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the furnace and the TEM grid; complicated by temperature gradients along the sample caused by varying thermal conductivity with different samples and grid materials. With different holders both commercial and lab made, different methods for creating temperature calibration are available. Manufacturers like Gatan use IR pyrometry to measure temperature gradients over their entire sample. An even better method to calibrate is Raman spectroscopy which measures the local temperature of Si powder on electron transparent windows and quantitatively calibrates the IR pyrometry. These measurements have guaranteed accuracy within 5%. Research laboratories have also performed their own calibrations on commercial holders. Researchers at NIST utilized Raman spectroscopy to map the temperature profile of a sample on a TEM grid and achieve very precise measurements to enhance their research. Similarly, a research group in
Germany utilized X-ray diffraction to measure slight shifts in lattice spacing caused by changes in temperature to back calculate the exact temperature in the holder. This process required careful calibration and exact TEM optics. Other examples include the use of EELS to measure local temperature using change of gas density, and resistivity changes.
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Contrast can arise from position-to-position differences in the thickness or density ("mass-thickness contrast"), atomic number ("Z contrast", referring to the common abbreviation Z for atomic number), crystal structure or orientation ("crystallographic contrast" or "diffraction contrast"), the slight quantum-mechanical phase shifts that individual atoms produce in electrons that pass through them ("phase contrast"), the energy lost by electrons on passing through the sample ("spectrum imaging") and more. Each mechanism tells the user a different kind of information, depending not only on the contrast mechanism but on how the microscope is used—the settings of lenses, apertures, and detectors. What this means is that a TEM is capable of returning an extraordinary variety of nanometre- and atomic-resolution information, in ideal cases revealing not only where all the atoms are but what kinds of atoms they are and how they are bonded to each other. For this reason TEM is regarded as an essential tool for nanoscience in both biological and materials fields.
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done by selecting a certain area in the back focal plane such as only the central beam or a specific diffracted beam (angle), or combinations of such beams. By intentionally selecting an objective aperture which only permits the non-diffracted beam to pass beyond the back focal plane (and onto the image plane): one creates a Bright-Field (BF) image (c), whereas if the central, non-diffracted beam is blocked: one may obtain dark-field (DF) images such as those shown in (d–e). The DF images (d–e) were obtained by selecting the diffracted beams indicated in diffraction pattern with circles (b) using an aperture at the back focal plane. Grains from which electrons are scattered into these diffraction spots appear brighter. More details about diffraction contrast formation are given further.
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of the electrons, although phase effects may often be ignored at lower magnifications. Higher resolution imaging requires thinner samples and higher energies of incident electrons, which means that the sample can no longer be considered to be absorbing electrons (i.e., via a Beer's law effect). Instead, the sample can be modeled as an object that does not change the amplitude of the incoming electron wave function, but instead modifies the phase of the incoming wave; in this model, the sample is known as a pure phase object. For sufficiently thin specimens, phase effects dominate the image, complicating analysis of the observed intensities. To improve the contrast in the image, the TEM may be operated at a slight defocus to enhance contrast, owing to convolution by the
2468:(MEMs) based holders provide a cheap and customizable platform to conduct mechanical tests on previously difficult samples to work with such as micropillars, nanowires, and thin films. Passive MEMs are used as simple push to pull devices for in-situ mechanical tests. Typically, a nano-indentation holder is used to apply a pushing force at the indentation site. Using a geometry of arms, this pushing force translates to a pulling force on a pair of tensile pads to which the sample is attached. Thus, a compression applied on the outside of the MEMs translates to a tension in the central gap where the TEM sample is located. The resulting force-displacement curve needs to be corrected by performing the same test on an empty MEMs without the TEM sample to account for the
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is therefore regularly applied to mitigate this effect. Low-dose imaging is performed by deflecting illumination and imaging regions simultaneously away from the optical axis to image an adjacent region to the area to be recorded (the high-dose region). This area is maintained centered during tilting and refocused before recording. During recording the deflections are removed so that the area of interest is exposed to the electron beam only for the duration required for imaging. An improvement of this technique (for objects resting on a sloping substrate film) is to have two symmetrical off-axis regions for focusing followed by setting focus to the average of the two high-dose focus values before recording the low-dose area of interest.
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from a few to 100 μm. The sample is placed onto the meshed area having a diameter of approximately 2.5 mm. Usual grid materials are copper, molybdenum, gold or platinum. This grid is placed into the sample holder, which is paired with the specimen stage. A wide variety of designs of stages and holders exist, depending upon the type of experiment being performed. In addition to 3.05 mm grids, 2.3 mm grids are sometimes, if rarely, used. These grids were particularly used in the mineral sciences where a large degree of tilt can be required and where specimen material may be extremely rare. Electron transparent specimens have a thickness usually less than 100 nm, but this value depends on the accelerating voltage.
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2253:. A STEM is a TEM in which the electron source and observation point have been switched relative to the direction of travel of the electron beam. See the ray diagrams in the figure on the right. The STEM instrument effectively relies on the same optical set-up as a TEM, but operates by flipping the direction of travel of the electrons (or reversing time) during operation of a TEM. Rather than using an aperture to control detected electrons, as in TEM, a STEM uses various detectors with collection angles that may be adjusted depending on which electrons the user wants to capture.
2271:(LVEM) is operated at relatively low electron accelerating voltage between 5–25 kV. Some of these can be a combination of SEM, TEM and STEM in a single compact instrument. Low voltage increases image contrast which is especially important for biological specimens. This increase in contrast significantly reduces, or even eliminates the need to stain. Resolutions of a few nm are possible in TEM, SEM and STEM modes. The low energy of the electron beam means that permanent magnets can be used as lenses and thus a miniature column that does not require cooling can be used.
1598:. When using a field emission source and a specimen of uniform thickness, the images are formed due to differences in phase of electron waves, which is caused by specimen interaction. Image formation is given by the complex modulus of the incoming electron beams. As such, the image is not only dependent on the number of electrons hitting the screen, making direct interpretation of phase contrast images slightly more complex. However this effect can be used to an advantage, as it can be manipulated to provide more information about the sample, such as in complex
1907:. The resin block is fractured as it passes over a glass or diamond knife edge. This method is used to obtain thin, minimally deformed samples that allow for the observation of tissue ultrastructure. Inorganic samples, such as aluminium, may also be embedded in resins and ultrathin sectioned in this way, using either coated glass, sapphire or larger angle diamond knives. To prevent charge build-up at the sample surface when viewing in the TEM, tissue samples need to be coated with a thin layer of conducting material, such as carbon.
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stages. Some modern TEMs provide the ability for two orthogonal tilt angles of movement with specialized holder designs called double-tilt sample holders. Some stage designs, such as top-entry or vertical insertion stages once common for high resolution TEM studies, may simply only have X-Y translation available. The design criteria of TEM stages are complex, owing to the simultaneous requirements of mechanical and electron-optical constraints and specialized models are available for different methods.
1815:, use images of multiple (hopefully) identical objects at different orientations to produce the image data required for three-dimensional reconstruction. If the objects do not have significant preferred orientations, this method does not suffer from the missing data wedge (or cone) which accompany tomographic methods nor does it incur excessive radiation dosage, however it assumes that the different objects imaged can be treated as if the 3D data generated from them arose from a single stable object.
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mode, there are also objective lenses above the sample to make the incident electron beam convergent). The projector lenses are used to expand the beam onto the phosphor screen or other imaging device, such as film. The magnification of the TEM is due to the ratio of the distances between the specimen and the objective lens' image plane. TEM optical configurations differ significantly with implementation, with manufacturers using custom lens configurations, such as in
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electric field shape and intensity near the sharp tip. The combination of the cathode and these first electrostatic lens elements is collectively called the "electron gun". After it leaves the gun, the beam is typically accelerated until it reaches its final voltage and enters the next part of the microscope: the condenser lens system. These upper lenses of the TEM then further focus the electron beam to the desired size and location on the sample.
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circuit. The gun is designed to create a beam of electrons exiting from the assembly at some given angle, known as the gun divergence semi-angle, α. By constructing the
Wehnelt cylinder such that it has a higher negative charge than the filament itself, electrons that exit the filament in a diverging manner are, under proper operation, forced into a converging pattern the minimum size of which is the gun crossover diameter.
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resolution loss and mechanical drift. Individual labs and manufacturers have developed software coupled with advanced cooling systems to correct for thermal drift based on the predicted temperature in the sample chamber These systems often take 30 min-many hours for sample shifts to stabilize. While significant progress has been made, no universal TEM attachment has been made to account for drift at elevated temperatures.
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1205:) are required for the gun filament. Furthermore, both lanthanum hexaboride and tungsten thermionic sources must be heated in order to achieve thermionic emission, this can be achieved by the use of a small resistive strip. To prevent thermal shock, there is often a delay enforced in the application of current to the tip, to prevent thermal gradients from damaging the filament, the delay is usually a few seconds for LaB
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1513:. When the beam illuminates two neighbouring areas with low mass (or thickness) and high mass (or thickness), the heavier region scatters electrons at bigger angles. These strongly scattered electrons are blocked in BF TEM mode by objective aperture. As a result, heavier regions appear darker in BF images (have low intensity). Mass–thickness contrast is most important for non–crystalline, amorphous materials.
547:), and their wave-like properties mean that a beam of electrons can be focused and diffracted much like light can. The wavelength of electrons is related to their kinetic energy via the de Broglie equation, which says that the wavelength is inversely proportional to the momentum. Taking into account relativistic effects (as in a TEM an electron's velocity is a substantial fraction of the speed of light,
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requirements as low as a few nm/minute while being able to move several μm/minute, with repositioning accuracy on the order of nanometres. Earlier designs of TEM accomplished this with a complex set of mechanical downgearing devices, allowing the operator to finely control the motion of the stage by several rotating rods. Modern devices may use electrical stage designs, using screw gearing in concert with
278:. The research team worked on lens design and CRO column placement, to optimize parameters to construct better CROs, and make electron optical components to generate low magnification (nearly 1:1) images. In 1931, the group successfully generated magnified images of mesh grids placed over the anode aperture. The device used two magnetic lenses to achieve higher magnifications, arguably creating the first
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perpendicular to the TEM optic axis. When sealed, the airlock is manipulated to push the cartridge such that the cartridge falls into place, where the bore hole becomes aligned with the beam axis, such that the beam travels down the cartridge bore and into the specimen. Such designs are typically unable to be tilted without blocking the beam path or interfering with the objective lens.
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suppressed. By combining multiple images with different spatial frequencies, the use of techniques such as focal series reconstruction can be used to improve the resolution of the TEM in a limited manner. The contrast transfer function can, to some extent, be experimentally approximated through techniques such as
Fourier transforming images of amorphous material, such as
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a precise, confined shape. When an electron enters and leaves this magnetic field, it spirals around the curved magnetic field lines in a way that acts very much as an ordinary glass lens does for light—it is a converging lens. But, unlike a glass lens, a magnetic lens can very easily change its focusing power by adjusting the current passing through the coils.
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inserted into the stage. The stage is thus designed to accommodate the rod, placing the sample either in between or near the objective lens, dependent upon the objective design. When inserted into the stage, the side entry holder has its tip contained within the TEM vacuum, and the base is presented to atmosphere, the airlock formed by the vacuum rings.
1580:), any distortion of the crystal plane that locally tilts the plane to the Bragg angle will produce particularly strong contrast variations. However, defects that produce only displacement of atoms that do not tilt the crystal towards the Bragg angle (i. e. displacements parallel to the crystal plane) will produce weaker contrast.
2452:. Although nano-indentation was possible since early 1980s, its investigation using a TEM was first reported in 2001 where an aluminum sample deposited on a silicon wedge was investigated. For nanoindentation experiments, TEM samples are typically shaped as wedges using a tripod polisher, H-bar window or a micro-nanopillar using
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2150:, the film subsequently coated with a heavy metal such as platinum, the original film dissolved away, and the replica imaged on the TEM. Variations of the replica technique are used for both materials and biological samples. In materials science a common use is for examining the fresh fracture surface of metal alloys.
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electrons are filtered from the beam, which may be desired in the case of beam sensitive samples. Secondly, this filtering removes electrons that are scattered to high angles, which may be due to unwanted processes such as spherical or chromatic aberration, or due to diffraction from interaction within the sample.
1855:). High quality samples will have a thickness that is comparable to the mean free path of the electrons that travel through the samples, which may be only a few tens of nanometres. Preparation of TEM specimens is specific to the material under analysis and the type of information to be obtained from the specimen.
2585:(PINEM). The latter is based on the inelastic coupling between electrons and photons in presence of a surface or a nanostructure. This method allows one to investigate time-varying nanoscale electromagnetic fields in an electron microscope, as well as dynamically shape the wave properties of the electron beam.
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changed during the preparation process. Also the field of view is relatively small, raising the possibility that the region analyzed may not be characteristic of the whole sample. There is potential that the sample may be damaged by the electron beam, particularly in the case of biological materials.
2176:(STEM) by the addition of a system that rasters a convergent beam across the sample to form the image, when combined with suitable detectors. Scanning coils are used to deflect the beam, such as by an electrostatic shift of the beam, where the beam is then collected using a current detector such as a
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Certain samples may be prepared by chemical etching, particularly metallic specimens. These samples are thinned using a chemical etchant, such as an acid, to prepare the sample for TEM observation. Devices to control the thinning process may allow the operator to control either the voltage or current
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bright field image (BF image) is obtained. If we allow the signal from a diffracted beam, a dark field image (DF image) is received. The selected signal is magnified and projected on a screen (or on a camera) with the help of
Intermediate and Projector lenses. An image of the sample is thus obtained.
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in 1936, where the aim of the research was the development and improvement of TEM imaging properties, particularly with regard to biological specimens. At this time electron microscopes were being fabricated for specific groups, such as the "EM1" device used at the UK National
Physical Laboratory. In
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in 1924. Knoll's research group was unaware of this publication until 1932, when they realized that the de
Broglie wavelength of electrons was many orders of magnitude smaller than that for light, theoretically allowing for imaging at atomic scales. (Even for electrons with a kinetic energy of just 1
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TEM instruments have multiple operating modes including conventional imaging, scanning TEM imaging (STEM), diffraction, spectroscopy, and combinations of these. Even within conventional imaging, there are many fundamentally different ways that contrast is produced, called "image contrast mechanisms".
