Social class in the Ottoman Empire

664:

and women could not leave the home between sunset and sunrise. In most public spaces, different clothing was used to delineate between social groups; the differences in clothing were especially prominent between men and women. Notably, women wore veils starting from the onset of puberty in public places. Within the privacy of the home, women were responsible for nearly all domestic activities. The ability to perform household duties well was a marker of obedient and faithful wives. Family structure was highly patriarchal for peasants, with the husband viewed as the head and taxpayer of the family unit. Men were responsible for working the land and acting as representatives for their families in public settings, while child-rearing and domestic work were the responsibility of peasant women.

655:

girls who could enhance the family’s socioeconomic status. The prospective bride had little to no agency regarding marriage. Even in the acceptance of a dowry, the bride was represented by a male relative. Upon marriage, a wife’s “duty” was to show her husband obedience, while the husband took responsibility for all the household’s finances and public relations. While a woman in the Ottoman Empire could not initiate the legal process of divorce without the permission of her husband, she did have the ability to seek an annulment. Divorced individuals typically remarried, however women had more restrictions in this process, including having to wait “three menstrual courses” before entering a new marriage.

555:, the availability of specific commodities such as wine, kosher meat, or communion wafer was determined at the discretion of Muslim authorities, and non-Muslims were forbidden from wearing green clothes and white turbans. The second important domain of autonomy was that of administration and taxation: lay leaders, generally elected by their community, were in charge of administrative matters such as making arrangements with regards to the collection of taxes. The third domain concerned non-Muslims’ legal jurisdictions. Jews and Christians were notably allowed to adjudicate legal disputes between members of their group: in Jewish communities, rabbinical courts could rule on criminal cases. 35: 724:

interact. While guilds were originally organized to benefit artisans and merchants, the government wished to control the production and distribution of goods. Therefore, the state had a relatively large amount of control over urban guilds and even viewed them as a “means of controlling” a city’s population and activity. While craftsmanship and commerce was centered in cities, these industries relied on peasant farmers to provide raw materials and other necessary goods. However, it was rare that crafted goods were exported to rural towns and villages, as most peasants could not afford to travel or purchase them.

628:

ethno-religious groups, reinforced by formal agreements set in law, and grounded in a mutually-conceded, if limited, legitimacy,” Tezcan explains that religious divisions functioned around “convenience” and the ability of each group to occupy administrative and economic niches in the empire’s affairs, wherein a group that performed well in its niche tasks would gain more status than another, less effective group. Around the early 18th century, the convenience model broke down such that administrative and military posts were mostly occupied by upper-middle class Muslim citizens.

755:” in the Ottoman Empire was a very broad category and could encompass many different kinds of activities and social positions. Though generally defined in Islamic terms as a person being granted ownership over another person and their labor, property, and sexuality, slavery in the Ottoman context was more complex than a simple divide between free men and women and enslaved people. In fact, slavery did not equate a lower status than the rest of the population: not only did male slaves in the bureaucratic and military spheres and the females in elite 4267: 607:. While some historians argue such a revolt was of a nationalist nature, others have claimed that it was a religious movement eager to liberate itself from Muslim oppression rather than a rebellion driven by the will to form a nation. Following the rebellion, religious divisions were transformed as Greeks lost many of their privileges and came to be seen as a group to fear rather than as a community to respect and accommodate. The 646:

instances, however, male relatives interfered with a woman’s control over her assets, thereby limiting legal autonomy. The extent to which women controlled property varied in different areas of the empire as well. The central government tended to confiscate and redistribute the land of widowed peasants without sons to maintain agricultural productivity.

559:

matter to the central Ottoman authorities: within the Greek Millet, Romanians, Albanians, Serbs, etc. could shift from one identity to another without changing their status vis-à-vis the metropole. To the Millet authorities however, such ethnic and religious differences were important and even instrumental in highlighting divisions.

550:

There were notably three domains in which autonomy was important to non-Muslims. The first one was that of religious theory and practice: though Muslims did not directly interfere in theological matters, they still imposed religious restrictions. For example, non-Muslims religious buildings could not

518:

Moreover, Muslims were not a homogenous group: many different ethnic groups such as Arabs, Kurds, Albanians, Bosniaks, and Turks practiced Sunni Islam. Even among Muslims, different groups enjoyed different levels of privilege: Turks, as the “conquering” population, enjoyed some degree of superiority

732:

All farmland in the empire was deemed to belong to the current ruler, therefore the central government organized and controlled peasant land and the agricultural economy. While they did not own their land, peasant farmers were considered “hereditary tenants” of the land they worked. Peasant land was

663:

The Ottoman Empire was patriarchal in structure, and separation of the sexes was common in public places. Typically, men in the Ottoman Empire controlled public spaces, while women could hold power in private spaces, such as the home. Outside the home, men did not walk beside their female relatives,

439:

The Ottoman system traditionally stood on a division between four socioeconomic groups: the military, the learned, the merchants, and the peasants. Each group had its own set of skills and societal roles that came with different privileges and social statuses: while the military and the intellectual

514:

were granted a higher social status than other religious groups in the Ottoman Empire: they were considered “first-class subjects,” in opposition to non-Muslims who were granted the label of “second-class subjects.” Several privileges came with the status of Muslim: many high-ranking positions were

654:

Islamic tradition viewed women’s sexuality as a force that needed to be controlled by a man, typically a father or husband. Marriages were typically arranged by the parents of young men and women. The process of arranged marriage was initiated by a young man’s father, who sought out young women or

598:

The Millet as a system of social divisions along ethno-religious lines lost its vigor throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries with the rise of liberation and nationalist movements, especially in the Greek Millet. Starting in the second half of the eighteenth century, Western enlightened

420:

Alternatively spelled as "reaya". Considered to be the class that was ruled over. Made up of merchants, artisans, and peasants and were the taxed class. This group was largely Muslim, though their Christian counterparts were also placed under the same label. Ottoman officials sought to disarm this

381:

for income and as such, were not included in taxation. They were not considered to be aristocrats however, as membership depended on the Sultan's desires. The askeri held their class unless specifically dismissed by the Sultan or if they pursued a non-governmental role. Additionally, according to

778:

Opportunities for social mobility were more numerous within the Ottoman Empire as opposed to many European societies during the time. Possibilities existed for those of modest origin to rise in sociopolitical rank and even enter the ruling class. Manumission of enslaved men was normalized in the

700:

included craftsmen and merchants in urban areas; however, the largest social group in the Ottoman Empire were rural farmers. While nomadic groups existed throughout the empire’s entire existence, the central government often attempted to get such groups to settle and farm land. In doing so, they

405:

Some of the most notable roles to fall under the askeri class were people who performed: praying, preaching, scribal service, superintendancy, tax and rent collection, trusteeship, couriers, falconers, guardians of bridges and passes, tent-makers, dealers of oil and butter, tent-pitchers, copper

645:

were considered legal entities and subjects distinct from their husbands or fathers. They had the ability to maintain control over their property and assets after marriage. Women had the ability to inherit property from male relatives and could claim property in the instance of divorce. In many

558:

The Millets developed internal class structures: the upper layers of this strata were composed of merchant elites residing in Istanbul as well as of the high clergy, while the lower classes were made of new type merchants and craftsmen. Ethnic and religious differences within the Millet did not

675:

was one way women had increased visibility and power in public spaces. The history of prostitution in Ottoman society is complex, with various attempts by the government to regulate or ban the profession. Prostitutes were more likely to be women of lower socioeconomic status or women from less

723:

In cities, merchants and craftsmen were ranked below the ruling class and divided into guilds to manage the local commercial industry. City life outside of the sultan’s palace centered around marketplaces and bazaars, in which people of many religions, ethnicities, and financial classes would

627:

According to historian Baki Tezcan, the millet system did not stay static overtime. Drawing from Brian Catlos’s analysis of intercommunal relationships in the medieval Mediterranean as “the consequence of a series of relationships born of a perceived mutual benefit among majority and minority

831:

The empire was a bureaucratic state, holding different regions within a single administrative and fiscal system. It was also, however, the last great expression of the universality of the world of Islam. It was also a multi-religious state, giving a recognized status to christian and Jewish

785:

system was another aspect of slavery that enabled social mobility for a small group of individuals. In this system, young Christian boys would be sold into slavery, converted to Islam, and educated, all with the goal of assuming a high government post upon the completion of their training.

