyze whether preemption occurs, the court must determine whether the inevitable effects of a

1522:

A totality of the circumstances test, asking whether the challenged practice promotes or suppresses market competition. Unlike with per se violations, intent and motive are relevant when predicting future consequences. The rule of reason is said to be the "traditional framework of analysis" to

1082:

The legislative history of the Sherman Act, as well as the decisions of this Court interpreting it, show that it was not aimed at policing interstate transportation or movement of goods and property. The legislative history and the voluminous literature which was generated in the course of the

1046:

The purpose of the Act is not to protect businesses from the working of the market; it is to protect the public from the failure of the market. The law directs itself not against conduct which is competitive, even severely so, but against conduct which unfairly tends to destroy competition

2429:

42 Ann.Am.Acad., Industrial Competition and Combination (July 1912); P. L. Anderson, Combination v. Competition, 4 Edit.Rev. 500 (1911); Gilbert Holland Montague, Trust Regulation Today, 105 Atl.Monthly, 1 (1910); Federal Regulation of Industry, 32 Ann.Am.Acad. of Pol.Sci., No. 108 (1908),

1667:

parallel conduct, etc. That is, plaintiffs were only required to show that a conspiracy was conceivable. Since the 1970s, however, courts have held plaintiffs to higher standards, giving antitrust defendants an opportunity to resolve cases in their favor before significant discovery under

1852:

First, they will inquire whether the state legislation "mandates or authorizes conduct that necessarily constitutes a violation of the antitrust laws in all cases, or ... places irresistible pressure on a private party to violate the antitrust laws in order to comply with the statute."

2790:

at 779 (quoting NCAA, 468 U.S. at 104 n.26). "Whether the ultimate finding is the product of a presumption or actual market analysis, the essential inquiry remains the same whether or not the challenged restraint enhances competition." 526 U.S. at 779–80 (quoting NCAA, 468 U.S. at

1063:... who merely by superior skill and intelligence...got the whole business because nobody could do it as well as he could was not a monopolist...(but was if) it involved something like the use of means which made it impossible for other persons to engage in fair competition." 3377:, 496 F. Supp. 408, 449 (S.D. Ohio 1980) (indicating that a statute neither requiring nor permitting an anticompetitive collaboration gives the private party enough freedom of choice to preclude preemption), aff'd in part and remanded in part, 679 F.2d 656 (6th Cir. 1982) 1685:

8(a) sufficient to show that a conspiracy is plausible (and not merely conceivable or possible). This protects defendants from bearing the costs of antitrust "fishing expeditions"; however it deprives plaintiffs of perhaps their only tool to acquire evidence (discovery).

1440:. Therefore, federal courts only have jurisdiction to apply the Act to conduct that restrains or substantially affects either interstate commerce. (Congress also has ultimate authority over economic rules within the District of Columbia and US territories under the 17th 1352:(2010), where nurses alleged Albany Medical Center suppressed their wages in violation of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, by sharing wage information with other area hospitals. References: (1) Casetext Fleischman vs Albany Medical Center (2) Justia Docket No. 10-0846-mv 2434:

Clark, Federal Trust Policy (1931), Ch. II, V; Homan, Trusts, 15 Ency.Soc.Sciences 111, 113: "clearly the law was inspired by the predatory competitive tactics of the great trusts, and its primary purpose was the maintenance of the competitive system in industry."

1729:

While the Act was aimed at regulating businesses, its prohibition of contracts restricting commerce was applied to the activities of labor unions until the 1930s. This is because unions were characterized as cartels as well (cartels of laborers). In 1914 the

2458:

Report of the Commissioner of Labor, Labor Laws of the Various States (1892); Bull. 370, Labor Laws of the United States with Decisions Relating Thereto, United States Bureau of Labor Statistics (1925); Witte, The Government in Labor Disputes (1932), 12–45,

1152:

Every person who shall monopolize, or attempt to monopolize, or combine or conspire with any other person or persons, to monopolize any part of the trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor

3277:, 745 F.2d 166, 175 (2d Cir. 1984) (while declining to decide whether a statute required an antitrust violation in a facial attack, the court left open the possibility of preemption based on the statute's operation), cert. denied, 105 S. Ct. 1393 (1985); 4868: 2453:

the kinds of strikes which were declared illegal in Pennsylvania, including a strike accompanied by force or threat of harm to persons or property, Brightly's Purdon's Digest of 1885, pp. 426, 1172. For collection of state statutes on labor activities,

2023:

definition out of terms that were well known to the law already, and would leave it to the courts in the first instance to say how far they could carry it or its particular definitions as applicable to each particular case as the occasion might arise."

3515:

Criticisms such as this one, attributed to Greenspan, are not directed at the Sherman act in particular, but rather at the underlying policy of all antitrust law, which includes several pieces of legislation other than just the Sherman Act, e.g. the

1028:

Sherman Act is not to protect competitors from harm from legitimately successful businesses, nor to prevent businesses from gaining honest profits from consumers, but rather to preserve a competitive marketplace to protect consumers from abuses.

3352:, 662 F.2d 88, 100 n.15 (1st Cir.) (power to control others not sufficient for facial preemption where party had no institutional reason to make anticompetitive decisions especially likely), aff'd on other grounds, 662 F.2d 102 (1st Cir. 1981) ( 1980:

indicates that when conduct required by a state statute combines with other conduct that, taken together, constitutes an illegal restraint of trade, liability may be imposed for the restraint without requiring preemption of the state statute.

6030: 1991:

states that while particular conduct or arrangements by private parties would be subject to per se or rule of reason analysis to determine liability, "here is no basis ... for condemning the statute itself by force of the Sherman Act."

2586:

Report of Committee on Interstate Commerce on Control of Corporations Engaged in Interstate Commerce, S.Rept. 1326, 62d Cong., 3d Sess. (1913), pp. 2, 4; Report of Federal Trade Commission, S.Doc. 226, 70th Cong., 2d Sess. (1929), pp.

1233:, passed in 1914, proscribes certain additional activities that had been discovered to fall outside the scope of the Sherman Antitrust Act. The Clayton Antitrust Act added certain practices to the list of impermissible activities: 2448:

Footnote 12 appears here: "There was no lack of existing law to protect against evils ascribed to organized labor. Legislative and judicial action of both a criminal and civil nature already restrained concerted action by labor.

1951:

reason for invalidating the ... statute. For if an adverse effect on competition were, in and of itself, enough to render a state statute invalid, the States' power to engage in economic regulation would be effectively destroyed.

3744: 3310:, 750 F.2d 1154, 1157, 1165 (2d Cir. 1984) (holding that the state action doctrine protected the conduct of a private party after assuming that it violated the federal antitrust laws), cert. denied, 105 S. Ct. 2325 (1985); 4008: 4465: 7436: 1882:

The antitrust laws allow coincident state regulation of competition. The Supreme Court enunciated the test for determining when a state statute is in irreconcilable conflict with Section 1 of the Sherman Act in

1448:, respectively.) This requires that the plaintiff must show that the conduct occurred during the flow of interstate commerce or had an appreciable effect on some activity that occurs during interstate commerce. 2131:

ironic that the Sherman Act was truly effective in only one respect, and that was when it was applied to labor unions. Then the courts read it with a literalness that never appeared in their other decisions."

6727: 5990: 2017:

There is no attempt to exercise any doubtful authority on this subject, but the bill is confined strictly and alone to subjects over which, confessedly, there is no question about the legislative power of

1917: 2103:

went on to assert that Sherman merely supported this "humbug" of a law "in order that party organs might say ... 'Behold! We have attacked the trusts. The Republican Party is the enemy of all such

4545: 4513: 3400: 5966: 3412: 1972: 7428: 3975: 6163: 3829: 2082:, a price-lowering mechanism, by breaking up big businesses. Mason put small business survival, a justice interest, on a level concomitant with the pure economic rationale of consumer interest. 1865:, 479 U.S. 335 (1987) ("Our decisions reflect the principle that the federal antitrust laws pre-empt state laws authorizing or compelling private parties to engage in anticompetitive behavior.") 3306:, 458 U.S. at 662–63 n.9 ("because of our resolution of the pre-emption issue, it is not necessary for us to consider whether the statute may be saved from invalidation under the doctrine"); 7420: 2004:

The Act was not intended to regulate existing state statutes regulating commerce within state borders. The House committee, in reporting the bill which was adopted without change, declared:

1890:

A statute can be condemned on its face only when it mandates, authorizes or places irresistible pressure on private parties to engage in conduct constituting a per se violation of Section 1.

405: 1303:(1906) also reached the Supreme Court. Precedent was set for the production of documents by an officer of a company, and the self-incrimination of the officer in his or her testimony to the 2009:

no authority to deal, generally, with the subject within the States, and the States have no authority to legislate in respect of commerce between the several States or with foreign nations.

6567: 2193: 1257:

of 1936 amended the Clayton Act. The amendment proscribed certain anti-competitive practices in which manufacturers engaged in price discrimination against equally-situated distributors.

7160: 7080: 3935: 2549:

4090. The unanimity with which foes and supporters of the bill spoke of its aims as the protection of free competition permits use of the debates in interpreting the purpose of the act.

2099:

which wrote on October 1, 1890: "That so-called Anti-Trust law was passed to deceive the people and to clear the way for the enactment of this Pro-Trust law relating to the tariff." The

1271:

The federal government began filing cases under the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890. Some cases were successful and others were not; many took several years to decide, including appeals.

6519: 5269: 2298: 1874: 2315: 1894:

is in irreconcilable conflict with the Sherman Act. Then statutory arrangement is analyzed to determine whether it qualifies as "state action" and is thereby saved from preemption.

3739: 2625: 1132:

spirit of the Act, while technically remaining within the letter of the law. Section 3 simply extends the provisions of Section 1 to U.S. territories and the District of Columbia.

2787: 2511:

S. 1, sec. 1 (this bill as redrafted by the Judiciary Committee ultimately became the Sherman Law); H.R. 202, sec. 3; H.R. 270; H.R. 286; H.R. 402; H.R. 509; H.R. 826; H.R. 3819.

1698:

In early cases, it was easier for plaintiffs to show market relationship, or dominance, by tailoring market definition, even if it ignored fundamental principles of economics. In

3886: 10381: 7404: 6735: 4940: 4489: 3882: 3833: 1008:

The Sherman Act broadly prohibits 1) anticompetitive agreements and 2) unilateral conduct that monopolizes or attempts to monopolize the relevant market. The Act authorizes the

7087: 3939: 2669: 5900: 1477:

the willful acquisition or maintenance of that power as distinguished from growth or development as a consequence of a superior product, business acumen, or historic accident.

7282: 7412: 6879: 6847: 6527: 4154: 367: 1861: 1445: 576: 2540:

3147. In the House, Representative Culberson, who was in charge of the bill, interpreted the bill to prohibit various arrangements which tend to drive out competition,

774: 7527: 1402:(1990) Judge Getzendanner issued her opinion that the AMA had violated Section 1, but not 2, of the Sherman Act, and that it had engaged in an unlawful conspiracy in 9564: 8743: 7444: 4684: 2881: 2078:

enterprise." Consequently, if the primary goal of the act is to protect consumers, and consumers are protected by lower prices, the act may be harmful if it reduces

7035: 6535: 6131: 4238: 4964: 4246: 9426: 9245: 7372: 6956: 6903: 6607: 6288: 5998: 5199: 4997: 4313: 2119: 4061: 1051:

According to its authors, it was not intended to impact market gains obtained by honest means, by benefiting the consumers more than the competitors. Senator

9867: 7827: 6251: 6091: 4417: 3169: 3105: 3076: 3061: 3021: 2994: 2979: 2956: 2929: 2902: 2890: 2869: 2844: 2821: 2806: 2756: 2374: 2347: 662: 642: 619: 600: 581: 562: 543: 524: 505: 486: 467: 448: 429: 410: 391: 372: 353: 334: 315: 296: 277: 258: 239: 220: 10371: 6831: 6417: 5958: 5253: 5167: 4892: 4788: 4577: 557: 3194:, 437 U.S. 117, 130–34 (1978) (state law with anticompetitive effect upheld to avoid destroying the ability of the states to regulate economic activity); 10376: 9590: 9580: 7364: 6743: 6454: 4852: 291: 234: 9386: 9233: 6463: 6313: 4473: 1700: 462: 10304: 7817: 7452: 7123: 6767: 6703: 6006: 595: 3577: 2536:

2729; Senator George denounced trusts which crush out competition, "and that is the great evil at which all this legislation ought to be directed,"

9786: 9411: 9360: 7139: 6981: 6935: 6503: 6014: 4561: 4121: 2864: 1144:

or otherwise, or conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign nations, is hereby declared to be illegal.

1089: 500: 3314:, 679 F.2d 656, 662 (6th Cir. 1982) (even if conduct violated Sherman Act, the statute is saved by the state action doctrine); '"Miller v. Hedlund 2469:

proper safeguards (R.S. § 5353, 14 Stat. 81 (1866)) and for combining to prevent the continuous carriage of freight, 24 Stat. 382, 49 U.S.C. § 7."

9421: 9239: 9134: 8672: 6679: 6235: 5929: 5644: 5559: 4708: 2256: 1314: 1106: 310: 9556: 8135: 6911: 6615: 6401: 6321: 5846: 5705: 5567: 1020:(i.e. prohibit) conduct violating the Act, and additionally authorizes private parties injured by conduct violating the Act to bring suits for 10401: 9543: 7767: 7396: 6807: 6329: 6171: 5838: 4836: 3815: 3289:) (declining to decide whether the rule of reason might invalidate a law on the record before them), Appeal dismissed, 105 S. Ct. 56 (1984); 2439:

Shulman, Labor and the Anti-Trust Laws, 34 Ill.L.Rev. 769; Boudin, the Sherman Law and Labor Disputes, 39 Col.L.Rev. 1283; 40 Col.L.Rev. 14."

614: 424: 5104: 9451: 9391: 9290: 9037: 8965: 8866: 8777: 8753: 8659: 8540: 8456: 8379: 8327: 8247: 6965: 2294: 1803: 653: 2786:'considerable inquiry into market conditions' may be required before the application of any so-called 'per se' condemnation is justified. 1967:

guideline therefore indicates that only when the effect unreasonably restrains trade, and is therefore a violation, can preemption occur.

10222: 9570: 9332: 9147: 7675: 7643: 6433: 6243: 6115: 6083: 5774: 5149: 4756: 2801: 1356: 519: 9913: 9859: 9823: 9396: 8785: 6751: 6155: 5878: 4700: 4553: 4521: 4190: 3701: 481: 2532:

2609; Senator Platt, a critic of the bill, said this bill proceeds on the assumption that "competition is beneficent to the country,"

9469: 9406: 9401: 9354: 8763: 8315: 8275: 6511: 6409: 5652: 5636: 5628: 3281:, 544 F. Supp. 747, 751 (N.D. Ga. 1982) (plaintiff failed to show anticompetitive effects sufficient to violate the rule of reason); 2665: 2311: 952: 386: 9828: 9740: 9726: 9585: 9536: 9489: 9484: 9431: 9381: 9326: 8829: 8694: 8506: 7832: 7713: 6823: 6543: 6297: 5689: 5535: 5527: 4449: 2219: 2202: 1716:

Section 2 of the Act forbids monopoly. In Section 2 cases, the court has, again on its own initiative, drawn a distinction between

1364: 1291: 693: 348: 253: 10212: 9872: 9818: 9416: 9375: 9346: 8918: 7664: 6839: 6219: 5830: 5455: 4740: 4585: 4505: 4198: 1410: 9479: 9318: 9303: 9228: 9211: 6791: 6441: 5870: 4748: 4329: 2074: 1744:

in 1932 to more explicitly exempt organized labor from antitrust enforcement, and the Supreme Court upheld these exemptions in

1564: 1266: 1190: 17: 10340: 9908: 9805: 9713: 9458: 9340: 9297: 9162: 8130: 8125: 8112: 7596: 7356: 6927: 6895: 6695: 6687: 6479: 6259: 6227: 6107: 6062: 5982: 5575: 4772: 4668: 4297: 2560: 1326: 329: 9250: 3494: 3115: (1911) (Congress only intended to prohibit agreements that were "unreasonably restrictive of competitive (conditions"). 1348: 9124: 8037: 7772: 6361: 6275: 5974: 5908: 5697: 5551: 5543: 4916: 4628: 4457: 4409: 3803: 2575: 2031:

protected fair competition in trade in old times in England, to international and interstate commerce in the United States.

1736: 10330: 9747: 9497: 9050: 8990: 8580: 8094: 7837: 7718: 7708: 7703: 7572: 6973: 6919: 6195: 6022: 5729: 5672: 4433: 3364:, 593 F. Supp. 13, 15 (E.D.N.C. 1983) (in an oligopolistic market, price posting would result in an antitrust violation). 2396:"Bills and Debates in Congress Relating to Trusts: Fiftieth Congress to Fifty-seventh Congress, First Session, Inclusive" 1926: 1383: 1009: 443: 10396: 10325: 9812: 9575: 9436: 9368: 9308: 9102: 8605: 8595: 8511: 6783: 6267: 6147: 6038: 4876: 4860: 4425: 4377: 3967: 3906: 3853: 3812: 2369: 1418: 1038: 978: 538: 198: 130: 117: 9474: 9464: 9000: 8637: 8474: 8057: 7762: 6759: 6631: 6471: 5822: 5806: 5660: 4812: 4764: 4652: 4529: 3100: 2606: 2341: 1826: 1648: 1586: 1441: 1398: 1216: 921: 1630: 1336:(1911), where GE was judged to have violated the Sherman Anti-Trust Act, along with International General Electric, 1198: 9773: 9027: 8856: 8689: 8649: 8528: 8062: 7604: 6799: 6711: 6487: 6337: 4401: 4385: 4361: 1682: 1668: 689: 215: 161: 2114:

was well known for his outspoken criticism of the antitrust regime. Another conservative legal scholar and judge,

1360:(1915), which ruled that the company was abusing its monopolistic rights, and therefore, violated the Sherman act. 9974: 9708: 9664: 9060: 8558: 8414: 7754: 7636: 7217: 6345: 6203: 5937: 5191: 4353: 4321: 4028: 1390: 970: 98: 90: 993:

which prescribes the rule of free competition among those engaged in commerce and consequently prohibits unfair

9444: 9313: 9080: 7698: 7667: 5394: 4972: 4804: 4337: 4206: 3644:

Newman, Patrick (January 12, 2018). "Revenge: John Sherman, Russell Alger and the origins of the Sherman Act".