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There are a number of drawbacks to the TEM technique. Many materials require extensive sample preparation to produce a sample thin enough to be electron transparent, which makes TEM analysis a relatively time-consuming process with a low throughput of samples. The structure of the sample may also be
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Materials that have dimensions small enough to be electron transparent, such as powdered substances, small organisms, viruses, or nanotubes, can be quickly prepared by the deposition of a dilute sample containing the specimen onto films on support grids. Biological specimens may be embedded in resin
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All the above-mentioned methods involve recording tilt series of a given specimen field. This inevitably results in the summation of a high dose of reactive electrons through the sample and the accompanying destruction of fine detail during recording. The technique of low-dose (minimal-dose) imaging
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methods decreases the range of resolvable frequencies in the three-dimensional reconstruction. Mechanical refinements, such as multi-axis tilting (two tilt series of the same specimen made at orthogonal directions) and conical tomography (where the specimen is first tilted to a given fixed angle and
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As TEM specimen holders typically allow for the rotation of a sample by a desired angle, multiple views of the same specimen can be obtained by rotating the angle of the sample along an axis perpendicular to the beam. By taking multiple images of a single TEM sample at differing angles, typically in
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Figure on the right shows a TEM image (a) and the corresponding diffraction pattern (b) of Pt polycrystalline film taken without an objective aperture. In order to enhance the contrast in the TEM image the number of scattered beams as visible in the diffraction pattern should be reduced. This can be
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may be excluded. These consist of a small metallic disc that is sufficiently thick to prevent electrons from passing through the disc, whilst permitting axial electrons. This permission of central electrons in a TEM causes two effects simultaneously: firstly, apertures decrease the beam intensity as
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The coils which produce the magnetic field are located within the lens yoke. The coils can contain a variable current, but typically use high voltages, and therefore require significant insulation in order to prevent short-circuiting the lens components. Thermal distributors are placed to ensure the
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The electron-optical system also includes deflectors and stigmators, usually made of small electromagnets. The deflectors allow the position and angle of the beam at the sample position to be independently controlled and also ensure that the beams remain near the low-aberration centers of every lens
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The lenses of a TEM are what gives it its flexibility of operating modes and ability to focus beams down to the atomic scale and magnify them to get an image. A lens is usually made of a solenoid coil nearly surrounded by ferromagnetic materials designed to concentrate the coil's magnetic field into
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The frequency domain representation of the contrast transfer function may often have an oscillatory nature, which can be tuned by adjusting the focal value of the objective lens. This oscillatory nature implies that some spatial frequencies are faithfully imaged by the microscope, whilst others are
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Much of current research focuses on developing sample holders that can perform mechanical tests while creating an environmental stimulus such as temperature change, variable strain rates, and different gas environments. In addition, the emergence of high resolution detectors are allowing to monitor
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actuated by an electric motor located in a housing outside the TEM. Typically strain rates range from 10 nm/s to 10 μm/s. Custom-made holders expanding simple straining actuation have enabled bending tests using a bending holder and shear tests using a shear sample holder. The typical measured
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motion. By simultaneously observing deformation phenomena and measuring mechanical response in situ, it is possible to connect nano-mechanical testing information to models that describe both the subtlety and complexity of how materials respond to stress and strain. The material properties and data
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An additional challenge of many of these specialized holders is knowing the local sample temperature. Many high temperature holders utilize a tungsten filament to locally heat the sample. Ambiguity in temperature in furnace heaters (W wire) with thermocouples arises from the thermal contact between
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Sample drift in the TEM is linearly proportional to the temperature differential between the room and holder. With temperatures as high as 1500C in modern holders, samples may experience significant drift and vertical displacement (bulging), requiring continuous focus or stage adjustments, inducing
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Many phase transformations occur during heating. Additionally, coarsening and grain growth, along with other diffusion-related processes occur more rapidly at elevated temperatures, where kinetics are improved, allowing for the observation of related phenomena under transmission electron microscopy
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is obtained due to removal of some electrons before the image plane. During their interaction with the specimen some of electrons will be lost due to absorption, or due to scattering at very high angles beyond the physical limitation of microscope or are blocked by the objective aperture. While the
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The figure on the right shows the two basic operation modes of TEM – imaging and diffraction modes. In both cases the specimen is illuminated with the parallel beam, formed by electron beam shaping with the system of
Condenser lenses and Condenser aperture. After interaction with the sample, on the
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Different imaging methods therefore attempt to modify the electron waves exiting the sample in a way that provides information about the sample, or the beam itself. From the previous equation, it can be deduced that the observed image depends not only on the amplitude of beam, but also on the phase
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Apertures are either a fixed aperture within the column, such as at the condenser lens, or are a movable aperture, which can be inserted or withdrawn from the beam path, or moved in the plane perpendicular to the beam path. Aperture assemblies are mechanical devices which allow for the selection of
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to allow for insertion of the specimen holder into the vacuum with minimal loss of vacuum in other areas of the microscope. The specimen holders hold a standard size of sample grid or self-supporting specimen. Standard TEM grid sizes are 3.05 mm diameter, with a thickness and mesh size ranging
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A TEM is composed of several components, which include a vacuum system in which the electrons travel, an electron emission source for generation of the electron stream, a series of electromagnetic lenses, as well as electrostatic plates. The latter two allow the operator to guide and manipulate the
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Typically a TEM consists of three stages of lensing. The stages are the condenser lenses, the objective lenses, and the projector lenses. The condenser lenses are responsible for primary beam formation, while the objective lenses focus the beam that comes through the sample itself (in STEM scanning
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of electrons. This enables the instrument to capture fine detail—even as small as a single column of atoms, which is thousands of times smaller than a resolvable object seen in a light microscope. Transmission electron microscopy is a major analytical method in the physical, chemical and biological
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in crystals. By carefully selecting the orientation of the sample, it is possible not just to determine the position of defects but also to determine the type of defect present. If the sample is oriented so that one particular plane is only slightly tilted away from the strongest diffracting angle
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In
Imaging mode, the objective aperture is inserted in a back focal plane (BFP) of the objective lens (where diffraction spots are formed). If using the objective aperture to select only the central beam, the transmitted electrons are passed through the aperture while all others are blocked, and a
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The electron gun is formed from several components: the filament, a biasing circuit, a
Wehnelt cap, and an extraction anode. By connecting the filament to the negative component power supply, electrons can be "pumped" from the electron gun to the anode plate and the TEM column, thus completing the
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Equally important to the lenses are the apertures. These are circular holes in thin strips of heavy metal. Some are fixed in size and position and play important roles in limiting x-ray generation and improving the vacuum performance. Others can be freely switched among several different sizes and
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illumination is used: an image is formed by the accumulation of many ultrashort electron pulses (typically of hundreds of femtoseconds) with a fixed time delay between the arrival of the electron pulse and the sample excitation. On the other hand, the use of single or a short sequence of electron
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methods have been used to prepare samples. FIB is a relatively new technique to prepare thin samples for TEM examination from larger specimens. Because FIB can be used to micro-machine samples very precisely, it is possible to mill very thin membranes from a specific area of interest in a sample,
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beams. As for many images inelastic scattering will include information that may not be of interest to the investigator thus reducing observable signals of interest, EELS imaging can be used to enhance contrast in observed images, including both bright field and diffraction, by rejecting unwanted
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Analysis of diffraction patterns beyond point-position can be complex, as the image is sensitive to a number of factors such as specimen thickness and orientation, objective lens defocus, and spherical and chromatic aberration. Although quantitative interpretation of the contrast shown in lattice
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occurs due to a specific crystallographic orientation of a grain. In such a case the crystal is oriented in a way that there is a high probability of diffraction. Diffraction contrast provides information on the orientation of the crystals in a polycrystalline sample, as well as other information
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for the magnetic field that forms the lens. Imperfections in the manufacture of the pole piece can induce severe distortions in the magnetic field symmetry, which induce distortions that will ultimately limit the lenses' ability to reproduce the object plane. The exact dimensions of the gap, pole
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The most common is the side entry holder, where the specimen is placed near the tip of a long metal (brass or stainless steel) rod, with the specimen placed flat in a small bore. Along the rod are several polymer vacuum rings to allow for the formation of a vacuum seal of sufficient quality, when
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After World War II, Ruska resumed work at
Siemens, where he continued to develop the electron microscope, producing the first microscope with 100k magnification. The fundamental structure of this microscope design, with multi-stage beam preparation optics, is still used in modern microscopes. The
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to create enough space for a tip to be pressed at the desired electron transparent location. The indenter tips are typically flat punch-type, pyramidal, or wedge shaped elongated in the z-direction. Pyramidal tips offer high precision on the order of 10 nm but suffer from sample slip, while
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stream that is directed to the sample surface. Acceleration energies for gases such as argon are typically a few kilovolts. The sample may be rotated to promote even polishing of the sample surface. The sputtering rate of such methods is on the order of tens of micrometres per hour, limiting the
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temperatures after embedding in vitreous ice. In material science and metallurgy the specimens can usually withstand the high vacuum, but still must be prepared as a thin foil, or etched so some portion of the specimen is thin enough for the beam to penetrate. Constraints on the thickness of the
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milling, a new technique has been proposed which uses pillar-shaped specimen and a dedicated on-axis tomography holder to perform 180° rotation of the sample inside the pole piece of the objective lens in TEM. Using such arrangements, quantitative electron tomography without the missing wedge is
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In Diffraction mode, a selected area aperture may be used to determine more precisely the specimen area from which the signal will be displayed. By changing the strength of current to the intermediate lens, the diffraction pattern is projected on a screen. Diffraction is a very powerful tool for
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Feist, Armin; Bach, Nora; Rubiano da Silva, Nara; Danz, Thomas; Möller, Marcel; Priebe, Katharina E.; Domröse, Till; Gatzmann, J. Gregor; Rost, Stefan; Schauss, Jakob; Strauch, Stefanie; Bormann, Reiner; Sivis, Murat; Schäfer, Sascha; Ropers, Claus (2017-05-01). "Ultrafast Transmission Electron
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More recently, advances in aberration corrector design have been able to reduce spherical aberrations and to achieve resolution below 0.5 ångströms (50 pm) at magnifications above 50 million times. Improved resolution allows for the imaging of lighter atoms that scatter electrons less
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If the reflections that are selected do not include the unscattered beam (which will appear up at the focal point of the lens), then the image will appear dark wherever no sample scattering to the selected peak is present, as such a region without a specimen will appear dark. This is known as a
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diffraction, in a specific orientation. To accommodate this, the TEM stage allows movement of the sample in the XY plane, Z height adjustment, and commonly a single tilt direction parallel to the axis of side entry holders. Sample rotation may be available on specialized diffraction holders and
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to provide preliminary focus of the emitted electrons into a beam while also stabilizing the current using a passive feedback circuit. A field emission source uses instead electrostatic electrodes called an extractor, a suppressor, and a gun lens, with different voltages on each, to control the
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Optimal resolution in a TEM is achieved when spherical aberrations are corrected with objective lens. However, due to the geometry of most TEMs, inserting large in-situ holders requires the user to compromise the objective lens and endure spherical aberrations. Therefore, there is a compromise
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based devices known as EEL spectrometers. These devices allow for the selection of particular energy values, which can be associated with the way the electron has interacted with the sample. For example, different elements in a sample result in different electron energies in the beam after the
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establishing high vacuum level necessary for operations. To allow for the low vacuum pump to not require continuous operation, while continually operating the turbo-molecular pumps, the vacuum side of a low-pressure pump may be connected to chambers which accommodate the exhaust gases from the
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electrons, as is often the case under standard TEM operating conditions. The theorem states that the wave amplitude at some point B as a result of electron point source A would be the same as the amplitude at A due to an equivalent point source placed at B. Simply stated, the wave function for
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is transmitted through a specimen to form an image. The specimen is most often an ultrathin section less than 100 nm thick or a suspension on a grid. An image is formed from the interaction of the electrons with the sample as the beam is transmitted through the specimen. The image is then
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Modern TEMs are often equipped with specimen holders that allow the user to tilt the specimen to a range of angles in order to obtain specific diffraction conditions, and apertures placed above the specimen allow the user to select electrons that would otherwise be diffracted in a particular
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The second design is the top-entry holder consists of a cartridge that is several cm long with a bore drilled down the cartridge axis. The specimen is loaded into the bore, possibly using a small screw ring to hold the sample in place. This cartridge is inserted into an airlock with the bore
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Before sectioning, biological tissue is often embedded in an epoxy resin block and first trimmed using a razor blade into a trapezoidal block face. Thick sections are then cut from the block face. The thick sections are crudely stained with toluidine blue and examined for specimen and block
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A TEM stage is required to have the ability to hold a specimen and be manipulated to bring the region of interest into the path of the electron beam. As the TEM can operate over a wide range of magnifications, the stage must simultaneously be highly resistant to mechanical drift, with drift
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High-voltage TEMs require ultra-high vacuums on the range of 10 to 10 Pa to prevent the generation of an electrical arc, particularly at the TEM cathode. As such for higher voltage TEMs a third vacuum system may operate, with the gun isolated from the main chamber either by gate valves or a
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source is possible in ultrafast TEM. Using the Photon-gating approach, the temporal resolution in ultrafast electron microscope reaches to 30-fs allowing the imaging of ultrafast atomic and electron dynamics of matter. However, the technique can only image reversible processes that can be
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polishing compound may be used in the final stages of polishing to remove any scratches that may cause contrast fluctuations due to varying sample thickness. Even after careful mechanical milling, additional fine methods such as ion etching may be required to perform final stage thinning.
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This equation shows that in order to achieve sufficient current density it is necessary to heat the emitter, taking care not to cause damage by application of excessive heat. For this reason materials with either a high melting point, such as tungsten, or those with a low work function
942:. TEM components such as specimen holders and film cartridges must be routinely inserted or replaced requiring a system with the ability to re-evacuate on a regular basis. As such, TEMs are equipped with multiple pumping systems and airlocks and are not permanently vacuum sealed.
2180:, which acts as a direct electron counter. By correlating the electron count to the position of the scanning beam (known as the "probe"), the transmitted component of the beam may be measured. The non-transmitted components may be obtained either by beam tilting or by the use of
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Diffraction patterns can have a large dynamic range, and for crystalline samples, may have intensities greater than those recordable by CCD. As such, TEMs may still be equipped with film cartridges for the purpose of obtaining these images, as the film is a single use detector.
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High temperature TEM introduces various additional challenges which must be addressed in the mechanics of high temperature holders, including but not limited to drift-correction, temperature measurement, and decreased spatial resolution at the expense of more complex holders.
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Using the advanced technique of electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS), for TEMs appropriately equipped, electrons can be separated into a spectrum based upon their velocity (which is closely related to their kinetic energy, and thus energy loss from the beam energy), using
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938:. The need for this is twofold: first the allowance for the voltage difference between the cathode and the ground without generating an arc, and secondly to reduce the collision frequency of electrons with gas atoms to negligible levels—this effect is characterized by the
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stack structures to a specific layer which has then been atomically resolved. The TEM images taken in plan view rather than cross-section reveal that the MgO layer within MTJs contains a large number of grain boundaries that may be diminishing the properties of devices.
1718:
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turbo-molecular pump. Sections of the TEM may be isolated by the use of pressure-limiting apertures to allow for different vacuum levels in specific areas such as a higher vacuum of 10 to 10 Pa or higher in the electron gun in high-resolution or field-emission TEMs.
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between the width of the pole-piece gap and spatial resolution below 0.1 nm. Research groups at various institutions have tried to overcome spherical aberrations through use of monochromators to achieve 0.05 nm resolution with a 5 mm pole piece gap.
1676:(CBED) where a non-parallel, i.e. converging, electron wavefront is produced by concentrating the electron beam into a fine probe at the sample surface, the interaction of the convergent beam can provide information beyond structural data such as sample thickness.
1969:) may be used prior to TEM observation to selectively deposit electron dense atoms in or on the sample in desired cellular or protein region. This process requires an understanding of how heavy metals bind to specific biological tissues and cellular structures.
1472:
The contrast between two adjacent areas in a TEM image can be defined as the difference in the electron densities in image plane. Due to the scattering of the incident beam by the sample, the amplitude and phase of the electron wave change, which results in
224:, increased resolving power by a factor of two. However this required expensive quartz optics, due to the absorption of UV by glass. It was believed that obtaining an image with sub-micrometre information was not possible due to this wavelength constraint.
1309:
Imaging methods in TEM use the information contained in the electron waves exiting from the sample to form an image. The projector lenses allow for the correct positioning of this electron wave distribution onto the viewing system. The observed intensity,
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van Omme, J. Tijn; Zakhozheva, Marina; Spruit, Ronald G.; Sholkina, Mariya; Pérez Garza, H. Hugo (September 2018). "Advanced microheater for in situ transmission electron microscopy; enabling unexplored analytical studies and extreme spatial stability".
1980:
stain is applied to the sample. The result is a sample with a dark background and the topological surface of the sample appearing lighter. Negative stain electron microscopy can be ideal for visualizing or forming 3D topological reconstructions of large
1231:
Electron lenses are designed to act in a manner emulating that of an optical lens, by focusing parallel electrons at some constant focal distance. Electron lenses may operate electrostatically or magnetically. The majority of electron lenses for TEM use
1045:
Two main designs for stages in a TEM exist, the side-entry and top entry version. Each design must accommodate the matching holder to allow for specimen insertion without either damaging delicate TEM optics or allowing gas into TEM systems under vacuum.
170:
in 1931, with this group developing the first TEM with resolution greater than that of light in 1933 and the first commercial TEM in 1939. In 1986, Ruska was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for the development of transmission electron microscopy.
880:
detectors, which are faster and more resistant to radiation damage than CCDs, have been used for TEM since 2005. In the early 2010s, further development of CMOS technology allowed for the detection of single electron counts ("counting mode"). These
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sample. This normally results in chromatic aberration – however this effect can, for example, be used to generate an image which provides information on elemental composition, based upon the atomic transition during electron-electron interaction.
1716:
1456:
exit surface of the specimen two types of electrons exist – unscattered (which will correspond to the bright central beam on the diffraction pattern) and scattered electrons (which change their trajectories due to interaction with the material).
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Ion etching is a sputtering process that can remove very fine quantities of material. This is used to perform a finishing polish of specimens polished by other means. Ion etching uses an inert gas passed through an electric field to generate a
319:
and normal imaging of an aluminium sheet was achieved. However the magnification achievable was lower than with light microscopy. Magnifications higher than those available with a light microscope were achieved in September 1933 with images of
2558:
pulses with a sufficient number of electrons to form an image from each pulse is called dynamic transmission electron microscopy. Temporal resolution down to hundreds of femtoseconds and spatial resolution comparable to that available with a
1636:
material. For the single crystal case the diffraction pattern is dependent upon the orientation of the specimen and the structure of the sample illuminated by the electron beam. This image provides the investigator with information about the
1301:
different aperture sizes, which may be used by the operator to trade off intensity and the filtering effect of the aperture. Aperture assemblies are often equipped with micrometers to move the aperture, required during optical calibration.
514:
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One of the pioneers of classical holders was Heinz G.F. Wilsdorf, who conducted a tensile test inside a TEM in 1958. In a typical experiment, electron transparent TEM samples are cut to shape and glued to a deformable grid. Advances in
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electrons. Pulses can be produced by either modifying the electron source to enable laser-triggered photoemission or by installation of an ultrafast beam blanker. This approach is termed ultrafast transmission electron microscopy when
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In-situ experiments may also be conducted in TEM using differentially pumped sample chambers, or specialized holders. Types of in-situ experiments include studying nanomaterials, biological specimens, chemical reactions of molecules,
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of the empty MEMs. The dimensions and stiffness of the MEMs can be modified to perform tensile tests on different sized samples with different loads. To smoothen the actuation process, active MEMs have been developed with built-in
919:
beam as required. Also required is a device to allow the insertion into, motion within, and removal of specimens from the beam path. Imaging devices are subsequently used to create an image from the electrons that exit the system.
5853:
Vendelbo, S.B.; Kooyman, P.J.; Creemer, J.F.; Morana, B.; Mele, L.; Dona, P.; Nelissen, B.J.; Helveg, S. (October 2013). "Method for local temperature measurement in a nanoreactor for in situ high-resolution electron microscopy".