519:

over Arabs, Kurds, Albanians, and Bosniaks who were all conquered against their will. Nevertheless, conquered groups retained a great deal of agency: for instance, Muslim Bosniaks and Albanians were involved in the governance of the empire and were a part of the Janissary units.

515:

reserved for Muslims, Muslims were frequently privileged by the law, one could not be enslaved by a non-Muslim, etc. The Muslim category was a flexible one: many members of other religious groups converted to Islam in order to access certain benefits.

774:

began recruiting rather than enslaving and could thus not be referred to as an enslaved class anymore. In 1855, slavery was even abolished to appease liberal concerns in Europe, though in practice, the institution persisted until 1905.

562:

Divisions between Millets were reflected in the organization of cities such as Istanbul: until the beginning of the nineteench century, religious groups inhabitied their traditional quarters. In Istanbul, Greeks lived in

2645: 715:

system in the empire provided young Muslim men with education, providing a potential opportunity to have a high ranking position in the legal, religious, educational or bureaucratic fields. Those educated in

535:, a system of autonomous religious communities that allowed rulers to organize the population into ethnoreligious groups and devolve power to local elites and leaders. There were three basic Millets: the 440:

classes were rather influential in politics, the peasantry was much more disenfranchised from the central power. By the 19th century, this system had disintegrated with the progressive emergence of the

449:

This was a class of local notables, who often had a role in governing to some degree, especially from the seventeenth century onward. Also played the role of warlords at times, appearing most often in

231: 676:

prominent family lineages. While there were laws that dictated harsh punishments for convicted prostitutes, the most common consequence for a prostitute was removal from the neighborhood.

421:

class and prevent them from achieving any sort of military status in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. They were typically considered the lesser class and dubbed as non-governing.

770:

system for instance, a class of enslaved people doing administrative work, was challenged by the increasing number of free Muslims entering government service: having to accommodate, the

492:

religious orders together. From the Sultan’s point of view, that meant the loss of many supporting foundations: quickly, a new bureaucracy emerged as a symbol of Ottoman modernity, the

761:

have much more influence over the state’s affairs than most people did, but even some common domestic workers were better fed, clothed, and protected than many freed men.

224: 720:

outside of a major city were often ranked lower than those educated in cities, therefore the internal provinces tended to attract the majority of Ottoman students.

248:

was one of the most dominant empires in the Mediterranean region, having lasted ~600 years and controlling much of the eastern and southern portions of the Sea.

217: 17: 3343: 2652: 2008: 428:. These groups were allowed to maintain their own traditional laws and could have internal administrative organizations led by their own religious leader. 402:

The kalemiye were the scribal branch, the ilmiye focused on religious and judicial services, and the seyfiye were the military and administrative branch.

2582: 1546:

Catlos, Brian (8 July 2009). ""Conveniencia" or "The Convenience Principle:" The Mechanics of Ethno-Religious Diversity in the Medieval Mediterranean".

743:

did not live in the village he represented. Rather, a local village headman served as the main connection between his village and the urban government.

431:

The Muslim millet was considered to be above the other millets due to their practicing of the same laws and religion as the ruling class of the empire.

2662: 2452: 1971: 1878: 377:

They were a social class made up primarily of the military and all public servants and members of their households. This class depended on the

392:

On the other hand, there was a political subclass called the "askeri kassam". Whose estates were often liable to confiscation by the Sultan.

2694: 2035: 424:

The rayah class was largely divided by religion, with each religious group being divided into an internally autonomous community called a

4291: 4071: 3946: 2781: 2482: 472:

The 19th century also saw the rise of a new political and socioeconomic class: the modern bureaucracy. In 1826, Mahmud II shut down the

3956: 2587: 2045: 547:

communities: though many other ethnic and religious existed, most were incorporated into and ruled by one of the three major Millets.

469:, this became a title for district nobles who were elected by their community to negotiate in its name and handle taxes and security. 4214: 2885: 2382: 2055: 608: 151: 131: 3112: 2850: 2119: 406:

miners, rice-growers, judges, circuit judges, and city wardens, along with the sons and wives of askeri members and freed slaves.

4063: 4001: 2191: 2030: 4043: 3374: 3020: 2934: 2726: 2714: 2631: 2313: 2186: 2050: 51: 4038: 2845: 2139: 1784: 1759: 1670: 1639: 1573: 1490: 1412: 1387: 1362: 1298: 1273: 1246: 1219: 1192: 1067: 994: 967: 933: 1517:"From Rum Millet to Greek Nation: Enlightenment, Secularization, and National Identity in Ottoman Balkan Society, 1453-1821" 4048: 2323: 2298: 2267: 1942: 4081: 2109: 1930: 1871: 1316:"Islamic Conversion Narratives of Women: Social Change and Gendered Religious Hierarchy in Early Modern Ottoman Istanbul" 4209: 4188: 2979: 2939: 2913: 2867: 2608: 2355: 2003: 672: 4193: 4076: 3919: 2237: 2154: 2144: 1988: 1847: 1187:. Social, economic, and political studies of the Middle East and Asia. Leiden, The Netherlands ; Boston: Brill. 817: 701:

would be required to pay taxes to the central government and were eligible to be recruited to the Ottoman military.

3941: 2577: 2875: 2840: 2746: 2704: 1998: 382:

some sources, only non-Muslims were allowed to join this class, as a means to ensure loyalty only to the Sultan.

126: 3931: 2699: 2525: 2466: 2072: 1864: 1705: 1724:

Semerdjian, Elyse (2008). "Prostitutes, Soldiers, and the People: Monitoring Morality Through Customary Law".

4224: 3996: 3991: 3475: 2972: 2918: 2768: 2758: 2252: 2040: 1895: 1145:

Jelavich, Charles; Jelavich, Barbara; Studies, University of California Center for Slavic and East European.

356: 348: 71: 43: 4219: 4053: 4018: 3969: 3693: 2536: 2318: 2067: 957: 1236: 1209: 984: 4173: 4163: 4030: 3238: 2944: 2908: 2890: 2857: 2828: 2343: 1146: 1057: 642: 263:

The Ottoman Empire lasted for over six hundred years (1299–1923) and encompassed present-day Turkey, the

94: 34: 1263: 4153: 3492: 3013: 2603: 1908: 1315: 615:(interpreter), who since the mid-seventeenth century had been reserved to Greeks, was given to a Turk. 812:(revised ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press (published 2002). p. 207. 592: 4178: 4118: 1993: 604: 1432: 4123: 4113: 3470: 3282: 2751: 2510: 2499: 1981: 1839: 1831: 395:

Some sources instead divide the askeri into multiple branches: the kalemiye, the seyfiye, and the

4270: 4168: 4103: 2986: 2492: 2335: 1010:

Barkey, Karen. "The Ottoman Empire (1299-1923): The Bureaucratization of Patrimonial Authority".

532: 425: 99: 4128: 3757: 3499: 2560: 2161: 1947: 1923: 528: 2806: 923: 4183: 4158: 4148: 4138: 4133: 3986: 3054: 3006: 2567: 2282: 2077: 1485:. Social, economic, and political studies of the Middle East and Asia. Leiden Boston: Brill. 271:. Thus the Empire included an extremely diverse population ranging from the Muslim majority ( 204: 4244: 4239: 4143: 4013: 3964: 3358: 3324: 3309: 3145: 3092: 2791: 2776: 2520: 1634:. The Greenwood Press daily life through history series. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Greenwood. 803: 766: 709:

Large urban centers within the Ottoman Empire held the best educational opportunities. The

588: 386: 8: 3628: 3433: 3408: 3388: 3292: 2515: 2277: 1918: 2900: 1952: 779:

empire after an individual had served his owner for a predetermined period of time. The

3785: 3767: 3762: 3750: 3584: 3403: 3383: 3353: 3135: 3107: 2823: 2082: 1959: 1935: 904: 861: 296: 141: 2348: 3790: 3708: 3445: 3398: 3336: 3165: 2954: 2796: 2149: 1843: 1824: 1780: 1755: 1701: 1666: 1635: 1569: 1528: 1486: 1452: 1408: 1383: 1358: 1335: 1331: 1294: 1269: 1242: 1215: 1188: 1127: 1096: 1063: 1038: 990: 963: 929: 896: 813: 600: 1483:

Religious minorities in the Middle East: domination, self-empowerment, accommodation

260:

state, holding different regions within a single administrative and fiscal system".