3406: 2213: 1930:, oil companies challenged a state statute requiring uniform statewide gasoline prices in situations where the 1869: 1677: 1615: 1568: 1194: 759: 2026:

Similarly Senator Hoar, a member of that committee who with Senator Edmunds was in charge of the bill, stated

10391: 10386: 10159: 9768: 9753: 9688: 9678: 9649: 9639: 9177: 7332: 5920: 5713: 5619: 5092: 4569: 4081: 2691: 2178: 945: 864: 3230:

458 U.S. at 661. If a statute does not require a per se violation, then it cannot be preempted on its face.

9758: 9732: 9718: 9693: 9683: 9634: 9550: 9157: 8667: 8441: 8335: 8120: 8046: 7506: 6179: 5183: 4820: 4369: 2886: 2773: 633: 1295:(1904), which reached the Supreme Court, dissolved the company and set many precedents for interpretation. 10188: 10084: 9654: 8923: 8300: 8265: 7881: 7853: 7787: 7777: 7006: 6775: 6099: 5583: 4724: 4497: 4129: 3564: 3320:, 593 F. Supp. 13, 17–18 (E.D.N.C. 1983) (though conduct violates Section 1, state action saves statute). 2230: 2045: 1884: 1855: 1845: 1672: 1422:(2020), wherein Judge Amit P. Mehta ruled Google acted illegally to maintain a monopoly in online search. 990: 59: 9778: 9763: 9628: 9142: 8484: 8260: 8230: 8195: 7919: 7738: 7629: 7059: 6551: 4393: 4305: 4150: 2273: 2225: 1341: 793: 728: 74: 2524:

2471; Senator Pugh of combinations "to limit production" for "the purpose of destroying competition",

10268: 10253: 10243: 10202: 10124: 10089: 9659: 8726: 8553: 8523: 8292: 8003: 7913: 7901: 7548: 7540: 7051: 6393: 5798: 5745: 4948: 4900: 4796: 4732: 4182: 3689: 1887:

Different standards apply depending on whether a statute is attacked on its face or for its effects.

1741: 3722:

U.S. Department of Justice: Antitrust Division – text of the Sherman Antitrust Act, 15 U.S.C. §§ 1–7

3693: 10273: 10248: 10164: 10069: 10029: 9621: 9167: 9010: 8995: 8896: 8844: 8802: 8790: 8627: 8429: 8030: 7866: 7340: 7233: 7185: 6943: 6575: 6369: 6139: 5721: 5681: 5599: 4073: 3796: 2240: 2188: 2158: 2153: 1179: 938: 8704: 10263: 10258: 10238: 10129: 10119: 10114: 10094: 9644: 9172: 8489: 8434: 8235: 7807: 6647: 6425: 6353: 5766: 5737: 4280: 4214: 4166: 4036: 4004: 2168: 1626: 1557: 1495: 1344:, Tungsol, and Consolidated and Chicago Miniature. Corning and Westinghouse made consent decrees. 1254: 1183: 8180: 2912: (1963) (a per se rule forecloses analysis of the purpose or market effect of a restraint); 10294: 10278: 10217: 10044: 9959: 9903: 9187: 9119: 9055: 8983: 8748: 8501: 8446: 8357: 8280: 8185: 8170: 7931: 7861: 7580: 6863: 6663: 6583: 5862: 5782: 5607: 5447: 5229: 4932: 4908: 2245: 1799: 1622: 1319: 998: 838: 2936: 2909: 2763: 2395: 10079: 10074: 9949: 9672: 9223: 9206: 9182: 9075: 9070: 9017: 8839: 8807: 8600: 8190: 8165: 8150: 7961: 7895: 7745: 7556: 7019: 6074: 5814: 5757: 5463: 5414: 5289: 5129: 5121: 5067: 5029: 4844: 4676: 4441: 4345: 3517: 3173: 3109: 3080: 3065: 3025: 2998: 2983: 2960: 2933: 2906: 2894: 2873: 2848: 2825: 2810: 2760: 2378: 2070:

being success, and the sacrifice of productive genius to the demands of envious mediocrity".

1731: 1369: 1230: 926: 666: 646: 623: 604: 585: 566: 547: 528: 509: 490: 471: 452: 433: 414: 395: 376: 357: 338: 319: 300: 281: 262: 243: 224: 1740:

that the actions allowed by the Act were already legal. Congress included provisions in the

39: 10350: 10169: 10134: 10039: 10014: 9703: 9200: 9152: 9092: 8928: 8849: 8709: 8632: 8590: 8469: 8419: 8404: 8387: 8287: 8175: 8145: 7955: 7797: 7723: 7588: 7485: 7027: 6887: 6623: 6599: 6559: 5519: 5386: 5237: 4230: 4020: 3316:, 579 F. Supp. 116, 124 (D. Or. 1984) (statute violating Section 1 saved by state action); 3083: 3068: 3028: 2963: 2851: 2381: 1808: 1308: 1141: 881: 876: 764: 682: 638: 3734: 2013:

See also the statement on the floor of the House by Mr. Culberson, in charge of the bill,

658: 8: 10154: 10104: 10059: 10049: 10034: 10024: 10009: 9989: 9964: 9954: 9944: 9698: 9518: 9508: 8950: 8699: 8392: 8310: 8305: 8255: 8155: 8023: 7943: 7925: 7907: 7728: 7693: 7305: 7249: 7225: 6495: 5503: 5487: 5471: 5322: 5221: 4828: 4692: 3898: 3789: 3621:, p. 295 et seq. (explaining the optimal antitrust regime from an economic point of view) 2813: 1931: 1373: 3781: 3112: 10174: 10149: 10054: 9994: 9969: 9939: 9929: 9528: 9523: 9513: 9503: 9216: 9194: 8714: 8573: 8548: 8518: 8479: 8362: 8205: 7949: 7295: 7209: 7201: 7131: 6719: 6187: 5790: 5591: 5495: 5479: 5362: 5354: 5261: 5245: 5011: 4780: 4222: 4102: 4057: 3764: 3669: 3572: 3176: 3001: 2986: 2828: 2127: 2123: 2095: 1748: 1403: 1250:

The Clayton Antitrust Act specifically states that unions are exempt from this ruling.

900: 822: 626: 607: 588: 569: 550: 531: 493: 455: 436: 417: 398: 379: 360: 341: 303: 265: 246: 124: 1754: 474: 284: 10346: 10109: 10064: 10004: 9979: 9934: 9877: 9114: 8945: 8758: 8345: 8140: 8101: 7889: 7652: 7498: 7348: 7107: 7043: 6591: 6385: 6305: 6054: 5423: 5402: 5298: 5175: 5076: 4956: 4716: 4537: 4289: 3861: 3673: 3661: 2876: 2602: 2337: 2183: 1955:

This indicates that not every anticompetitive effect warrants preemption. In neither

1868:

Second, they will consider whether the state statute is saved from preemption by the

1717: 1075: 886: 871: 754: 742: 512: 322: 227: 187: 7159: 10139: 10019: 9984: 9882: 9797: 9792: 9283: 8721: 8684: 8610: 8568: 8464: 8424: 8225: 8220: 7989: 7982: 7822: 7324: 7193: 7099: 6815: 6671: 6639: 6123: 5431: 5314: 5137: 5054: 4660: 4620: 4604: 4174: 4114: 3951: 3759: 3721: 3653: 3291:

United States Brewers Ass'n v. Director of N.M. Dept' of Alcoholic Beverage Control

2267: 2090: 2086: 2079: 1705: 895: 849: 845: 747: 83: 3697: 2557: 1843:, courts will engage in a two-step analysis, as set forth by the Supreme Court in 1115: 10207: 10144: 10099: 9999: 9005: 8938: 8834: 8795: 8679: 8622: 8494: 8397: 8295: 8215: 8210: 8160: 7967: 7802: 7564: 7278: 6855: 6655: 6211: 5439: 5370: 5346: 5306: 5159: 4884: 4636: 4612: 4481: 4267: 3983: 3914: 3748: 3490: 3164: 2651: 2579: 2564: 2331: 2041: 1437: 1098: 1071: 854: 833: 779: 703: 3554:

Congressional Record, 51st Congress, 1st session, House, June 20, 1890, p. 4100.

3016:, 433 U.S. at 49. The inquiry focuses on the restraint's effect on competition. 2572: 1734:

created exceptions for certain union activities, but the Supreme Court ruled in

1508:

Conduct characterized as unlawful per se is that which has been found to have a

1485:

qualifying exclusionary or anticompetitive acts designed to establish a monopoly

1481:

Section 2 also bans attempted monopolization, which has the following elements:

9887: 8955: 8933: 8911: 8889: 8884: 8409: 8340: 8270: 8015: 7460: 7388: 7241: 7177: 6871: 5854: 5338: 5330: 5277: 5084: 4924: 3959: 3752: 2115: 2050: 1793: 1299: 1111: 1021: 986: 982: 802: 784: 272: 138: 134: 50:

An Act to protect trade and commerce against unlawful restraints and monopolies

3775: 3657: 3214:

P208 (1978) (discussing the interaction of state and federal antitrust laws);

1318:(1911), which broke up the company based on geography, and contributed to the 10365: 9097: 8874: 7937: 7871: 7380: 7115: 6728:

Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board v. College Savings Bank

6377: 5991:

College Savings Bank v. Florida Prepaid Postsecondary Education Expense Board

5890: 5511: 5378: 5211: 5113: 3845: 3665: 2528:

2558; Senator Morgan of combinations "that affect the price of commodities,"

2520:

at 2459, 2461. Senator Allison spoke of combinations which "control prices,"

2208: 1056: 891: 859: 3141: 2597:

Mochoruk, James (2013). "Clayton Antitrust Act". In Dubofsky, Melvyn (ed.).

9086: 9022: 8563: 7257: 6046: 5967:

San Francisco Arts & Athletics, Inc. v. United States Olympic Committee

4514:

Oregon Waste Systems, Inc. v. Department of Environmental Quality of Oregon

2262: 2250: 2235: 1002: 905: 818: 769: 685: 157: 1970:

The third case cited to support the "anticompetitive effect" guideline is

8978: 8906: 8822: 8642: 8367: 5021: 3976:

Arizona State Legislature v. Arizona Independent Redistricting Commission

3142:"Application of the Sherman Anti-Trust Act to Unions since the Apex Case" 2599:

The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Business, Labor, and Economic History

2421:

consumers of goods and services by preservation of business competition.

2111: 1281:(1893), which was the first to hold that the law applied to labor unions. 1246:

mergers and acquisitions that may significantly reduce market competition

1052: 828: 4546:

United Haulers Ass'n v. Oneida-Herkimer Solid Waste Management Authority

3218:

P210 (discussing areas where federal law expressly defers to state law).

2966: (1972) by making vertical market division rule-of-reason analysis). 1946:, the Court upheld the statutes and rejected the arguments presented as 1243:

one person serving on the board of directors for two competing companies

9065: 8973: 8879: 8812: 8585: 7792: 5949: 4644: 2416:

the Bibliography on Trusts (1913) prepared by the Library of Congress.

1571: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1394:, which was settled in 1982 and resulted in the breakup of the company. 1304: 974: 102: 8901: 3768: 2991:

NW Wholesale Stationers, Inc. v. Pacific Stationery & Printing Co.

2692:"United States v. General Electric Co., 82 F. Supp. 753 (D.N.J. 1949)" 2666:"An Early Assessment of the Sherman Antitrust Act: Three Case Studies" 8731: 8350: 8200: 7812: 6568:

Walker Process Equipment, Inc. v. Food Machinery & Chemical Corp.

6164:

Quality King Distributors Inc., v. L'anza Research International Inc.

3704: 2163: 1780: 807: 737: 711: 7621: 4869:

Hodel v. Virginia Surface Mining & Reclamation Association, Inc.

1633:. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. 1546: 1512:'pernicious effect on competition' or 'lack ... any redeeming virtue 1168: 9107: 9045: 8817: 8736: 6520:

Great Atlantic & Pacific Tea Co. v. Supermarket Equipment Corp.

5270:

Consolidated Safety-Valve Co. v. Crosby Steam Gauge & Valve Co.

2058: 1755:

Preemption by Section 1 of state statutes that restrain competition

994: 733: 1500:

Violations of the Sherman Act fall (loosely) into two categories:

7079: 3881: 3353: 3286: 2293:

Officially re-designated as the "Sherman Act" by Congress in the

2194:

Plan of Bill Proposed by Hon. George H. Earle, Jr., Philadelphia.

1337: 1013: 678: 2093:

tariff just three months after the Sherman Act, and agrees with

1279:

United States v. Workingmen's Amalgamated Council of New Orleans

7005: 6736:

J. E. M. Ag Supply, Inc. v. Pioneer Hi-Bred International, Inc.

2652:"Sherman Anti-trust Law and List of Decisions Relating Thereto" 2394:

Congress, United States; Finch, James Arthur (March 26, 2018).

2173: 1875:

California Retail Liquor Dealers Ass'n v. Midcal Aluminum, Inc.

1724: 1017: 813: 6031:

Lexmark International, Inc. v. Static Control Components, Inc.

5901:

Motion Picture Patents Co. v. Universal Film Manufacturing Co.

4149: 2425:

Seager and Gulick, Trust and Corporation Problems (1929), 367

1963:

did the created effect constitute an antitrust violation. The

6528:

Graver Tank & Manufacturing Co. v. Linde Air Products Co.

3716: 2733:

Consolidated Farmers Mut. Ins. Co. v. Anchor Sav. Association

2297:, (Public Law 94-435, Title 3, Sec. 305(a), 90 Stat. 1383 at 2148: 1774: 1158: 6880:

Association for Molecular Pathology v. Myriad Genetics, Inc.

6848:

Mayo Collaborative Services v. Prometheus Laboratories, Inc.

2402:

from the original on April 9, 2017 – via Google Books.

1474:

the possession of monopoly power in the relevant market; and

2654:. U.S. Government Printing Office – via Google Books. 1786: 1436:

Congress claimed power to pass the Sherman Act through its

577:

Pacific Bell Telephone Co. v. linkLine Communications, Inc.

165: 4685:

Houston East & West Texas Railway Co. v. United States

1496:

Violations "per se" and violations of the "rule of reason"

4003: 3811: 1491:

dangerous probability of success (actual monopolization).

1059:, another author of the Sherman Act, said the following: 6536:

Aro Manufacturing Co. v. Convertible Top Replacement Co.

6132:

Feist Publications, Inc., v. Rural Telephone Service Co.

1438:

constitutional authority to regulate interstate commerce

7573:

Northeast Bancorp v. Federal Reserve Board of Governors

4965:

National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius

4314:

Wabash, St. Louis & Pacific Railway Co. v. Illinois

4247:

National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius

2719:

Richter Concrete Corp. v. Hilltop Basic Resources, Inc.

1470:

A Section 2 monopolization violation has two elements:

1431: 1414:

was settled in 2001 without the breakup of the company.

1406:"to contain and eliminate the chiropractic profession." 10382:

History of the petroleum industry in the United States

5999:

Cooper Industries, Inc. v. Leatherman Tool Group, Inc.

5200:

General Talking Pictures Corp. v. Western Electric Co.

3330:

Rice v. Norman Williams Co., 458 U.S. 654, 659 (1982).

3258:

National Soc'y of Professional Eng'rs v. United States

3018:

National Soc'y of Professional Eng'rs v. United States

7828:

List of federal judges appointed by Benjamin Harrison

7484: 6252:

Fourth Estate Public Benefit Corp. v. Wall-Street.com

6092:

Sony Corp. of America v. Universal City Studios, Inc.

5168:

Hollister v. Benedict & Burnham Manufacturing Co.

4418:

Hunt v. Washington State Apple Advertising Commission

4101: 4056: 3339:

Id. at 668 (Stevens, J., concurring in the judgment).

6832:

Stanford University v. Roche Molecular Systems, Inc.

6418:

Fortnightly Corp. v. United Artists Television, Inc.

5959:

Inwood Laboratories, Inc. v. Ives Laboratories, Inc.

5254:

City of Elizabeth v. American Nicholson Pavement Co.

5053: 4893:

Garcia v. San Antonio Metropolitan Transit Authority

4578:

Tennessee Wine and Spirits Retailers Assn. v. Thomas

3828: 2295:

Hart–Scott–Rodino Antitrust Improvements Act of 1976

1999: 1240:

conditioning sales on "exclusive dealing" agreements

696:), the principal author of the Sherman Antitrust Act 558:

Leegin Creative Leather Products, Inc. v. PSKS, Inc.

292:

Dr. Miles Medical Co. v. John D. Park & Sons Co.

6744:

Festo Corp. v. Shoketsu Kinzoku Kogyo Kabushiki Co.

6608:

Anderson's-Black Rock, Inc. v. Pavement Salvage Co.

4266: 235:

United States v. Trans-Missouri Freight Association

6464:Continental Paper Bag Co. v. Eastern Paper Bag Co. 6314:Order of St. Benedict of New Jersey v. Steinhauser 4996: 4474:South-Central Timber Development, Inc. v. Wunnicke 3934: 463:Continental Television, Inc. v. GTE Sylvania, Inc. 75: 7818:First International Conference of American States 7124:Immigration and Naturalization Service v. St. Cyr 6768:Illinois Tool Works Inc. v. Independent Ink, Inc. 6704:Warner-Jenkinson Co. v. Hilton Davis Chemical Co. 6504:Sinclair & Carroll Co. v. Interchemical Corp. 6007:TrafFix Devices, Inc. v. Marketing Displays, Inc. 5009: 4789:United States v. South-Eastern Underwriters Ass'n 596:American Needle, Inc. v. National Football League 10363: 8045: 7277: 7140:Department of Homeland Security v. Thuraissigiam 6982:Patent and Trademark Office v. Booking.com B. V. 6936:TC Heartland LLC v. Kraft Foods Group Brands LLC 6015:Dastar Corp. v. Twentieth Century Fox Film Corp. 5560:United Dictionary Co. v. G. & C. Merriam Co. 4562:Comptroller of the Treasury of Maryland v. Wynne 4466:White v. Mass. Council of Construction Employers 4122:Immigration and Naturalization Service v. Chadha 1237:price discrimination against competing companies 1090:Addyston Pipe and Steel Company v. United States 501:Jefferson Parish Hospital District No. 2 v. Hyde 7526: 7437:Energy Reserves Group v. Kansas P. & L. Co. 6904:Akamai Techs., Inc. v. Limelight Networks, Inc. 6680:Bonito Boats, Inc. v. Thunder Craft Boats, Inc. 6236:American Broadcasting Cos., Inc. v. Aereo, Inc. 4709:A.L.A. Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States 3453:H.R.Rep. No. 1707, 51st Cong., 1st Sess., p. 1. 3362:Flav-O-Rich, Inc. v. North Carolina Milk Comm'n 3318:Flav-O-Rich, Inc. v. North Carolina Milk Comm'n 2257:Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States 1987:supports this misuse limitation on preemption. 1315:Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States 1285:Chesapeake & Ohio Fuel Co. v. United States 1107:Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States 311:Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States 7453:Keystone Bituminous Coal Ass'n v. DeBenedictis 6912:Teva Pharmaceuticals USA, Inc. v. Sandoz, Inc. 6616:Zenith Radio Corp. v. Hazeltine Research, Inc. 6402:Miller Music Corp. v. Charles N. Daniels, Inc. 6322:International News Service v. Associated Press 5847:F. W. Woolworth Co. v. Contemporary Arts, Inc. 5839:Fred Fisher Music Co. v. M. Witmark & Sons 5706:White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co. 5568:White-Smith Music Publishing Co. v. Apollo Co. 3717:U.S. Department of Justice: Antitrust Division 2336:. Kluwer Law International. pp. 291–293. 2089:notes that Senator Sherman sponsored the 1890 1721:Sherman Act, or Section 3 of the Clayton Act. 425:Kiefer-Stewart Co. v. Seagram & Sons, Inc. 8316:Drafting and ratification of the Constitution 8031: 7637: 6966:G. & C. Merriam Co. v. Syndicate Pub. Co. 6808:Quanta Computer, Inc. v. LG Electronics, Inc. 6330:L. A. Westermann Co. v. Dispatch Printing Co. 6172:Feltner v. Columbia Pictures Television, Inc. 4837:Heart of Atlanta Motel, Inc. v. United States 3797: 3135: 3133: 2393: 2362: 1463:which unreasonably restrains competition; and 1368:(1922) in which the Supreme Court ruled that 946: 615:North Carolina Bd. of Dental Examiners v. FTC 9240:Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization 5930:Fashion Originators' Guild of America v. FTC 5775:DeJonge and Co. v. Breuker & Kessler Co. 5645:Fashion Originators' Guild of America v. FTC 3774:Dr. Edward W. Younkins (February 19, 2000). 3283:Wine & Spirits Specialty, Inc. v. Daniel 2684: 1725:Application of the act outside pure commerce 1042:506 U.S. 447 (1993) the Supreme Court said: 654:National Collegiate Athletic Assn. v. Alston 10372:United States federal antitrust legislation 7397:Home Building & Loan Ass'n v. Blaisdell 6434:Teleprompter Corp. v. Columbia Broadcasting 6244:Star Athletica, LLC v. Varsity Brands, Inc. 6116:Community for Creative Non-Violence v. Reid 6084:Zacchini v. Scripps-Howard Broadcasting Co. 5879:Williams & Wilkins Co. v. United States 4757:McGoldrick v. Berwind-White Coal Mining Co. 4522:C&A Carbone, Inc. v. Town of Clarkstown 3545:, Ch. 3, New American Library, Signet, 1967 3262:Continental T.V., Inc. v. GTE Sylvania Inc. 2802:Continental T.V., Inc. v. GTE Sylvania Inc. 2740:Mardirosian v. American Inst. of Architects 1918:New Motor Vehicle Board v. Orrin W. Fox Co. 1357:United States v. Motion Picture Patents Co. 1274:Notable cases filed under the act include: 1197:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1140:Every contract, combination in the form of 520:Copperweld Corp. v. Independence Tube Corp. 10377:United States federal criminal legislation 8038: 8024: 7644: 7630: 6752:Merck KGaA v. Integra Lifesciences I, Ltd. 4701:Board of Trade of City of Chicago v. Olsen 4554:Department of Revenue of Kentucky v. Davis 3804: 3790: 3275:Battipaglia v. New York State Liquor Auth. 3130: 3058:United States v. Arnold, Schwinn & Co. 2865:Jefferson Parish Hosp. Dist. No. 2 v. Hyde 1904:Another important, yet, in the context of 1661: 1456:A Section 1 violation has three elements: 1330:(1911), which split the company into four. 1159:Subsequent legislation expanding its scope 953: 939: 482:Arizona v. Maricopa County Medical Society 8764:Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki 6512:Funk Bros. Seed Co. v. Kalo Inoculant Co. 6410:Pub. Affairs Associates, Inc. v. Rickover 5690:McLoughlin v. Raphael Tuck & Sons Co. 5653:United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. 5637:Interstate Circuit, Inc. v. United States 5629:Straus v. American Publishers Association 5536:McLoughlin v. Raphael Tuck & Sons Co. 3613: 3611: 3426:New Motor Vehicle Bd. v. Orrin W. Fox Co. 3413:Joseph E. Seagram & Sons v. Hostetter 3401:New Motor Vehicle Bd. v. Orrin W. Fox Co. 3071: (1967)), and geographic market, see 2976:FTC v. Superior Court Trial Lawyers Ass'n 2322: 2134:According to a 2018 study in the journal 1973:Joseph E. Seagram & Sons v. Hostetter 1827:Learn how and when to remove this message 1695:their conduct is within the per se rule. 1689: 1649:Learn how and when to remove this message 1587:Learn how and when to remove this message 1376:and was not subject to the antitrust law. 1217:Learn how and when to remove this message 914:Enforcement authorities and organizations 387:United States v. Paramount Pictures, Inc. 7833:1892 United States presidential election 7714:1888 United States presidential election 6824:Global-Tech Appliances, Inc. v. SEB S.A. 6544:Compco Corp. v. Day-Brite Lighting, Inc. 6298:American Lithographic Co. v. Werkmeister 6220:Kirtsaeng v. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 5528:Bleistein v. Donaldson Lithographing Co. 4741:NLRB v. Jones & Laughlin Steel Corp. 4450:Kassel v. Consolidated Freightways Corp. 4191:Pollock v. Farmers' Loan & Trust Co. 2889:, 386–89 (9th Cir. 1978), cert. denied, 2721:, 547 F. Supp. 893, 917 (S.D. Ohio 1981) 2596: 2220:Monsanto Co. v. Spray-Rite Service Corp. 2203:Federal Baseball Club v. National League 1704:, 384 U.S. 563 (1966), the trial judge, 1365:Federal Baseball Club v. National League 1292:Northern Securities Co. v. United States 1287:(1902), in which the trust was dissolved 677: 349:Federal Baseball Club v. National League 254:Northern Securities Co. v. United States 8919:Assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. 7429:Allied Structural Steel Co. v. Spannaus 6840:Microsoft Corp. v. i4i Ltd. Partnership 6156:Lotus Dev. Corp. v. Borland Int'l, Inc. 5871:Sears, Roebuck & Co. v. Stiffel Co. 5831:Sheldon v. Metro-Goldwyn Pictures Corp. 5456:Burrow-Giles Lithographic Co. v. Sarony 4586:National Pork Producers Council v. Ross 4506:Chemical Waste Management, Inc. v. Hunt 4330:George W. Bush & Sons Co. v. Malloy 4199:Brushaber v. Union Pacific Railroad Co. 3634:, Doubleday & Company, 1954, p. 189 3375:Allied Artists Pictures Corp. v. Rhodes 2672:from the original on September 26, 2015 2333:Competition law and consumer protection 2318:from the original on November 18, 2011. 2281: 14: 10364: 6792:KSR International Co. v. Teleflex Inc. 6688:Eli Lilly & Co. v. Medtronic, Inc. 6442:Twentieth Century Music Corp. v. Aiken 6108:Harper & Row v. Nation Enterprises 4749:United States v. Carolene Products Co. 3643: 3608: 3497:from the original on February 17, 2022 3428:, 439 U.S. 96, 110–11 (1978) (quoting 3312:Allied Artists Picture Corp. v. Rhodes 3202:note 1, at 264., Werden & Balmer, 2926:United States v. Trenton Potteries Co. 2742:, 474 F. Supp. 628, 636 (D.D.C. 1979). 2735:, 480 F. Supp. 640, 648 (D. Kan. 1979) 2649: 2329: 1267:History of United States antitrust law 180:on June 20, 1890 (unanimous vote) 9847: 9609: 9271: 8075: 8019: 7651: 7625: 7597:Polar Tankers, Inc. v. City of Valdez 7525: 7483: 7357:Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge 7276: 7158: 7078: 7004: 6928:Apple Inc. v. Samsung Electronics Co. 6896:Alice Corp. v. CLS Bank International 6696:Markman v. Westview Instruments, Inc. 6480:United States v. General Electric Co. 6260:Rimini Street Inc. v. Oracle USA Inc. 6228:Petrella v. Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Inc. 6063:Romag Fasteners, Inc. v. Fossil, Inc. 5983:Qualitex Co. v. Jacobson Products Co. 5052: 4995: 4773:United States v. Wrightwood Dairy Co. 4669:Southern Railway Co. v. United States 4298:Willson v. Black-Bird Creek Marsh Co. 4265: 4148: 4100: 4055: 4002: 3933: 3883:Qualifications Clauses of Sections II 3880: 3827: 3785: 3139: 3041:National Soc'y of Professional Eng'rs 3004: (1985) for exclusionary effects. 2620: 2618: 2601:. New York: Oxford University Press. 2569:United States v. San Francisco, ante, 2312:"Sherman AntiTrust Act, and Analysis" 1327:United States v. American Tobacco Co. 330:United States v. American Tobacco Co. 10402:Progressive Era in the United States 7773:Dependent and Disability Pension Act 7421:U.S. Trust Co. of N.Y. v. New Jersey 6362:George v. Victor Talking Machine Co. 6276:Georgia v. Public.Resource.Org, Inc. 5975:Two Pesos, Inc. v. Taco Cabana, Inc. 5909:Morton Salt Co. v. G.S. Suppiger Co. 5698:American Tobacco Co. v. Werckmeister 5552:Werckmeister v. American Tobacco Co. 5544:American Tobacco Co. v. Werckmeister 4917:Seminole Tribe of Florida v. Florida 4629:Cooper Manufacturing Co. v. Ferguson 4458:Sporhase v. Nebraska ex rel. Douglas 4410:Complete Auto Transit, Inc. v. Brady 3776:"Antitrust Laws Should Be Abolished" 3757:"Labor and the Sherman Act" (1940). 3308:Capitol Tel. Co. v New York Tel. Co. 1798:, as they are easily broken. Please 1758: 1737:Duplex Printing Press Co. v. Deering 1598: 1569:adding citations to reliable sources 1540: 1432:Constitutional basis for legislation 1426: 1399:Wilk v. American Medical Association 1380:United States v. National City Lines 1334:United States v. General Electric Co 1195:adding citations to reliable sources 1162: 406:United States v. National City Lines 7838:1892 Republican National Convention 7719:1888 Republican National Convention 7709:1880 Republican National Convention 7704:Benjamin Harrison Presidential Site 6974:Kellogg Co. v. National Biscuit Co. 6920:Kimble v. Marvel Entertainment, LLC 6196:MGM Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd. 6023:Moseley v. V Secret Catalogue, Inc. 5730:Caliga v. Inter Ocean Newspaper Co. 5673:International Copyright Act of 1891 4434:Exxon Corp. v. Governor of Maryland 3557: 3533:, January 1962, vol. 1, no. 1, p. 1 3073:United States v. Columbia Steel Co. 2398:. U.S. Government Printing Office. 1927:Exxon Corp. v. Governor of Maryland 1681:, must plead facts consistent with 1520:Violations of the "rule of reason": 1384:General Motors streetcar conspiracy 1349:Fleischman vs Albany Medical Center 444:Lorain Journal Co. v. United States 24: 8606:Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act 8596:Assassination of James A. Garfield 6784:MedImmune, Inc. v. Genentech, Inc. 6148:Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. 6039:POM Wonderful LLC v. Coca-Cola Co. 4877:Commonwealth Edison Co. v. Montana 4861:National League of Cities v. Usery 4426:City of Philadelphia v. New Jersey 4378:Bibb v. Navajo Freight Lines, Inc. 3968:U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton 3907:U.S. Term Limits, Inc. v. Thornton 3854:Department of Commerce v. New York 3279:Lanierland Distribs. v. Strickland 2818:Northern Pac. Ry. v. United States 2615: 2555:Standard Oil Co. v. United States, 2370:Spectrum Sports, Inc. v. McQuillan 1488:specific intent to monopolize; and 1466:which affects interstate commerce. 1039:Spectrum Sports, Inc. v. McQuillan 710: 539:Spectrum Sports, Inc. v. McQuillan 80:Tooltip Public Law (United States) 25: 10413: 8638:Assassination of William McKinley 7763:Inauguration of Benjamin Harrison 6800:Microsoft Corp. v. AT&T Corp. 6760:eBay Inc. v. MercExchange, L.L.C. 6632:United States v. Glaxo Group Ltd. 6472:Minerals Separation, Ltd. v. Hyde 5823:Washingtonian Pub. Co. v. Pearson 5807:Buck v. Jewell-LaSalle Realty Co. 5661:Broadcast Music, Inc. v. CBS Inc. 4765:United States v. Darby Lumber Co. 4653:United States v. E. C. Knight Co. 4530:West Lynn Creamery, Inc. v. Healy 3683: 3583:from the original on May 24, 2019 3101:Standard Oil Co. v. United States 2951:, 433 U.S. at 50 n. 16 (limiting 2650:States, United (March 26, 2018). 2630:LII / Legal Information Institute 2350:from the original on May 12, 2013 2000:Evidence from legislative history 1671:12(b)(6). That is, to overcome a 922:International Competition Network 10345: 10336: 10335: 10300: 10299: 8857:Assassination of John F. Kennedy 8650:Nadir of American race relations 8529:Assassination of Abraham Lincoln 7999: 7998: 7744: 7737: 7605:Texas v. New Mexico and Colorado 6712:Pfaff v. Wells Electronics, Inc. 6488:United States v. Univis Lens Co. 6338:Lumiere v. Mae Edna Wilder, Inc. 4402:Hughes v. Alexandria Scrap Corp. 4386:National Bellas Hess v. Illinois 4362:Dean Milk Co. v. City of Madison 4322:Swift & Co. v. United States 1763: 1603: 1545: 1536: 1411:United States v. Microsoft Corp. 1167: 1126: 216:United States v. E.C. Knight Co. 38: 8559:First transcontinental railroad 7970:(great-great-great grandfather) 7964:(great-great-great grandfather) 7218:Garner v. Board of Public Works 6346:Educational Films Corp. v. Ward 6204:Reed Elsevier, Inc. v. Muchnick 5576:Dun v. Lumbermen's Credit Ass'n 4805:H.P. Hood & Sons v. Du Mond 4354:Southern Pacific Co. v. Arizona 3705:Statute Compilations collection 3637: 3624: 3595: 3565:"Mr. Sherman's Hopes and Fears" 3548: 3536: 3523: 3509: 3483: 3474: 3465: 3456: 3447: 3435: 3419: 3410:, 437 U.S. 117, 129–34 (1978); 3392: 3380: 3367: 3342: 3333: 3324: 3296: 3267: 3260:, 435 U.S. 679, 687–90 (1978); 3251: 3236: 3221: 3182: 3156: 3118: 3089: 3046: 3034: 3007: 2969: 2942: 2919: 2857: 2834: 2794: 2779: 2753:United States v. Grinnell Corp. 2746: 2710: 2658: 2643: 2590: 2496: 1556:needs additional citations for 7699:70th Indiana Infantry Regiment 7668:President of the United States 5395:Mifflin v. R. H. White Company 4338:Baldwin v. G.A.F. Seelig, Inc. 4207:Bailey v. Drexel Furniture Co. 3491:"Antitrust, by Alan Greenspan" 3430:Exxon Corp. v. Governor of MD. 3407:Exxon Corp. v. Governor of MD. 3404:, 439 U.S. 96, 110–11 (1978); 3350:Grendel's Den, Inc. v. Goodwin 3192:Exxon Corp. v. Governor of MD. 2953:United States v. Topco Assocs. 