769:
can cause the electrons to be deflected through a constant angle. Coupling of two deflections in opposing directions with a small intermediate gap allows for the formation of a shift in the beam path, allowing for beam shifting.
1944:
TEM samples of biological tissues need high atomic number stains to enhance contrast. The stain absorbs the beam electrons or scatters part of the electron beam which otherwise is projected onto the imaging system. Compounds of
368:
worldwide electron microscopy community advanced with electron microscopes being manufactured in Manchester UK, the USA (RCA), Germany (Siemens) and Japan (JEOL). The first international conference in electron microscopy was in
315:.) In April 1932, Ruska suggested the construction of a new electron microscope for direct imaging of specimens inserted into the microscope, rather than simple mesh grids or images of apertures. With this device successful
2737:
2489:
dislocation motion and interactions with other defects and pushing the limits of sub-nanometre strain measurements. In-situ mechanical TEM measurements are routinely coupled with other standard TEM measurements such as
1735:
The reconstruction is accomplished by a two-step process, first images are aligned to account for errors in the positioning of a sample; such errors can occur due to vibration or mechanical drift. Alignment methods use
783:
have their positions adjusted. Variable apertures after the sample allow the user to select the range of spatial positions or electron scattering angles to be used in the formation of an image or a diffraction pattern.
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symmetries in the crystal and the crystal's orientation to the beam path. This is typically done without using any information but the position at which the diffraction spots appear and the observed image symmetries.
51:
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such as a semiconductor or metal. Unlike inert gas ion sputtering, FIB makes use of significantly more energetic gallium ions and may alter the composition or structure of the material through gallium implantation.
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wedge indenters have greater contract to prevent slipping but require finite element analysis to model the transmitted stress since the high contact area with the TEM sample makes this almost a compression test.
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extraction of the heat generated by the energy lost to resistance of the coil windings. The windings may be water-cooled, using a chilled water supply in order to facilitate the removal of the high thermal duty.
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then imaged at equal angular rotational increments through one complete rotation in the plane of the specimen grid) can be used to limit the impact of the missing data on the observed specimen morphology. Using
1925:
A visualization of negative staining (a) and positive staining (b) of samples in transmission electron microscopy. The top row is a side profile of the sample, the bottom row shows the resulting image from the
3552:
Henderson, R.; Cattermole, D.; McMullan, G.; Scotcher, S.; Fordham, M.; Amos, W.B.; Faruqi, A.R. (February 2007). "Digitisation of electron microscope films: Six useful tests applied to three film scanners".
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The electron source of the TEM is at the top, where the lensing system (4,7 and 8) focuses the beam on the specimen and then projects it onto the viewing screen (10). The beam control is on the right (13 and
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2005:
Mechanical polishing is also used to prepare samples for imaging on the TEM. Polishing needs to be done to a high quality, to ensure constant sample thickness across the region of interest. A diamond, or
6431:
Ishida, T; Nakajima, Y; Kakushima, K; Mita, M; Toshiyoshi, H; Fujita, H (1 July 2010). "Design and fabrication of MEMS-controlled probes for studying the nano-interface under in situ TEM observation".
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The limit of resolution obtainable in a TEM may be described in several ways, and is typically referred to as the information limit of the microscope. One commonly used value is a cut-off value of the
1271:
The components include the yoke, the magnetic coil, the poles, the polepiece, and the external control circuitry. The pole piece must be manufactured in a very symmetrical manner, as this provides the
816:
electrons focused through any series of optical components that includes only scalar (i.e. not magnetic) fields will be exactly equivalent if the electron source and observation point are reversed. R
5325:
Shimizu, Toshiki; Lungerich, Dominik; Harano, Koji; Nakamura, Eiichi (2022). "Time-Resolved Imaging of Stochastic Cascade Reactions over a Submillisecond to Second Time Range at the Angstrom Level".
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High resolution of TEM allows for monitoring the sample in question on a length scale ranging from hundreds of nanometres to several angstroms. This allows for the visualization of both elastic and
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differential pumping aperture – a small hole that prevents the diffusion of gas molecules into the higher vacuum gun area faster than they can be pumped out. For these very low pressures, either an
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screen coupled CCDs, or other digital detector. Typically these devices can be removed or inserted into the beam path as required. (Photograph film is no longer used.) The first report of using a
2428:
connected to a liquid nitrogen reservoir. For high temperature experiments, the TEM sample can also be heated through a miniaturized furnace or a laser that can typically reach 1000 °C.
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Picher, Matthieu; Mazzucco, Stefano; Blankenship, Steve; Sharma, Renu (March 2015). "Vibrational and optical spectroscopies integrated with environmental transmission electron microscopy".
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vectors can be selected (or excluded), thus only parts of the sample that are causing the electrons to scatter to the selected reflections will end up projected onto the imaging apparatus.
5510:
Yaguchi, T.; Suzuki, M.; Watabe, A.; Nagakubo, Y.; Ueda, K.; Kamino, T. (2011-03-22). "Development of a high temperature-atmospheric pressure environmental cell for high-resolution TEM".
6041:
Castany, P.; Legros, M. (January 2011). "Preparation of H-bar cross-sectional specimen for in situ TEM straining experiments: A FIB-based method applied to a nitrided Ti–6Al–4V alloy".
2323:
within reasonable time scales. This also allows for the observation of phenomena that occur at elevated temperatures and disappear or are not uniformly preserved in ex-situ samples.
2440:
on the material in question by pressing a hard tip into a polished flat surface and measuring the applied force and the resulting displacement on the TEM sample through a change in
1714:
4015:
Pulokas, James; Green, Carmen; Kisseberth, Nick; Potter, Clinton S.; Carragher, Bridget (1999). "Improving the Positional Accuracy of the Goniometer on the Philips CM Series TEM".
3754:
Faruqi, A.R.; Henderson, R.; Pryddetch, M.; Allport, P.; Evans, A. (October 2006). "Erratum to: "Direct single electron detection with a CMOS detector for electron microscopy"".
1628:
can be generated. For thin crystalline samples, this produces an image that consists of a pattern of dots in the case of a single crystal, or a series of rings in the case of a
787:
in the lens stacks. The stigmators compensate for slight imperfections and aberrations that cause astigmatism—a lens having a different focal strength in different directions.
2783:
efficiently, such as lithium atoms in lithium battery materials. The ability to determine the position of atoms within materials has made the HRTEM an indispensable tool for
2366:
accuracy obtained from such nano-mechanical tests is largely determined by the mechanical straining holder being used. Current straining holders have the ability to perform
1859:
to withstand the high vacuum in the sample chamber and to enable cutting tissue into electron transparent thin sections. The biological sample can be stained using either a
6934:
Browning, N.D.; Bonds, M.A.; Campbell, G.H.; Evans, J.E.; LaGrange, T.; Jungjohann, K.L.; Masiel, D.J.; McKeown, J.; Mehraeen, S.; Reed, B.W.; Santala, M. (February 2012).
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Kawase, Noboru; Kato, Mitsuro; Jinnai, Hiroshi; Jinnai, H (2007). "Transmission electron microtomography without the 'missing wedge' for quantitative structural analysis".
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Manipulation of the electron beam is performed using two physical effects. The interaction of electrons with a magnetic field will cause electrons to move according to the
6294:
Oliver, W. C.; Pharr, G. M. (June 1992). "An improved technique for determining hardness and elastic modulus using load and displacement sensing indentation experiments".
2216:
2243:
1787:). This three-dimensional image is of particular interest when morphological information is required, further study can be undertaken using computer algorithms, such as
2077:. The thin membrane shown here is suitable for TEM examination; however, at ~300-nm thickness, it would not be suitable for high-resolution TEM without further milling.
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104:
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1624:
As previously stated, by adjusting the magnetic lenses such that the back focal plane of the lens rather than the imaging plane is placed on the imaging apparatus a
1324:
3789:
Ercius, P.; Caswell, T.; Tate, M.W.; Ercan, A.; Gruner, S.M.; Muller, D. (September 2005). "A Pixel Array Detector for Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy".
6600:. 70th Birthday of Robert Sinclair and 65th Birthday of Nestor J. Zaluzec PICO 2017 – Fourth Conference on Frontiers of Aberration Corrected Electron Microscopy.
5812:. 70th Birthday of Robert Sinclair and 65th Birthday of Nestor J. Zaluzec PICO 2017 – Fourth Conference on Frontiers of Aberration Corrected Electron Microscopy.
6111:
Kubin, L.P.; Lépinoux, J.; Rabier, J.; Veyssière, P.; Fourdeux, A. (1982). "In situ Plastic Deformation of Metals and Alloys in the 200 kV Electron Microscope".
4560:
Amzallag, Arnaud; Vaillant, Cédric; Jacob, Mathews; Unser, Michael; Bednar, Jan; Kahn, Jason D.; Dubochet, Jacques; Stasiak, Andrzej; Maddocks, John H. (2006).
945:
The vacuum system for evacuating a TEM to an operating pressure level consists of several stages. Initially, a low or roughing vacuum is achieved with either a
7765:
4939:
Gorji, Saleh; Kashiwar, Ankush; Mantha, Lakshmi S; Kruk, Robert; Witte, Ralf; Marek, Peter; Hahn, Horst; Kübel, Christian; Scherer, Torsten (December 2020).
2768:
2603:
2506:
1314:, of the image, assuming sufficiently high quality of imaging device, can be approximated as proportional to the time-averaged squared absolute value of the
372:
in 1949, with more than one hundred attendees. Later conferences included the "First" international conference in Paris, 1950 and then in London in 1954.
1794:
As TEM samples cannot typically be viewed at a full 180° rotation, the observed images typically suffer from a "missing wedge" of data, which when using
1053:
A diagram of a single axis tilt sample holder for insertion into a TEM goniometer. Tilting of the holder is achieved by rotation of the entire goniometer
5564:; Crozier, P.A.; Kabius, Bernd C.; LaGrange, Thomas; Minor, Andrew M.; Takeda, Seiji; Tanase, Mihaela; Wagner, Jakob B.; Sharma, Renu (November 2016).
977:
Poor vacuum in a TEM can cause several problems ranging from the deposition of gas inside the TEM onto the specimen while viewed in a process known as
2771:" microscopes. Their resolution is however limited by electron source geometry and brightness and chromatic aberrations in the objective lens system.
1240:. The field produced for the lens must be radially symmetrical, as deviation from the radial symmetry of the magnetic lens causes aberrations such as
302:
At the time, electrons were understood to be charged particles of matter; the wave nature of electrons was not fully realized until the PhD thesis of
2121:
at low beam current), and minimization of stress-induced bending, Pt contamination, and ion beam damage. This technique is particularly suitable for
853:
7232:
7748:
7743:
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2832:
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2301:, imaging of vitrified solid-electrolye interfaces, and imaging of materials that are volatile in high vacuum at room temperature, such as sulfur.
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17:
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passing through the specimen, and may include systems to detect when the sample has been thinned to a sufficient level of optical transparency.
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832:
92:
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Haque, M. A.; Espinosa, H. D.; Lee, H. J. (May 2010). "MEMS for In Situ Testing—Handling, Actuation, Loading, and Displacement Measurements".
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first two losses are due to the specimen and microscope construction, the objective aperture can be used by operator to enhance the contrast.
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reproducibly triggered millions of times. Dynamic TEM can resolve irreversible processes down to tens of nanoseconds and tens of nanometres.
1839:
Sample preparation in TEM can be a complex procedure. TEM specimens should be less than 100 nanometres thick for a conventional TEM. Unlike
1732:. Under purely absorption contrast conditions, this set of images can be used to construct a three-dimensional representation of the sample.
327:
At this time, interest in the electron microscope had increased, with other groups, such as that of Paul Anderson and Kenneth Fitzsimmons of
5043:
Drummy, Lawrence, F.; Yang, Junyan; Martin, David C. (2004). "Low-voltage electron microscopy of polymer and organic molecular thin films".
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such as defects. Note that in case diffraction contrast exists, the contrast cannot be interpreted as due to mass or thickness variations.
391:
and adding a high quality objective lens to create the modern STEM. Using this design, Crewe demonstrated the ability to image atoms using
2578:). Ultrafast TEM and Dynamic TEM have made possible real-time investigation of numerous physical and chemical phenomena at the nanoscale.
2485:
variations. Electrostatically actuated MEMs have also been developed to accommodate very low applied forces in the 1–100 nN range.
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5711:
Zhang, Chao; Firestein, Konstantin L.; Fernando, Joseph F. S.; Siriwardena, Dumindu; Treifeldt, Joel E.; Golberg, Dmitri (2019-09-30).
2158:
The capabilities of the TEM can be further extended by additional stages and detectors, sometimes incorporated on the same microscope.
2395:. The deformable grid attaches to the classical tensile holder which stretches the sample using a long rigid shaft attached to a worm
7753:
5974:
Filleter, Tobin; Beese, Allison M. (2016), "In Situ Transmission Electron Microscopy: Mechanical Testing", in Bhushan, Bharat (ed.),
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5143:"Site-Specific Preparation of Intact Solid–Liquid Interfaces by Label-Free In Situ Localization and Cryo-Focused Ion Beam Lift-Out"
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Williams, David B.; Carter, C. Barry (1996), Williams, David B.; Carter, C. Barry (eds.), "The Transmission Electron Microscope",
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351:-Werke. Further work on the electron microscope was hampered by the destruction of a new laboratory constructed at Siemens by an
5665:
Saka, Hiroyasu; Kamino, Takeo; Ara, Shigeo; Sasaki, Katsuhiro (2008-02-01). "In Situ Heating Transmission Electron Microscopy".
2612:
Evolution of spatial resolution achieved with optical, transmission (TEM) and aberration-corrected electron microscopes (ACTEM).
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2575:
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Cryogenic transmission electron microscopy (Cryo-TEM) uses a TEM with a specimen holder capable of maintaining the specimen at
3756:
Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers, Detectors and Associated Equipment
2191:
Schematic ray diagram illustrating the optical reciprocity between TEM (left) and STEM (right). The convergence angle in TEM,
247:
noticed that the cathode rays could be focused by magnetic fields, allowing for simple electromagnetic lens designs. In 1926,
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535:). Early twentieth century scientists theorized ways of getting around the limitations of the relatively large wavelength of
6256:
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Pethicai, J. B.; Hutchings, R.; Oliver, W. C. (April 1983). "Hardness measurement at penetration depths as small as 20 nm".
5192:"Characterization of Sulfur and Nanostructured Sulfur Battery Cathodes in Electron Microscopy Without Sublimation Artifacts"
2117:
The main advantages of this method include a significant reduction of sample preparation time (quick welding and cutting of
8137:
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7820:
7805:
7731:
2767:= 0.5 mm and thus a 200 pm cut-off. The spherical aberrations are suppressed to the third or fifth order in the "
2494:
1673:
1021:
Once inserted into a TEM, the sample has to be manipulated to locate the region of interest to the beam, such as in single
7404:
3083:
872:
detector for TEM was in 1982, but the technology didn't find widespread use until the late 1990s/early 2000s. Monolithic
1867:
for bacteria and viruses, or, in the case of embedded sections, the specimen may be stained with heavy metals, including
1699:
EELS spectrometers can often be operated in both spectroscopic and imaging modes, allowing for isolation or rejection of
4986:
Nebesářová1, Jana; Vancová, Marie (2007). "How to Observe Small Biological Objects in Low-Voltage Electron Microscope".
1892:
A diamond knife blade used for cutting ultrathin sections (typically 70 to 350 nm) for transmission electron microscopy.
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1° increments, a set of images known as a "tilt series" can be collected. This methodology was proposed in the 1970s by
4755:
3957:
3124:
2424:. In order to study the temperature-dependent mechanical properties of TEM samples, the holder can be cooled through a
1669:
2545:
It is possible to reach temporal resolution far beyond that of the readout rate of electron detectors with the use of
2444:
between a reference and a movable electrostatic plate attached to the tip. The typical measured sample properties are
1594:
Crystal structure can also be investigated by high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM), also known as
7842:
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7478:
2820:
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images is possible, it is inherently complicated and can require extensive computer simulation and analysis, such as
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1989:(> 150 kDa). For smaller proteins, negative stain can be used as a screening step to find ideal sample
339:, who constructed the first TEMs in North America in 1935 and 1938, respectively, continually advancing TEM design.
7830:
7825:
7698:
7665:
6068:
Legros, Marc; Cabié, Martiane; Gianola, Daniel S. (March 2009). "In situ deformation of thin films on substrates".
3624:
Roberts, P. T. E.; Chapman, J. N.; MacLeod, A. M. (1982-01-01). "A CCD-based image recording system for the CTEM".
2465:
2311:
978:
184:
5245:
P.A. Crozier; T.W. Hansen (2014). "In situ and operando transmission electron microscopy of catalytic materials".
3832:
McMullan, G.; Faruqi, A.R.; Henderson, R.; Guerrini, N.; Turchetta, R.; Jacobs, A.; van Hoften, G. (18 May 2009).
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263:
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sublimated gases in the vicinity of the specimen largely eliminates vacuum problems that are caused by specimen
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Apertures are annular metallic plates, through which electrons that are further than a fixed distance from the
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to lead a team of researchers to advance the CRO design. The team consisted of several PhD students including
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7810:
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1994:
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6596:
Microscopy Using a Laser-Driven Field Emitter: Femtosecond Resolution with a High Coherence Electron Beam".