4234: 4108: 4008: 3838: 3646: 3536: 3487: 3460: 3213: 3208: 3061: 2813: 2572: 2370: 1903: 1444: 1327: 1116:"State and Classes in the Ottoman Empire: Local Notables in Historical Perspective" 1085:"State and Classes in the Ottoman Empire: Local Notables in Historical Perspective" 1027:"State and Classes in the Ottoman Empire: Local Notables in Historical Perspective" 888: 853: 268: 119: 2176: 1448: 3979: 3671: 3482: 3228: 3218: 2818: 2672: 2613: 2375: 2134: 1433:"The Ottoman Millet System: Non-Territorial Autonomy and its Contemporary Legacy" 807: 544: 498:, whom could not be criticized and eventually came to assume government control. 109: 1698:

The Other Faces of the Empire: Ordinary Lives Against Social Order and Hierarchy

1568:. The Routledge worlds. Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon ; New York: Routledge. 739:, a representative of the government to whom peasant households paid taxes. The 3936: 3880: 3719: 3676: 3604: 3348: 3319: 3244: 3198: 3140: 3097: 2880: 2833: 1887: 482: 272: 253: 249: 245: 136: 1658: 1115: 1084: 1026: 603:

started to inspired a growing intelligentsia among the Greek Millet until the

4285: 3777: 3574: 3363: 3233: 3223: 3181: 3155: 3150: 3087: 3047: 2801: 2741: 2555: 2226: 2213: 2181: 2171: 2166: 1835: 1532: 1456: 1339: 1185:

Studies on Ottoman social and political history: selected articles and essays

1131: 1100: 1042: 900: 540: 360: 66: 2438: 1779:(4. pr., 1. pbk. pr ed.). Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. 1725: 3810: 3737: 3516: 3506: 3425: 3175: 3082: 3032: 2687: 2657: 2547: 2387: 2365: 2272: 1964: 1913: 1516: 584: 536: 442: 257: 189: 114: 1754:. Publications on the Near East. Seattle: University of Washington Press. 1727:"Off the Straight Path": Illicit Sex, Law, and Community in Ottoman Aleppo 925:

Balance: The Economics of Great Powers from Ancient Rome to Modern America

3974: 3805: 3795: 3745: 3727: 3638: 3599: 3393: 3304: 3287: 2487: 2196: 2062: 1405:

The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, 1516-1918: a social and cultural history

1380:

The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, 1516-1918: a social and cultural history

1355:

The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, 1516-1918: a social and cultural history

1059:

The Arabs of the Ottoman Empire, 1516-1918: A Social and Cultural History

733:

passed from father to son as an inheritance. All rural communities had a

611:, though he did not participate in the uprising, was hanged; the post of 531:

to the nineteenth century, ethnoreligious divisions were embodied by the

352: 344: 304: 300: 1805:

The Ottoman and Mughal Empires: Social History in the Early Modern World

1291:

The Ottoman and Mughal Empires: social history in the early modern world

3820: 3160: 2736: 2360: 908: 880: 865: 845: 488: 340: 336: 328: 288: 166: 104: 2203: 576: 3866: 3861: 3828: 3800: 3688: 3683: 3619: 3594: 3541: 3455: 3170: 3102: 2731: 2504: 2431: 2414: 2208: 781: 473: 332: 320: 284: 76: 2087: 892: 857: 385:

The soldiers and their commander belonged to a subclass called the "

3875: 3847: 3833: 3700: 3666: 3624: 3609: 3569: 3314: 2530: 2262: 1976: 612: 572: 466: 450: 316: 280: 161: 2682: 2287: 3871: 3856: 3852: 3614: 3564: 3556: 3546: 3450: 3438: 3297: 3193: 3187: 2677: 2447: 2421: 2102: 2097: 1856: 764:

Slavery, much like other social divisions, evolved overtime. The

752: 711: 580: 568: 511: 494: 462: 264: 2667: 1700:. Translated by Tasdelen, Esra. Istanbul: Koc University Press. 3843: 3656: 3589: 3529: 3524: 3331: 2998: 2949: 2426: 2409: 2257: 735: 686: 552: 396: 378: 372: 312: 308: 194: 184: 3651: 3579: 3130: 757: 692: 564: 458: 454: 415: 324: 276: 199: 3661: 3203: 2443: 292: 696:, or “the flock,” was composed of the lower classes. The 1659:"Ottoman women as legal and marital subjects: Başak Tuğ" 684:

Ottoman society was divided into two major classes. The

1262:

A ́goston, Ga ́bor; Masters, Bruce Alan (2010-05-21).

287:, etc.) to various minority populations, specifically 1238:

An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire

1211:

An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire

986:

An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire

959:

An Economic and Social History of the Ottoman Empire

1144: 641:Unlike many European societies of the same period, 1823: 4283: 1752:Slavery and abolition in the Ottoman Middle East 1431:Barkey, Karen; Gavrilis, George (January 2016). 1261: 962:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 435–436. 1430: 3014: 1872: 1730:. Syracuse University Press. pp. 94–137. 1151:. University of California Press. p. 61. 225: 3918: 3698: 658: 389:" and were considered slaves of the Sultan. 307:enterprise, the Ottoman system allowed some 1665:, Routledge, pp. 376–391, 2011-12-15, 1481:Longva, Anh Nga; Roald, Anne Sofie (2012). 1480: 1241:. Cambridge University Press. p. 663. 1214:. Cambridge University Press. p. 565. 989:. Cambridge University Press. p. 550. 921: 3021: 3007: 1879: 1865: 1777:A brief history of the late Ottoman empire 1723: 1514: 1062:. Cambridge University Press. p. 37. 1014:. Cambridge University Press. p. 111. 636: 501: 434: 232: 218: 1407:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1382:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1357:. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 704: 618: 3906: 1774: 1749: 1563: 1113: 1082: 1024: 922:Hubbard, Glenn; Kane, Tim (2013-05-21). 679: 1821: 1802: 1402: 1377: 1352: 1288: 1234: 1207: 1055: 982: 955: 878: 843: 802: 14: 4284: 1798: 1796: 1745: 1743: 1741: 1739: 1737: 1625: 1623: 1621: 1619: 1617: 1615: 1613: 1611: 1609: 1607: 1605: 1559: 1557: 1548:Society for the Medieval Mediterranean 1545: 1182: 1178: 27:Social structure of the Ottoman Empire 18:Social structure of the Ottoman Empire 3905: 3262: 3002: 1860: 1719: 1717: 1691: 1689: 1687: 1653: 1651: 1603: 1601: 1599: 1597: 1595: 1593: 1591: 1589: 1587: 1585: 1510: 1508: 1506: 1504: 1502: 1476: 1474: 1472: 1470: 1468: 1466: 1426: 1424: 1176: 1174: 1172: 1170: 1168: 1166: 1164: 1162: 1160: 1158: 1695: 1313: 951: 949: 947: 945: 522: 1793: 1734: 1629: 1554: 1268:. Infobase Publishing. p. 65. 928:. Simon and Schuster. p. 151. 571:, Cibal, and in villages along the 24: 4292:Social class in the Ottoman Empire 3264: 3263: 2304:(reform and constitutional period) 1886: 1714: 1684: 1648: 1582: 1499: 1463: 1421: 1265:Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire 1155: 1076: 1009: 25: 4303: 2192:List of Ottoman sultans' consorts 2155:Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques 1564:Woodhead, Christine, ed. (2012). 942: 4266: 4265: 3028: 2187:List of Ottoman sultans' mothers 1632:Daily life in the Ottoman Empire 1332:10.1111/j.0953-5233.2004.00347.x 1120:Journal of Mediterranean Studies 1089:Journal of Mediterranean Studies 1031:Journal of Mediterranean Studies 690:was the ruling class, while the 33: 2268:Defterdars/Ministers of Finance 1815: 1768: 1539: 1521:Journal of Modern Greek Studies 1396: 1371: 1346: 1307: 1282: 1255: 1235:Faroqhi, Suraiya (1997-04-28). 1228: 1208:Faroqhi, Suraiya (1997-04-28). 1201: 1138: 1107: 983:Faroqhi, Suraiya (1997-04-28). 956:Faroqhi, Suraiya (1997-04-28). 667: 295:, whom Muslims referred to as " 3907: 2009:Persecution of Ottoman Muslims 1822:Hourani, Albert Habib (1991). 1807:. London: Bloomsbury Academic. 1049: 1018: 1003: 976: 915: 872: 837: 796: 727: 461:. In the mid-18th century, in 361:members of the imperial family 13: 1: 1826:A History of the Arab Peoples 1449:10.1080/17449057.2015.1101845 1056:Masters, Bruce (2013-04-29). 881:"Ottoman Methods of Conquest" 846:"Ottoman Methods of Conquest" 809:A History of the Arab Peoples 789: 446:, a group of urban notables. 44:History of the Ottoman Empire 1403:Masters, Bruce Alan (2013). 1378:Masters, Bruce Alan (2013). 1353:Masters, Bruce Alan (2013). 1293:. London (GB): I.B. Tauris. 7: 2453:Vassal and tributary states 1775:Hanioğlu, M. Şükrü (2010). 1515:Roudometof, Victor (1998). 649: 643:women in the Ottoman Empire 351:, to attain high office as 10: 4308: 3113:Weberian (three-component) 1750:Toledano, Ehud R. (1998). 1314:Baer, Marc (August 2004). 746: 506: 413: 370: 86:Ethnoreligious communities 4261: 4202: 4094: 4062: 4029: 3955: 3927: 3914: 3901: 3819: 3776: 3736: 3718: 3637: 3555: 3515: 3424: 3417: 3372: 3275: 3271: 3258: 3121: 3075: 3071: 3042: 2967: 2927: 2899: 2866: 2767: 2722: 2713: 2630: 2596: 2546: 2474: 2465: 2402: 2334: 2296: 2235: 2224: 2127: 2118: 2026: 2019: 1972:Decline and modernization 1894: 1803:Faroqhi, Suraiya (2019). 1289:Faroqhi, Suraiya (2019). 1183:Karpat, Kemal H. (2002). 1148:The Balkans in Transition 659:Public and private spaces 631: 605:Greek War of Independence 366: 4235:Pre-industrial East Asia 2500:Six Divisions of Cavalry 2036:Foreign Affairs Ministry 1840:Harvard University Press 1832:Cambridge, Massachusetts 1114:Tuluveli, Guclu (2005). 1083:Tuluveli, Guclu (2005). 1025:Tuluveli, Guclu (2005). 409: 3283:Administrative detainee 2493:Agha of the Janissaries 2140:List of Ottoman sultans 879:Inalcik, Halil (1954). 844:Inalcik, Halil (1954). 637:Women as legal entities 502:Ethno-religious divides 435:Socioeconomic divisions 3699: 2695:Science and technology 2145:Roman succession claim 705:Urban areas and cities 575:; Armenians inhabited 529:fall of Constantinople 4240:Pre-industrial Europe 2568:Dragoman of the Fleet 2283:Dragoman of the Porte 2073:Armenian Constitution 1960:Stagnation and reform 1630:Kia, Mehrdad (2011). 804:Hourani, Albert Habib 680:Urban and rural areas 609:Orthodox patriarchate 58:Court and aristocracy 4097: or countries 3908:By country or region 3146:Class discrimination 2288:Outer Palace Service 2204:Inner Palace Service 1696:Yasa, Firat (2019). 