2788:Cal. Dental Association v. FTC 2472: 2462: 2442: 2406: 2387: 2330:Cseres, Katalin Judit (2005). 2304: 2287: 2214:Lysine price-fixing conspiracy 2065:in Rand's monthly publication 1870:state action immunity doctrine 1859:, 458 U.S. 654, 661; see also 1678:Bell Atlantic Corp. v. Twombly 927:List of competition regulators 13: 1: 7405:W.B. Worthen Co. v. Kavanaugh 7333:Dartmouth College v. Woodward 5921:Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 5714:Globe Newspaper Co. v. Walker 5620:Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 5192:Bauer & Cie. v. O'Donnell 5093:Globe Newspaper Co. v. Walker 4570:South Dakota v. Wayfair, Inc. 4490:Healy v. Beer Institute, Inc. 4082:United States v. Munoz-Flores 3543:Capitalism: The Unknown Ideal 3416:, 384 U.S. 35, 45–46 (1966)). 3358:Larkin v. Grendel's Den, Inc. 3285:, 666 S.W.2d 416, 419 (Mo.) ( 3210:1 P. Areeda & D. Turner, 3140:Clark, O. L. (January 1948). 2776:, 825 (3d Cir. 1984). 2179:Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914 1839:To determine whether the Act 1812:), or an abbreviated title. 1391:United States v. AT&T Co. 1307:. Hale was an officer of the 1121: 1031: 967:Sherman Antitrust Act of 1890 9727:Hispanic and Latino American 8581:Second Industrial Revolution 8415:Nat Turner's slave rebellion 8121:Exploration of North America 8047:History of the United States 7507:Canton Railroad Co. v. Rogan 6180:New York Times Co. v. Tasini 5184:Schillinger v. United States 4821:Canton Railroad Co. v. Rogan 4370:Miller Bros. Co. v. Maryland 3432:, 437 U.S. 117, 133 (1978)). 2899:White Motor v. United States 2841:Broadcast Music, Inc. v. CBS 2728:691 F.2d 818 (6th Cir. 1982) 2035: 634:Ohio v. American Express Co. 174:on April 8, 1890 (52–1) 7: 9251:Indictments of Donald Trump 8442:First Industrial Revolution 8276:Declaration of Independence 8266:Second Continental Congress 7788:Sherman Silver Purchase Act 7778:51st United States Congress 7007:Necessary and Proper Clause 6776:LabCorp v. Metabolite, Inc. 6100:Mills Music, Inc. v. Snyder 5584:Bobbs-Merrill Co. v. Straus 4725:Panama Refining Co. v. Ryan 4498:Quill Corp. v. North Dakota 4130:Clinton v. City of New York 3735:"Corporate Leniency Policy" 3444:, 458 U.S. 654, 662 (1982). 3442:Rice v. Norman Williams Co. 2478:Footnote 14 appears here: " 2412:Footnote 11 appears here: " 2231:Northern Securities Company 2141: 2067:The Objectivist Newsletter. 2046:United States antitrust law 1985:Rice v. Norman Williams Co. 1885:Rice v. Norman Williams Co. 1856:Rice v. Norman Williams Co. 1846:Rice v. Norman Williams Co. 1711: 1629:the claims made and adding 1451: 1419:United States v. Google LLC 991:United States antitrust law 199:United States Supreme Court 118:Title 15—Commerce and Trade 60:51st United States Congress 27:1890 U.S. anti-monopoly law 10: 10418: 9848: 9610: 9272: 9143:Killing of Osama bin Laden 8231:First Continental Congress 8076: 7920:William Henry Harrison III 7413:City of El Paso v. Simmons 7060:United States v. Kebodeaux 6552:Wilbur-Ellis Co. v. Kuther 4813:Henderson v. United States 4394:Pike v. Bruce Church, Inc. 4306:Cooley v. Board of Wardens 4151:Taxing and Spending Clause 3603:Cato Handbook for Congress 3531:The Objectivist Newsletter 2989:for collusive effects and 2274:United States v. Microsoft 2226:National Linseed Oil Trust 2039: 1912:to support the statement. 1872:(aka Parker immunity). In 1746:United States v. Hutcheson 1264: 1069:Apex Hosiery Co. v. Leader 794:Anti-competitive practices 760:Herfindahl–Hirschman index 729:History of competition law 368:Apex Hosiery Co. v. Leader 10397:1890 in American politics 10321: 10287: 10231: 10195: 10183: 9922: 9896: 9858: 9854: 9843: 9616: 9605: 9278: 9267: 9133: 9036: 8964: 8865: 8776: 8727:Wall Street Crash of 1929 8658: 8539: 8524:Emancipation Proclamation 8455: 8378: 8326: 8293:Articles of Confederation 8246: 8131:Native American epidemics 8111: 8086: 8082: 8071: 8053: 7977: 7958:(great-great-grandfather) 7914:Elizabeth Harrison Walker 7902:Russell Benjamin Harrison 7880: 7846: 7753: 7735: 7686: 7659: 7549:Virginia v. West Virginia 7535: 7521: 7493: 7479: 7316: 7293: 7289: 7272: 7172: 7161:No Bills of Attainder or 7154: 7094: 7074: 7052:United States v. Comstock 7014: 7000: 6954: 6452: 6394:Commissioner v. Wodehouse 6286: 6073: 5948: 5919: 5889: 5799:Fox Film Corp. v. Knowles 5756: 5746:Kalem Co. v. Harper Bros. 5671: 5618: 5413: 5288: 5210: 5148: 5103: 5066: 5062: 5048: 5005: 4991: 4949:United States v. Morrison 4901:New York v. United States 4797:North American Co. v. SEC 4733:Carter v. Carter Coal Co. 4596: 4279: 4275: 4261: 4183:Springer v. United States 4161: 4144: 4110: 4096: 4068: 4051: 4015: 3998: 3946: 3929: 3893: 3876: 3840: 3823: 3658:10.1007/s11127-017-0497-x 3056:, 433 U.S. at 45 (citing 2505:free and full competition 2061:, and he first published 1862:324 Liquor Corp. v. Duffy 1260: 1001:and is named for Senator 205: 197: 149: 144: 123: 113: 108: 89: 70: 65: 54: 46: 37: 10213:Northern Mariana Islands 8786:Strike wave of 1945–1946 7867:Fort Harrison State Park 7341:Sturges v. Crowninshield 7234:Barr v. City of Columbia 7186:Sturges v. Crowninshield 6944:Peter v. NantKwest, Inc. 6576:Graham v. John Deere Co. 6370:KVOS v. Associated Press 6140:Fogerty v. Fantasy, Inc. 5938:Dowling v. United States 5722:Bong v. Campbell Art Co. 5682:Press Pub. Co. v. Monroe 5600:Bong v. Campbell Art Co. 4074:Flint v. Stone Tracy Co. 4029:United States v. Johnson 3619:Economic Analysis of Law 3264:, 433 U.S. 36, 49 (1977) 2241:Resale price maintenance 2159:American Tobacco Company 2154:American Bar Association 2073:In 1890, Representative 2053:, in his essay entitled 1005:, its principal author. 9748:Middle Eastern American 9565:Technology and industry 8435:Seneca Falls Convention 8236:Continental Association 8136:Settlement of Jamestown 7808:Immigration Act of 1891 7445:Exxon Corp. v. Eagerton 6648:Sakraida v. Ag Pro Inc. 6426:Goldstein v. California 6354:Fox Film Corp. v. Doyal 5767:Hills and Co. v. Hoover 5738:Hills and Co. v. Hoover 4973:Taylor v. United States 4281:Dormant Commerce Clause 4215:United States v. Butler 4167:Hylton v. United States 4037:Gravel v. United States 4005:Speech or Debate Clause 3529:"Check Your Premises", 3360:, 459 U.S. 116 (1982); 2916:, 356 U.S. at 5 (same). 2882:Gough v. Rossmoor Corp. 2626:"Clayton Antitrust Act" 2169:Bell System divestiture 1802:by replacing them with 1794:Knowledge's style guide 1662:Inference of conspiracy 1382:(1953), related to the 9868:Admission to the Union 9234:Afghanistan withdrawal 9229:January 6 insurrection 9148:Rise in mass shootings 9120:Virginia Tech shooting 8673:Paris Peace Conference 8447:Second Great Awakening 8186:American Enlightenment 7932:William Henry Harrison 7862:Fort Benjamin Harrison 7581:New Jersey v. New York 7036:Sabri v. United States 6864:Bowman v. Monsanto Co. 6664:Diamond v. Chakrabarty 6584:United States v. Adams 5863:De Sylva v. Ballentine 5783:Herbert v. Shanley Co. 5608:Henry v. A.B. Dick Co. 5448:Schreiber v. Sharpless 5230:Hotchkiss v. Greenwood 4941:Jones v. United States 4933:United States v. Locke 4909:United States v. Lopez 4239:Sabri v. United States 3728:Additional information 3098:, 433 U.S. at 49; see 2766: (1966); see also 2033: 2020: 2011: 1953: 1690:Manipulation of market 1156: 1085: 1065: 1049: 839:Occupational licensing 715: 697: 18:Sherman Anti-Trust Act 9860:Territorial evolution 9224:George Floyd Protests 9207:Unite the Right rally 9076:Oklahoma City bombing 9071:Republican Revolution 9018:Space Shuttle program 8840:Civil Rights Movement 8808:North Atlantic Treaty 8616:Sherman Antitrust Act 8601:Chinese Exclusion Act 8191:French and Indian War 8181:Prelude to Revolution 8166:First Great Awakening 8126:European colonization 7962:Benjamin Harrison III 7896:Mary Dimmick Harrison 7783:Sherman Antitrust Act 7557:Virginia v. Tennessee 7020:McCulloch v. Maryland 6075:Copyright Act of 1976 5815:Douglas v. Cunningham 5758:Copyright Act of 1909 5464:Thornton v. Schreiber 5415:Copyright Act of 1870 5290:Copyright Act of 1831 5068:Copyright Act of 1790 5030:Juilliard v. Greenman 4845:Katzenbach v. McClung 4677:Hoke v. United States 4442:Reeves, Inc. v. Stake 4346:Edwards v. California 3747:May 11, 2014, at the 3733:Antitrust Division's 3632:An Almanac of Liberty 3630:Douglas, William O., 3518:Clayton Antitrust Act 2816: (1977) (quoting 2028: 2015: 2006: 1948: 1742:Norris–La Guardia Act 1370:Major League Baseball 1231:Clayton Antitrust Act 1134: 1080: 1061: 1044: 1010:Department of Justice 714: 681: 33:Sherman Antitrust Act 10392:Monopoly (economics) 10387:1890 in American law 9774:Palestinian American 9201:Obergefell v. Hodges 9093:September 11 attacks 8929:Second-wave feminism 8850:Cuban Missile Crisis 8710:Bath School disaster 8628:Spanish–American War 8591:The Gospel of Wealth 8470:California Gold Rush 8430:Mexican–American War 8420:Nullification crisis 8388:Era of Good Feelings 8288:Confederation period 8196:Proclamation of 1763 8146:Atlantic slave trade 7956:Benjamin Harrison IV 7798:General Revision Act 7724:Front porch campaign 7676:Senator from Indiana 7589:Virginia v. Maryland 7486:Import-Export Clause 7373:Stone v. Mississippi 7028:Lambert v. Yellowley 6888:FTC v. Actavis, Inc. 6624:Gottschalk v. Benson 6600:Lear, Inc. v. Adkins 6560:Brulotte v. Thys Co. 5520:Bolles v. Outing Co. 5387:Bolles v. Outing Co. 4231:South Dakota v. Dole 4021:Kilbourn v. Thompson 2897:936 (1979); see 2774:745 F.2d 786 2282:Notes and references 2196:(1911) at Wikisource 2189:George H. Earle, Jr. 1841:preempts a state law 1800:improve this article 1675:, plaintiffs, under 1565:improve this article 1505:Violations "per se": 1309:American Tobacco Co. 1191:improve this section 882:Occupational closure 877:Dividing territories 865:Essential facilities 765:Market concentration 10223:U.S. Virgin Islands 9709:Lithuanian American 9665:Vietnamese American 9011:End of the Cold War 9001:Invasion of Grenada 8951:Iran hostage crisis 8700:Tulsa race massacre 8507:Election of Lincoln 8502:Dred Scott decision 8490:Kansas–Nebraska Act 8393:Missouri Compromise 8311:Northwest Ordinance 8301:Pennsylvania Mutiny 8296:and Perpetual Union 8256:American Revolution 8171:War of Jenkins' Ear 7952:(great-grandfather) 7946:(great-grandfather) 7944:Benjamin Harrison V 7926:John Scott Harrison 7908:Mary Harrison McKee 7729:Crown Hill Cemetery 7694:Berkeley Plantation 7306:Hepburn v. Griswold 7250:Kansas v. Hendricks 7226:De Veau v. Braisted 6496:Altvater v. Freeman 5504:Belford v. Scribner 5488:Thompson v. Hubbard 5472:Banks v. Manchester 5323:Stevens v. Gladding 5222:Pennock v. Dialogue 5150:Patent infringement 4829:Boynton v. Virginia 4693:Hammer v. Dagenhart 3899:Powell v. McCormack 3763:49(3) p. 518. 3601:DiLorenzo, Thomas, 3576:. October 1, 1890. 2769:Weiss v. York Hosp. 1932:Robinson-Patman Act 1772:Constructs such as 1374:interstate commerce 1255:Robinson–Patman Act 997:. It was passed by 145:Legislative history 34: 9873:Historical regions 9829:Transgender people 9387:Capital punishment 9246:Support of Ukraine 9195:Black Lives Matter 9103:War in Afghanistan 9028:Invasion of Panama 8984:Iran–Contra affair 8845:Early–mid Cold War 8715:Harlem Renaissance 8574:Compromise of 1877 8549:Reconstruction era 8485:Fugitive Slave Act 8480:Compromise of 1850 8425:Westward expansion 8363:Louisiana Purchase 8206:Stamp Act Congress 8151:King William's War 7990:Grover Cleveland → 7983:← Grover Cleveland 7950:John Cleves Symmes 7541:Florida v. Georgia 7296:Legal Tender Cases 7210:Samuels v. McCurdy 7202:Hawker v. New York 7132:Boumediene v. Bush 6720:Dickinson v. Zurko 6188:Eldred v. Ashcroft 5791:Manners v. Morosco 5592:Scribner v. Straus 5496:Higgins v. Keuffel 5480:Callaghan v. Myers 5363:Higgins v. Keuffel 5355:Callaghan v. Myers 5262:Egbert v. Lippmann 5246:Cochrane v. Deener 5105:Patent Act of 1793 5012:Legal Tender Cases 4781:Wickard v. Filburn 4223:Helvering v. Davis 4103:Presentment Clause 4058:Origination Clause 3830:Enumeration Clause 3813:U.S. Supreme Court 3573:The New York Times 3480:21 Cong.Rec. 3152. 3462:21 Cong.Rec. 4089. 3389:, 458 U.S. at 659. 3356:), aff'd sub nom. 3127:, 526 U.S. at 770. 3043:, 435 U.S. at 692. 2578:2009-05-25 at the 2563:2009-05-01 at the 2314:. March 12, 2011. 