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Haque, M. A. & Saif, M. T. A. (2001). "In-situ tensile testing of nano-scale specimens in SEM and TEM".
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Thompson, Rebecca F.; Walker, Matt; Siebert, C. Alistair; Muench, Stephen P.; Ranson, Neil A. (2016-05-01).
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radiation the electrons in the beam interact readily with the sample, an effect that increases roughly with
1536:
8125:
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7471:
7252:"Present status and future prospects of spherical aberration corrected TEM/STEM for study of nanomaterials"
4833:"Atomic structure and electronic properties of MgO grain boundaries in tunnelling magnetoresistive devices"
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1507:
There are two types of amplitude contrast – mass–thickness and diffraction contrast. First, let's consider
846:
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Niekiel, Florian; Kraschewski, Simon M.; Müller, Julian; Butz, Benjamin; Spiecker, Erdmann (2017-05-01).
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of the electron gas interaction, a standard TEM is evacuated to low pressures, typically on the order of
328:
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Insertion procedures for side-entry TEM holders typically involve the rotation of the sample to trigger
212:
of the light used in imaging or a few hundred nanometres for visible light microscopes. Developments in
7872:
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5296:"Characterising degradation of perovskite solar cells through in-situ and operando electron microscopy"
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Bean, J. J.; Saito, M.; Fukami, S.; Sato, H.; Ikeda, S.; Ohno, H.; Ikuhara, Y.; Mckenna, K. P. (2017).
4480:(2013). "Quantitative electron tomography: The effect of the three-dimensional point spread function".
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Fan, G. Y.; Ellisman, M. H. (24 December 2001). "Digital imaging in transmission electron microscopy".
2742:
For a 200 kV microscope, with partly corrected spherical aberrations ("to the third order") and a
2617:
2181:
392:
4776:"An introduction to sample preparation and imaging by cryo-electron microscopy for structural biology"
3834:"Experimental observation of the improvement in MTF from backthinning a CMOS direct electron detector"
741:. The gun is connected to a high voltage source (typically ~100–300 kV) and emits electrons either by
7399:
6552:
Oldfield, L. C. (June 1976). "A rotationally symmetric electron beam chopper for picosecond pulses".
6006:
Wilsdorf, H. G. F. (April 1958). "Apparatus for the Deformation of Foils in an Electron Microscope".
4711:
Phillips (1961). "Diamond knife ultra microtomy of metals and the structure of microtomed sections".
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may also be used which reduce the energy spread of the incident electron beam to less than 0.15
2413:
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orientation before thin sectioning. Biological tissue is then thinned to less than 100 nm on an
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1939, the first commercial electron microscope, pictured, was installed in the Physics department of
7368:
4562:"3D reconstruction and comparison of shapes of DNA minicircles observed by cryo-electron microscopy"
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For a minimal introduction of stress and bending to transmission electron microscopy (TEM) samples (
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piece internal diameter and taper, as well as the overall design of the lens is often performed by
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240:
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Buckingham, J (1965). "Thermionic emission properties of a lanthanum hexaboride/rhenium cathode".
1556:. By the placement of apertures in the back focal plane, i.e. the objective aperture, the desired
7800:
7736:
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4227:
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Pogany, A. P.; Turner, P. S. (1968-01-23). "Reciprocity in electron diffraction and microscopy".
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1986:
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509:{\displaystyle d={\frac {\lambda }{2n\sin \alpha }}\approx {\frac {\lambda }{2\,{\textrm {NA}}}}}
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2221:
1280:
of the magnetic field, whilst considering the thermal and electrical constraints of the design.
650:{\displaystyle \lambda _{e}={\frac {h}{\sqrt {2m_{0}E\left(1+{\frac {E}{2m_{0}c^{2}}}\right)}}}}
266:), Adolf Matthias, Professor of High Voltage Technology and Electrical Installations, appointed
8159:
7990:
6374:"An electromechanical material testing system for in situ electron microscopy and applications"
2147:
1429:{\displaystyle I(x)={\frac {k}{t_{1}-t_{0}}}\int _{t_{0}}^{t_{1}}\Psi \Psi ^{\mathrm {*} }\,dt}
248:
4896:
Baram, M. & Kaplan W. D. (2008). "Quantitative HRTEM analysis of FIB prepared specimens".
2908:
ultraviolet microscope. (2010). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 20, 2010, from
1552:
which in the case of a crystalline sample, disperses electrons into discrete locations in the
1444:
of the TEM, which would normally decrease contrast if the sample was not a weak phase object.
7995:
7815:
7355:
6149:
5072:
5023:
2968:
2554:
2250:
2138:
1265:
869:
842:
808:
384:
336:
259:
119:
100:
3158:
2481:. These devices work by applying a stress using electrical power and measuring strain using
8000:
7559:
7263:
7197:
7185:
7137:
7087:
7029:
6988:
6947:
6935:
6888:
6831:
6786:
6739:
6662:
6561:
6518:
6440:
6385:
6303:
6268:
6215:
6176:
6015:
5930:
5921:
Minor, Andrew M.; Dehm, Gerhard (June 2019). "Advances in in situ nanomechanical testing".
5863:
5387:
5203:
5154:
4995:
4844:
4720:
4397:
4297:"Electron tomography of negatively stained complex viruses: application in their diagnosis"
4242:
4059:
3994:. Royal Microscopical Society Microscopy Handbooks. Vol. 08. Oxford University Press.
3517:
Faruqi, A.R; Henderson, R. (October 2007). "Electronic detectors for electron microscopy".
3442:
3375:
3205:
3170:
2980:
2931:
2815:
2792:
2643:
1966:
1611:
1549:
1531:
1252:. Electron lenses are manufactured from iron, iron-cobalt or nickel cobalt alloys, such as
1249:
1245:
1065:
that initiate evacuation of the airlock before the sample is inserted into the TEM column.
954:
796:
792:
727:
712:
419:
355:, as well as the death of two of the researchers, Heinz Müller and Friedrick Krause during
252:
7458:
animations and explanations on various types of microscopes including electron microscopes
4376:"Nanomaterial datasets to advance tomography in scanning transmission electron microscopy"
4351:
Electron tomography: methods for three-dimensional visualization of structures in the cell
3883:"Quantitative characterization of electron detectors for transmission electron microscopy"
2581:
An interesting variant of the Ultrafast Transmission Electron Microscopy technique is the
8:
7965:
7950:
7857:
7852:
7795:
7660:
7642:
7574:
7564:
7508:
7494:
2805:
2354:
2095:
2007:
1625:
1272:
1261:
1257:
1104:
873:
766:
749:
into the vacuum. In the case of a thermionic source, the electron source is mounted in a
742:
543:) by using electrons. Like all matter, electrons have both wave and particle properties (
524:
279:
7267:
7201:
7141:
7091:
7033:
6992:
6951:
6892:
6835:
6790:
6743:
6666:
6565:
6522:
6509:
Dömer, H.; Bostanjoglo, O. (2003-09-25). "High-speed transmission electron microscope".
6452:
6444:
6389:
6307:
6272:
6219:
6180:
6019:
5934:
5867:
5391:
5207:
5158:
4999:
4848:
4724:
4401:
4246:
4063:
3446:
3379:
3209:
3174:
2984:
2935:
1804:
possible. In addition, numerical techniques exist which can improve the collected data.
1668:
More complex behavior in the diffraction plane is also possible, with phenomena such as
1318:
of the electron wavefunctions, where the wave that forms the exit beam is denoted by Ψ.
399:
source and built a STEM able to visualize single heavy atoms on thin carbon substrates.
8036:
7615:
7579:
7284:
7275:
7251:
7158:
7149:
7125:
7103:
7053:
6911:
6874:
6855:
6729:
6693:
6650:
6649:
Hassan, Mohammed T.; Liu, Haihua; Baskin, John Spencer; Zewail, Ahmed H. (2015-10-20).
6631:
6605:
6456:
6408:
6373:
6354:
6319:
6120:
6093:
5956:
5751:
5690:
5642:
5590:
5565:
5487:
5411:
5360:
5334:
5272:
5227:
5118:
5093:
5011:
4968:
4921:
4873:
4832:
4808:
4775:
4693:
4650:
4637:
4610:
4586:
4561:
4418:
4387:
4375:
4323:
4296:
3967:
3907:
3882:
3858:
3833:
3814:
3692:
3597:
3396:
3387:
3363:
3229:
2969:"Über die Einwirkung des Magneten auf die elektrischen Entladungen in verdünnten Gasen"
2559:
2512:
1737:
1700:
1557:
812:
738:
532:
437:
388:
291:
283:
115:
111:
6718:"High-temporal-resolution electron microscopy for imaging ultrafast electron dynamics"
5295:
4732:
4071:
1544:
in steel, which are faults in the structure of the crystal lattice at the atomic scale
7980:
7975:
7343:
7289:
7213:
7163:
7045:
6916:
6847:
6804:
6755:
6698:
6680:
6623:
6577:
6534:
6487:
6460:
6413:
6323:
6231:
6124:
6085:
5987:
5983:
5960:
5951:
5879:
5835:
5827:
5786:
5755:
5743:
5735:
5694:
5682:
5634:
5595:
5535:
5527:
5491:
5452:
5403:
5364:
5352:
5276:
5219:
5172:
5123:
5060:
5015:
4972:
4960:
4940:
4913:
4909:
4878:
4860:
4813:
4795:
4751:
4685:
4642:
4591:
4542:
4525:
Cheville, NF; Stasko J (2014). "Techniques in Electron Microscopy of Animal Tissue".
4507:
4502:
4458:
4423:
4354:
4328:
4275:
4206:
4181:
4153:
4125:
4093:
4032:
3995:
3953:
3912:
3863:
3818:
3806:
3771:
3736:
3726:
3684:
3676:
3672:
3641:
3637:
3604:
3570:
3534:
3494:
3458:
3401:
3333:
3308:
3283:
3258:
3221:
3120:
2947:
2625:
1936:
1744:
methods to correct these errors. Secondly, using a reconstruction algorithm, such as
1577:
1087:
Cross sectional diagram of an electron gun assembly, illustrating electron extraction
894:
861:
722:
From the top down, the TEM consists of an emission source or cathode, which may be a
352:
205:
132:
88:
8067:
7107:
6635:
6573:
6358:
6097:
5897:
5646:
5415:
4697:
4654:
3233:
1748:, the aligned image slices can be transformed from a set of two-dimensional images,
228:
7930:
7862:
7279:
7271:
7209:
7205:
7153:
7145:
7095:
7057:
7037:
6996:
6955:
6906:
6896:
6859:
6839:
6794:
6747:
6688:
6670:
6619:
6615:
6569:
6526:
6479:
6448:
6403:
6393:
6346:
6311:
6276:
6223:
6184:
6116:
6077:
6050:
6023:
5979:
5946:
5938:
5875:
5871:
5822:
5817:
5805:
5782:
5778:
5727:
5674:
5630:
5626:
5585:
5581:
5577:
5566:"Current status and future directions for in situ transmission electron microscopy"
5519:
5479:
5442:
5395:
5344:
5307:
5262:
5254:
5231:
5211:
5162:
5113:
5105:
5056:
5052:
5003:
4956:
4952:
4925:
4905:
4868:
4852:
4803:
4787:
4728:
4677:
4632:
4622:
4581:
4573:
4534:
4497:
4493:
4489:
4454:
4450:
4413:
4405:
4318:
4308:
4250:
4067:
4024:
3902:
3894:
3853:
3849:
3845:
3798:
3763:
3718:
3696:
3668:
3633:
3566:
3562:
3526:
3486:
3450:
3391:
3383:
3213:
3178:
2988:
2939:
2776:
2635:, for the transfer function may be approximated with the following equation, where
2621:
2453:
2417:
2384:
2111:
2103:
2082:
2074:
2059:
2042:
2020:
1868:
1828:
1800:
1553:
1233:
946:
750:
536:
303:
275:
188:
The duplicate of an early TEM on display at the Deutsches Museum in Munich, Germany
110:
Transmission electron microscopes are capable of imaging at a significantly higher
6717:
5713:"Recent Progress of In Situ Transmission Electron Microscopy for Energy Materials"
4608:
4228:"The Scattering of Electrons by Atoms and Crystals. I. A New Theoretical Approach"
3217:
428:, that one can obtain with a light microscope is limited by the wavelength of the
217:
7985:
6959:
5712:
5311:
5291:
2971:[On the effect of a magnet on the electric discharge in rarified gases].
2546:
2449:
2405:
2371:
2367:
2286:
2102:, and other mechanically and beam sensitive samples), when transferring inside a
1872:
1741:
1692:
1629:
1599:
1226:
665:
236:
221:
124:
7126:"Nanofabrication by advanced electron microscopy using intense and focused beam"
6483:
6153:
4791:
4668:
Porter, K & Blum, J (1953). "A study in Microtomy for Electron Microscopy".
3196:
Crewe, Albert V.; Wall, J.; Langmore, J. (1970). "Visibility of a single atom".
2566:
The technique has been pioneered at the early 2000s in laboratories in Germany (
860:, for direct observation by the operator, and an image recording system such as
849:, pixel size and array size, noise, data readout speed, and radiation hardness.
7940:
7554:
6280:
6054:
5378:
de Jonge, N.; Ross, F.M. (2011). "Electron microscopy of specimens in liquid".
3767:
3722:
3713:
McMullan, G.; Faruqi, A.R.; Henderson, R. (2016). "Direct Electron Detectors".
3091:
2784:
2497:
to reach a comprehensive understanding of the sample structure and properties.
2421:
2401:
1973:
1897:
1864:
1860:
1832:
1595:
1572:
1006:
958:
950:
939:
928:
823:
in the familiar context of TEM, and to obtain and interpret images using STEM.
758:
734:
140:
80:
7017:
6188:
6146:
Development of precision TEM holder assemblies for use in extreme environments
5215:
5167:
5142:
5007:
4255:
3898:
3802:
3530:
3490:
3454:
3069:
2628:
of objects in the object plane by the microscope optics. A cut-off frequency,
1548:
Samples can exhibit diffraction contrast, whereby the electron beam undergoes
8153:
8016:
7960:
7620:
6773:
Campbell, Geoffrey H.; McKeown, Joseph T.; Santala, Melissa K. (2014-11-03).
6759:
6684:
6581:
6538:
5831:
5739:
5686:
5531:
4864:
4799:
4538:
3810:
3775:
3680:
3645:
3462:
2992:
2516:
2437:
2409:
2290:
1990:
1848:
1100:
1031:
934:
762:
332:
244:
144:
7457:
7339:
6975:"Ultrafast electron microscopy in materials science, biology, and chemistry"
6972:
6901:
6843:
6751:
6675:
6398:
5806:"Local temperature measurement in TEM by parallel beam electron diffraction"
5523:
5447:
4627:
3931:
2732:{\displaystyle q_{\max }={\frac {1}{0.67(C_{\text{s}}\lambda ^{3})^{1/4}}}.}
1620:
Crystalline diffraction pattern from a twinned grain of FCC Austenitic steel
981:
to more severe cathode damages caused by electrical discharge. The use of a
531:
is the maximum half-angle of the cone of light that can enter the lens (see
8077:
8041:
7935:
7925:
7600:
7549:
7324:
7293:
7217:
7167:
7049:
6920:
6851:
6702:
6627:
6417:
6089:
5883:
5839:
5790:
5747:
5731:
5638:
5599:
5539:
5456:
5407:
5356:
5223:
5176:
5127:
5064:
4964:
4917:
4882:
4817:
4689:
4646:
4595:
4546:
4511:
4462:
4427:
4332:
4036:
4028:
3916:
3867:
3740:
3688:
3574:
3538:
3419:
3405:
3225:
2520:
2515:
correctors, to reduce the amount of distortion in the image. Incident beam
2294:
1977:
1946:
1888:
1729:
1654:
1078:
1062:
857:
380:
356:
321:
308:
192:
148:
96:
30:
7071:
Pennycook, S.J.; Varela, M.; Hetherington, C.J.D.; Kirkland, A.I. (2011).
6315:
6257:"In situ mechanical TEM: Seeing and measuring under stress with electrons"
5267:
4681:
4409:
4313:
2297:, the preferred preparation technique for imaging individual molecules or
795:
corrected instruments, or TEMs using energy filtering to correct electron
379:(STEM) was re-investigated and remained undeveloped until the 1970s, with
8021:
7955:
7945:
6822:
Zewail, Ahmed H. (9 April 2010). "Four-Dimensional Electron Microscopy".
5942:
5561:
5348:
5258:
5109:
4577:
3250:
2943:
2528:
2482:
2441:
2425:
2362:
2177:
2049:
Ion etching by argon gas has been recently shown to be able to file down
1638:
1541:
1237:
1022:
890:
544:
316:
271:
213:
167:
84:
7041:
6873:
Lobatsov, Vladimir A.; Ramesh Srinivasan; Ahmed H. Zewail (2005-05-09).
6872:
6350:
4440:
3881:
Ruskin, Rachel S.; Yu, Zhiheng; Grigorieff, Nikolaus (1 November 2013).
1001:
8102:
8082:
7523:
7518:
7445:
6081:
5678:
5483:
2757:
2608:
2099:
2035:
1788:
1662:
1293:
986:
209:
201:
152:
71:
35:
7463:
7425:
The National Resource for Automated Molecular Microscopy, New York USA
7322:
7099:
7001:
6974:
6808:
6799:
6774:
6530:
6227:
6027:
4856:
4830:
4609:
Winey, M.; Meehl, J. B.; O’Toole, E. T. & Giddings, T. H. (2014).