1320:Gender & History 3629:Vanniar (Chieftain) 2483:Classic period army 2324:Chamber of Deputies 2299:Imperial Government 152:Rise of nationalism 4210:18th-century Spain 4064:Standard of living 3768:Upper middle class 3763:Lower middle class 3354:Political prisoner 3136:Chattering classes 3108:Spoon class theory 2110:Translation Office 1994:2nd Constitutional 1982:1st Constitutional 1936:Sultanate of Women 297:People of the Book 142:Great Fire of 1660 4279: 4278: 4257: 4256: 4253: 4252: 4090: 4089: 3897: 3896: 3893: 3892: 3889: 3888: 3791:Lumpenproletariat 3293:illegal immigrant 3254: 3253: 3166:Classless society 2996: 2995: 2963: 2962: 2955:Star and crescent 2626: 2625: 2622: 2621: 2461: 2460: 2398: 2397: 2150:Ottoman Caliphate 2031:Foreign relations 1786:978-0-691-14617-1 1761:978-0-295-97642-6 1672:978-0-203-14285-1 1663:The Ottoman World 1641:978-0-313-06402-9 1575:978-0-415-44492-7 1566:The Ottoman world 1492:978-90-04-20742-4 1414:978-1-107-03363-4 1389:978-1-107-03363-4 1364:978-1-107-03363-4 1300:978-1-78831-366-7 1275:978-1-4381-1025-7 1248:978-0-521-57455-6 1221:978-0-521-57455-6 1194:978-90-04-12101-0 1069:978-1-107-03363-4 996:978-0-521-57455-6 969:978-0-521-57455-6 935:978-1-4767-0025-0 601:French Revolution 523:The Millet system 480:, and merged the 242: 241: 16:(Redirected from 4299: 4269: 4268: 4096: 3997:Mexican-American 3925: 3924: 3916: 3915: 3903: 3902: 3704: 3647:Business magnate 3537:Knowledge worker 3422: 3421: 3310:dual or multiple 3273: 3272: 3260: 3259: 3214:Social exclusion 3209:Social cleansing 3123: 3073: 3072: 3062:Economic classes 3023: 3016: 3009: 3000: 2999: 2727:Social structure 2720: 2719: 2573:Imperial Arsenal 2472: 2471: 2306: 2245: 2243:(classic period) 2238:Imperial Council 2233: 2232: 2125: 2124: 2024: 2023: 1881: 1874: 1867: 1858: 1857: 1853: 1829: 1809: 1808: 1800: 1791: 1790: 1772: 1766: 1765: 1747: 1732: 1731: 1721: 1712: 1711: 1693: 1682: 1681: 1680: 1679: 1655: 1646: 1645: 1627: 1580: 1579: 1561: 1552: 1551: 1543: 1537: 1536: 1512: 1497: 1496: 1478: 1461: 1460: 1428: 1419: 1418: 1400: 1394: 1393: 1375: 1369: 1368: 1350: 1344: 1343: 1311: 1305: 1304: 1286: 1280: 1279: 1259: 1253: 1252: 1232: 1226: 1225: 1205: 1199: 1198: 1180: 1153: 1152: 1142: 1136: 1135: 1111: 1105: 1104: 1080: 1074: 1073: 1053: 1047: 1046: 1022: 1016: 1015: 1007: 1001: 1000: 980: 974: 973: 953: 940: 939: 919: 913: 912: 876: 870: 869: 841: 835: 834: 828: 826: 800: 583:; Jews lived in 476:, abolished the 269:Fertile Crescent 234: 227: 220: 52:Social structure 46: 37: 30: 29: 21: 4307: 4306: 4302: 4301: 4300: 4298: 4297: 4296: 4282: 4281: 4280: 4275: 4249: 4198: 4086: 4058: 4025: 4009:Underprivileged 3951: 3910: 3909: 3885: 3815: 3772: 3732: 3714: 3633: 3551: 3511: 3413: 3368: 3267: 3266: 3250: 3229:Social position 3219:Social mobility 3117: 3067: 3038: 3037: 3027: 2997: 2992: 2959: 2923: 2895: 2862: 2763: 2752:Ottoman Turkish 2709: 2618: 2592: 2542: 2537:Modernized army 2521:Sekban-i Djedid 2457: 2394: 2349:Shaykh al-Islām 2330: 2307: 2302: 2301: 2292: 2246: 2241: 2240: 2220: 2135:Ottoman dynasty 2114: 2015: 1890: 1885: 1850: 1818: 1813: 1812: 1801: 1794: 1787: 1773: 1769: 1762: 1748: 1735: 1722: 1715: 1708: 1694: 1685: 1677: 1675: 1673: 1657: 1656: 1649: 1642: 1628: 1583: 1576: 1562: 1555: 1544: 1540: 1513: 1500: 1493: 1479: 1464: 1429: 1422: 1415: 1401: 1397: 1390: 1376: 1372: 1365: 1351: 1347: 1312: 1308: 1301: 1287: 1283: 1276: 1260: 1256: 1249: 1233: 1229: 1222: 1206: 1202: 1195: 1181: 1156: 1143: 1139: 1112: 1108: 1095:(1): 123, 125. 1081: 1077: 1070: 1054: 1050: 1023: 1019: 1008: 1004: 997: 981: 977: 970: 954: 943: 936: 920: 916: 893:10.2307/1595144 885:Studia Islamica 877: 873: 858:10.2307/1595144 850:Studia Islamica 842: 838: 824: 822: 820: 801: 797: 792: 751:The status of “ 749: 730: 707: 682: 670: 661: 652: 639: 634: 625: 599:ideals and the 525: 509: 504: 437: 418: 412: 375: 369: 238: 209: 171: 146: 81: 42: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 4305: 4295: 4294: 4277: 4276: 4274: 4273: 4262: 4259: 4258: 4255: 4254: 4251: 4250: 4248: 4247: 4242: 4237: 4232: 4230:Ottoman Empire 4227: 4222: 4217: 4215:Ancient Greece 4212: 4206: 4204: 4200: 4199: 4197: 4196: 4191: 4189:United Kingdom 4186: 4181: 4176: 4171: 4166: 4161: 4156: 4151: 4146: 4141: 4136: 4131: 4126: 4121: 4116: 4111: 4106: 4100: 4098: 4092: 4091: 4088: 4087: 4085: 4084: 4082:Home-ownership 4079: 4074: 4068: 4066: 4060: 4059: 4057: 4056: 4051: 4046: 4041: 4035: 4033: 4027: 4026: 4024: 4023: 4022: 4021: 4016: 4006: 4005: 4004: 3999: 3994: 3984: 3983: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3961: 3959: 3953: 3952: 3950: 3949: 3944: 3939: 3937:American Dream 3934: 3928: 3922: 3912: 3911: 3899: 3898: 3895: 3894: 3891: 3890: 3887: 3886: 3884: 3883: 3878: 3869: 3864: 3859: 3850: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3825: 3823: 3817: 3816: 3814: 3813: 3808: 3803: 3798: 3793: 3788: 3782: 3780: 3774: 3773: 3771: 3770: 3765: 3760: 3755: 3754: 3753: 3742: 3740: 3734: 3733: 3731: 3730: 3724: 3722: 3716: 3715: 3713: 3712: 3705: 3696: 3691: 3686: 3681: 3680: 3679: 3674: 3664: 3659: 3654: 3649: 3643: 3641: 3635: 3634: 3632: 3631: 3622: 3617: 3612: 3607: 3602: 3597: 3592: 3587: 3582: 3577: 3572: 3567: 3561: 3559: 3553: 3552: 3550: 3549: 3544: 3539: 3534: 3533: 3532: 3521: 3519: 3513: 3512: 3510: 3509: 3504: 3503: 3502: 3497: 3496: 3495: 3480: 3479: 3478: 3473: 3465: 3464: 3463: 3453: 3448: 3443: 3442: 3441: 3430: 3428: 3419: 3415: 3414: 3412: 3411: 3406: 3401: 3396: 3391: 3386: 3380: 3378: 3370: 3369: 3367: 3366: 3361: 3356: 3351: 3349:Migrant worker 3346: 3341: 3340: 3339: 3329: 3328: 3327: 3322: 3317: 3312: 3302: 3301: 3300: 3295: 3285: 3279: 3277: 3269: 3268: 3265:By demographic 3256: 3255: 3252: 3251: 3249: 3248: 3245:Status Anxiety 3241: 3236: 3231: 3226: 3221: 3216: 3211: 3206: 3201: 3199:Ranked society 3196: 3191: 3178: 3173: 3168: 3163: 3158: 3153: 3148: 3143: 3141:Class conflict 3138: 3133: 3127: 3125: 3124: topics 3119: 3118: 3116: 3115: 3110: 3105: 3100: 3098:Mudsill theory 3095: 3090: 3085: 3079: 3077: 3069: 3068: 3066: 3065: 3058: 3051: 3043: 3040: 3039: 3036: 3035: 3029: 3026: 3025: 3018: 3011: 3003: 2994: 2993: 2991: 2990: 2983: 2976: 2968: 2965: 2964: 2961: 2960: 2958: 2957: 2952: 2947: 2942: 2937: 2931: 2929: 2925: 2924: 2922: 2921: 2916: 2911: 2905: 2903: 2897: 2896: 2894: 2893: 2888: 2883: 2878: 2872: 2870: 2864: 2863: 2861: 2860: 2855: 2854: 2853: 2848: 2838: 2837: 2836: 2831: 2821: 2816: 2811: 2810: 2809: 2804: 2799: 2794: 2786: 2785: 2784: 2773: 2771: 2765: 2764: 2762: 2761: 2756: 2755: 2754: 2744: 2739: 2734: 2729: 2723: 2717: 2711: 2710: 2708: 2707: 2702: 