2246:Sarbanes–Oxley Act 2128:William O. Douglas 2124:U.S. Supreme Court 2096:The New York Times 1614:possibly contains 1446:Territorial Clause 1404:restraint of trade 1320:Panic of 1910–1911 901:Regulatory capture 716: 698: 156:in the Senate by 32: 10359: 10358: 10317: 10316: 10313: 10312: 9878:American frontier 9839: 9838: 9769:Lebanese American 9754:Egyptian American 9689:Estonian American 9679:Albanian American 9673:European American 9650:Japanese American 9640:Filipino American 9601: 9600: 9263: 9262: 9259: 9258: 9212:COVID-19 pandemic 9115:Hurricane Katrina 9056:Los Angeles riots 8946:Watergate scandal 8791:Start of Cold War 8759:Manhattan Project 8346:Whiskey Rebellion 8176:King George's War 8141:Thirteen Colonies 8102:Pre-Columbian Era 8013: 8012: 7890:Caroline Harrison 7855:Benjamin Harrison 7653:Benjamin Harrison 7619: 7618: 7615: 7614: 7517: 7516: 7499:Brown v. Maryland 7475: 7474: 7471: 7470: 7365:Bronson v. Kinzie 7349:Ogden v. Saunders 7268: 7267: 7150: 7149: 7108:Ex parte Merryman 7084:Suspension Clause 7070: 7069: 7044:Gonzales v. Raich 6996: 6995: 6992: 6991: 6592:Brenner v. Manson 6386:Buck v. Gallagher 6306:Ferris v. Frohman 6055:Iancu v. Brunetti 5424:Perris v. Hexamer 5403:Mifflin v. Dutton 5299:Wheaton v. Peters 5238:O'Reilly v. Morse 5176:Rowell v. Lindsay 5077:Wheaton v. Peters 5044: 5043: 5040: 5039: 4987: 4986: 4983: 4982: 4957:Gonzales v. Raich 4853:Maryland v. Wirtz 4717:Gold Clause Cases 4538:Granholm v. Heald 4290:Brown v. Maryland 4257: 4256: 4140: 4139: 4092: 4091: 4047: 4046: 3994: 3993: 3925: 3924: 3872: 3871: 3862:Trump v. New York 3711:Official websites 3471:21 Cong.Rec. 3148 3125:Cal. Dental Ass'n 2914:Northern Pac. Ry. 2184:DRAM price fixing 1961:New Motor Vehicle 1940:New Motor Vehicle 1837: 1836: 1829: 1673:motion to dismiss 1659: 1658: 1651: 1616:original research 1597: 1596: 1589: 1427:Legal application 1227: 1226: 1219: 963: 962: 892:Misuse of patents 887:Predatory pricing 872:Exclusive dealing 755:Barriers to entry 743:Coercive monopoly 676: 675: 188:Benjamin Harrison 172:Passed the Senate 92:Statutes at Large 16:(Redirected from 10409: 10349: 10339: 10338: 10303: 10302: 10232:Outlying islands 10189:Washington, D.C. 10184:Federal District 9883:Manifest destiny 9856: 9855: 9845: 9844: 9787:Native Americans 9759:Iranian American 9733:Mexican American 9719:Serbian American 9704:Italian American 9694:Finnish American 9684:English American 9635:Chinese American 9622:African American 9607: 9606: 9412:Direct democracy 9402:The Constitution 9361:Higher education 9284:American Century 9269: 9268: 8722:Great Depression 8695:Women's suffrage 8685:Roaring Twenties 8611:Haymarket affair 8569:Enforcement Acts 8358:Jeffersonian era 8306:Shays' Rebellion 8226:Intolerable Acts 8221:Boston Tea Party 8156:Queen Anne's War 8084: 8083: 8073: 8072: 8040: 8033: 8026: 8017: 8016: 8002: 8001: 7823:Baltimore crisis 7748: 7741: 7679: 7671: 7646: 7639: 7632: 7623: 7622: 7523: 7522: 7481: 7480: 7325:Fletcher v. Peck 7291: 7290: 7274: 7273: 7194:Ex parte Garland 7156: 7155: 7100:Ex parte Bollman 7076: 7075: 7002: 7001: 6816:Bilski v. Kappos 6672:Diamond v. Diehr 6640:Dann v. Johnston 6124:Stewart v. Abend 5432:Trade-Mark Cases 5315:Stephens v. Cady 5138:Evans v. Hettich 5064: 5063: 5055:Copyright Clause 5050: 5049: 5007: 5006: 4993: 4992: 4661:Champion v. Ames 4621:Paul v. Virginia 4605:Gibbons v. Ogden 4277: 4276: 4263: 4262: 4175:Collector v. Day 4146: 4145: 4115:Pocket Veto Case 4098: 4097: 4053: 4052: 4000: 3999: 3952:Ex parte Siebold 3936:Elections Clause 3931: 3930: 3878: 3877: 3825: 3824: 3806: 3799: 3792: 3783: 3782: 3760:Yale Law Journal 3678: 3677: 3652:(3–4): 257–275. 3641: 3635: 3628: 3622: 3617:Richard Posner, 3615: 3606: 3599: 3593: 3592: 3590: 3588: 3582: 3569: 3561: 3555: 3552: 3546: 3540: 3534: 3527: 3521: 3513: 3507: 3506: 3504: 3502: 3487: 3481: 3478: 3472: 3469: 3463: 3460: 3454: 3451: 3445: 3439: 3433: 3423: 3417: 3396: 3390: 3384: 3378: 3371: 3365: 3346: 3340: 3337: 3331: 3328: 3322: 3300: 3294: 3271: 3265: 3255: 3249: 3248:458 U.S. at 661. 3240: 3234: 3225: 3219: 3186: 3180: 3160: 3154: 3153: 3137: 3128: 3122: 3116: 3096:Continental T.V. 3093: 3087: 3054:Continental T.V. 3050: 3044: 3038: 3032: 3014:Continental T.V. 3011: 3005: 2973: 2967: 2949:Continental T.V. 2946: 2940: 2923: 2917: 2861: 2855: 2838: 2832: 2798: 2792: 2783: 2777: 2771: 2750: 2744: 2714: 2708: 2707: 2705: 2703: 2688: 2682: 2681: 2679: 2677: 2662: 2656: 2655: 2647: 2641: 2640: 2638: 2636: 2622: 2613: 2612: 2594: 2588: 2500: 2494: 2476: 2470: 2466: 2460: 2446: 2440: 2410: 2404: 2403: 2391: 2385: 2366: 2360: 2359: 2357: 2355: 2326: 2320: 2319: 2308: 2302: 2291: 2268:Tying (commerce) 2107: 2091:William McKinley 2087:Thomas DiLorenzo 2080:economy of scale 2075:William E. Mason 1832: 1825: 1821: 1818: 1804:named references 1767: 1766: 1759: 1706:Charles Wyzanski 1701:U.S. v. Grinnell 1654: 1647: 1643: 1640: 1634: 1631:inline citations 1607: 1606: 1599: 1592: 1585: 1581: 1578: 1572: 1549: 1541: 1515: 1511: 1442:enumerated power 1222: 1215: 1211: 1208: 1202: 1171: 1163: 955: 948: 941: 846:Product bundling 748:Natural monopoly 700: 699: 178:Passed the House 127:sections created 93: 81: 77: 42: 35: 31: 21: 10417: 10416: 10412: 10411: 10410: 10408: 10407: 10406: 10362: 10361: 10360: 10355: 10309: 10283: 10227: 10191: 10179: 9918: 9892: 9850: 9835: 9741:Jewish American 9714:Polish American 9655:Korean American 9645:Indian American 9612: 9597: 9452:Merchant Marine 9422:Law enforcement 9274: 9255: 9129: 9125:Great Recession 9032: 9006:Reagan Doctrine 8960: 8939:Stonewall riots 8861: 8835:Project Mercury 8796:Truman Doctrine 8772: 8680:First Red Scare 8654: 8623:Progressive Era 8535: 8495:Bleeding Kansas 8451: 8398:Monroe Doctrine 8374: 8322: 8281:Treaty of Paris 8242: 8216:Boston Massacre 8211:Sons of Liberty 8107: 8078: 8067: 8049: 8044: 8014: 8009: 7973: 7968:Robert Carter I 7876: 7842: 7803:McKinley Tariff 7749: 7743: 7742: 7733: 7682: 7674: 7663: 7655: 7650: 7620: 7611: 7565:Wharton v. Wise 7531: 7513: 7489: 7467: 7312: 7285: 7279:Contract Clause 7264: 7168: 7146: 7090: 7066: 7010: 7009:of Section VIII 6988: 6957:trademark cases 6950: 6856:Kappos v. Hyatt 6656:Parker v. Flook 6448: 6289:copyright cases 6282: 6268:Allen v. Cooper 6212:Golan v. Holder 6069: 5944: 5915: 5885: 5752: 5667: 5614: 5440:Merrell v. Tice 5409: 5371:Holmes v. Hurst 5347:Baker v. Selden 5307:Backus v. Gould 5284: 5206: 5160:Evans v. Jordan 5144: 5099: 5058: 5057:of Section VIII 5036: 5001: 5000:of Section VIII 4979: 4885:EEOC v. Wyoming 4637:Kidd v. Pearson 4613:Passenger Cases 4592: 4482:Maine v. Taylor 4271: 4270:of Section VIII 4268:Commerce Clause 4253: 4157: 4136: 4106: 4088: 4064: 4043: 4011: 3990: 3984:Moore v. Harper 3942: 3921: 3915:Cook v. Gralike 3889: 3868: 3836: 3819: 3810: 3749:Wayback Machine 3686: 3681: 3642: 3638: 3629: 3625: 3616: 3609: 3600: 3596: 3586: 3584: 3580: 3567: 3563: 3562: 3558: 3553: 3549: 3541: 3537: 3528: 3524: 3514: 3510: 3500: 3498: 3489: 3488: 3484: 3479: 3475: 3470: 3466: 3461: 3457: 3452: 3448: 3440: 3436: 3424: 3420: 3397: 3393: 3385: 3381: 3372: 3368: 3347: 3343: 3338: 3334: 3329: 3325: 3301: 3297: 3272: 3268: 3256: 3252: 3241: 3237: 3226: 3222: 3206:note 1, at 59. 3187: 3183: 3165:Loewe v. Lawlor 3161: 3157: 3138: 3131: 3123: 3119: 3094: 3090: 3051: 3047: 3039: 3035: 3012: 3008: 2974: 2970: 2947: 2943: 2924: 2920: 2862: 2858: 2839: 2835: 2799: 2795: 2784: 2780: 2767: 2751: 2747: 2715: 2711: 2701: 2699: 2698:. April 4, 1949 2690: 2689: 2685: 2675: 2673: 2664: 2663: 2659: 2648: 2644: 2634: 2632: 2624: 2623: 2616: 2609: 2595: 2591: 2580:Wayback Machine 2565:Wayback Machine 2553:White, C.J. in 2501: 2497: 2477: 2473: 2467: 2463: 2447: 2443: 2411: 2407: 2392: 2388: 2367: 2363: 2353: 2351: 2344: 2327: 2323: 2310: 2309: 2305: 2292: 2288: 2284: 2279: 2144: 2120:Seventh Circuit 2105: 2048: 2042:Competition law 2038: 2002: 1833: 1822: 1816: 1813: 1792:discouraged by 1768: 1764: 1757: 1727: 1714: 1692: 1664: 1655: 1644: 1638: 1635: 1620: 1608: 1604: 1593: 1582: 1576: 1573: 1562: 1550: 1539: 1513: 1509: 1498: 1454: 1434: 1429: 1269: 1263: 1223: 1212: 1206: 1203: 1188: 1172: 1161: 1129: 1124: 1078:-93 and n. 15: 1034: 959: 855:Refusal to deal 834:Tacit collusion 780:Relevant market 704:Competition law 672: 211: 210: 193: 190:on July 2, 1890 184:Signed into law 91: 79: 55:Enacted by 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10415: 10405: 10404: 10399: 10394: 10389: 10384: 10379: 10374: 10357: 10356: 10354: 10353: 10343: 10333: 10331:Historiography 10328: 10322: 10319: 10318: 10315: 10314: 10311: 10310: 10308: 10307: 10297: 10291: 10289: 10285: 10284: 10282: 10281: 10276: 10271: 10269:Navassa Island 10266: 10261: 10256: 10254:Johnston Atoll 10251: 10246: 10244:Howland Island 10241: 10235: 10233: 10229: 10228: 10226: 10225: 10220: 10215: 10210: 10205: 10203:American Samoa 10199: 10197: 10193: 10192: 10187: 10185: 10181: 10180: 10178: 10177: 10172: 10167: 10162: 10157: 10152: 10147: 10142: 10137: 10132: 10127: 10125:South Carolina 10122: 10117: 10112: 10107: 10102: 10097: 10092: 10090:North Carolina 10087: 10082: 10077: 10072: 10067: 10062: 10057: 10052: 10047: 10042: 10037: 10032: 10027: 10022: 10017: 10012: 10007: 10002: 9997: 9992: 9987: 9982: 9977: 9972: 9967: 9962: 9957: 9952: 9947: 9942: 9937: 9932: 9926: 9924: 9920: 9919: 9917: 9916: 9914:The West Coast 9911: 9906: 9900: 9898: 9894: 9893: 9891: 9890: 9888:Indian removal 9885: 9880: 9875: 9870: 9864: 9862: 9852: 9851: 9841: 9840: 9837: 9836: 9834: 9833: 9832: 9831: 9826: 9821: 9809: 9802: 9801: 9800: 9795: 9783: 9782: 9781: 9779:Saudi American 9776: 9771: 9766: 9764:Iraqi American 9761: 9756: 9744: 9737: 9736: 9735: 9723: 9722: 9721: 9716: 9711: 9706: 9701: 9699:Irish American 9696: 9691: 9686: 9681: 9669: 9668: 9667: 9662: 9657: 9652: 9647: 9642: 9637: 9629:Asian American 9625: 9617: 9614: 9613: 9603: 9602: 9599: 9598: 9596: 9595: 9594: 9593: 9588: 9583: 9578: 9573: 9561: 9560: 9559: 9557:Sexual slavery 9547: 9540: 9533: 9532: 9531: 9526: 9521: 9516: 9511: 9506: 9494: 9493: 9492: 9487: 9482: 9477: 9472: 9467: 9455: 9448: 9441: 9440: 9439: 9434: 9429: 9427:Postal service 9424: 9419: 9417:Foreign policy 9414: 9409: 9404: 9399: 9394: 9389: 9384: 9372: 9365: 9364: 9363: 9351: 9350: 9349: 9337: 9336: 9335: 9323: 9322: 9321: 9316: 9311: 9306: 9294: 9287: 9279: 9276: 9275: 9265: 9264: 9261: 9260: 9257: 9256: 9254: 9253: 9248: 9243: 9236: 9231: 9226: 9221: 9220: 9219: 9209: 9204: 9197: 9192: 9191: 9190: 9185: 9180: 9175: 9170: 9165: 9160: 9155: 9145: 9139: 9137: 9131: 9130: 9128: 9127: 9122: 9117: 9112: 9111: 9110: 9105: 9095: 9090: 9083: 9078: 9073: 9068: 9063: 9058: 9053: 9048: 9042: 9040: 9034: 9033: 9031: 9030: 9025: 9020: 9015: 9014: 9013: 9008: 9003: 8993: 8991:Crack epidemic 8988: 8987: 8986: 8981: 8970: 8968: 8962: 8961: 8959: 8958: 8956:Moral Majority 8953: 8948: 8943: 8942: 8941: 8934:Gay liberation 8931: 8926: 8924:Counterculture 8921: 8916: 8915: 8914: 8912:Fall of Saigon 8909: 8904: 8894: 8893: 8892: 8890:Apollo program 8887: 8885:Project Gemini 8877: 8871: 8869: 8863: 8862: 8860: 8859: 8854: 8853: 8852: 8842: 8837: 8832: 8827: 8826: 8825: 8820: 8815: 8810: 8803:Early Cold War 8800: 8799: 8798: 8788: 8782: 8780: 8774: 8773: 8771: 8770: 8769: 8768: 8767: 8766: 8756: 8751: 8741: 8740: 8739: 8734: 8729: 8719: 8718: 8717: 8712: 8707: 8702: 8697: 8692: 8682: 8677: 8676: 8675: 8664: 8662: 8656: 8655: 8653: 8652: 8647: 8646: 8645: 8640: 8635: 8630: 8620: 8619: 8618: 8613: 8608: 8603: 8598: 8593: 8583: 8578: 8577: 8576: 8571: 8566: 8561: 8556: 8545: 8543: 8537: 8536: 8534: 8533: 8532: 8531: 8526: 8516: 8515: 8514: 8509: 8504: 8499: 8498: 8497: 8487: 8482: 8475:Prelude to War 8472: 8467: 8465:Antebellum Era 8461: 8459: 8453: 8452: 8450: 8449: 8444: 8439: 8438: 8437: 8432: 8427: 8422: 8417: 8412: 8410:Trail of Tears 8405:Jacksonian era 8402: 8401: 8400: 8395: 8384: 8382: 8376: 8375: 8373: 8372: 8371: 8370: 8365: 8355: 8354: 8353: 8348: 8341:Federalist Era 8338: 8336:Bill of Rights 8332: 8330: 8324: 8323: 8321: 8320: 8319: 8318: 8313: 8308: 8303: 8298: 8285: 8284: 8283: 8278: 8273: 8271:Lee Resolution 8268: 8263: 8252: 8250: 8244: 8243: 8241: 8240: 8239: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8203: 8198: 8193: 8188: 8178: 8173: 8168: 8163: 8158: 8153: 8148: 8143: 8138: 8133: 8128: 8123: 8117: 8115: 8109: 8108: 8106: 8105: 8098: 8090: 8088: 8080: 8079: 8069: 8068: 8066: 8065: 8060: 8054: 8051: 8050: 8043: 8042: 8035: 8028: 8020: 8011: 8010: 8008: 8007: 7994: 7993: 7986: 7978: 7975: 7974: 7972: 7971: 7965: 7959: 7953: 7947: 7941: 7935: 7929: 7923: 7917: 7911: 7905: 7899: 7893: 7886: 7884: 7878: 7877: 7875: 7874: 7869: 7864: 7859: 7850: 7848: 7844: 7843: 7841: 7840: 7835: 7830: 7825: 7820: 7815: 7810: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7780: 7775: 7770: 7768:Foreign policy 7765: 7759: 7757: 7751: 7750: 7736: 7734: 7732: 7731: 7726: 7721: 7716: 7711: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7690: 7688: 7684: 7683: 7681: 7680: 7672: 7660: 7657: 7656: 7649: 7648: 7641: 7634: 7626: 7617: 7616: 7613: 7612: 7610: 7609: 7601: 7593: 7585: 7577: 7569: 7561: 7553: 7545: 7536: 7533: 7532: 7528:Compact Clause 7519: 7518: 7515: 7514: 7512: 7511: 7503: 7494: 7491: 7490: 7477: 7476: 7473: 7472: 7469: 7468: 7466: 7465: 7461:Sveen v. Melin 7457: 7449: 7441: 7433: 7425: 7417: 7409: 7401: 7393: 7389:Block v. Hirsh 7385: 7377: 7369: 7361: 7353: 7345: 7337: 7329: 7320: 7318: 7314: 7313: 7311: 7310: 7301: 7299: 7287: 7286: 7270: 7269: 7266: 7265: 7263: 7262: 7254: 7246: 7242:Teague v. Lane 7238: 7230: 7222: 7214: 7206: 7198: 7190: 7182: 7178:Calder v. Bull 7173: 7170: 7169: 7152: 7151: 7148: 7147: 7145: 7144: 7136: 7128: 7120: 7112: 7104: 7095: 7092: 7091: 7072: 7071: 7068: 7067: 7065: 7064: 7056: 7048: 7040: 7032: 7024: 7015: 7012: 7011: 6998: 6997: 6994: 6993: 6990: 6989: 6987: 6986: 6978: 6970: 6961: 6959: 6952: 6951: 6949: 6948: 6940: 6932: 6924: 6916: 6908: 6900: 6892: 6884: 6876: 6872:Gunn v. Minton 6868: 6860: 6852: 6844: 6836: 6828: 6820: 6812: 6804: 6796: 6788: 6780: 6772: 6764: 6756: 6748: 6740: 6732: 6724: 6716: 6708: 6700: 6692: 6684: 6676: 6668: 6660: 6652: 6644: 6636: 6628: 6620: 6612: 6604: 6596: 6588: 6580: 6572: 6564: 6556: 6548: 6540: 6532: 6524: 6516: 6508: 6500: 6492: 6484: 6476: 6468: 6459: 6457: 6450: 6449: 6447: 6446: 6438: 6430: 6422: 6414: 6406: 6398: 6390: 6382: 6374: 6366: 6358: 6350: 6342: 6334: 6326: 6318: 6310: 6302: 6293: 6291: 6284: 6283: 6281: 6280: 6272: 6264: 6256: 6248: 6240: 6232: 6224: 6216: 6208: 6200: 6192: 6184: 6176: 6168: 6160: 6152: 6144: 6136: 6128: 6120: 6112: 6104: 6096: 6088: 6079: 6077: 6071: 6070: 6068: 6067: 6059: 6051: 6043: 6035: 6027: 6019: 6011: 6003: 5995: 5987: 5979: 5971: 5963: 5954: 5952: 5946: 5945: 5943: 5942: 5934: 5925: 5923: 5917: 5916: 5914: 5913: 5905: 5896: 5894: 5887: 5886: 5884: 5883: 5875: 5867: 5859: 5855:Mazer v. Stein 5851: 5843: 5835: 5827: 5819: 5811: 5803: 5795: 5787: 5779: 5771: 5762: 5760: 5754: 5753: 5751: 5750: 5742: 5734: 5726: 5718: 5710: 5702: 5694: 5686: 5677: 5675: 5669: 5668: 5666: 5665: 5657: 5649: 5641: 5633: 5624: 5622: 5616: 5615: 5613: 5612: 5604: 5596: 5588: 5580: 5572: 5564: 5556: 5548: 5540: 5532: 5524: 5516: 5508: 5500: 5492: 5484: 5476: 5468: 5460: 5452: 5444: 5436: 5428: 5419: 5417: 5411: 5410: 5408: 5407: 5399: 5391: 5383: 5375: 5367: 5359: 5351: 5343: 5339:Paige v. Banks 5335: 5331:Little v. Hall 5327: 5319: 5311: 5303: 5294: 5292: 5286: 5285: 5283: 5282: 5278:Voss v. Fisher 5274: 5266: 5258: 5250: 5242: 5234: 5226: 5217: 5215: 5208: 5207: 5205: 5204: 5196: 5188: 5180: 5172: 5164: 5155: 5153: 5146: 5145: 5143: 5142: 5134: 5130:Evans v. Eaton 5126: 5122:Evans v. Eaton 5118: 5109: 5107: 5101: 5100: 