4475:
3950:
Biological Electron Microscopy: Theory, techniques and troubleshooting
3182:
2930:. Applied Optics. Vol. 25. Translated by T. Mulvey. p. 820.
1499:
BF and DF contrast demonstration. TEM image of polycrystalline Pt film
1034:, providing the operator with a computer-based stage input, such as a
395:. Crewe and coworkers at the University of Chicago developed the cold
7970:
7625:
7347:
7073:"Materials Advances through Aberration-Corrected Electron Microscopy"
7015:
6973:
King, Wayne E.; Geoffrey H. Campbell; Alan Frank; Bryan Reed (2005).
6235:
4477:
3022:"Configuration for the enlarged imaging of objects by electron beams"
2892:"The Nobel Prize in Physics 1986, Perspectives – Life through a Lens"
2469:
2392:
1904:
1672:
arising from multiple diffraction within the crystalline lattice. In
1633:
1315:
1253:
1039:
982:
676:
540:
413:
348:
312:
267:
232:
163:
136:
39:
7439:
7415:
The National Center for Electron Microscopy, Berkeley California USA
6716:
Hassan, M. Th.; Baskin, J. S.; Liao, B.; Zewail, A. H. (July 2017).
5430:
5399:
1930:
699:
8072:
7538:
7070:
6734:
6610:
5339:
5191:
4392:
3551:
3420:"The objective lens of a TEM, the heart of the electron microscope"
2474:
2445:
2396:
2388:
2118:
2107:
1916:
1464:
doing a cell reconstruction and crystal orientation determination.
1035:
967:
723:
128:
75:
7340:"Sub-Angstrom electron microscopy for sub-Angstrom nano-metrology"
6476:
Transmission Electron Microscopy: A Textbook for Materials Science
5042:
2187:
1049:
8026:
7708:
7420:
The National Center for Macromolecular Imaging, Houston Texas USA
6936:"Recent developments in dynamic transmission electron microscopy"
6651:"Photon gating in four-dimensional ultrafast electron microscopy"
5710:
5431:"Opportunities and challenges in liquid cell electron microscopy"
4941:"Nanowire facilitated transfer of sensitive TEM samples in a FIB"
3481:
Hren, John J.; Goldstein, Joseph I.; Joy, David C., eds. (1979).
2571:
2374:, compression tests, shear tests and bending tests on materials.
2066:
1982:
1958:
1840:
1616:
1014:
898:
429:
343:
287:
27:
Imaging and diffraction using electrons that pass through samples
5615:
3255:
Transmission Electron Microscopy and Diffractometry of Materials
2928:
The Early Development of Electron Lenses and Electron Microscopy
1649:
953:
setting a sufficiently low pressure to allow the operation of a
909:
691:
8046:
5768:
3992:
Maintaining and Monitoring the Transmission Electron Microscope
3831:
3753:
2478:
1950:
1175:{\displaystyle J=AT^{2}\exp \left({\frac {-\Phi }{kT}}\right),}
1083:
971:
886:
7442:
Transmission Electron Microscopy and Crystalline Imperfections
6204:"Quantitativein situnanoindentation in an electron microscope"
5324:
2142:
platinum replica image shot on a TEM at 50,000x magnification.
1485:, correspondingly. Most images have both contrast components.
255:
could, with appropriate assumptions, be applied to electrons.
6594:
3007:"Ferdinand Braun, The Nobel Prize in Physics 1909, Biography"
1940:, taken with a Tecnai T-12 TEM. The scale bar is 200 nm.
1844:
369:
204:
proposed that the ability to resolve detail in an object was
7429:
7424:
7338:
O'Keefe, Michael A.; Allard, Lawrence F. (18 January 2004).
7327:(Report). Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. LBNL-56646.
7183:
6110:
5852:
5803:
4272:
Electron Energy-loss Spectroscopy in the Electron Microscope
4122:
Transmission Electron Microscopy: Physics of Image Formation
4014:
3305:
Electron Diffraction in the Transmission Electron Microscope
1256:. These are selected for their magnetic properties, such as
837:
The key factors when considering electron detection include
324:
quickly acquired before being damaged by the electron beam.
8031:
7186:"Atomic-Resolution Imaging with a Sub-50-pm Electron Probe"
7016:
B. Barwick; D. J. Flannigan; A. H. Zewail (December 2009).
6775:"Time resolved electron microscopy for in situ experiments"
6430:
5509:
4773:
2749:
value of 1 μm, a theoretical cut-off value might be 1/
2524:
1962:
1954:
1679:
1571:
Applications for this method include the identification of
1217:
877:
7419:
6933:
5469:
5092:
Li, Z; Baker, ML; Jiang, W; Estes, MK; Prasad, BV (2009).
4782:. Single Particle Cryo-EM, from sample to reconstruction.
4559:
2460:
7435:
Cambridge University Teaching and Learning Package on TEM
4985:
3594:
856:, which may be made of fine (10–100 μm) particulate
375:
With the development of TEM, the associated technique of
251:
published work extending this theory and showed that the
59:
Operating principle of a transmission electron microscope
5559:
3050:(English translation by A.F. Kracklauer, 2004. ed.)
2293:
temperatures. This allows imaging specimens prepared in
1811:
Non-tomographic variants on this method, referred to as
6166:
5978:, Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands, pp. 1543–1554,
5244:
4938:
3717:. Methods in Enzymology. Vol. 579. pp. 1–17.
3712:
3590:
3588:
3586:
3584:
3280:
Fundamentals of Light Microscopy and Electronic Imaging
2523:. Major aberration corrected TEM manufacturers include
1451:
Schematic view of imaging and diffraction modes in TEM.
707:
7414:
6772:
6715:
3788:
3070:"A Brief History of the Microscopy Society of America"
1653:
Convergent-beam Kikuchi lines from silicon, near the
703:
Hairpin style tungsten filament on an insulating base.
6648:
4895:
3623:
2760:. The same microscope without a corrector would have
2659:
2604:
Transmission Electron Aberration-Corrected Microscope
2507:
Transmission Electron Aberration-Corrected Microscope
2224:
2197:
1835:
embedded in epoxy resin (amber) ready for sectioning.
1327:
1115:
560:
452:
7430:
Tutorial courses in Transmission Electron Microscopy
7184:
Erni R, Rossell MD, Kisielowski C, Dahmen U (2009).
6940:
Current Opinion in Solid State and Materials Science
3715:
The Resolution Revolution: Recent Advances in cryoEM
3581:
3156:
6372:Zhu, Yong; Espinosa, Horacio D. (11 October 2005).
5664:
5094:"Rotavirus Architecture at Subnanometer Resolution"
3157:Crewe, Albert V; Isaacson, M.; Johnson, D. (1969).
3019:
2787:research and development in many fields, including
1880:of the atoms from which the material is comprised.
683:is the kinetic energy of the accelerated electron.
7230:
6202:Minor, A. M.; Morris, J. W.; Stach, E. A. (2001).
6067:
3880:
3596:
2731:
2256:
2237:
2210:
1428:
1174:
649:
508:
7337:
5091:
3943:
3941:
3599:Transmission Electron Microscopy, Vol. 1 – Basics
3364:"Optics of high-performance electron Microscopes"
3195:
3138:
3136:
807:The optical reciprocity theorem, or principle of
342:Research continued on the electron microscope at
8151:
7325:Imaging lithium atoms at sub-Ångström resolution
6875:"Four-dimensional ultrafast electron microscopy"
6508:
6336:
6201:
5611:
5609:
4667:
4524:
4200:
4119:
3708:
3706:
3480:
3302:
2886:
2884:
2833:High-resolution transmission electron microscopy
2827:Energy filtered transmission electron microscopy
2665:
1590:High-resolution transmission electron microscopy
821:scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM)
311:the wavelength is already as short as 1.18
7018:"Photon-induced near-field electron microscopy"
6880:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
6655:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
6378:Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
5505:
5503:
5501:
5189:
4611:"Conventional transmission electron microscopy"
4373:
3516:
3249:
3245:
3243:
2377:
2317:
1723:A three-dimensional TEM image of a parapoxvirus
765:to manipulate the electron beam. Additionally,
527:of the medium in which the lens is working and
7893:Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy
7596:Detectors for transmission electron microscopy
6473:
6433:Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering
5555:
5553:
5551:
5549:
4294:
4269:
3989:
3938:
3512:
3510:
3483:Introduction to Analytical Electron Microscopy
3133:
833:Detectors for transmission electron microscopy
235:) by magnetic fields. This effect was used by
7479:
7323:O'Keefe, Michael A.; Shao-Horn, Yang (2004).
7249:
6040:
5973:
5967:
5706:
5704:
5606:
5289:
4049:
3703:
2881:
2583:Photon-Induced Near-field Electron Microscopy
2089:
1221:Diagram of a TEM split pole piece design lens
7130:Science and Technology of Advanced Materials
6554:Journal of Physics E: Scientific Instruments
6504:
6502:
5660:
5658:
5656:
5498:
5377:
5140:
5077:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
4225:
4147:
3972:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
3476:
3474:
3472:
3432:
3368:Science and Technology of Advanced Materials
3240:
2534:
2304:
1707:
6371:
6293:
5546:
5028:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (
4750:(5th ed.). New York: Garland Science.
4175:
4171:
4169:
4115:
4113:
4111:
4109:
3658:
3507:
3426:
3271:
3110:
3108:
2966:
2925:
2620:, a function that is usually quoted in the
2500:
2431:
2400:sample properties in these experiments are
2357:via strain fields as well as the motion of
2249:Fundamentally, TEM and STEM are linked via
695:Layout of optical components in a basic TEM
231:observed the deflection of "cathode rays" (
147:research, but also in other fields such as
7486:
7472:
7452:Transmission electron microscope simulator
7119:
7117:
6478:, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 3–17,
5701:
5428:
3985:
3983:
3947:
3929:
3330:Physical principles of electron microscopy
3327:
3114:
2973:Poggendorffs Annalen der Physik und Chemie
196:A transmission electron microscope (1976).
7283:
7157:
7000:
6910:
6900:
6798:
6733:
6692:
6674:
6609:
6499:
6407:
6397:
5950:
5920:
5821:
5653:
5589:
5446:
5338:
5266:
5166:
5117:
4872:
4807:
4636:
4626:
4585:
4501:
4417:
4391:
4322:
4312:
4254:
4178:Advanced computing in Electron Microscopy
4143:
4141:
4087:
3906:
3857:
3595:Williams, D. & Carter, C. B. (1996).
3469:
3395:
3361:
2387:have also enabled the tensile testing of
2342:
2174:scanning transmission electron microscope
2168:Scanning transmission electron microscopy
2046:method to only extremely fine polishing.
1419:
1095:The thermionic emission current density,
495:
377:scanning transmission electron microscopy
7231:Stahlberg, Henning (September 6, 2012).
7179:
7177:
6551:
6143:
6005:
5327:Journal of the American Chemical Society
4710:
4518:
4348:
4344:
4342:
4166:
4106:
4083:
4081:
3105:
2607:
2218:, becomes the collection angle in STEM,
2186:
2132:
2065:
1929:
1920:
1887:
1822:
1765:), to a single three-dimensional image,
1711:
1680:Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS)
1648:
1615:
1535:
1494:
1446:
1216:
1209:, and significantly lower for tungsten.
1082:
1048:
1000:
908:
826:
706:
698:
690:
191:
183:
45:
29:
7493:
7114:
6113:Strength of Metals and Alloys (ICSMA 6)
4745:
4476:Heidari, Hamed; Van den Broek, Wouter;
4205:(4th ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.
3980:
3357:
3355:
3353:
3351:
3349:
3159:"A Simple Scanning Electron Microscope"
2921:
2919:
2917:
2461:Micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMs)
1827:A sample of cells (black) stained with
1525:
424:Theoretically, the maximum resolution,
297:
14:
8152:
7123:
6821:
6254:
4138:
3277:
3038:
2576:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
1791:and data slicing to analyse the data.
1568:direction from entering the specimen.
852:Imaging systems in a TEM consist of a
179:
7467:
7174:
5190:Levin, B. D. A.; et al. (2017).
4769:
4767:
4374:Levin, B. D. A.; et al. (2016).
4339:
4226:Cowley, J. M.; Moodie, A. F. (1957).
4078:
3519:Current Opinion in Structural Biology
3117:The beginnings of Electron Microscopy
2850:Scanning confocal electron microscopy
2146:Samples may also be replicated using
2110:can be attached to a typically rigid
2073:image of a thin TEM sample milled by
2000:
1871:. Alternately samples may be held at
1818:
1467:
1193:constant, Φ is the work function and
1005:TEM sample support mesh "grid", with
8132:
6043:Materials Science and Engineering: A
4295:Mast, Jan; Demeestere, Lien (2009).
3346:
3020:Rudenberg, Reinhold (May 30, 1931).
2914:
2597:
2314:, and material deformation testing.
2057:
1883:
1674:convergent beam electron diffraction
1540:Transmission electron micrograph of
1197:is the temperature of the material.
3282:. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
2436:Nano-Indentation holders perform a
2014:
1972:Another form of sample staining is
1013:TEM specimen stage designs include
362:
123:sciences. TEMs find application in
24:
6121:10.1016/B978-1-4832-8423-1.50153-X
5560:Taheri, Mitra L.; Stach, Eric A.;
5141:M.J. Zachman; et al. (2016).
4764:
4713:British Journal of Applied Physics
4052:British Journal of Applied Physics
3144:"Ernst Ruska, Nobel Prize Lecture"
1910:
1408:
1404:
1304:
1151:
847:modulation transfer function (MTF)
839:detective quantum efficiency (DQE)
819:Reciprocity is used to understand
726:filament, a lanthanum hexaboride (
686:
243:(CRO) measuring devices. In 1891,
162:The first TEM was demonstrated by
83:onto an imaging device, such as a
25:
8181:
7529:Timeline of microscope technology
7379:
6070:Microscopy Research and Technique
2821:Electron energy loss spectroscopy
2511:Modern research TEMs may include
1686:Electron energy loss spectroscopy
1583:
996:
286:, the scientific director of the
8131:
8120:
8119:
7391:Transmission electron microscopy
7331:
7316:
7300:
7243:
7224:
7064:
7009:
6966:
6927:
6866:
6815:
6766:
6511:Review of Scientific Instruments
6008:Review of Scientific Instruments
5984:10.1007/978-94-017-9780-1_100990
4910:10.1111/j.1365-2818.2008.02134.x
4201:Hull, D. & Bacon, J (2001).
3673:10.1046/j.1365-2818.2000.00737.x
3435:Acta Crystallographica Section A
2466:Micro Electro-Mechanical Systems
2361:such as lattice distortions and
2312:liquid-phase electron microscopy
2153:
1212:
979:electron beam induced deposition
922:
64:Transmission electron microscopy
18:Transmission electron microscope
7888:Precession electron diffraction
6709:
6642:
6588:
6545:
6467:
6424:
6365:
6330:
6287:
6248:
6195:
6160:
6137:
6104:
6061:
6034:
5999:
5914:
5890:
5846:
5797:
5762:
5463:
5422:
5371:
5318:
5283:
5238:
5183:
5134:
5085:
5036:
4979:
4932:
4889:
4824:
4739:
4704:
4661:
4602:
4553:
4469:
4434:
4367:
4288:
4263:
4219:
4194:
4043:
4008:
3948:Ross, L. E, Dykstra, M (2003).
3923:
3874:
3825:
3782:
3747:
3652:
3617:
3545:
3412:
3321:
3296:
3189:
3150:
3076:
2845:Precession electron diffraction
2839:Low-voltage electron microscope
2795:for electronics and photonics.
2269:low-voltage electron microscope
2257:Low-voltage electron microscope
2245:. Image inspired by Hren et al.
2161:
1876:material may be limited by the
1072:
876:(MAPSs) were also used in TEM.
8165:Electron microscopy techniques
7210:10.1103/PhysRevLett.102.096101
6620:10.1016/j.ultramic.2016.12.005
6255:Legros, Marc (February 2014).