2697: 2692: 2691: 2690: 2685: 2680: 2675: 2670: 2660: 2655: 2650: 2649: 2648: 2643: 2636: 2634: 2628: 2627: 2624: 2623: 2620: 2619: 2617: 2616: 2611: 2606: 2600: 2598: 2594: 2593: 2591: 2590: 2585: 2580: 2575: 2570: 2565: 2564: 2563: 2552: 2550: 2544: 2543: 2541: 2540: 2533: 2528: 2523: 2518: 2516:Nizam-i Djedid 2507: 2502: 2497: 2496: 2495: 2478: 2476: 2469: 2463: 2462: 2459: 2458: 2456: 2455: 2450: 2441: 2439:Mutasarrifates 2436: 2435: 2434: 2424: 2419: 2418: 2417: 2406: 2404: 2400: 2399: 2396: 2395: 2393: 2392: 2391: 2390: 2380: 2379: 2378: 2373: 2368: 2363: 2353: 2352: 2351: 2340: 2338: 2332: 2331: 2329: 2328: 2327: 2326: 2321: 2310: 2308: 2297: 2294: 2293: 2291: 2290: 2285: 2280: 2278:Reis ül-Küttab 2275: 2270: 2265: 2260: 2255: 2249: 2247: 2236: 2230: 2222: 2221: 2219: 2218: 2217: 2216: 2214:Palace Schools 2211: 2201: 2200: 2199: 2194: 2189: 2184: 2179: 2174: 2169: 2162:Imperial Harem 2159: 2158: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2131: 2129: 2128:House of Osman 2122: 2116: 2115: 2113: 2112: 2107: 2106: 2105: 2100: 2092: 2091: 2090: 2085: 2080: 2075: 2070: 2060: 2059: 2058: 2053: 2048: 2043: 2038: 2027: 2021: 2017: 2016: 2014: 2013: 2012: 2011: 2006: 2001: 1996: 1986: 1985: 1984: 1979: 1969: 1968: 1967: 1957: 1956: 1955: 1950: 1948:Decline thesis 1943:Transformation 1940: 1939: 1938: 1928: 1927: 1926: 1924:Constantinople 1921: 1916: 1906: 1900: 1898: 1892: 1891: 1888:Ottoman Empire 1884: 1883: 1876: 1869: 1861: 1855: 1854: 1848: 1817: 1814: 1811: 1810: 1792: 1785: 1767: 1760: 1733: 1713: 1706: 1683: 1671: 1647: 1640: 1581: 1574: 1553: 1538: 1498: 1491: 1462: 1420: 1413: 1395: 1388: 1370: 1363: 1345: 1326:(2): 425–458. 1306: 1299: 1281: 1274: 1254: 1247: 1227: 1220: 1200: 1193: 1154: 1137: 1106: 1075: 1068: 1048: 1037:(1): 126–127. 1017: 1002: 995: 975: 968: 941: 934: 914: 871: 836: 818: 794: 793: 791: 788: 748: 745: 729: 726: 706: 703: 681: 678: 669: 666: 660: 657: 651: 648: 638: 635: 633: 630: 624: 617: 524: 521: 508: 505: 503: 500: 436: 433: 414:Main article: 411: 408: 371:Main article: 368: 365: 254:Ottoman Empire 252:described the 250:Albert Hourani 246:Ottoman Empire 240: 239: 237: 236: 229: 222: 214: 211: 210: 208: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 181: 178: 177: 173: 172: 170: 169: 164: 158: 155: 154: 148: 147: 145: 144: 139: 134: 129: 124: 123: 122: 117: 112: 107: 105:Greek Orthodox 97: 91: 88: 87: 83: 82: 80: 79: 74: 69: 63: 60: 59: 55: 54: 48: 47: 39: 38: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 4304: 4293: 4290: 4289: 4287: 4272: 4264: 4263: 4260: 4246: 4243: 4241: 4238: 4236: 4233: 4231: 4228: 4226: 4223: 4221: 4218: 4216: 4213: 4211: 4208: 4207: 4205: 4201: 4195: 4194:United States 4192: 4190: 4187: 4185: 4182: 4180: 4177: 4175: 4172: 4170: 4167: 4165: 4162: 4160: 4157: 4155: 4152: 4150: 4147: 4145: 4142: 4140: 4137: 4135: 4132: 4130: 4127: 4125: 4122: 4120: 4117: 4115: 4112: 4110: 4107: 4105: 4102: 4101: 4099: 4095:Other regions 4093: 4083: 4080: 4078: 4075: 4073: 4070: 4069: 4067: 4065: 4061: 4055: 4052: 4050: 4047: 4045: 4042: 4040: 4037: 4036: 4034: 4032: 4028: 4020: 4017: 4015: 4012: 4011: 4010: 4007: 4003: 4000: 3998: 3995: 3993: 3990: 3989: 3988: 3985: 3981: 3978: 3976: 3973: 3971: 3968: 3967: 3966: 3963: 3962: 3960: 3958: 3954: 3948: 3945: 3943: 3940: 3938: 3935: 3933: 3930: 3929: 3926: 3923: 3921: 3920:United States 3917: 3913: 3904: 3900: 3882: 3879: 3877: 3873: 3870: 3868: 3865: 3863: 3860: 3858: 3854: 3851: 3849: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3826: 3824: 3822: 3818: 3812: 3809: 3807: 3804: 3802: 3799: 3797: 3794: 3792: 3789: 3787: 3784: 3783: 3781: 3779: 3775: 3769: 3766: 3764: 3761: 3759: 3756: 3752: 3749: 3748: 3747: 3744: 3743: 3741: 3739: 3735: 3729: 3726: 3725: 3723: 3721: 3717: 3711: 3710: 3706: 3703: 3702: 3697: 3695: 3692: 3690: 3687: 3685: 3682: 3678: 3675: 3673: 3670: 3669: 3668: 3665: 3663: 3660: 3658: 3655: 3653: 3650: 3648: 3645: 3644: 3642: 3640: 3636: 3630: 3626: 3623: 3621: 3618: 3616: 3613: 3611: 3608: 3606: 3603: 3601: 3598: 3596: 3593: 3591: 3588: 3586: 3583: 3581: 3578: 3576: 3573: 3571: 3568: 3566: 3563: 3562: 3560: 3558: 3554: 3548: 3545: 3543: 3540: 3538: 3535: 3531: 3528: 3527: 3526: 3523: 3522: 3520: 3518: 3514: 3508: 3505: 3501: 3498: 3494: 3491: 3490: 3489: 3486: 3485: 3484: 3481: 3477: 3474: 3472: 3469: 3468: 3466: 3462: 3459: 3458: 3457: 3454: 3452: 3449: 3447: 3444: 3440: 3437: 3436: 3435: 3432: 3431: 3429: 3427: 3423: 3420: 3416: 3410: 3407: 3405: 3402: 3400: 3397: 3395: 3392: 3390: 3387: 3385: 3382: 3381: 3379: 3376: 3371: 3365: 3362: 3360: 3359:Socioeconomic 3357: 3355: 3352: 3350: 3347: 3345: 3342: 3338: 3335: 3334: 3333: 3330: 3326: 3323: 3321: 3318: 3316: 3313: 3311: 3308: 3307: 3306: 3303: 3299: 3296: 3294: 3291: 3290: 3289: 3286: 3284: 3281: 3280: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3261: 3257: 3247: 3246: 3242: 3240: 3237: 3235: 3234:Social stigma 3232: 3230: 3227: 3225: 3224:Social orphan 3222: 3220: 3217: 3215: 3212: 3210: 3207: 3205: 3202: 3200: 3197: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3189: 3184: 3183: 3182:Nouveau riche 3179: 3177: 3174: 3172: 3169: 3167: 3164: 3162: 3159: 3157: 3156:Class traitor 3154: 3152: 3151:Class society 3149: 3147: 3144: 3142: 3139: 3137: 3134: 3132: 3129: 3128: 3126: 3120: 3114: 3111: 3109: 3106: 3104: 3101: 3099: 3096: 3094: 3091: 3089: 3088:Gilbert model 3086: 3084: 3081: 3080: 3078: 3074: 3070: 3064: 3063: 3059: 3057: 3056: 3052: 3050: 3049: 3045: 3044: 3041: 3034: 3031: 3030: 3024: 3019: 3017: 3012: 3010: 3005: 3004: 3001: 2989: 2988: 2984: 2982: 2981: 2977: 2975: 2974: 2970: 2969: 2966: 2956: 2953: 2951: 2948: 2946: 2943: 2941: 2938: 2936: 2933: 2932: 2930: 2926: 2920: 2917: 2915: 2912: 2910: 2907: 2906: 2904: 2902: 2898: 2892: 2889: 2887: 2884: 2882: 2879: 2877: 2874: 2873: 2871: 2869: 2865: 2859: 2856: 2852: 2849: 2847: 2844: 2843: 2842: 2839: 2835: 2832: 2830: 2827: 2826: 2825: 2822: 2820: 2817: 2815: 2812: 2808: 2805: 2803: 2800: 2798: 2795: 2793: 2790: 2789: 2787: 2783: 2780: 2779: 2778: 2775: 2774: 2772: 2770: 2766: 2760: 2757: 2753: 