5098: 5097: 5089: 5085:Paige v. Banks 5081: 5072: 5070: 5060: 5059: 5046: 5045: 5042: 5041: 5038: 5037: 5035: 5034: 5026: 5017: 5015: 5003: 5002: 4998:Coinage Clause 4989: 4988: 4985: 4984: 4981: 4980: 4978: 4977: 4969: 4961: 4953: 4945: 4937: 4929: 4925:Reno v. Condon 4921: 4913: 4905: 4897: 4889: 4881: 4873: 4865: 4857: 4849: 4841: 4833: 4825: 4817: 4809: 4801: 4793: 4785: 4777: 4769: 4761: 4753: 4745: 4737: 4729: 4721: 4713: 4705: 4697: 4689: 4681: 4673: 4665: 4657: 4649: 4641: 4633: 4625: 4617: 4609: 4600: 4598: 4594: 4593: 4591: 4590: 4582: 4574: 4566: 4558: 4550: 4542: 4534: 4526: 4518: 4510: 4502: 4494: 4486: 4478: 4470: 4462: 4454: 4446: 4438: 4430: 4422: 4414: 4406: 4398: 4390: 4382: 4374: 4366: 4358: 4350: 4342: 4334: 4326: 4318: 4310: 4302: 4294: 4285: 4283: 4273: 4272: 4259: 4258: 4255: 4254: 4252: 4251: 4243: 4235: 4227: 4219: 4211: 4203: 4195: 4187: 4179: 4171: 4162: 4159: 4158: 4142: 4141: 4138: 4137: 4135: 4134: 4126: 4118: 4111: 4108: 4107: 4105:of Section VII 4094: 4093: 4090: 4089: 4087: 4086: 4078: 4069: 4066: 4065: 4049: 4048: 4045: 4044: 4042: 4041: 4033: 4025: 4016: 4013: 4012: 3996: 3995: 3992: 3991: 3989: 3988: 3980: 3972: 3964: 3960:Smiley v. Holm 3956: 3947: 3944: 3943: 3927: 3926: 3923: 3922: 3920: 3919: 3911: 3903: 3894: 3891: 3890: 3874: 3873: 3870: 3869: 3867: 3866: 3858: 3850: 3841: 3838: 3837: 3821: 3820: 3809: 3808: 3801: 3794: 3786: 3780: 3779: 3772: 3755: 3753:Alan Greenspan 3737: 3730: 3729: 3725: 3724: 3719: 3713: 3712: 3708: 3707: 3685: 3684:External links 3682: 3680: 3679: 3636: 3623: 3607: 3594: 3556: 3547: 3535: 3522: 3508: 3482: 3473: 3464: 3455: 3446: 3434: 3418: 3391: 3379: 3366: 3341: 3332: 3323: 3295: 3266: 3250: 3235: 3220: 3181: 3155: 3146:SMU Law Review 3129: 3117: 3088: 3045: 3033: 3006: 2968: 2941: 2918: 2856: 2833: 2793: 2778: 2745: 2709: 2683: 2657: 2642: 2614: 2607: 2589: 2518:see also ibid. 2495: 2471: 2461: 2441: 2405: 2386: 2361: 2342: 2321: 2303: 2285: 2283: 2280: 2278: 2277: 2270: 2265: 2260: 2253: 2248: 2243: 2238: 2233: 2228: 2223: 2216: 2211: 2206: 2199: 2198: 2197: 2186: 2181: 2176: 2171: 2166: 2161: 2156: 2151: 2145: 2143: 2140: 2116:Richard Posner 2101:New York Times 2051:Alan Greenspan 2037: 2034: 2001: 1998: 1880: 1879: 1866: 1835: 1834: 1771: 1769: 1762: 1756: 1753: 1726: 1723: 1713: 1710: 1691: 1688: 1663: 1660: 1657: 1656: 1611: 1609: 1602: 1595: 1594: 1553: 1551: 1544: 1538: 1535: 1534: 1533: 1532: 1531: 1517: 1497: 1494: 1493: 1492: 1489: 1486: 1479: 1478: 1475: 1468: 1467: 1464: 1461: 1453: 1450: 1433: 1430: 1428: 1425: 1424: 1423: 1415: 1407: 1395: 1387: 1377: 1361: 1353: 1345: 1331: 1323: 1311: 1300:Hale v. Henkel 1296: 1288: 1282: 1265:Main article: 1262: 1259: 1248: 1247: 1244: 1241: 1238: 1225: 1224: 1175: 1173: 1166: 1160: 1157: 1155: 1154: 1146: 1145: 1128: 1125: 1123: 1120: 1033: 1030: 1022:treble damages 979:15 U.S.C. 961: 960: 958: 957: 950: 943: 935: 932: 931: 930: 929: 924: 916: 915: 911: 910: 909: 908: 903: 898: 889: 884: 879: 874: 869: 868: 867: 862: 852: 843: 842: 841: 836: 831: 826: 816: 805: 803:Monopolization 797: 796: 790: 789: 788: 787: 785:Merger control 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 751: 750: 745: 731: 723: 722: 721:Basic concepts 718: 717: 707: 706: 674: 673: 671: 670: 669:___ (2021) 650: 649:___ (2018) 630: 611: 592: 573: 554: 535: 516: 497: 478: 459: 440: 421: 402: 383: 364: 345: 326: 307: 288: 273:Hale v. Henkel 269: 250: 231: 208: 207: 206: 203: 202: 195: 194: 192: 191: 181: 175: 169: 150: 147: 146: 142: 141: 131:15 U.S.C. 128: 121: 120: 115: 114:Titles amended 111: 110: 106: 105: 95: 87: 86: 72: 68: 67: 63: 62: 56: 52: 51: 48: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10414: 10403: 10400: 10398: 10395: 10393: 10390: 10388: 10385: 10383: 10380: 10378: 10375: 10373: 10370: 10369: 10367: 10352: 10348: 10344: 10342: 10334: 10332: 10329: 10327: 10326:List of years 10324: 10323: 10320: 10306: 10298: 10296: 10295:Urban history 10293: 10292: 10290: 10286: 10280: 10277: 10275: 10274:Palmyra Atoll 10272: 10270: 10267: 10265: 10262: 10260: 10257: 10255: 10252: 10250: 10249:Jarvis Island 10247: 10245: 10242: 10240: 10237: 10236: 10234: 10230: 10224: 10221: 10219: 10216: 10214: 10211: 10209: 10206: 10204: 10201: 10200: 10198: 10196:Insular areas 10194: 10190: 10186: 10182: 10176: 10173: 10171: 10168: 10166: 10165:West Virginia 10163: 10161: 10158: 10156: 10153: 10151: 10148: 10146: 10143: 10141: 10138: 10136: 10133: 10131: 10128: 10126: 10123: 10121: 10118: 10116: 10113: 10111: 10108: 10106: 10103: 10101: 10098: 10096: 10093: 10091: 10088: 10086: 10083: 10081: 10078: 10076: 10073: 10071: 10070:New Hampshire 10068: 10066: 10063: 10061: 10058: 10056: 10053: 10051: 10048: 10046: 10043: 10041: 10038: 10036: 10033: 10031: 10030:Massachusetts 10028: 10026: 10023: 10021: 10018: 10016: 10013: 10011: 10008: 10006: 10003: 10001: 9998: 9996: 9993: 9991: 9988: 9986: 9983: 9981: 9978: 9976: 9973: 9971: 9968: 9966: 9963: 9961: 9958: 9956: 9953: 9951: 9948: 9946: 9943: 9941: 9938: 9936: 9933: 9931: 9928: 9927: 9925: 9921: 9915: 9912: 9910: 9907: 9905: 9902: 9901: 9899: 9895: 9889: 9886: 9884: 9881: 9879: 9876: 9874: 9871: 9869: 9866: 9865: 9863: 9861: 9857: 9853: 9846: 9842: 9830: 9827: 9825: 9822: 9820: 9817: 9816: 9815: 9814: 9810: 9808: 9807: 9803: 9799: 9796: 9794: 9791: 9790: 9789: 9788: 9784: 9780: 9777: 9775: 9772: 9770: 9767: 9765: 9762: 9760: 9757: 9755: 9752: 9751: 9750: 9749: 9745: 9743: 9742: 9738: 9734: 9731: 9730: 9729: 9728: 9724: 9720: 9717: 9715: 9712: 9710: 9707: 9705: 9702: 9700: 9697: 9695: 9692: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9677: 9676: 9675: 9674: 9670: 9666: 9663: 9661: 9660:Thai American 9658: 9656: 9653: 9651: 9648: 9646: 9643: 9641: 9638: 9636: 9633: 9632: 9631: 9630: 9626: 9624: 9623: 9619: 9618: 9615: 9608: 9604: 9592: 9589: 9587: 9584: 9582: 9579: 9577: 9574: 9572: 9569: 9568: 9567: 9566: 9562: 9558: 9555: 9554: 9553: 9552: 9548: 9546: 9545: 9541: 9539: 9538: 9534: 9530: 9527: 9525: 9522: 9520: 9517: 9515: 9512: 9510: 9507: 9505: 9502: 9501: 9500: 9499: 9498:Party Systems 9495: 9491: 9488: 9486: 9483: 9481: 9478: 9476: 9473: 9471: 9468: 9466: 9463: 9462: 9461: 9460: 9456: 9454: 9453: 9449: 9447: 9446: 9442: 9438: 9437:Voting rights 9435: 9433: 9430: 9428: 9425: 9423: 9420: 9418: 9415: 9413: 9410: 9408: 9405: 9403: 9400: 9398: 9395: 9393: 9390: 9388: 9385: 9383: 9380: 9379: 9378: 9377: 9373: 9371: 9370: 9366: 9362: 9359: 9358: 9357: 9356: 9352: 9348: 9345: 9344: 9343: 9342: 9338: 9334: 9331: 9330: 9329: 9328: 9324: 9320: 9317: 9315: 9312: 9310: 9307: 9305: 9302: 9301: 9300: 9299: 9295: 9293: 9292: 9288: 9286: 9285: 9281: 9280: 9277: 9270: 9266: 9252: 9249: 9247: 9244: 9242: 9241: 9237: 9235: 9232: 9230: 9227: 9225: 9222: 9218: 9215: 9214: 9213: 9210: 9208: 9205: 9203: 9202: 9198: 9196: 9193: 9189: 9186: 9184: 9181: 9179: 9176: 9174: 9171: 9169: 9166: 9164: 9161: 9159: 9156: 9154: 9151: 9150: 9149: 9146: 9144: 9141: 9140: 9138: 9136: 9132: 9126: 9123: 9121: 9118: 9116: 9113: 9109: 9106: 9104: 9101: 9100: 9099: 9098:War on terror 9096: 9094: 9091: 9089: 9088: 9084: 9082: 9079: 9077: 9074: 9072: 9069: 9067: 9064: 9062: 9059: 9057: 9054: 9052: 9049: 9047: 9044: 9043: 9041: 9039: 9035: 9029: 9026: 9024: 9021: 9019: 9016: 9012: 9009: 9007: 9004: 9002: 8999: 8998: 8997: 8996:Late Cold War 8994: 8992: 8989: 8985: 8982: 8980: 8977: 8976: 8975: 8972: 8971: 8969: 8967: 8963: 8957: 8954: 8952: 8949: 8947: 8944: 8940: 8937: 8936: 8935: 8932: 8930: 8927: 8925: 8922: 8920: 8917: 8913: 8910: 8908: 8905: 8903: 8900: 8899: 8898: 8895: 8891: 8888: 8886: 8883: 8882: 8881: 8878: 8876: 8875:Great Society 8873: 8872: 8870: 8868: 8864: 8858: 8855: 8851: 8848: 8847: 8846: 8843: 8841: 8838: 8836: 8833: 8831: 8830:Post-war boom 8828: 8824: 8821: 8819: 8816: 8814: 8811: 8809: 8806: 8805: 8804: 8801: 8797: 8794: 8793: 8792: 8789: 8787: 8784: 8783: 8781: 8779: 8775: 8765: 8762: 8761: 8760: 8757: 8755: 8752: 8750: 8747: 8746: 8745: 8742: 8738: 8735: 8733: 8730: 8728: 8725: 8724: 8723: 8720: 8716: 8713: 8711: 8708: 8706: 8703: 8701: 8698: 8696: 8693: 8691: 8688: 8687: 8686: 8683: 8681: 8678: 8674: 8671: 8670: 8669: 8666: 8665: 8663: 8661: 8657: 8651: 8648: 8644: 8641: 8639: 8636: 8634: 8631: 8629: 8626: 8625: 8624: 8621: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8597: 8594: 8592: 8589: 8588: 8587: 8584: 8582: 8579: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8560: 8557: 8555: 8552: 8551: 8550: 8547: 8546: 8544: 8542: 8538: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8521: 8520: 8517: 8513: 8510: 8508: 8505: 8503: 8500: 8496: 8493: 8492: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8481: 8478: 8477: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8462: 8460: 8458: 8454: 8448: 8445: 8443: 8440: 8436: 8433: 8431: 8428: 8426: 8423: 8421: 8418: 8416: 8413: 8411: 8408: 8407: 8406: 8403: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8390: 8389: 8386: 8385: 8383: 8381: 8377: 8369: 8366: 8364: 8361: 8360: 8359: 8356: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8343: 8342: 8339: 8337: 8334: 8333: 8331: 8329: 8325: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8302: 8299: 8297: 8294: 8291: 8290: 8289: 8286: 8282: 8279: 8277: 8274: 8272: 8269: 8267: 8264: 8262: 8259: 8258: 8257: 8254: 8253: 8251: 8249: 8245: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8202: 8199: 8197: 8194: 8192: 8189: 8187: 8184: 8183: 8182: 8179: 8177: 8174: 8172: 8169: 8167: 8164: 8162: 8159: 8157: 8154: 8152: 8149: 8147: 8144: 8142: 8139: 8137: 8134: 8132: 8129: 8127: 8124: 8122: 8119: 8118: 8116: 8114: 8110: 8104: 8103: 8099: 8097: 8096: 8092: 8091: 8089: 8085: 8081: 8074: 8070: 8064: 8061: 8059: 8056: 8055: 8052: 8048: 8041: 8036: 8034: 8029: 8027: 8022: 8021: 8018: 8006: 8005: 7996: 7995: 7992: 7991: 7987: 7985: 7984: 7980: 7979: 7976: 7969: 7966: 7963: 7960: 7957: 7954: 7951: 7948: 7945: 7942: 7940:(grandmother) 7939: 7938:Anna Harrison 7936: 7934:(grandfather) 7933: 7930: 7927: 7924: 7921: 7918: 7915: 7912: 7909: 7906: 7903: 7900: 7898:(second wife) 7897: 7894: 7891: 7888: 7887: 7885: 7883: 7879: 7873: 7872:Harrison Hall 7870: 7868: 7865: 7863: 7860: 7858: 7856: 7852: 7851: 7849: 7845: 7839: 7836: 7834: 7831: 7829: 7826: 7824: 7821: 7819: 7816: 7814: 7811: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7791: 7789: 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7774: 7771: 7769: 7766: 7764: 7761: 7760: 7758: 7756: 7752: 7747: 7740: 7730: 7727: 7725: 7722: 7720: 7717: 7715: 7712: 7710: 7707: 7705: 7702: 7700: 7697: 7695: 7692: 7691: 7689: 7685: 7677: 7673: 7669: 7666: 7662: 7661: 7658: 7654: 7647: 7642: 7640: 7635: 7633: 7628: 7627: 7624: 7607: 7606: 7602: 7599: 7598: 7594: 7591: 7590: 7586: 7583: 7582: 7578: 7575: 7574: 7570: 7567: 7566: 7562: 7559: 7558: 7554: 7551: 7550: 7546: 7543: 7542: 7538: 7537: 7534: 7529: 7524: 7520: 7509: 7508: 7504: 7501: 7500: 7496: 7495: 7492: 7487: 7482: 7478: 7463: 7462: 7458: 7455: 7454: 7450: 7447: 7446: 7442: 7439: 7438: 7434: 7431: 7430: 7426: 7423: 7422: 7418: 7415: 7414: 7410: 7407: 7406: 7402: 7399: 7398: 7394: 7391: 7390: 7386: 7383: 7382: 7381:Smyth v. Ames 7378: 7375: 7374: 7370: 7367: 7366: 7362: 7359: 7358: 7354: 7351: 7350: 7346: 7343: 7342: 7338: 7335: 7334: 7330: 7327: 7326: 7322: 7321: 7319: 7315: 7308: 7307: 7303: 7302: 7300: 7298: 7297: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7280: 7275: 7271: 7260: 7259: 7255: 7252: 7251: 7247: 7244: 7243: 7239: 7236: 7235: 7231: 7228: 7227: 7223: 7220: 7219: 7215: 7212: 7211: 7207: 7204: 7203: 7199: 7196: 7195: 7191: 7188: 7187: 7183: 7180: 7179: 7175: 7174: 7171: 7167:of Section IX 7166: 7164: 7163:Ex post facto 7157: 7153: 7142: 7141: 7137: 7134: 7133: 7129: 7126: 7125: 7121: 7118: 7117: 7116:Ex parte Endo 7113: 7110: 7109: 7105: 7102: 7101: 7097: 7096: 7093: 7089: 7085: 7083: 7082:Habeas corpus 7077: 7073: 7062: 7061: 7057: 7054: 7053: 7049: 7046: 7045: 7041: 7038: 7037: 7033: 7030: 7029: 7025: 7022: 7021: 7017: 7016: 7013: 7008: 7003: 6999: 6984: 6983: 6979: 6976: 6975: 6971: 6968: 6967: 6963: 6962: 6960: 6958: 6953: 6946: 6945: 6941: 6938: 6937: 6933: 6930: 6929: 6925: 6922: 6921: 6917: 6914: 6913: 6909: 6906: 6905: 6901: 6898: 6897: 6893: 6890: 6889: 6885: 6882: 6881: 6877: 6874: 6873: 6869: 6866: 6865: 6861: 6858: 6857: 6853: 6850: 6849: 6845: 6842: 6841: 6837: 6834: 6833: 6829: 6826: 6825: 6821: 6818: 6817: 6813: 6810: 6809: 6805: 6802: 6801: 6797: 6794: 6793: 6789: 6786: 6785: 6781: 6778: 6777: 6773: 6770: 6769: 6765: 6762: 6761: 6757: 6754: 6753: 6749: 6746: 6745: 6741: 6738: 6737: 6733: 6730: 6729: 6725: 6722: 6721: 6717: 6714: 6713: 6709: 6706: 6705: 6701: 6698: 6697: 6693: 6690: 6689: 6685: 6682: 6681: 6677: 6674: 6673: 6669: 6666: 6665: 6661: 6658: 6657: 6653: 6650: 6649: 6645: 6642: 6641: 6637: 6634: 6633: 6629: 6626: 6625: 6621: 6618: 6617: 6613: 6610: 6609: 6605: 6602: 6601: 6597: 6594: 6593: 6589: 6586: 6585: 6581: 6578: 6577: 6573: 6570: 6569: 6565: 6562: 6561: 6557: 6554: 6553: 6549: 6546: 6545: 6541: 6538: 6537: 6533: 6530: 6529: 6525: 6522: 6521: 6517: 6514: 6513: 6509: 6506: 6505: 6501: 6498: 6497: 6493: 6490: 6489: 6485: 6482: 6481: 6477: 6474: 6473: 6469: 6466: 6465: 6461: 6460: 6458: 6456: 6451: 6444: 6443: 6439: 6436: 6435: 6431: 6428: 6427: 6423: 6420: 6419: 6415: 6412: 6411: 6407: 6404: 6403: 6399: 6396: 6395: 6391: 6388: 6387: 6383: 6380: 6379: 6378:Gibbs v. Buck 6375: 6372: 6371: 6367: 6364: 6363: 6359: 6356: 6355: 6351: 6348: 6347: 6343: 6340: 6339: 6335: 6332: 6331: 6327: 6324: 6323: 6319: 6316: 6315: 6311: 6308: 6307: 6303: 6300: 6299: 6295: 6294: 6292: 6290: 6285: 6278: 6277: 6273: 6270: 6269: 6265: 6262: 6261: 6257: 6254: 6253: 6249: 6246: 6245: 6241: 6238: 6237: 6233: 6230: 6229: 6225: 6222: 6221: 6217: 6214: 6213: 6209: 6206: 6205: 6201: 6198: 6197: 6193: 6190: 6189: 6185: 6182: 6181: 6177: 6174: 6173: 6169: 6166: 6165: 6161: 6158: 6157: 6153: 6150: 6149: 6145: 6142: 6141: 6137: 6134: 6133: 6129: 6126: 6125: 6121: 6118: 6117: 6113: 6110: 6109: 6105: 6102: 6101: 6097: 6094: 6093: 6089: 6086: 6085: 6081: 6080: 6078: 6076: 6072: 6065: 6064: 6060: 6057: 6056: 6052: 6049: 6048: 6044: 6041: 6040: 6036: 6033: 6032: 6028: 6025: 6024: 6020: 6017: 6016: 6012: 6009: 6008: 6004: 6001: 6000: 5996: 5993: 5992: 5988: 5985: 5984: 5980: 5977: 5976: 5972: 5969: 5968: 5964: 5961: 5960: 5956: 5955: 5953: 5951: 5947: 5940: 5939: 5935: 5932: 5931: 5927: 5926: 5924: 5922: 5918: 5911: 5910: 5906: 5903: 5902: 5898: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5891:Patent misuse 5888: 5881: 5880: 5876: 