5976:Encyclopedia of Nanotechnology
5876:10.1016/j.ultramic.2013.04.004
5823:10.1016/j.ultramic.2016.11.028
5783:10.1016/j.ultramic.2014.11.023
5631:10.1016/j.ultramic.2018.05.005
5582:10.1016/j.ultramic.2016.08.007
5512:Journal of Electron Microscopy
5057:10.1016/j.ultramic.2004.01.011
4957:10.1016/j.ultramic.2020.113075
4494:10.1016/j.ultramic.2013.06.005
4455:10.1016/j.ultramic.2006.04.007
3850:10.1016/j.ultramic.2009.05.005
3567:10.1016/j.ultramic.2006.05.003
3084:"Dr. James Hillier, Biography"
3062:
3048:Foundation of Louis de Broglie
3032:
3013:
2999:
2960:
2910:Encyclopædia Britannica Online
2902:
2863:
2706:
2682:
2624:to define the reproduction of
2588:
2541:Ultrafast electron diffraction
2263:Low-energy electron microscopy
2128:
2029:
1605:
1337:
1331:
802:
331:and that of Albert Prebus and
13:
1:
7233:"Contrast Transfer Functions"
6453:10.1088/0960-1317/20/7/075011
6296:Journal of Materials Research
4748:Molecular biology of the cell
4615:Molecular Biology of the Cell
4017:Journal of Structural Biology
3887:Journal of Structural Biology
3218:10.1126/science.168.3937.1338
2856:
2568:Technische Universität Berlin
2527:, Hitachi High-technologies,
2281:Cryogenic electron microscopy
2172:A TEM can be modified into a
1995:cryogenic electron microscopy
1796:Fourier-based back projection
1103:of the emitting material via
904:
402:
264:Technische Universität Berlin
74:technique in which a beam of
38:. The polio virus is 30
7405:Resources in other libraries
7276:10.1088/1468-6996/9/1/014111
7150:10.1088/1468-6996/9/1/014110
6960:10.1016/j.cossms.2011.07.001
5312:10.1016/j.nanoen.2018.02.055
5196:Microscopy and Microanalysis
5147:Microscopy and Microanalysis
4988:Microscopy and Microanalysis
4203:Introduction to dislocations
3791:Microscopy and Microanalysis
3638:10.1016/0304-3991(82)90061-4
3388:10.1088/0031-8949/9/1/014107
2926:Ernst Ruska (January 1980).
2650:is the electron wavelength:
2378:Classical mechanical holders
2318:High temperature in-situ TEM
2071:Scanning electron microscope
1287:
407:
34:A TEM image of a cluster of
7:
6484:10.1007/978-1-4757-2519-3_1
4792:10.1016/j.ymeth.2016.02.017
4733:10.1088/0508-3443/12/10/308
4120:Reimer, L; Kohl, H (2008).
4090:Handbook of Electron Optics
4072:10.1088/0508-3443/16/12/306
3278:Murphy, Douglas B. (2002).
2798:
2349:In situ electron microscopy
2274:
2211:{\displaystyle \alpha _{T}}
2123:in situ electron microscopy
1976:, where a larger amount of
870:Charge-Coupled Device (CCD)
843:point spread function (PSF)
811:, generally holds true for
329:Washington State University
10:
8186:
7873:Immune electron microscopy
7791:Annular dark-field imaging
7606:Everhart–Thornley detector
6980:Journal of Applied Physics
6281:10.1016/j.crhy.2014.02.002
6055:10.1016/j.msea.2010.10.025
3768:10.1016/j.nima.2006.07.013
3723:10.1016/bs.mie.2016.05.056
3039:de Broglie, Louis Victor.
2618:contrast transfer function
2601:
2538:
2504:
2346:
2278:
2260:
2238:{\displaystyle \beta _{S}}
2165:
2090:Nanowire assisted transfer
2033:
2018:
1914:
1895:
1683:
1609:
1587:
1529:
1442:contrast transfer function
1224:
1076:
830:
417:
411:
393:annular dark-field imaging
174:
8115:
8060:
8027:Hitachi High-Technologies
8009:
7918:
7911:
7778:
7722:
7684:
7641:
7634:
7588:
7537:
7501:
7400:Resources in your library
6574:10.1088/0022-3735/9/6/011
6189:10.1080/01418618308234914
6144:Bataineh, Khaled (2005).
5952:21.11116/0000-0005-884D-C
5216:10.1017/S1431927617000058
5168:10.1017/S1431927616011892
5008:10.1017/S143192760708124X
4503:10067/1113970151162165141
4256:10.1107/S0365110X57002194
4152:. Elsevier Science B. V.
3899:10.1016/j.jsb.2013.10.016
3803:10.1017/s1431927608085711
3531:10.1016/j.sbi.2007.08.014
3491:10.1007/978-1-4757-5581-7
3455:10.1107/S0567739468000136
3303:Champness, P. E. (2001).
3041:"On the Theory of Quanta"
2535:Ultrafast and dynamic TEM
2305:Environmental/in-situ TEM
2299:macromolecular assemblies
2106:(FIB), flexible metallic
1708:Three-dimensional imaging
883:Direct Electron Detectors
773:
216:(UV) microscopes, led by
8052:Thermo Fisher Scientific
7878:Geometric phase analysis
7766:Aberration-Corrected TEM
7256:Sci. Technol. Adv. Mater
6987:(11): 111101–111101–27.
6169:Philosophical Magazine A
4539:10.1177/0300985813505114
3115:Hawkes, P., ed. (1985).
2993:10.1002/andp.18581790106
2811:Cryo-electron microscopy
2501:Aberration corrected TEM
2432:Nano-indentation holders
2359:crystallographic defects
1987:macromolecular complexes
1878:scattering cross-section
1813:single particle analysis
1746:filtered back projection
1099:, can be related to the
539:(wavelengths of 400–700
241:cathode-ray oscilloscope
239:in 1897 to build simple
105:direct electron detector
7801:Charge contrast imaging
7611:Field electron emission
7190:Physical Review Letters
6902:10.1073/pnas.0502607102
6844:10.1126/science.1166135
6779:Applied Physics Reviews
6752:10.1038/nphoton.2017.79
6676:10.1073/pnas.1517942112
6399:10.1073/pnas.0506544102
6261:Comptes Rendus Physique
6208:Applied Physics Letters
5448:10.1126/science.aaa9886
4746:Alberts, Bruce (2008).
4628:10.1091/mbc.e12-12-0863
4270:Egerton, R. F. (1996).
4088:Orloff, J, ed. (1997).
3990:Chapman, S. K. (1986).
2791:and the development of
2789:heterogeneous catalysis
2560:Schottky field emission
1934:A section of a cell of
1510:mass–thickness contrast
1278:finite element analysis
747:field electron emission
397:field electron emission
262:in Charlottenburg (now
118:, owing to the smaller
7991:Thomas Eugene Everhart
7460:(Université Paris Sud)
7363:Cite journal requires
7250:Tanaka, Nobuo (2008).
7124:Furuya, Kazuo (2008).
5732:10.1002/adma.201904094
5472:Experimental Mechanics
5290:Kosasih, Felix Utama;
4566:Nucleic Acids Research
4349:Frank, J, ed. (2006).
4235:Acta Crystallographica
4029:10.1006/jsbi.1999.4181
3253:& Howe, J (2007).
2733:
2613:
2343:In-situ mechanical TEM
2246:
2239:
2212:
2148:cellulose acetate film
2143:
2078:
1941:
1927:
1893:
1836:
1724:
1657:
1621:
1545:
1500:
1452:
1430:
1222:
1176:
1088:
1054:
1010:
915:
719:
704:
696:
651:
510:
290:company, patented an
197:
189:
60:
43:
8170:Scientific techniques
7996:Vernon Ellis Cosslett
7816:Dark-field microscopy
7307:Scale of Things Chart
6316:10.1557/JMR.1992.1564
5524:10.1093/jmicro/dfr011
5380:Nature Nanotechnology
4898:Journal of Microscopy
4682:10.1002/ar.1091170403
4670:The Anatomical Record
4410:10.1038/sdata.2016.41
4314:10.1186/1746-1596-4-5
4148:Cowley, J. M (1995).
3661:Journal of Microscopy
2793:semiconductor devices
2734:
2611:
2251:Helmholtz reciprocity
2240:
2213:
2190:
2139:Staphylococcus aureus
2136:
2069:
1933:
1924:
1891:
1826:
1722:
1701:elastically scattered
1652:
1619:
1539:
1498:
1450:
1431:
1220:
1177:
1086:
1052:
1004:
912:
827:Display and detectors
813:elastically scattered
809:Helmholtz reciprocity
710:
702:
694:
652:
511:
385:University of Chicago
337:University of Toronto
294:electron microscope.
282:. In that same year,
260:Technische Hochschule
253:lens maker's equation
208:approximately by the
195:
187:
120:de Broglie wavelength
101:charge-coupled device
58:
33:
8001:Vladimir K. Zworykin
7651:Correlative light EM
7560:Electron diffraction
6115:. pp. 953–957.
5943:10.1557/mrs.2019.127
5349:10.1021/jacs.2c02297
5259:10.1557/mrs.2014.304
5110:10.1128/JVI.01855-08
4527:Veterinary Pathology
4301:Diagnostic Pathology
4176:Kirkland, E (1998).
2967:Plücker, J. (1858).
2944:10.1364/AO.25.000820
2816:Electron diffraction
2769:aberration-corrected
2657:
2644:spherical aberration
2222:
2195:
2125:sample preparation.
1967:immunogold labelling
1740:algorithms, such as
1612:Electron diffraction
1532:Electron diffraction
1526:Diffraction contrast
1518:Diffraction contrast
1325:
1250:chromatic aberration
1236:coils to generate a
1113:
874:active-pixel sensors
797:chromatic aberration
793:spherical aberration
767:electrostatic fields
558:
551:) the wavelength is
450:
420:Electron diffraction
298:Improving resolution
7966:Manfred von Ardenne
7951:Gerasimos Danilatos
7858:Electron tomography
7853:Electron holography
7796:Cathodoluminescence
7575:Secondary electrons
7565:Electron scattering
7509:Electron microscopy
7495:Electron microscopy
7268:2008STAdM...9a4111T
7202:2009PhRvL.102i6101E
7142:2008STAdM...9a4110F
7092:2011MRSBu..31...36P
7042:10.1038/nature08662
7034:2009Natur.462..902B
6993:2005JAP....97k1101K
6952:2012COSSM..16...23B
6893:2005PNAS..102.7069L
6836:2010Sci...328..187Z
6791:2014ApPRv...1d1101C
6744:2017NaPho..11..425H
6667:2015PNAS..11212944H
6661:(42): 12944–12949.
6566:1976JPhE....9..455O
6523:2003RScI...74.4369D
6445:2010JMiMi..20g5011I
6390:2005PNAS..10214503Z
6384:(41): 14503–14508.
6351:10.1557/mrs2010.570
6308:1992JMatR...7.1564O
6273:2014CRPhy..15..224L
6220:2001ApPhL..79.1625M
6181:1983PMagA..48..593P
6020:1958RScI...29..323W
5935:2019MRSBu..44..438M
5868:2013IJMSI.133...72V
5441:(6267): 1490–1501.
5429:F. M. Ross (2015).
5392:2003NatMa...2..532W
5208:2017MiMic..23..155L
5159:2016MiMic..22.1338Z
5098:Journal of Virology
5000:2007MiMic..13S.248N
4849:2017NatSR...745594B
4725:1961BJAP...12..554P
4402:2016NatSD...360041L
4247:1957AcCry..10..609C
4150:Diffraction physics
4064:1965BJAP...16.1821B
3932:"The Vacuum System"
3447:1968AcCrA..24..103P
3380:2008STAdM...9a4107R
3328:Egerton, R (2005).
3307:. Garland Science.
3210:1970Sci...168.1338C
3204:(3937): 1338–1340.
3175:1969RScI...40..241C
2985:1858AnP...179...88P
2936:1986ApOpt..25..820R
2806:Electron microscope
2626:spatial frequencies
2355:plastic deformation
2008:cubic boron nitride
1663:electron multislice
1626:diffraction pattern
1403:
1273:boundary conditions
1258:magnetic saturation
885:are available from
679:of an electron and
525:index of refraction
280:electron microscope
180:Initial development
87:screen, a layer of
8088:Digital Micrograph
7694:Environmental SEM
7616:Field emission gun
7580:X-ray fluorescence
6082:10.1002/jemt.20680
5720:Advanced Materials
5679:10.1557/mrs2008.21
5484:10.1007/BF02411059
4837:Scientific Reports
4578:10.1093/nar/gkl675
3362:Rose, H H (2008).
3119:. Academic Press.
3088:comdir.bfree.on.ca
2729:
2614:
2570:) and in the USA (
2247:
2235:
2208:
2182:annular dark field
2144:
2079:
2001:Mechanical milling
1942:
1928:
1894:
1837:
1819:Sample preparation
1738:image registration
1725:
1658:
1622:
1564:dark-field image.
1558:reciprocal lattice
1546:
1501:
1489:Amplitude–contrast
1476:amplitude contrast
1468:Contrast formation
1453:
1426:
1375:
1223:
1172:
1089:
1055:
1011:
974:material is used.
916:
739:field emission gun
720:
705:
697:
647:
533:numerical aperture
506:
438:numerical aperture
389:field emission gun
292:electrostatic lens
284:Reinhold Rudenberg
198:
190:
61:
44:
8147:
8146:
8111:
8110:
7981:Nestor J. Zaluzec
7976:Maximilian Haider
7774:
7773:
7440:Online course on
7386:Library resources
7100:10.1557/mrs2006.4
7028:(7275): 902–906.
7002:10.1063/1.1927699
6887:(20): 7069–7073.
6830:(5975): 187–193.
6800:10.1063/1.4900509
6531:10.1063/1.1611612
6517:(10): 4369–4372.
6493:978-1-4757-2519-3
6228:10.1063/1.1400768
6214:(11): 1625–1627.
6130:978-1-4832-8423-1
6028:10.1063/1.1716192
5993:978-94-017-9780-1
5333:(22): 9797–9805.
4857:10.1038/srep45594
4360:978-0-387-31234-7
4281:978-0-306-45223-9
4212:978-0-7506-4681-9
4187:978-0-306-45936-8
4159:978-0-444-82218-5
4131:978-0-387-34758-5
4099:978-0-8493-2513-7
4001:978-0-19-856407-2
3732:978-0-12-805382-9
3610:978-0-306-45324-3
3500:978-1-4757-5583-1
3339:978-0-387-25800-3
3314:978-1-85996-147-6
3289:978-0-471-23429-6
3264:978-3-540-73885-5
3183:10.1063/1.1683910
3163:Rev. Sci. Instrum
3146:. nobelprize.org.
3072:. microscopy.org.
3009:. nobelprize.org.
2953:978-3-7776-0364-3
2724:
2692:
2598:Resolution limits
2385:micromanipulators
1937:Bacillus subtilis
1884:Tissue sectioning
1863:material such as
1861:negative staining
1720:
1373:
1163:
895:Quantum Detectors
862:photographic film
645:
644:
637:
504:
500:
481:
133:materials science
116:light microscopes
89:photographic film
56:
16:(Redirected from
8177:
8135:
8134:
8123:
8122:
7931:Bodo von Borries
7916:
7915:
7676:Photoemission EM
7639:
7638:
7488:
7481:
7474:
7465:
7464:
7454:(Teaching tool).
7373:
7372:
7366:
7361:
7359:
7351:
7335:
7329:
7328:
7320:
7314:
7304:
7298:
7297:
7287:
7247:
7241:
7240:
7228:
7222:
7221:
7181:
7172:
7171:
7161:
7121:
7112:
7111:
7077:
7068:
7062:
7061:
7013:
7007:
7006:
7004:
6970:
6964:
6963:
6931:
6925:
6924:
6914:
6904:
6870:
6864:
6863:
6819:
6813:
6812:
6802:
6770:
6764:
6763:
6737:
6722:Nature Photonics
6713:
6707:
6706:
6696:
6678:
6646:
6640:
6639:
6613:
6592:
6586:
6585:
6549:
6543:
6542:
6506:
6497:
6496:
6471:
6465:
6464:
6428:
6422:
6421:
6411:
6401:
6369:
6363:
6362:
6334:
6328:
6327:
6302:(6): 1564–1583.
6291:
6285:
6284:
6267:(2–3): 224–240.
6252:
6246:
6245:
6243:
6242:
6199:
6193:
6192:
6164:
6158:
6157:
6141:
6135:
6134:
6108:
6102:
6101:
6065:
6059:
6058:
6049:(3): 1367–1371.
6038:
6032:
6031:
6003:
5997:
5996:
5971:
5965:
5964:
5954:
5918:
5912:
5911:
5909:
5908:
5894:
5888:
5887:
5850:
5844:
5843:
5825:
5801:
5795:
5794:
5766:
5760:
5759:
5717:
5708:
5699:
5698:
5662:
5651:
5650:
5613:
5604:
5603:
5593:
5557:
5544:
5543:
5507:
5496:
5495:
5467:
5461:
5460:
5450:
5426:
5420:
5419:
5375:
5369:
5368:
5342:
5322:
5316:
5315:
5292:Ducati, Caterina
5287:
5281:
5280:
5270:
5242:
5236:
5235:
5187:
5181:
5180:
5170:
5153:(6): 1338–1349.
5138:
5132:
5131:
5121:
5104:(4): 1754–1766.
5089:
5083:
5082:
5076:
5068:
5040:
5034:
5033:
5027:
5019:
4983:
4977:
4976:
4936:
4930:
4929:
4893:
4887:
4886:
4876:
4828:
4822:
4821:
4811:
4771:
4762:
4761:
4743:
4737:
4736:
4708:
4702:
4701:
4665:
4659:
4658:
4640:
4630:
4606:
4600:
4599:
4589:
4557:
4551:
4550:
4522:
4516:
4515:
4505:
4473:
4467:
4466:
4438:
4432:
4431:
4421:
4395:
4371:
4365:
4364:
4346:
4337:
4336:
4326:
4316:
4292:
4286:
4285:
4267:
4261:
4260:
4258:
4232:
4223:
4217:
4216:
4198:
4192:
4191:
4173:
4164:
4163:
4145:
4136:
4135:
4117:
4104:
4103:
4085:
4076:
4075:
4047:
4041:
4040:
4012:
4006:
4005:
3987:
3978:
3977:
3971:
3963:
3945:
3936:
3935:
3934:. rodenburg.org.