2750: 2749: 2748: 2745: 2743: 2742:Ottoman court 2740: 2738: 2735: 2733: 2730: 2728: 2725: 2724: 2721: 2718: 2716: 2712: 2706: 2703: 2701: 2698: 2696: 2693: 2689: 2686: 2684: 2681: 2679: 2676: 2674: 2671: 2669: 2666: 2665: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2654: 2651: 2647: 2644: 2641: 2640: 2638: 2637: 2635: 2633: 2629: 2615: 2612: 2610: 2607: 2605: 2602: 2601: 2599: 2595: 2589: 2586: 2584: 2583:Naval battles 2581: 2579: 2576: 2574: 2571: 2569: 2566: 2562: 2559: 2558: 2557: 2556:Kapudan Pasha 2554: 2553: 2551: 2549: 2545: 2539: 2538: 2534: 2532: 2529: 2527: 2524: 2522: 2519: 2517: 2513: 2512: 2511:Reform period 2508: 2506: 2503: 2501: 2498: 2494: 2491: 2490: 2489: 2485: 2484: 2480: 2479: 2477: 2473: 2470: 2468: 2464: 2454: 2451: 2449: 2445: 2442: 2440: 2437: 2433: 2430: 2429: 2428: 2425: 2423: 2420: 2416: 2413: 2412: 2411: 2408: 2407: 2405: 2401: 2389: 2386: 2385: 2384: 2381: 2377: 2374: 2372: 2369: 2367: 2364: 2362: 2359: 2358: 2357: 2354: 2350: 2347: 2346: 2345: 2342: 2341: 2339: 2337: 2333: 2325: 2322: 2320: 2317: 2316: 2315: 2312: 2311: 2309: 2305: 2300: 2295: 2289: 2286: 2284: 2281: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2269: 2266: 2264: 2261: 2259: 2256: 2254: 2251: 2250: 2248: 2244: 2239: 2234: 2231: 2228: 2223: 2215: 2212: 2210: 2207: 2206: 2205: 2202: 2198: 2195: 2193: 2190: 2188: 2185: 2183: 2180: 2178: 2175: 2173: 2172:Haseki sultan 2170: 2168: 2167:Valide sultan 2165: 2164: 2163: 2160: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2137: 2136: 2133: 2132: 2130: 2126: 2123: 2121: 2117: 2111: 2108: 2104: 2101: 2099: 2096: 2095: 2093: 2089: 2086: 2084: 2081: 2079: 2076: 2074: 2071: 2069: 2066: 2065: 2064: 2061: 2057: 2054: 2052: 2049: 2047: 2046:United States 2044: 2042: 2039: 2037: 2034: 2033: 2032: 2029: 2028: 2025: 2022: 2018: 2010: 2007: 2005: 2002: 2000: 1997: 1995: 1992: 1991: 1990: 1987: 1983: 1980: 1978: 1975: 1974: 1973: 1970: 1966: 1963: 1962: 1961: 1958: 1954: 1951: 1949: 1946: 1945: 1944: 1941: 1937: 1934: 1933: 1932: 1931:Classical Age 1929: 1925: 1922: 1920: 1917: 1915: 1912: 1911: 1910: 1907: 1905: 1904:Osman's Dream 1902: 1901: 1899: 1897: 1893: 1889: 1882: 1877: 1875: 1870: 1868: 1863: 1862: 1859: 1851: 1849:9780674395657 1845: 1841: 1837: 1836:Belknap Press 1833: 1828: 1827: 1820: 1819: 1806: 1799: 1797: 1788: 1782: 1778: 1771: 1763: 1757: 1753: 1746: 1744: 1742: 1740: 1738: 1729: 1728: 1720: 1718: 1709: 1703: 1699: 1692: 1690: 1688: 1674: 1668: 1664: 1660: 1654: 1652: 1643: 1637: 1633: 1626: 1624: 1622: 1620: 1618: 1616: 1614: 1612: 1610: 1608: 1606: 1604: 1602: 1600: 1598: 1596: 1594: 1592: 1590: 1588: 1586: 1577: 1571: 1567: 1560: 1558: 1549: 1542: 1534: 1530: 1526: 1522: 1518: 1511: 1509: 1507: 1505: 1503: 1494: 1488: 1484: 1477: 1475: 1473: 1471: 1469: 1467: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1442: 1438: 1437:Ethnopolitics 1434: 1427: 1425: 1416: 1410: 1406: 1399: 1391: 1385: 1381: 1374: 1366: 1360: 1356: 1349: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1310: 1302: 1296: 1292: 1285: 1277: 1271: 1267: 1266: 1258: 1250: 1244: 1240: 1239: 1231: 1223: 1217: 1213: 1212: 1204: 1196: 1190: 1186: 1179: 1177: 1175: 1173: 1171: 1169: 1167: 1165: 1163: 1161: 1159: 1150: 1149: 1141: 1133: 1129: 1125: 1121: 1117: 1110: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1079: 1071: 1065: 1061: 1060: 1052: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1021: 1013: 1006: 998: 992: 988: 987: 979: 971: 965: 961: 960: 952: 950: 948: 946: 937: 931: 927: 926: 918: 910: 906: 902: 898: 894: 890: 886: 882: 875: 867: 863: 859: 855: 851: 847: 840: 833: 821: 819:9780674010178 815: 811: 810: 805: 799: 795: 787: 784: 783: 776: 773: 769: 768: 762: 760: 759: 754: 744: 742: 738: 737: 725: 721: 719: 714: 713: 702: 699: 695: 694: 689: 688: 677: 674: 665: 656: 647: 644: 629: 622: 616: 614: 610: 606: 602: 596: 594: 590: 586: 582: 578: 574: 570: 566: 560: 556: 554: 548: 546: 542: 538: 534: 530: 520: 516: 513: 499: 497: 496: 491: 490: 485: 484: 479: 475: 470: 468: 464: 460: 456: 452: 447: 445: 444: 432: 429: 427: 422: 417: 407: 403: 400: 398: 393: 390: 388: 383: 380: 374: 364: 362: 358: 354: 350: 346: 342: 338: 334: 330: 326: 322: 318: 314: 310: 306: 302: 298: 294: 290: 286: 282: 278: 274: 270: 266: 261: 259: 255: 251: 247: 235: 230: 228: 223: 221: 216: 215: 213: 212: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 188: 186: 183: 182: 180: 179: 175: 174: 168: 165: 163: 160: 159: 157: 156: 153: 150: 149: 143: 140: 138: 135: 133: 130: 128: 125: 121: 118: 116: 113: 111: 108: 106: 103: 102: 101: 98: 96: 93: 92: 90: 89: 85: 84: 78: 75: 73: 70: 68: 67:Ottoman court 65: 64: 62: 61: 57: 56: 53: 50: 49: 45: 41: 40: 36: 32: 31: 19: 4245:Soviet Union 4229: 4220:Ancient Rome 4077:Homelessness 4002:Upper Middle 3874: / 3855: / 3846: / 3811:Working poor 3707: 3694:Robber baron 3517:Intellectual 3507:Royal family 3471:Ancient Rome 3325:second-class 3243: 3186: 3185: / 3180: 3176:High society 3083:Elite theory 3060: 3053: 3046: 3033:Social class 2985: 2980:Bibliography 2978: 2971: 2940:Coat of arms 2914:Christianity 2868:Demographics 2851:of Armenians 2792:Illumination 2777:Architecture 2658:Central bank 2609:Conscription 2535: 2526:Mansure Army 2509: 2481: 2388:Hakham Bashi 2356:Christianity 2303: 2253:Grand Vizier 2242: 2094:Civil codes 2068:Constitution 1914:Ghaza thesis 1825: 1816:Bibliography 1804: 1776: 1770: 1751: 1726: 1697: 1676:, retrieved 1662: 1631: 1565: 1547: 1541: 1527:(1): 11–48. 1524: 1520: 1482: 1443:(1): 24–42. 1440: 1436: 1404: 1398: 1379: 1373: 1354: 1348: 1323: 1319: 1309: 1290: 1284: 1264: 1257: 1237: 1230: 1210: 1203: 1184: 1147: 1140: 1123: 1119: 1109: 1092: 1088: 1078: 1058: 1051: 1034: 1030: 1020: 1011: 1005: 985: 978: 958: 924: 917: 884: 874: 849: 839: 832:communities. 