5873: 5872: 5868: 5865: 5864: 5860: 5857: 5856: 5852: 5849: 5848: 5844: 5841: 5840: 5836: 5833: 5832: 5828: 5825: 5824: 5820: 5817: 5816: 5812: 5809: 5808: 5804: 5801: 5800: 5796: 5793: 5792: 5788: 5785: 5784: 5780: 5777: 5776: 5772: 5769: 5768: 5764: 5763: 5761: 5759: 5755: 5748: 5747: 5743: 5740: 5739: 5735: 5732: 5731: 5727: 5724: 5723: 5719: 5716: 5715: 5711: 5708: 5707: 5703: 5700: 5699: 5695: 5692: 5691: 5687: 5684: 5683: 5679: 5678: 5676: 5674: 5670: 5663: 5662: 5658: 5655: 5654: 5650: 5647: 5646: 5642: 5639: 5638: 5634: 5631: 5630: 5626: 5625: 5623: 5621: 5617: 5610: 5609: 5605: 5602: 5601: 5597: 5594: 5593: 5589: 5586: 5585: 5581: 5578: 5577: 5573: 5570: 5569: 5565: 5562: 5561: 5557: 5554: 5553: 5549: 5546: 5545: 5541: 5538: 5537: 5533: 5530: 5529: 5525: 5522: 5521: 5517: 5514: 5513: 5512:Brady v. Daly 5509: 5506: 5505: 5501: 5498: 5497: 5493: 5490: 5489: 5485: 5482: 5481: 5477: 5474: 5473: 5469: 5466: 5465: 5461: 5458: 5457: 5453: 5450: 5449: 5445: 5442: 5441: 5437: 5434: 5433: 5429: 5426: 5425: 5421: 5420: 5418: 5416: 5412: 5405: 5404: 5400: 5397: 5396: 5392: 5389: 5388: 5384: 5381: 5380: 5379:Brady v. Daly 5376: 5373: 5372: 5368: 5365: 5364: 5360: 5357: 5356: 5352: 5349: 5348: 5344: 5341: 5340: 5336: 5333: 5332: 5328: 5325: 5324: 5320: 5317: 5316: 5312: 5309: 5308: 5304: 5301: 5300: 5296: 5295: 5293: 5291: 5287: 5280: 5279: 5275: 5272: 5271: 5267: 5264: 5263: 5259: 5256: 5255: 5251: 5248: 5247: 5243: 5240: 5239: 5235: 5232: 5231: 5227: 5224: 5223: 5219: 5218: 5216: 5213: 5212:Patentability 5209: 5202: 5201: 5197: 5194: 5193: 5189: 5186: 5185: 5181: 5178: 5177: 5173: 5170: 5169: 5165: 5162: 5161: 5157: 5156: 5154: 5151: 5147: 5140: 5139: 5135: 5132: 5131: 5127: 5124: 5123: 5119: 5116: 5115: 5114:Tyler v. Tuel 5111: 5110: 5108: 5106: 5102: 5095: 5094: 5090: 5087: 5086: 5082: 5079: 5078: 5074: 5073: 5071: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5056: 5051: 5047: 5032: 5031: 5027: 5024: 5023: 5019: 5018: 5016: 5014: 5013: 5008: 5004: 4999: 4994: 4990: 4975: 4974: 4970: 4967: 4966: 4962: 4959: 4958: 4954: 4951: 4950: 4946: 4943: 4942: 4938: 4935: 4934: 4930: 4927: 4926: 4922: 4919: 4918: 4914: 4911: 4910: 4906: 4903: 4902: 4898: 4895: 4894: 4890: 4887: 4886: 4882: 4879: 4878: 4874: 4871: 4870: 4866: 4863: 4862: 4858: 4855: 4854: 4850: 4847: 4846: 4842: 4839: 4838: 4834: 4831: 4830: 4826: 4823: 4822: 4818: 4815: 4814: 4810: 4807: 4806: 4802: 4799: 4798: 4794: 4791: 4790: 4786: 4783: 4782: 4778: 4775: 4774: 4770: 4767: 4766: 4762: 4759: 4758: 4754: 4751: 4750: 4746: 4743: 4742: 4738: 4735: 4734: 4730: 4727: 4726: 4722: 4719: 4718: 4714: 4711: 4710: 4706: 4703: 4702: 4698: 4695: 4694: 4690: 4687: 4686: 4682: 4679: 4678: 4674: 4671: 4670: 4666: 4663: 4662: 4658: 4655: 4654: 4650: 4647: 4646: 4642: 4639: 4638: 4634: 4631: 4630: 4626: 4623: 4622: 4618: 4615: 4614: 4610: 4607: 4606: 4602: 4601: 4599: 4595: 4588: 4587: 4583: 4580: 4579: 4575: 4572: 4571: 4567: 4564: 4563: 4559: 4556: 4555: 4551: 4548: 4547: 4543: 4540: 4539: 4535: 4532: 4531: 4527: 4524: 4523: 4519: 4516: 4515: 4511: 4508: 4507: 4503: 4500: 4499: 4495: 4492: 4491: 4487: 4484: 4483: 4479: 4476: 4475: 4471: 4468: 4467: 4463: 4460: 4459: 4455: 4452: 4451: 4447: 4444: 4443: 4439: 4436: 4435: 4431: 4428: 4427: 4423: 4420: 4419: 4415: 4412: 4411: 4407: 4404: 4403: 4399: 4396: 4395: 4391: 4388: 4387: 4383: 4380: 4379: 4375: 4372: 4371: 4367: 4364: 4363: 4359: 4356: 4355: 4351: 4348: 4347: 4343: 4340: 4339: 4335: 4332: 4331: 4327: 4324: 4323: 4319: 4316: 4315: 4311: 4308: 4307: 4303: 4300: 4299: 4295: 4292: 4291: 4287: 4286: 4284: 4282: 4278: 4274: 4269: 4264: 4260: 4249: 4248: 4244: 4241: 4240: 4236: 4233: 4232: 4228: 4225: 4224: 4220: 4217: 4216: 4212: 4209: 4208: 4204: 4201: 4200: 4196: 4193: 4192: 4188: 4185: 4184: 4180: 4177: 4176: 4172: 4169: 4168: 4164: 4163: 4160: 4156: 4152: 4147: 4143: 4132: 4131: 4127: 4124: 4123: 4119: 4116: 4113: 4112: 4109: 4104: 4099: 4095: 4084: 4083: 4079: 4076: 4075: 4071: 4070: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4054: 4050: 4039: 4038: 4034: 4031: 4030: 4026: 4023: 4022: 4018: 4017: 4014: 4010: 4006: 4001: 3997: 3986: 3985: 3981: 3978: 3977: 3973: 3970: 3969: 3965: 3962: 3961: 3957: 3954: 3953: 3949: 3948: 3945: 3941: 3937: 3932: 3928: 3917: 3916: 3912: 3909: 3908: 3904: 3901: 3900: 3896: 3895: 3892: 3888: 3884: 3879: 3875: 3864: 3863: 3859: 3856: 3855: 3851: 3848: 3847: 3846:Utah v. Evans 3843: 3842: 3839: 3835: 3831: 3826: 3822: 3817: 3814: 3807: 3802: 3800: 3795: 3793: 3788: 3787: 3784: 3777: 3773: 3770: 3766: 3762: 3761: 3756: 3754: 3750: 3746: 3743: 3742: 3738: 3736: 3732: 3731: 3727: 3726: 3723: 3720: 3718: 3715: 3714: 3710: 3709: 3706: 3703: 3699: 3695: 3691: 3688: 3687: 3675: 3671: 3667: 3663: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3646:Public Choice 3640: 3633: 3627: 3620: 3614: 3612: 3604: 3598: 3579: 3575: 3574: 3566: 3560: 3551: 3544: 3539: 3532: 3526: 3519: 3512: 3496: 3492: 3486: 3477: 3468: 3459: 3450: 3443: 3438: 3431: 3427: 3422: 3415: 3414: 3409: 3408: 3403: 3402: 3395: 3388: 3383: 3376: 3370: 3363: 3359: 3355: 3351: 3345: 3336: 3327: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3299: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3280: 3276: 3270: 3263: 3259: 3254: 3247: 3244: 3239: 3233: 3229: 3224: 3217: 3213: 3212:Antitrust Law 3209: 3208:See generally 3205: 3201: 3197: 3193: 3190: 3185: 3178: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3166: 3159: 3151: 3147: 3143: 3136: 3134: 3126: 3121: 3114: 3111: 3107: 3103: 3102: 3097: 3092: 3085: 3082: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3067: 3063: 3059: 3055: 3049: 3042: 3037: 3030: 3027: 3023: 3019: 3015: 3010: 3003: 3000: 2996: 2992: 2988: 2985: 2981: 2977: 2972: 2965: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2945: 2938: 2935: 2931: 2927: 2922: 2915: 2911: 2908: 2904: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2888: 2884: 2883: 2879: (1984); 2878: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2866: 2860: 2853: 2850: 2846: 2842: 2837: 2831: (1958)). 2830: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2812: 2808: 2804: 2803: 2797: 2789: 2782: 2775: 2770: 2765: 2762: 2758: 2754: 2749: 2743: 2741: 2736: 2734: 2729: 2726: 2722: 2720: 2713: 2702:September 15, 2697: 2693: 2687: 2671: 2667: 2661: 2653: 2646: 2635:September 28, 2631: 2627: 2621: 2619: 2610: 2608:9780199738816 2604: 2600: 2593: 2585: 2581: 2577: 2574: 2570: 2566: 2562: 2559: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2543: 2539: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2514: 2510: 2506: 2499: 2491: 2486: 2481: 2475: 2465: 2457: 2452: 2445: 2438: 2433: 2428: 2424: 2419: 2415: 2409: 2401: 2397: 2390: 2383: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2371: 2365: 2349: 2345: 2343:9789041123800 2339: 2335: 2334: 2325: 2317: 2313: 2307: 2300: 2296: 2290: 2286: 2276: 2275: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2258: 2254: 2252: 2249: 2247: 2244: 2242: 2239: 2237: 2234: 2232: 2229: 2227: 2224: 2222: 2221: 2217: 2215: 2212: 2210: 2209:Laissez-faire 2207: 2205: 2204: 2200: 2195: 2192: 2191: 2190: 2187: 2185: 2182: 2180: 2177: 2175: 2172: 2170: 2167: 2165: 2162: 2160: 2157: 2155: 2152: 2150: 2147: 2146: 2139: 2137: 2136:Public Choice 2132: 2129: 2125: 2121: 2117: 2113: 2109: 2102: 2098: 2097: 2092: 2088: 2083: 2081: 2076: 2071: 2068: 2064: 2060: 2056: 2052: 2047: 2043: 2032: 2027: 2024: 2019: 2014: 2010: 2005: 1997: 1993: 1990: 1986: 1982: 1979: 1975: 1974: 1968: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1952: 1947: 1945: 1941: 1936: 1933: 1929: 1928: 1922: 1920: 1919: 1913: 1911: 1907: 1902: 1899: 1895: 1891: 1888: 1886: 1877: 1876: 1871: 1867: 1864: 1863: 1858: 1857: 1851: 1850: 1849: 1848: 1847: 1842: 1831: 1828: 1820: 1811: 1810: 1805: 1801: 1797: 1796:for footnotes 1795: 1789: 1788: 1783: 1782: 1777: 1776: 1770: 1761: 1760: 1752: 1750: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1738: 1733: 1722: 1719: 1709: 1707: 1703: 1702: 1696: 1687: 1684: 1680: 1679: 1674: 1670: 1653: 1650: 1642: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1618: 1617: 1612:This section 1610: 1601: 1600: 1591: 1588: 1580: 1570: 1566: 1560: 1559: 1554:This section 1552: 1548: 1543: 1542: 1537:Modern trends 1528: 1525: 1524: 1521: 1518: 1506: 1503: 1502: 1501: 1490: 1487: 1484: 1483: 1482: 1476: 1473: 1472: 1471: 1465: 1462: 1460:an agreement; 1459: 1458: 1457: 1449: 1447: 1443: 1439: 1421: 1420: 1416: 1413: 1412: 1408: 1405: 1401: 1400: 1396: 1393: 1392: 1388: 1385: 1381: 1378: 1375: 1371: 1367: 1366: 1362: 1359: 1358: 1354: 1351: 1350: 1346: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1332: 1329: 1328: 1324: 1321: 1317: 1316: 1312: 1310: 1306: 1302: 1301: 1297: 1294: 1293: 1289: 1286: 1283: 1280: 1277: 1276: 1275: 1272: 1268: 1258: 1256: 1251: 1245: 1242: 1239: 1236: 1235: 1234: 1232: 1221: 1218: 1210: 1200: 1196: 1192: 1186: 1185: 1181: 1176:This section 1174: 1170: 1165: 1164: 1151: 1150: 1149: 1143: 1139: 1138: 1137: 1133: 1127:Original text 1119: 1117: 1113: 1109: 1108: 1102: 1100: 1099:175 U. S. 175 1096: 1093:, 85 F.2d 1, 1092: 1091: 1084: 1079: 1077: 1076:310 U. S. 492 1073: 1070: 1064: 1060: 1058: 1057:Massachusetts 1054: 1048: 1043: 1041: 1040: 1029: 1025: 1023: 1019: 1015: 1011: 1006: 1004: 1000: 996: 992: 988: 984: 980: 976: 972: 968: 956: 951: 949: 944: 942: 937: 936: 934: 933: 928: 925: 923: 920: 919: 918: 917: 913: 912: 907: 904: 902: 899: 897: 893: 890: 888: 885: 883: 880: 878: 875: 873: 870: 866: 863: 861: 860:Group boycott 858: 857: 856: 853: 851: 847: 844: 840: 837: 835: 832: 830: 827: 824: 820: 817: 815: 812:Formation of 811: 810: 809: 806: 804: 801: 800: 799: 798: 795: 792: 791: 786: 783: 781: 778: 776: 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 749: 746: 744: 741: 740: 739: 735: 732: 730: 727: 726: 725: 724: 720: 719: 713: 709: 708: 705: 702: 701: 695: 691: 687: 684: 680: 668: 664: 660: 656: 655: 651: 648: 644: 640: 636: 635: 631: 628: 625: 621: 617: 616: 612: 609: 606: 602: 598: 597: 593: 590: 587: 583: 579: 578: 574: 571: 568: 564: 560: 559: 555: 552: 549: 545: 541: 540: 536: 533: 530: 526: 522: 521: 517: 514: 511: 507: 503: 502: 498: 495: 492: 488: 484: 483: 479: 476: 473: 469: 465: 464: 460: 457: 454: 450: 446: 445: 441: 438: 435: 431: 427: 426: 422: 419: 416: 412: 408: 407: 403: 400: 397: 393: 389: 388: 384: 381: 378: 374: 370: 369: 365: 362: 359: 355: 351: 350: 346: 343: 340: 336: 332: 331: 327: 324: 321: 317: 313: 312: 308: 305: 302: 298: 294: 293: 289: 286: 283: 279: 275: 274: 270: 267: 264: 260: 256: 255: 251: 248: 245: 241: 237: 236: 232: 229: 226: 222: 218: 217: 213: 212: 204: 200: 196: 189: 186:by President 185: 182: 179: 176: 173: 170: 167: 163: 159: 155: 152: 151: 148: 143: 140: 136: 132: 129: 126: 122: 119: 116: 112: 107: 104: 100: 96: 94: 88: 85: 78: 73: 69: 64: 61: 57: 53: 49: 45: 41: 36: 30: 19: 10264:Midway Atoll 10259:Kingman Reef 10239:Baker Island 10218:Puerto Rico 10130:South Dakota 10120:Rhode Island 10115:Pennsylvania 10095:North Dakota 9811: 9804: 9785: 9746: 9739: 9725: 9671: 9627: 9620: 9563: 9549: 9542: 9535: 9496: 9470:Marine Corps 9457: 9450: 9443: 9407:Debt ceiling 9392:Civil Rights 9374: 9367: 9353: 9339: 9325: 9296: 9291:Antisemitism 9289: 9282: 9238: 9199: 9135:2008–present 9087:Bush v. Gore 9085: 9023:War on drugs 8897:Mid Cold War 8749:Pearl Harbor 8744:World War II 8615: 8564:Ku Klux Klan 8161:Dummer's War 8100: 8093: 8087:Pre-Colonial 7997: 7988: 7981: 7892:(first wife) 7854: 7847:Public image 7782: 7603: 7595: 7587: 7579: 7571: 7563: 7555: 7547: 7539: 7530:of Section X 7505: 7497: 7488:of Section X 7459: 7451: 7443: 7435: 7427: 7419: 7411: 7403: 7395: 7387: 7379: 7371: 7363: 7355: 7347: 7339: 7331: 7323: 7304: 7294: 7258:Smith v. Doe 7256: 7248: 7240: 7232: 7224: 7216: 7208: 7200: 7192: 7184: 7176: 7162: 7138: 7130: 7122: 7114: 7106: 7098: 7081: 7058: 7050: 7042: 7034: 7026: 7018: 6980: 6972: 6964: 6942: 6934: 6926: 6918: 6910: 6902: 6894: 6886: 6878: 6870: 6862: 6854: 6846: 6838: 6830: 6822: 6814: 6806: 6798: 6790: 6782: 6774: 6766: 6758: 6750: 6742: 6734: 6726: 6718: 6710: 6702: 6694: 6686: 6678: 6670: 6662: 6654: 6646: 6638: 6630: 6622: 6614: 6606: 6598: 6590: 6582: 6574: 6566: 6558: 6550: 6542: 6534: 6526: 6518: 6510: 6502: 6494: 6486: 6478: 6470: 6462: 6455:patent cases 6440: 6432: 6424: 6416: 6408: 6400: 6392: 6384: 6376: 6368: 6360: 6352: 6344: 6336: 6328: 6320: 6312: 6304: 6296: 6274: 6266: 6258: 6250: 6242: 6234: 6226: 6218: 6210: 6202: 6194: 6186: 6178: 6170: 6162: 6154: 6146: 6138: 6130: 6122: 6114: 6106: 6098: 6090: 6082: 6061: 6053: 6047:Matal v. Tam 6045: 6037: 6029: 6021: 6013: 6005: 5997: 5989: 5981: 5973: 5965: 5957: 5936: 5928: 5907: 5899: 5877: 5869: 5861: 5853: 5845: 5837: 5829: 5821: 5813: 5805: 5797: 5789: 5781: 5773: 5765: 5744: 5736: 5728: 5720: 5712: 5704: 5696: 5688: 5680: 5659: 5651: 5643: 5635: 5627: 5606: 5598: 5590: 5582: 5574: 5566: 5558: 5550: 5542: 5534: 5526: 5518: 5510: 5502: 5494: 5486: 5478: 5470: 5462: 5454: 5446: 5438: 5430: 5422: 5401: 5393: 5385: 5377: 5369: 5361: 5353: 5345: 5337: 5329: 5321: 5313: 5305: 5297: 5276: 5268: 5260: 5252: 5244: 5236: 5228: 5220: 5198: 5190: 5182: 5174: 5166: 5158: 5136: 5128: 5120: 5112: 5091: 5083: 5075: 5028: 5020: 5010: 4971: 4963: 4955: 4947: 4939: 4931: 4923: 4915: 4907: 4899: 4891: 4883: 4875: 4867: 4859: 4851: 4843: 4835: 4827: 4819: 4811: 4803: 4795: 4787: 4779: 4771: 4763: 4755: 4747: 4739: 4731: 4723: 4715: 4707: 4699: 4691: 4683: 4675: 4667: 4659: 4651: 4643: 4635: 4627: 4619: 4611: 4603: 4584: 4576: 4568: 4560: 4552: 4544: 4536: 4528: 4520: 4512: 4504: 4496: 4488: 4480: 4472: 4464: 4456: 4448: 4440: 4432: 4424: 4416: 4408: 4400: 4392: 4384: 4376: 4368: 4360: 4352: 4344: 4336: 4328: 4320: 4312: 4304: 4296: 4288: 4245: 4237: 4229: 4221: 4213: 4205: 4197: 4189: 4181: 4173: 4165: 4155:Section VIII 4128: 4120: 4080: 4072: 4035: 4027: 4019: 3982: 3974: 3966: 3958: 3950: 3913: 3905: 3897: 3860: 3852: 3844: 3758: 3740: 3692:as amended ( 3649: 3645: 3639: 3631: 3626: 3618: 3605:, Antitrust. 3602: 3597: 3585:. Retrieved 3571: 3559: 3550: 3542: 3538: 3530: 3525: 3511: 3499:. Retrieved 3485: 3476: 3467: 3458: 3449: 3441: 3437: 3429: 3425: 3421: 3411: 3405: 3399: 3398:Id. (citing 3394: 3386: 3382: 3374: 3369: 3361: 3357: 3349: 3344: 3335: 3326: 3319: 3315: 3311: 3307: 3303: 3298: 3290: 3282: 3278: 3274: 3269: 3261: 3257: 3253: 3245: 3242: 3238: 3231: 3227: 3223: 3215: 3211: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3188: 3184: 3179: (1908). 3163: 3158: 3152:(1): 94–103. 