3930:Rodenburg, J M.
3927:
3921:
3920:
3910:
3878:
3872:
3871:
3861:
3844:(9): 1144–1147.
3829:
3823:
3822:
3786:
3780:
3779:
3751:
3745:
3744:
3710:
3701:
3700:
3656:
3650:
3649:
3621:
3615:
3614:
3603:. Plenum Press.
3602:
3592:
3579:
3578:
3549:
3543:
3542:
3514:
3505:
3504:
3478:
3467:
3466:
3430:
3424:
3423:
3422:. rodenburg.org.
3416:
3410:
3409:
3399:
3359:
3344:
3343:
3325:
3319:
3318:
3300:
3294:
3293:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3247:
3238:
3237:
3193:
3187:
3186:
3154:
3148:
3147:
3140:
3131:
3130:
3112:
3103:
3102:
3100:
3099:
3090:. Archived from
3080:
3074:
3073:
3066:
3060:
3059:
3057:
3055:
3045:
3036:
3030:
3029:
3017:
3011:
3010:
3003:
2997:
2996:
2964:
2958:
2957:
2923:
2912:
2906:
2900:
2899:
2888:
2879:
2878:
2867:
2777:amorphous carbon
2738:
2736:
2735:
2730:
2725:
2723:
2722:
2721:
2717:
2704:
2703:
2694:
2693:
2690:
2674:
2669:
2668:
2646:coefficient and
2622:frequency domain
2454:focused ion beam
2418:bending strength
2414:tensile strength
2372:nano-indentation
2244:
2242:
2241:
2236:
2234:
2233:
2217:
2215:
2214:
2209:
2207:
2206:
2112:micromanipulator
2104:focused ion beam
2083:focused ion beam
2021:Chemical milling
2015:Chemical etching
1869:osmium tetroxide
1829:osmium tetroxide
1801:focused ion beam
1721:
1554:back focal plane
1435:
1433:
1432:
1427:
1418:
1417:
1416:
1402:
1401:
1400:
1390:
1389:
1388:
1374:
1372:
1371:
1370:
1358:
1357:
1344:
1181:
1179:
1178:
1173:
1168:
1164:
1162:
1154:
1146:
1134:
1133:
1105:Richardson's law
947:rotary vane pump
937:
927:To increase the
761:, thus allowing
751:Wehnelt cylinder
656:
654:
653:
648:
646:
643:
639:
638:
636:
635:
634:
625:
624:
608:
592:
591:
579:
575:
570:
569:
515:
513:
512:
507:
505:
503:
502:
501:
498:
487:
482:
480:
460:
363:Further research
304:Louis de Broglie
276:Bodo von Borries
258:In 1928, at the
57:
21:
8185:
8184:
8180:
8179:
8178:
8176:
8175:
8174:
8150:
8149:
8148:
8143:
8107:
8056:
8005:
7986:Ondrej Krivanek
7907:
7770:
7718:
7680:
7666:Liquid-Phase EM
7630:
7589:Instrumentation
7584:
7542:
7533:
7497:
7492:
7411:
7410:
7409:
7394:
7393:
7389:
7382:
7377:
7376:
7364:
7362:
7353:
7352:
7336:
7332:
7321:
7317:
7305:
7301:
7248:
7244:
7229:
7225:
7182:
7175:
7122:
7115:
7075:
7069:
7065:
7014:
7010:
6971:
6967:
6932:
6928:
6871:
6867:
6820:
6816:
6771:
6767:
6714:
6710:
6647:
6643:
6598:Ultramicroscopy
6593:
6589:
6550:
6546:
6507:
6500:
6494:
6472:
6468:
6429:
6425:
6370:
6366:
6335:
6331:
6292:
6288:
6253:
6249:
6240:
6238:
6200:
6196:
6165:
6161:
6142:
6138:
6131:
6109:
6105:
6066:
6062:
6039:
6035:
6004:
6000:
5994:
5972:
5968:
5919:
5915:
5906:
5904:
5902:foundry.lbl.gov
5896:
5895:
5891:
5856:Ultramicroscopy
5851:
5847:
5810:Ultramicroscopy
5802:
5798:
5771:Ultramicroscopy
5767:
5763:
5726:(18): 1904094.
5715:
5709:
5702:
5663:
5654:
5619:Ultramicroscopy
5614:
5607:
5570:Ultramicroscopy
5558:
5547:
5508:
5499:
5468:
5464:
5427:
5423:
5400:10.1038/nmat944
5376:
5372:
5323:
5319:
5288:
5284:
5243:
5239:
5188:
5184:
5139:
5135:
5090:
5086:
5070:
5069:
5045:Ultramicroscopy
5041:
5037:
5021:
5020:
4984:
4980:
4945:Ultramicroscopy
4937:
4933:
4894:
4890:
4829:
4825:
4772:
4765:
4758:
4744:
4740:
4709:
4705:
4666:
4662:
4607:
4603:
4558:
4554:
4523:
4519:
4482:Ultramicroscopy
4474:
4470:
4443:Ultramicroscopy
4439:
4435:
4380:Scientific Data
4372:
4368:
4361:
4347:
4340:
4293:
4289:
4282:
4268:
4264:
4230:
4224:
4220:
4213:
4199:
4195:
4188:
4174:
4167:
4160:
4146:
4139:
4132:
4118:
4107:
4100:
4086:
4079:
4048:
4044:
4013:
4009:
4002:
3988:
3981:
3965:
3964:
3960:
3946:
3939:
3928:
3924:
3879:
3875:
3838:Ultramicroscopy
3830:
3826:
3797:(S2): 806–807.
3787:
3783:
3752:
3748:
3733:
3711:
3704:
3657:
3653:
3626:Ultramicroscopy
3622:
3618:
3611:
3593:
3582:
3555:Ultramicroscopy
3550:
3546:
3515:
3508:
3501:
3479:
3470:
3431:
3427:
3418:
3417:
3413:
3360:
3347:
3340:
3326:
3322:
3315:
3301:
3297:
3290:
3276:
3272:
3265:
3248:
3241:
3194:
3190:
3155:
3151:
3142:
3141:
3134:
3127:
3113:
3106:
3097:
3095:
3082:
3081:
3077:
3068:
3067:
3063:
3053:
3051:
3043:
3037:
3033:
3026:Patent DE906737
3018:
3014:
3005:
3004:
3000:
2965:
2961:
2954:
2924:
2915:
2907:
2903:
2890:
2889:
2882:
2869:
2868:
2864:
2859:
2854:
2801:
2766:
2755:
2748:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2699:
2695:
2689:
2685:
2678:
2673:
2664:
2660:
2658:
2655:
2654:
2641:
2634:
2606:
2600:
2591:
2543:
2537:
2509:
2503:
2463:
2450:elastic modulus
2434:
2406:elastic modulus
2380:
2351:
2345:
2320:
2307:
2287:liquid nitrogen
2283:
2277:
2265:
2259:
2229:
2225:
2223:
2220:
2219:
2202:
2198:
2196:
2193:
2192:
2170:
2164:
2156:
2131:
2092:
2064:
2038:
2032:
2023:
2017:
2003:
1919:
1913:
1911:Sample staining
1900:
1886:
1873:liquid nitrogen
1821:
1774:
1756:
1742:autocorrelation
1712:
1710:
1693:magnetic sector
1688:
1682:
1634:amorphous solid
1630:polycrystalline
1614:
1608:
1600:phase retrieval
1592:
1586:
1573:lattice defects
1534:
1528:
1470:
1412:
1411:
1407:
1396:
1392:
1391:
1384:
1380:
1379:
1366:
1362:
1353:
1349:
1348:
1343:
1326:
1323:
1322:
1307:
1305:Imaging methods
1290:
1234:electromagnetic
1229:
1227:Electron optics
1215:
1208:
1204:
1155:
1147:
1145:
1141:
1129:
1125:
1114:
1111:
1110:
1081:
1075:
999:
955:turbo-molecular
951:diaphragm pumps
932:
925:
907:
899:Direct Electron
854:phosphor screen
835:
829:
805:
776:
731:
716:
711:Single crystal
689:
687:Electron source
674:
666:Planck constant
630:
626:
620:
616:
612:
607:
600:
596:
587:
583:
574:
565:
561:
559:
556:
555:
497:
496:
491:
486:
464:
459:
451:
448:
447:
443:of the system.
422:
416:
410:
405:
387:developing the
365:
300:
237:Ferdinand Braun
182:
177:
125:cancer research
46:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
8183:
8173:
8172:
8167:
8162:
8145:
8144:
8142:
8141:
8129:
8116:
8113:
8112:
8109:
8108:
8106:
8105:
8100:
8095:
8093:Direct methods
8090:
8085:
8080:
8075:
8070:
8064:
8062:
8058:
8057:
8055:
8054:
8049:
8044:
8039:
8034:
8029:
8024:
8019:
8013:
8011:
8007:
8006:
8004:
8003:
7998:
7993:
7988:
7983:
7978:
7973:
7968:
7963:
7958:
7953:
7948:
7943:
7941:Ernst G. Bauer
7938:
7933:
7928:
7922:
7920:
7913:
7909:
7908:
7906:
7905:
7900:
7895:
7890:
7885:
7880:
7875:
7870:
7865:
7860:
7855:
7850:
7845:
7840:
7835:
7834:
7833:
7823:
7818:
7813:
7808:
7803:
7798:
7793:
7788:
7782:
7780:
7776:
7775:
7772:
7771:
7769:
7768:
7763:
7762:
7761:
7751:
7746:
7741:
7740:
7739:
7728:
7726:
7720:
7719:
7717:
7716:
7711:
7706:
7701:
7696:
7690:
7688:
7682:
7681:
7679:
7678:
7673:
7668:
7663:
7658:
7653:
7647:
7645:
7636:
7632:
7631:
7629:
7628:
7623:
7618:
7613:
7608:
7603:
7598:
7592:
7590:
7586:
7585:
7583:
7582:
7577:
7572:
7567:
7562:
7557:
7555:Bremsstrahlung
7552:
7546:
7544:
7535:
7534:
7532:
7531:
7526:
7521:
7516:
7511:
7505:
7503:
7499:
7498:
7491:
7490:
7483:
7476:
7468:
7462:
7461:
7455:
7449:
7437:
7432:
7427:
7422:
7417:
7408:
7407:
7402:
7396:
7395:
7384:
7383:
7381:
7380:External links
7378:
7375:
7374:
7365:|journal=
7330:
7315:
7299:
7242:
7223:
7173:
7113:
7063:
7008:
6965:
6926:
6865:
6814:
6765:
6728:(7): 425–430.
6708:
6641:
6587:
6560:(6): 455–463.
6544:
6498:
6492:
6466:
6423:
6364:
6345:(5): 375–381.
6329:
6286:
6247:
6194:
6175:(4): 593–606.
6159:
6136:
6129:
6103:
6076:(3): 270–283.
6060:
6033:
6014:(4): 323–324.
5998:
5992:
5966:
5929:(6): 438–442.
5913:
5889:
5845:
5796:
5761:
5700:
5652:
5605:
5545:
5518:(3): 217–225.
5497:
5462:
5421:
5386:(8): 695–704.
5370:
5317:
5282:
5268:2286/R.I.35693
5237:
5202:(1): 155–162.
5182:
5133:
5084:
5051:(4): 247–256.
5035:
4994:(3): 248–249.
4978:
4931:
4904:(3): 395–405.
4888:
4823:
4763:
4757:978-0815341116
4756:
4738:
4703:
4676:(4): 685–710.
4660:
4621:(3): 319–323.
4601:
4552:
4517:
4468:
4433:
4366:
4359:
4338:
4287:
4280:
4262:
4241:(3): 609–619.
4218:
4211:
4193:
4186:
4165:
4158:
4137:
4130:
4105:
4098:
4077:
4042:
4023:(3): 250–256.
4007:
4000:
3979:
3959:978-0306477492
3958:
3937:
3922:
3893:(3): 385–393.
3873:
3824:
3781:
3746:
3731:
3702:
3651:
3632:(4): 385–396.
3616:
3609:
3580:
3561:(2–3): 73–80.
3544:
3525:(5): 549–555.
3506:
3499:
3468:
3441:(1): 103–109.
3425:
3411:
3345:
3338:
3320:
3313:
3295:
3288:
3270:
3263:
3239:
3188:
3169:(2): 241–246.
3149:
3132:
3126:978-0120145782
3125:
3104:
3075:
3061:
3031:
3012:
2998:
2959:
2952:
2913:
2901:
2896:nobelprize.org
2880:
2861:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2852:
2847:
2842:
2836:
2830:
2824:
2818:
2813:
2808:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2785:nanotechnology
2764:
2753:
2746:
2740:
2739:
2728:
2720:
2716:
2712:
2708:
2702:
2698:
2688:
2684:
2681:
2677:
2672:
2667:
2663:
2639:
2632:
2599:
2596:
2590:
2587:
2536:
2533:
2517:monochromators
2505:Main article:
2502:
2499:
2462:
2459:
2433:
2430:
2422:shear strength
2402:yield strength
2379:
2376:
2347:Main article:
2344:
2341:
2319:
2316:
2306:
2303:
2279:Main article:
2276:
2273:
2261:Main article:
2258:
2255:
2232:
2228:
2205:
2201:
2166:Main article:
2163:
2160:
2155:
2152:
2130:
2127:
2091:
2088:
2081:More recently
2063:
2056:
2034:Main article:
2031:
2028:
2019:Main article:
2016:
2013:
2002:
1999:
1974:negative stain
1915:Main article:
1912:
1909:
1905:ultramicrotome
1898:Ultramicrotomy
1896:Main article:
1885:
1882:
1865:uranyl acetate
1833:uranyl acetate
1820:
1817:
1770:
1752:
1709:
1706:
1684:Main article:
1681:
1678:
1610:Main article:
1607:
1604:
1596:phase contrast
1588:Main article:
1585:
1584:Phase contrast
1582:
1576:(known as the
1530:Main article:
1527:
1524:
1482:phase contrast
1469:
1466:
1437:
1436:
1425:
1422:
1415:
1410:
1406:
1399:
1395:
1387:
1383:
1378:
1369:
1365:
1361:
1356:
1352:
1347:
1342:
1339:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1306:
1303:
1289:
1286:
1244:, and worsens
1214:
1211:
1206:
1202:
1183:
1182:
1171:
1167:
1161:
1158:
1153:
1150:
1144:
1140:
1137:
1132:
1128:
1124:
1121:
1118:
1077:Main article:
1074:
1071:
1063:micro switches
1032:stepper motors
1007:ultramicrotomy
998:
997:Specimen stage
995:
959:diffusion pump
940:mean free path
929:mean free path
924:
921:
906:
903:
831:Main article:
828:
825:
804:
801:
775:
772:
763:electromagnets
759:left hand rule
735:single crystal
729:
714:
688:
685:
672:
658:
657:
642:
633:
629:
623:
619:
615:
611:
606:
603:
599:
595:
590:
586:
582:
578:
573:
568:
564:
517:
516:
494:
490:
485:
479:
476:
473:
470:
467:
463:
458:
455:
412:Main article:
409:
406:
404:
401:
364:
361:
299:
296:
181:
178:
176:
173:
141:nanotechnology
99:attached to a
79:magnified and
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
8182:
8171:
8168:
8166:
8163:
8161:
8160:Electron beam
8158:
8157:
8155:
8140:
8139:
8130:
8128:
8127:
8118:
8117:
8114:
8104:
8101:
8099:
8096:
8094:
8091:
8089:
8086:
8084:
8081:
8079:
8076:
8074:
8071:
8069:
8066:
8065:
8063:
8059:
8053:
8050:
8048:
8045:
8043:
8040:
8038:
8035:
8033:
8030:
8028:
8025:
8023:
8020:
8018:
8017:Carl Zeiss AG
8015:
8014:
8012:
8010:Manufacturers
8008:
8002:
7999:
7997:
7994:
7992:
7989:
7987:
7984:
7982:
7979:
7977:
7974:
7972:
7969:
7967:
7964:
7962:
7961:James Hillier
7959:
7957:
7954:
7952:
7949:
7947:
7944:
7942:
7939:
7937:
7934:
7932:
7929:
7927:
7924:
7923:
7921:
7917:
7914:
7910:
7904:
7901:
7899:
7896:
7894:
7891:
7889:
7886:
7884:
7881:
7879:
7876:
7874:
7871:
7869:
7866:
7864:
7861:
7859:
7856:
7854:
7851:
7849:
7846:
7844:
7841:
7839:
7836:
7832:
7829:
7828:
7827:
7824:
7822:
7819:
7817:
7814:
7812:
7809:
7807:
7804:
7802:
7799:
7797:
7794:
7792:
7789:
7787:
7784:
7783:
7781:
7777:
7767:
7764:
7760:
7757:
7756:
7755:
7752:
7750:
7747:
7745:
7742:
7738:
7735:
7734:
7733:
7730:
7729:
7727:
7725:
7721:
7715:
7714:Ultrafast SEM
7712:
7710:
7707:
7705:
7702:
7700:
7697:
7695:
7692:
7691:
7689:
7687:
7683:
7677:
7674:
7672:
7671:Low-energy EM
7669:
7667:
7664:
7662:
7659:
7657:
7654:
7652:
7649:
7648:
7646:
7644:
7640:
7637:
7633:
7627:
7624:
7622:
7621:Magnetic lens
7619:
7617:
7614:
7612:
7609:
7607:
7604:
7602:
7599:
7597:
7594:
7593:
7591:
7587:
7581:
7578:
7576:
7573:
7571:
7570:Kikuchi lines
7568:
7566:
7563:
7561:
7558:
7556:
7553:
7551:
7548:
7547:
7545:
7540:
7536:
7530:
7527:
7525:
7522:
7520:
7517:
7515:
7512:
7510:
7507:
7506:
7504:
7500:
7496:
7489:
7484:
7482:
7477:
7475:
7470:
7469:
7466:
7459:
7456:
7453:
7450:
7447:
7444:
7443:
7438:
7436:
7433:
7431:
7428:
7426:
7423:
7421:
7418:
7416:
7413:
7412:
7406:
7403:
7401:
7398:
7397:
7392:
7387:
7370:
7357:
7349:
7345:
7341:
7334:
7326:
7319:
7312:
7308:
7303:
7295:
7291:
7286:
7281:
7277:
7273:
7269:
7265:
7262:(1): 014111.
7261:
7257:
7253:
7246:
7238:
7237:2dx.unibas.ch
7234:
7227:
7219:
7215:
7211:
7207:
7203:
7199:
7196:(9). 096101.
7195:
7191:
7187:
7180:
7178:
7169:
7165:
7160:
7155:
7151:
7147:
7143:
7139:
7136:(1). 014110.
7135:
7131:
7127:
7120:
7118:
7109:
7105:
7101:
7097:
7093:
7089:
7085:
7081:
7074:
7067:
7059:
7055:
7051:
7047:
7043:
7039:
7035:
7031:
7027:
7023:
7019:
7012:
7003:
6998:
6994:
6990:
6986:
6982:
6981:
6976:
6969:
6961:
6957:
6953:
6949:
6945:
6941:
6937:
6930:
6922:
6918:
6913:
6908:
6903:
6898:
6894:
6890:
6886:
6882:
6881:
6876:
6869:
6861:
6857:
6853:
6849:
6845:
6841:
6837:
6833:
6829:
6825:
6818:
6810:
6806:
6801:
6796:
6792:
6788:
6785:(4): 041101.
6784:
6780:
6776:
6769:
6761:
6757:
6753:
6749:
6745:
6741:
6736:
6731:
6727:
6723:
6719:
6712:
6704:
6700:
6695:
6690:
6686:
6682:
6677:
6672:
6668:
6664:
6660:
6656:
6652:
6645:
6637:
6633:
6629:
6625:
6621:
6617:
6612:
6607:
6603:
6599:
6591:
6583:
6579:
6575:
6571:
6567:
6563:
6559:
6555:
6548:
6540:
6536:
6532:
6528:
6524:
6520:
6516:
6512:
6505:
6503:
6495:
6489:
6485:
6481:
6477:
6470:
6462:
6458:
6454:
6450:
6446:
6442:
6439:(7): 075011.
6438:
6434:
6427:
6419:
6415:
6410:
6405:
6400:
6395:
6391:
6387:
6383:
6379:
6375:
6368:
6360:
6356:
6352:
6348:
6344:
6340:
6333:
6325:
6321:
6317:
6313:
6309:
6305:
6301:
6297:
6290:
6282:
6278:
6274:
6270:
6266:
6262:
6258:
6251:
6237:
6233:
6229:
6225:
6221:
6217:
6213:
6209:
6205:
6198:
6190:
6186:
6182:
6178:
6174:
6170:
6163:
6155:
6151:
6147:
6140:
6132:
6126:
6122:
6118:
6114:
6107:
6099:
6095:
6091:
6087:
6083:
6079:
6075:
6071:
6064:
6056:
6052:
6048:
6044:
6037:
6029:
6025:
6021:
6017:
6013:
6009:
6002:
5995:
5989:
5985:
5981:
5977:
5970:
5962:
5958:
5953:
5948:
5944:
5940:
5936:
5932:
5928:
5924:
5917:
5903:
5899:
5893:
5885:
5881:
5877:
5873:
5869:
5865:
5861:
5857:
5849:
5841:
5837:
5833:
5829:
5824:
5819:
5815:
5811:
5807:
5800:
5792:
5788:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5772:
5765:
5757:
5753:
5749:
5745:
5741:
5737:
5733:
5729:
5725:
5721:
5714:
5707:
5705:
5696:
5692:
5688:
5684:
5680:
5676:
5673:(2): 93–100.
5672:
5668:
5661:
5659:
5657:
5648:
5644:
5640:
5636:
5632:
5628:
5624:
5620:
5612:
5610:
5601:
5597:
5592:
5587:
5583:
5579:
5575:
5571:
5567:
5563:
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5533:
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5517:
5513:
5506:
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5502:
5493:
5489:
5485:
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5477:
5473:
5466:
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5440:
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5413:
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5301:
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5293:
5286:
5278:
5274:
5269:
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5260:
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5252:
5248:
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5233:
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5225:
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5217:
5213:
5209:
5205:
5201:
5197:
5193:
5186:
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5169:
5164:
5160:
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5148:
5144:
5137:
5129:
5125:
5120:
5115:
5111:
5107:
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5088:
5080:
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4266:
4257:
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4214:
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4144:
4142:
4133:
4127:
4123:
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4114:
4112:
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4095:
4092:. CRC-press.
4091:
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3639:
3635:
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3606:
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3591:
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3448:
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3429:
3421:
3415:
3407:
3403:
3398:
3393:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3374:(1): 014107.
3373:
3369:
3365:
3358:
3356:
3354:
3352:
3350:
3341:
3335:
3331:
3324:
3316:
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3256:
3252:
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3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3192:
3184:
3180:
3176:
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3168:
3164:
3160:
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3145:
3139:
3137:
3128:
3122:
3118:
3111:
3109:
3094:on 2008-06-19
3093:
3089:
3085:
3079:
3071:
3065:
3049:
3042:
3035:
3027:
3023:
3016:
3008:
3002:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2979:(1): 88–106.
2978:
2974:
2970:
2963:
2955:
2949:
2945:
2941:
2937:
2933:
2929:
2922:
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2875:users.rcn.com
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2438:hardness test
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2419:
2415:
2411:
2410:shear modulus
2407:
2403:
2398:
2394:
2390:
2386:
2375:
2373:
2369:
2368:tensile tests
2364:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2340:
2336:
2332:
2328:
2324:
2315:
2313:
2302:
2300:
2296:
2292:
2291:liquid helium
2288:
2282:
2272:
2270:
2264:
2254:
2252:
2230:
2226:
2203:
2199:
2189:
2185:
2183:
2179:
2175:
2169:
2159:
2154:Modifications
2151:
2149:
2141:
2140:
2135:
2126:
2124:
2120:
2115:
2113:
2109:
2105:
2101:
2097:
2087:
2084:
2076:
2072:
2068:
2061:
2058:Ion milling (
2055:
2052:
2047:
2044:
2037:
2027:
2022:
2012:
2009:
1998:
1996:
1992:
1991:concentration
1988:
1984:
1979:
1975:
1970:
1968:
1964:
1960:
1956:
1952:
1948:
1939:
1938:
1932:
1923:
1918:
1908:
1906:
1899:
1890:
1881:
1879:
1874:
1870:
1866:
1862:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1849:atomic number
1846:
1842:
1834:
1830:
1825:
1816:
1814:
1809:
1805:
1802:
1797:
1792:
1790:
1786:
1782:
1778:
1773:
1768:
1764:
1760:
1755:
1751:
1747:
1743:
1739:
1733:
1731:
1705:
1702:
1697:
1694:
1687:
1677:
1675:
1671:
1670:Kikuchi lines
1666:
1664:
1656:
1651:
1647:
1643:
1640:
1635:
1631:
1627:
1618:
1613:
1603:
1601:
1597:
1591:
1581:
1579:
1574:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1543:
1538:
1533:
1523:
1520:
1519:
1514:
1512:
1511:
1505:
1497:
1493:
1490:
1486:
1484:
1483:
1478:
1477:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1449:
1445:
1443:
1423:
1420:
1413:
1397:
1393:
1385:
1381:
1376:
1367:
1363:
1359:
1354:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1334:
1328:
1321:
1320:
1319:
1317:
1313:
1302:
1298:
1295:
1285:
1281:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1267:
1263:
1259:
1255:
1251:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1228:
1219:
1213:Electron lens
1210:
1198:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1169:
1165:
1159:
1156:
1148:
1142:
1138:
1135:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1109:
1108:
1107:
1106:
1102:
1101:work function
1098:
1093:
1085:
1080:
1070:
1066:
1064:
1059:
1051:
1047:
1043:
1041:
1037:
1033:
1027:
1024:
1019:
1016:
1008:
1003:
994:
992:
988:
984:
980:
975:
973:
969:
963:
960:
956:
952:
948:
943:
941:
936:
930:
923:Vacuum system
920:
911:
902:
900:
896:
892:
888:
884:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
859:
855:
850:
848:
844:
840:
834:
824:
822:
817:
814:
810:
800:
798:
794:
788:
784:
780:
771:
768:
764:
760:
755:
752:
748:
744:
740:
736:
732:
725:
717:
709:
701:
693:
684:
682:
678:
671:
667:
663:
640:
631:
627:
621:
617:
613:
609:
604:
601:
597:
593:
588:
584:
580:
576:
571:
566:
562:
554:
553:
552:
550:
546:
542:
538:
537:visible light
534:
530:
526:
522:
492:
488:
483:
477:
474:
471:
468:
465:
461:
456:
453:
446:
445:
444:
442:
439:
435:
431:
427:
421:
415:
400:
398:
394:
390:
386:
382:
378:
373:
371:
360:
358:
354:
350:
345:
340:
338:
334:
333:James Hillier
330:
325:
323:
322:cotton fibers
318:
314:
310:
305:
295:
293:
289:
285:
281:
277:
273:
269:
265:
261:
256:
254:
250:
246:
245:Eduard Riecke
242:
238:
234:
230:
225:
223:
219:
215:
211:
207:
203:
194:
186:
172:
169:
165:
160:
156:
154:
150:
146:
145:semiconductor
142:
138:
134:
130:
126:
121:
117:
113:
108:
106:
102:
98:
94:
90:
86:
82:
77:
73:
69:
65:
41:
37:
32:
19:
8136:
8124:
8078:EM Data Bank
8042:Nion Company
7936:Dennis Gabor
7926:Albert Crewe
7723:
7704:Confocal SEM
7601:Electron gun
7550:Auger effect
7441:
7390:
7356:cite journal
7333:
7318:
7310:
7302:
7259:
7255:
7245:
7236:
7226:
7193:
7189:
7133:
7129:
7086:(1): 36–43.
7083:
7080:MRS Bulletin
7079:
7066:
7025:
7021:
7011:
6984:
6978:
6968:
6946:(1): 23–30.
6943:
6939:
6929:
6884:
6878:
6868:
6827:
6823:
6817:
6782:
6778:
6768:
6725:
6721:
6711:
6658:
6654:
6644:
6601:
6597:
6590:
6557:
6553:
6547:
6514:
6510:
6475:
6469:
6436:
6432:
6426:
6381:
6377:
6367:
6342:
6339:MRS Bulletin
6338:
6332:
6299:
6295:
6289:
6264:
6260:
6250:
6239:. Retrieved
6211:
6207:
6197:
6172:
6168:
6162:
6145:
6139:
6112:
6106:
6073:
6069:
6063:
6046:
6042:
6036:
6011:
6007:
6001:
5975:
5969:
5926:
5923:MRS Bulletin
5922:
5916:
5905:. Retrieved
5901:
5892:
5859:
5855:
5848:
5813:
5809:
5799:
5774:
5770:
5764:
5723:
5719:
5670:
5667:MRS Bulletin
5666:
5622:
5618:
5573:
5569:
5562:Arslan, Ilke
5515:
5511:
5475:
5471:
5465:
5438:
5434:
5424:
5383:
5379:
5373:
5330:
5326:
5320:
5303:
5299:
5294:(May 2018).
5285:
5250:
5247:MRS Bulletin
5246:
5240:
5199:
5195:
5185:
5150:
5146:
5136:
5101:
5097:
5087:
5073:cite journal
5048:
5044:
5038:
5024:cite journal
4991:
4987:
4981:
4948:
4944:
4934:
4901:
4897:
4891:
4840:
4836:
4826:
4783:
4779:
4747:
4741:
4716:
4712:
4706:
4673:
4669:
4663:
4618:
4614:
4604:
4572:(18): e125.
4569:
4565:
4555:
4533:(1): 28–41.
4530:
4526:
4520:
4485:
4481:
4471:
4446:
4442:
4436:
4383:
4379:
4369:
4353:. Springer.
4350:
4304:
4300:
4290:
4274:. Springer.
4271:
4265:
4238:
4234:
4221:
4202:
4196:
4180:. Springer.
4177:
4149:
4124:. Springer.
4121:
4089:
4058:(12): 1821.
4055:
4051:
4045:
4020:
4016:
4010:
3991:
3952:. Springer.
3949:
3925:
3890:
3886:
3876:
3841:
3837:
3827:
3794:
3790:
3784:
3759:
3755:
3749:
3714:
3664:
3660:
3654:
3629:
3625:
3619:
3598:
3558:
3554:
3547:
3522:
3518:
3482:
3438:
3434:
3428:
3414:
3371:
3367:
3332:. Springer.
3329:
3323:
3304:
3298:
3279:
3273:
3257:. Springer.
3254:
3201:
3197:
3191:
3166:
3162:
3152:
3116:
3096:. Retrieved
3092:the original
3087:
3078:
3064:
3052:. Retrieved
3047:
3034:
3025:
3015:
3001:
2976:
2972:
2962:
2927:
2904:
2895:
2874:
2865:
2781:
2773:
2761:
2750:
2743:
2741:
2647:
2636:
2629:
2615:
2592:
2580:
2565:
2552:stroboscopic
2544:
2531:, and NION.
2510:
2487:
2464:
2435:
2381:
2352:
2337:
2333:
2329:
2325:
2321:
2308:
2295:vitreous ice
2284:
2266:
2248:
2171:
2162:Scanning TEM
2157:
2145:
2137:
2116:
2093:
2080:
2048:
2039:
2024:
2004:
1971:
1947:heavy metals
1943:
1935:
1901:
1857:
1852:
1838:
1810:
1806:
1793:
1784:
1780:
1776:
1771:
1766:
1762:
1758:
1753:
1749:
1734:
1730:Walter Hoppe
1726:
1704:components.
1698:
1689:
1667:
1659:
1644:
1623:
1602:techniques.
1593:
1570:
1566:
1562:
1547:
1542:dislocations
1517:
1516:
1515:
1509:
1508:
1506:
1502:
1488:
1487:
1481:
1480:
1475:
1474:
1471:
1462:
1458:
1454:
1438:
1311:
1308:
1299:
1291:
1282:
1270:
1266:permeability
1230:
1199:
1194:
1191:Richardson's
1186:
1184:
1096:
1094:
1090:
1079:Electron gun
1073:Electron gun
1067:
1060:
1056:
1044:
1028:
1020:
1012:
976:
964:
944:
926:
917:
858:zinc sulfide
851:
836:
818:
806:
789:
785:
781:
777:
756:
721:
680:
669:
661:
659:
548:
528:
520:
518:
440:
433:
425:
423:
381:Albert Crewe
374:
366:
357:World War II
341:
326:
309:electronvolt
301:
257:
226:
199:
161:
157:
149:paleontology
109:
97:scintillator
67:
63:
62:
42:in diameter.
8022:FEI Company
7956:Harald Rose
7946:Ernst Ruska
7635:Microscopes
7543:with matter
7541:interaction
7313:.energy.gov
5816:: 161–169.
5306:: 243–256.
5300:Nano Energy
4719:(10): 554.
4449:(1): 8–15.
3667:(1): 1–13.
3054:25 February
2589:Limitations
2529:FEI Company
2483:capacitance
2442:capacitance
2426:cold finger
2363:dislocation
2184:detectors.
2178:Faraday cup
2129:Replication
2030:Ion etching
1978:heavy metal
1926:microscope.
1789:isosurfaces
1639:space group
1606:Diffraction
1578:Bragg Angle
1550:diffraction
1242:astigmatism
1238:convex lens
991:sublimation
803:Reciprocity
545:matter wave
317:diffraction
272:Ernst Ruska
214:ultraviolet
168:Ernst Ruska
135:as well as
85:fluorescent
8154:Categories
8103:Multislice
7919:Developers
7779:Techniques
7524:Microscope
7519:Micrograph
7446:Eric Stach
6735:1704.04246
6611:1611.05022
6241:2023-05-08
6148:(Thesis).
5907:2022-03-15
5898:"TEAM 0.5"
5340:2202.13332
4951:: 113075.
4478:Bals, Sara
4393:1606.02938
4386:: 160041.
3762:(2): 770.
3098:2008-09-09
2857:References
2756:= 42
2602:See also:
2555:pump-probe
2539:See also:
2513:aberration
2393:thin films
2100:thin films
2036:Sputtering
1665:analysis.
1294:optic axis
1262:hysteresis
1225:See also:
905:Components
743:thermionic
541:nanometres
436:) and the
418:See also:
403:Background
249:Hans Busch
210:wavelength
202:