830: 823:. Retrieved 808: 798: 780: 777: 771: 765: 763: 756: 750: 740: 734: 731: 722: 717: 710: 708: 697: 691: 685: 683: 673:Prostitution 671: 668:Prostitution 662: 653: 640: 626: 621:Conveniencia 620: 597: 561: 557: 549: 526: 517: 510: 493: 487: 481: 477: 471: 448: 441: 438: 430: 423: 419: 404: 401: 394: 391: 384: 376: 349:kul and azad 262: 258:bureaucratic 243: 4164:New Zealand 3881:Untouchable 3806:Proletariat 3796:Pea-pickers 3746:Bourgeoisie 3434:Aristocracy 3320:naturalized 3315:native-born 2807:Shadow play 2653:Agriculture 2646:Reformation 2642:Enlargement 2488:Janissaries 2197:Kizlar Agha 2182:Hanımefendi 2177:Kadınefendi 1989:Dissolution 1919:Interregnum 728:Rural areas 551:tower over 474:Janissaries 345:Circassians 4154:Luxembourg 4044:Inequality 3709:Superclass 3500:Hereditary 3476:Post-Roman 3467:Patrician 3337:adolescent 3161:Classicide 2824:Literature 2737:Ottomanism 2432:Sanjakbeys 2415:Beylerbeys 2403:Provincial 2120:Government 2083:Family law 1707:6057685687 1678:2024-05-05 1126:(1): 139. 887:(2): 113. 852:(2): 112. 790:References 543:, and the 489:Nakşibendi 341:Ruthenians 337:Bulgarians 329:Hungarians 289:Christians 167:Ottomanism 4179:Sri Lanka 4072:Education 4039:Household 3932:Affluence 3867:Rat tribe 3829:Ant tribe 3801:Precariat 3786:Lazzaroni 3728:Bohemians 3689:Overclass 3684:Old money 3620:Spartiate 3595:Kshatriya 3585:Hashashin 3542:Professor 3483:Political 3456:Oligarchy 3446:Hanseaten 3364:Stateless 3344:Convicted 3276:By status 3239:Subaltern 3171:Euthenics 3103:New class 2876:Armenians 2841:Education 2797:Miniature 2747:Languages 2732:Devshirme 2705:Transport 2505:Timariots 2371:Bulgarian 2263:Kazaskers 2225:Central ( 2209:Kapi Agha 2078:Electoral 2004:Abolition 1999:Partition 1533:1086-3265 1457:1744-9057 1340:0953-5233 1132:2523-9465 1101:2523-9465 1043:2523-9465 901:0585-5292 782:devshirme 593:Kasımpaşa 527:From the 478:tulumbacı 333:Georgians 321:Albanians 299:". As an 285:Albanians 127:Armenians 120:Bulgarian 115:Aromanian 77:Devshirme 4286:Category 4271:Category 4203:Historic 4124:Colombia 4114:Cambodia 4049:Personal 3947:Mobility 3876:Freedman 3862:Plebeian 3848:Prisoner 3834:Commoner 3720:Creative 3701:Seigneur 3667:Nobility 3625:Vanniyar 3610:Pendekar 3570:Cossacks 3204:Snobbery 3076:Theories 2987:Category 2901:Religion 2814:Clothing 2700:Taxation 2663:Currency 2604:Aviation 2578:Admirals 2531:Hamidieh 2467:Military 2448:Kadiluks 2422:Vilayets 2376:Armenian 2314:Assembly 2051:Treaties 2020:Politics 1977:Tanzimat 806:(1991). 718:madrasas 650:Marriage 613:dragoman 573:Bosporus 545:Armenian 495:effendis 467:Anatolia 451:Anatolia 353:soldiers 317:Italians 305:colonial 301:imperial 281:Bosniaks 267:and the 162:Tanzimat 110:Armenian 4174:Romania 4169:Nigeria 4054:Poverty 3957:Classes 3942:History 3853:Peasant 3839:Outcast 3778:Working 3758:Burgher 3615:Samurai 3605:Ocēlōtl 3565:Chhetri 3557:Warrior 3547:Scholar 3461:Russian 3451:Magnate 3439:Aristoi 3418:By type 3305:Citizen 3298:refugee 3194:Poverty 3188:Parvenu 3122:Related 3093:Marxian 3055:Stratum 2973:Outline 2928:Symbols 2919:Judaism 2846:Schools 2819:Cuisine 2782:Mosques 2769:Culture 2759:Slavery 2715:Society 2678:Sultani 2639:By era 2632:Economy 2614:Weapons 2427:Sanjaks 2410:Eyalets 2383:Judaism 2336:Millets 2273:Nişancı 2258:Viziers 2103:Halakha 2098:Mecelle 2041:Safavid 1953:Köprülü 1896:History 1012:Unknown 909:1595144 866:1595144 825:29 July 747:Slavery 712:madrasa 581:Samatya 577:Kumkapi 569:Samatya 553:Mosques 533:Millets 512:Muslims 507:Muslims 483:Bektaşi 463:Rumelia 357:viziers 265:Balkans 176:Classes 100:Millets 95:Muslims 72:Slavery 4129:France 4109:Belize 4104:Africa 4031:Income 3987:Middle 3980:Gentry 3844:Outlaw 3751:Petite 3738:Middle 3672:Landed 3657:Gentry 3590:Knight 3530:Priest 3525:Clergy 3488:Family 3426:Ruling 3375:collar 3332:Clique 3048:Status 2950:Tughra 2935:Anthem 2881:Greeks 2834:Poetry 2319:Senate 2088:Düstur 1846: 1783: 1758: 1704: 1669: 1638: 1572: 1531: 1489: 1455: 1411: 1386: 1361: 1338: 1297: 1272: 1245: 1218: 1191: 1130: 1099: 1066: 1041: 993: 966: 932: 907: 899: 864: 816: 758:harems 741:sipahi 736:sipahi 687:askeri 632:Gender 591:, and 589:Hasköy 541:Jewish 539:, the 457:, and 426:millet 397:ilmiye 379:Sultan 373:Askeri 367:Askeri 313:Tatars 309:Greeks 256:as "a 205:Vlachs 195:Giaour 185:Askeri 137:Greeks 4225:Aztec 4184:Tibet 4159:Nepal 4149:Italy 4139:India 4134:Haiti 4119:China 4019:Under 4014:Lower 3992:Black 3975:Donor 3970:Black 3965:Upper 3872:Slave 3821:Under 3677:Petty 3652:Elite 3639:Upper 3580:Harii 3575:Cuāuh 3409:White 3389:Green 3288:Alien 3131:Caste 2909:Islam 2891:Women 2858:Media 2829:Prose 2802:Music 2683:Kuruş 2597:Other 2588:Ships 2444:Kazas 2366:Ullah 2344:Islam 2227:Porte 1965:Tulip 905:JSTOR 862:JSTOR 753:slave 698:reaya 693:reaya 623:model 585:Balat 565:Fener 537:Greek 459:Egypt 455:Syria 443:ayans 416:Rayah 410:Rayah 325:Serbs 277:Arabs 273:Turks 200:Rayah 4144:Iran 3857:Serf 3662:Lord 3600:Nair 3493:List 3404:Pink 3394:Grey 3384:Blue 3373:By " 2945:Flag 2886:Jews 2788:Art 2688:Lira 2673:Para 2668:Akçe 2561:List 2548:Navy 2475:Army 2056:Wars 1909:Rise 1844:ISBN 1781:ISBN 1756:ISBN 1702:ISBN 1667:ISBN 1636:ISBN 1570:ISBN 1529:ISSN 1487:ISBN 1453:ISSN 1409:ISBN 1384:ISBN 1359:ISBN 1336:ISSN 1295:ISBN 1270:ISBN 1243:ISBN 1216:ISBN 1189:ISBN 1128:ISSN 1097:ISSN 1064:ISBN 1039:ISSN 991:ISBN 964:ISBN 930:ISBN 897:ISSN 827:2020 814:ISBN 772:kuls 619:The 579:and 486:and 465:and 343:and 293:Jews 291:and 244:The 190:Ayan 132:Jews 3399:New 2361:Rūm 2063:Law 1838:of 1445:doi 1328:doi 889:doi 854:doi 767:kul 387:kul 359:or 4288:: 2514:: 2486:: 1842:. 1834:: 1830:. 1795:^ 1736:^ 1716:^ 1686:^ 1661:, 1650:^ 1584:^ 1556:^ 1525:16 1523:. 1519:. 1501:^ 1465:^ 1451:. 1441:15 1439:. 1435:. 1423:^ 1334:. 1324:16 1322:. 1318:. 1157:^ 1124:15 1122:. 1118:. 1093:15 1091:. 1087:. 1035:15 1033:. 1029:. 944:^ 903:. 895:. 883:. 860:. 848:. 829:. 595:. 587:, 567:, 453:, 399:. 363:. 355:, 347:, 339:, 335:, 331:, 327:, 323:, 319:, 315:, 311:, 283:, 279:, 275:, 3627:/ 3377:" 3022:e 3015:t 3008:v 2446:/ 2229:) 1880:e 1873:t 1866:v 1852:. 1789:. 1764:. 1710:. 1644:. 1578:. 1550:. 1535:. 1495:. 1459:. 1447:: 1417:. 1392:. 1367:. 1342:. 1330:: 1303:. 1278:. 1251:. 1224:. 1197:. 1134:. 1103:. 1072:. 1045:. 999:. 972:. 938:. 911:. 891:: 868:. 856:: 303:/ 233:e 226:t 219:v 20:)

Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.

Index