3149: 3145: 3124: 3120: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3086: (1948). 3072: 3057: 3053: 3048: 3040: 3036: 3031: (1978). 3017: 3013: 3009: 2990: 2975: 2971: 2952: 2948: 2944: 2939: (1927). 2925: 2921: 2913: 2898: 2887:585 F.2d 381 2880: 2863: 2859: 2854: (1979). 2840: 2836: 2817: 2800: 2796: 2781: 2768: 2752: 2748: 2739: 2732: 2724: 2718: 2712: 2700:. Retrieved 2695: 2686: 2674:. Retrieved 2660: 2645: 2633:. Retrieved 2629: 2598: 2592: 2583: 2573:310 U. S. 16 2568: 2558:221 U. S. 50 2554: 2550: 2546: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2517: 2512: 2508: 2504: 2498: 2489: 2484: 2479: 2474: 2464: 2455: 2450: 2444: 2436: 2431: 2426: 2422: 2417: 2413: 2408: 2389: 2384: (1993). 2368: 2364: 2352:. Retrieved 2332: 2324: 2306: 2289: 2272: 2263:Ticketmaster 2255: 2251:Standard Oil 2236:Price fixing 2218: 2201: 2135: 2133: 2110: 2100: 2094: 2084: 2072: 2066: 2062: 2054: 2049: 2029: 2025: 2021: 2016: 2012: 2007: 2003: 1994: 1988: 1984: 1983: 1977: 1971: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1954: 1949: 1943: 1939: 1937: 1925: 1923: 1916: 1914: 1909: 1905: 1903: 1897: 1896: 1892: 1889: 1881: 1873: 1860: 1854: 1844: 1840: 1838: 1823: 1814: 1807: 1791: 1785: 1779: 1773: 1749:312 U.S. 219 1745: 1735: 1728: 1715: 1699: 1697: 1693: 1676: 1665: 1645: 1636: 1613: 1583: 1574: 1563:Please help 1558:verification 1555: 1526: 1519: 1504: 1499: 1480: 1469: 1455: 1435: 1417: 1409: 1397: 1389: 1379: 1363: 1355: 1347: 1333: 1325: 1313: 1298: 1290: 1284: 1278: 1273: 1270: 1252: 1249: 1228: 1213: 1204: 1189:Please help 1177: 1147: 1135: 1130: 1116:221 U. S. 54 1105: 1103: 1094: 1088: 1086: 1081: 1072:310 U.S. 469 1068: 1066: 1062: 1050: 1045: 1037: 1035: 1026: 1007: 1003:John Sherman 966: 964: 906:Rent-seeking 819:Price fixing 770:Market power 686:John Sherman 652: 632: 613: 594: 575: 556: 537: 518: 499: 480: 461: 442: 423: 404: 385: 366: 347: 328: 309: 290: 271: 252: 233: 214: 183: 177: 171: 158:John Sherman 153: 109:Codification 29: 10279:Wake Island 10045:Mississippi 9960:Connecticut 9904:New England 9571:Agriculture 9490:Coast Guard 9485:Space Force 9333:Immigration 9061:WTC bombing 8979:Reaganomics 8907:Vietnam War 8823:McCarthyism 8705:Second Klan 8690:Prohibition 8668:World War I 8643:Square Deal 8633:Imperialism 8368:War of 1812 8095:Prehistoric 7678:(1881–1887) 7670:(1889–1893) 7165:Laws Clause 5022:Knox v. Lee 4062:Section VII 3690:Sherman Act 2937:392, 397–98 2910:253, 259–60 2764:563, 570–71 2112:Robert Bork 1935:preempted. 1817:August 2024 1809:quick guide 1732:Clayton Act 1527:Quick-look: 1148:Section 2: 1136:Section 1: 1112:221 U. S. 1 1053:George Hoar 829:Bid rigging 629: (2015) 610: (2010) 591: (2009) 572: (2007) 553: (1993) 534: (1984) 515: (1984) 496: (1982) 477: (1977) 458: (1951) 439: (1951) 420: (1948) 401: (1948) 382: (1940) 363: (1922) 344: (1911) 325: (1911) 306: (1911) 287: (1906) 268: (1904) 249: (1897) 230: (1894) 10366:Categories 10160:Washington 10080:New Mexico 10075:New Jersey 9950:California 9445:Journalism 9397:Corruption 9376:Government 9327:Demography 9314:Newspapers 9163:Sandy Hook 9066:Waco siege 8974:Reagan era 8880:Space Race 8813:Korean War 8754:home front 8586:Gilded Age 8554:Amendments 7922:(grandson) 7916:(daughter) 7910:(daughter) 7793:Lodge Bill 7755:Presidency 7088:Section IX 5950:Lanham Act 4645:In re Debs 4009:Section VI 3940:Section IV 3834:Section II 2696:Justia Law 2451:See, e.g., 2423:See, e.g., 2085:Economist 2040:See also: 1623:improve it 1305:grand jury 1122:Provisions 1101:U.S. 211; 1032:Background 995:monopolies 896:copyrights 775:SSNIP test 154:Introduced 71:Public law 47:Long title 10170:Wisconsin 10135:Tennessee 10040:Minnesota 10015:Louisiana 9909:The South 9480:Air Force 9355:Education 9217:recession 9173:Las Vegas 9081:Columbine 9038:1991–2008 8966:1980–1991 8867:1964–1980 8778:1945–1964 8732:Dust Bowl 8660:1917–1945 8541:1865–1917 8519:Civil War 8512:Secession 8457:1849–1865 8380:1815–1849 8351:Quasi-War 8328:1789–1815 8248:1776–1789 8201:Sugar Act 7857:(Niehaus) 7813:Geary Act 7283:Section X 3816:Article I 3741:Antitrust 3700:) in the 3674:158141317 3666:0048-5829 3587:April 21, 2587:343–345." 2490:Provided, 2480:See, e.g. 2164:Antitrust 2063:Antitrust 2055:Antitrust 2036:Criticism 2018:Congress. 1781:loc. cit. 1639:July 2022 1627:verifying 1577:July 2022 1207:July 2022 1178:does not 1012:to bring 983:§§ 1 969:(26 808:Collusion 738:oligopoly 135:§§ 1 66:Citations 10341:Category 10155:Virginia 10105:Oklahoma 10085:New York 10060:Nebraska 10050:Missouri 10035:Michigan 10025:Maryland 10010:Kentucky 9990:Illinois 9965:Delaware 9955:Colorado 9945:Arkansas 9824:Lesbians 9798:Comanche 9793:Cherokee 9586:Medicine 9544:Genocide 9537:Religion 9459:Military 9432:Taxation 9382:Abortion 9298:Cultural 9178:Parkland 9108:Iraq War 9046:Gulf War 8818:Ivy Mike 8737:New Deal 8113:Colonial 8058:Timeline 8004:Category 7928:(father) 5893:case law 5214:case law 5152:case law 3818:case law 3745:Archived 3578:Archived 3501:April 7, 3495:Archived 3373:But cf. 3084:495, 519 3069:365, 382 3029:679, 691 2964:596, 608 2852:1, 19–20 2676:March 8, 2670:Archived 2584:See also 2576:Archived 2561:Archived 2437:See also 2427:et seq., 2400:Archived 2382:447, 458 2354:July 15, 2348:Archived 2316:Archived 2142:See also 2126:Justice 2059:Ayn Rand 1938:In both 1718:coercive 1712:Monopoly 1452:Elements 1444:and the 1372:was not 1342:Sylvania 1095:affirmed 999:Congress 734:Monopoly 97:26 10175:Wyoming 10150:Vermont 10055:Montana 9995:Indiana 9975:Georgia 9970:Florida 9940:Arizona 9930:Alabama 9897:Regions 9819:Gay men 9591:Railway 9551:Slavery 9347:Banking 9341:Economy 9183:El Paso 9168:Orlando 8902:Détente 8063:Outline 3698:details 3354:en banc 3287:en banc 2459:61–81." 2432:passim; 2299:p. 1397 2118:of the 1978:Seagram 1621:Please 1338:Philips 1199:removed 1184:sources 1047:itself. 989:) is a 814:cartels 639:16-1454 76:Pub. L. 10351:Portal 10305:Cities 10288:Cities 10110:Oregon 10065:Nevada 10005:Kansas 9980:Hawaii 9935:Alaska 9923:States 9849:Places 9611:Groups 9581:Lumber 9519:Fourth 9509:Second 9319:Sports 9304:Cinema 9273:Topics 9188:Uvalde 9158:Aurora 9153:Tucson 8077:Events 7882:Family 7608:(2018) 7600:(2009) 7592:(2003) 7584:(1998) 7576:(1985) 7568:(1894) 7560:(1893) 7552:(1871) 7544:(1855) 7510:(1951) 7502:(1827) 7464:(2018) 7456:(1987) 7448:(1983) 7440:(1983) 7432:(1978) 7424:(1977) 7416:(1965) 7408:(1935) 7400:(1934) 7392:(1921) 7384:(1898) 7376:(1880) 7368:(1843) 7360:(1837) 7352:(1827) 7344:(1819) 7336:(1819) 7328:(1810) 7317:Others 7309:(1870) 7261:(2003) 7253:(1997) 7245:(1989) 7237:(1964) 7229:(1960) 7221:(1951) 7213:(1925) 7205:(1898) 7197:(1866) 7189:(1819) 7181:(1798) 7143:(2020) 7135:(2008) 7127:(2001) 7119:(1944) 7111:(1861) 7103:(1807) 7063:(2013) 7055:(2010) 7047:(2005) 7039:(2004) 7031:(1926) 7023:(1819) 6985:(2020) 6977:(1938) 6969:(1915) 6955:Other 6947:(2019) 6939:(2017) 6931:(2016) 6923:(2015) 6915:(2015) 6907:(2014) 6899:(2014) 6891:(2013) 6883:(2013) 6875:(2013) 6867:(2013) 6859:(2012) 6851:(2012) 6843:(2011) 6835:(2011) 6827:(2011) 6819:(2010) 6811:(2008) 6803:(2007) 6795:(2007) 6787:(2007) 6779:(2006) 6771:(2006) 6763:(2006) 6755:(2005) 6747:(2002) 6739:(2001) 6731:(1999) 6723:(1999) 6715:(1998) 6707:(1997) 6699:(1996) 6691:(1990) 6683:(1989) 6675:(1981) 6667:(1980) 6659:(1978) 6651:(1976) 6643:(1976) 6635:(1973) 6627:(1972) 6619:(1971) 6611:(1969) 6603:(1969) 6595:(1966) 6587:(1966) 6579:(1966) 6571:(1965) 6563:(1964) 6555:(1964) 6547:(1964) 6539:(1961) 6531:(1950) 6523:(1950) 6515:(1948) 6507:(1945) 6499:(1943) 6491:(1942) 6483:(1926) 6475:(1916) 6467:(1908) 6453:Other 6445:(1975) 6437:(1974) 6429:(1973) 6421:(1968) 6413:(1962) 6405:(1960) 6397:(1949) 6389:(1939) 6381:(1939) 6373:(1936) 6365:(1934) 6357:(1932) 6349:(1931) 6341:(1923) 6333:(1919) 6325:(1918) 6317:(1914) 6309:(1912) 6301:(1911) 6287:Other 6279:(2020) 6271:(2020) 6263:(2019) 6255:(2019) 6247:(2017) 6239:(2014) 6231:(2014) 6223:(2013) 6215:(2012) 6207:(2010) 6199:(2005) 6191:(2003) 6183:(2001) 6175:(1998) 6167:(1998) 6159:(1996) 6151:(1994) 6143:(1994) 6135:(1991) 6127:(1990) 6119:(1989) 6111:(1985) 6103:(1985) 6095:(1984) 6087:(1977) 6066:(2020) 6058:(2019) 6050:(2017) 6042:(2014) 6034:(2014) 6026:(2003) 6018:(2003) 6010:(2001) 6002:(2001) 5994:(1999) 5986:(1995) 5978:(1992) 5970:(1987) 5962:(1982) 5941:(1985) 5933:(1941) 5912:(1942) 5904:(1917) 5882:(1973) 5874:(1964) 5866:(1956) 5858:(1954) 5850:(1952) 5842:(1943) 5834:(1940) 5826:(1939) 5818:(1935) 5810:(1931) 5802:(1923) 5794:(1920) 5786:(1917) 5778:(1914) 5770:(1911) 5749:(1911) 5741:(1911) 5733:(1909) 5725:(1909) 5717:(1908) 5709:(1908) 5701:(1907) 5693:(1903) 5685:(1896) 5664:(1979) 5656:(1948) 5648:(1941) 5640:(1939) 5632:(1913) 5611:(1912) 5603:(1909) 5595:(1908) 5587:(1908) 5579:(1908) 5571:(1908) 5563:(1907) 5555:(1907) 5547:(1907) 5539:(1903) 5531:(1903) 5523:(1899) 5515:(1899) 5507:(1892) 5499:(1891) 5491:(1889) 5483:(1888) 5475:(1888) 5467:(1888) 5459:(1884) 5451:(1884) 5443:(1881) 5435:(1879) 5427:(1879) 5406:(1903) 5398:(1903) 5390:(1899) 5382:(1899) 5374:(1899) 5366:(1891) 5358:(1888) 5350:(1879) 5342:(1872) 5334:(1856) 5326:(1854) 5318:(1853) 5310:(1849) 5302:(1834) 5281:(1885) 5273:(1885) 5265:(1881) 5257:(1878) 5249:(1876) 5241:(1853) 5233:(1851) 5225:(1829) 5203:(1938) 5195:(1913) 5187:(1894) 5179:(1885) 5171:(1885) 5163:(1815) 5141:(1822) 5133:(1822) 5125:(1818) 5117:(1810) 5096:(1908) 5088:(1872) 5080:(1834) 5033:(1884) 5025:(1871) 4976:(2016) 4968:(2012) 4960:(2005) 4952:(2000) 4944:(2000) 4936:(2000) 4928:(2000) 4920:(1996) 4912:(1995) 4904:(1992) 4896:(1985) 4888:(1983) 4880:(1981) 4872:(1981) 4864:(1976) 4856:(1968) 4848:(1964) 4840:(1964) 4832:(1960) 4824:(1951) 4816:(1950) 4808:(1949) 4800:(1946) 4792:(1944) 4784:(1942) 4776:(1942) 4768:(1941) 4760:(1940) 4752:(1938) 4744:(1937) 4736:(1936) 4728:(1935) 4720:(1935) 4712:(1935) 4704:(1923) 4696:(1918) 4688:(1914) 4680:(1913) 4672:(1911) 4664:(1903) 4656:(1895) 4648:(1895) 4640:(1888) 4632:(1885) 4624:(1869) 4616:(1849) 4608:(1824) 4597:Others 4589:(2023) 4581:(2019) 4573:(2018) 4565:(2015) 4557:(2008) 4549:(2007) 4541:(2005) 4533:(1994) 4525:(1994) 4517:(1994) 4509:(1992) 4501:(1992) 4493:(1989) 4485:(1986) 4477:(1984) 4469:(1983) 4461:(1982) 4453:(1981) 4445:(1980) 4437:(1978) 4429:(1978) 4421:(1977) 4413:(1977) 4405:(1976) 4397:(1970) 4389:(1967) 4381:(1959) 4373:(1954) 4365:(1951) 4357:(1945) 4349:(1941) 4341:(1935) 4333:(1925) 4325:(1905) 4317:(1886) 4309:(1852) 4301:(1829) 4293:(1827) 4250:(2012) 4242:(2004) 4234:(1987) 4226:(1937) 4218:(1936) 4210:(1922) 4202:(1916) 4194:(1895) 4186:(1881) 4178:(1871) 4170:(1796) 4133:(1998) 4125:(1983) 4117:(1929) 4085:(1990) 4077:(1911) 4040:(1972) 4032:(1966) 4024:(1881) 3987:(2023) 3979:(2015) 3971:(1995) 3963:(1932) 3955:(1879) 3918:(2001) 3910:(1995) 3902:(1969) 3865:(2020) 3857:(2019) 3849:(2002) 3769:792668 3767: 3672: 3664: 3196:Conant 3168:, 3104:, 3075:, 3060:, 3020:, 2993:, 2978:, 2955:, 2928:, 2901:, 2868:, 2843:, 2820:, 2814:36, 58 2805:, 2772:, 2755:, 2725:aff'd, 2716:E.g., 2605: 2547:ibid., 2542:ibid., 2538:ibid., 2534:ibid., 2530:ibid., 2526:ibid., 2522:ibid., 2373:, 2340: 2174:Cartel 2104:rings. 1261:Legacy 1018:enjoin 981: 973: 661:, 659:20-512 657:, No. 641:, 637:, No. 133: 125:U.S.C. 101: 84:51–647 82: 10140:Texas 10020:Maine 9985:Idaho 9813:LGBTQ 9806:Women 9576:Labor 9529:Sixth 9524:Fifth 9514:Third 9504:First 9309:Music 9051:NAFTA 7904:(son) 3765:JSTOR 3670:S2CID 3581:(PDF) 3568:(PDF) 3246:Rice, 3228:Rice, 3204:supra 3200:supra 3172: 3113:1, 58 3108: 3079: 3064: 3024: 2997: 2982: 2959: 2932: 2905: 2893: 2872: 2847: 2824: 2809: 2791:104). 2759: 2377: 2149:Alcoa 1957:Exxon 1944:Exxon 1775:ibid. 1142:trust 1118:-58. 1014:suits 971:Stat. 850:tying 823:cases 665: 645: 622: 603: 584: 565: 546: 527: 508: 489: 470: 451: 432: 413: 394: 375: 356: 337: 318: 299: 280: 261: 242: 223: 201:cases 99:Stat. 10208:Guam 10145:Utah 10100:Ohio 10000:Iowa 9475:Navy 9465:Army 9369:Flag 7687:Life 7665:23rd 3885:and 3662:ISSN 3589:2008 3503:2022 3387:Rice 3348:See 3304:Rice 3302:See 3273:See 3174:U.S. 3162:See 3110:U.S. 3081:U.S. 3066:U.S. 3052:See 3026:U.S. 2999:U.S. 2984:U.S. 2961:U.S. 2934:U.S. 2907:U.S. 2895:U.S. 2874:U.S. 2849:U.S. 2829:1, 5 2826:U.S. 2811:U.S. 2761:U.S. 2704:2019 2678:2016 2637:2024 2603:ISBN 2379:U.S. 2356:2009 2338:ISBN 2044:and 1989:Rice 1965:Rice 1959:nor 1942:and 1910:Rice 1906:Rice 1898:Rice 1790:are 1787:idem 1784:and 1683:FRCP 1669:FRCP 1253:The 1229:The 1182:any 1180:cite 965:The 894:and 848:and 736:and 694:Ohio 683:Sen. 667:U.S. 647:U.S. 624:U.S. 605:U.S. 586:U.S. 567:U.S. 548:U.S. 529:U.S. 510:U.S. 491:U.S. 472:U.S. 453:U.S. 434:U.S. 415:U.S. 396:U.S. 377:U.S. 358:U.S. 339:U.S. 320:U.S. 301:U.S. 282:U.S. 263:U.S. 244:U.S. 225:U.S. 209:List 58:the 8261:War 7281:of 7086:of 4153:of 4060:of 4007:of 3938:of 3887:III 3832:of 3751:by 3702:GPO 3694:PDF 3654:doi 3650:174 3243:See 3232:Id. 3216:id. 3189:See 3177:274 3170:208 3106:221 3077:334 3062:388 3022:435 3002:284 2995:472 2987:411 2980:493 2957:405 2930:273 2903:372 2891:440 2870:466 2845:441 2822:356 2807:433 2757:384 2571:p. 2551:See 2513:See 2509:See 2485:Cf. 2456:see 2418:Cf. 2414:See 2375:506 1924:In 1915:In 1625:by 1567:by 1193:by 1104:At 1087:At 1067:At 1055:of 1036:In 1016:to 975:209 663:594 643:585 627:494 620:574 608:183 601:560 589:438 582:555 570:877 563:551 551:447 544:506 532:752 525:467 506:466 494:332 487:457 468:433 456:143 449:342 437:211 430:340 418:573 411:334 399:131 392:334 380:469 373:310 361:200 354:259 342:106 335:221 316:221 304:373 297:220 278:201 266:197 259:193 247:290 240:166 221:156 103:209 10368:: 3668:. 3660:. 3648:. 3610:^ 3570:. 3493:. 3198:, 3148:. 3144:. 3132:^ 2885:, 2737:; 2730:; 2723:, 2694:. 2668:. 2628:. 2617:^ 2582:. 2567:; 2346:. 2301:). 1778:, 1751:. 1340:, 1114:, 1110:, 1097:, 1074:, 977:, 618:, 599:, 580:, 561:, 542:, 523:, 504:, 485:, 475:36 466:, 447:, 428:, 409:, 390:, 371:, 352:, 333:, 314:, 295:, 285:43 276:, 257:, 238:, 219:, 166:OH 8039:e 8032:t 8025:v 7645:e 7638:t 7631:v 3805:e 3798:t 3791:v 3778:. 3771:. 3696:/ 3676:. 3656:: 3591:. 3520:. 3505:. 3150:1 2877:2 2706:. 2680:. 2639:. 2611:. 2358:. 2106:' 1830:) 1824:( 1819:) 1815:( 1806:( 1652:) 1646:( 1641:) 1637:( 1619:. 1590:) 1584:( 1579:) 1575:( 1561:. 1514:' 1510:" 1386:. 1322:. 1220:) 1214:( 1209:) 1205:( 1201:. 1187:. 987:7 985:– 954:e 947:t 940:v 825:) 821:( 692:– 690:R 688:( 513:2 323:1 228:1 168:) 164:– 162:R 160:( 139:7 137:– 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index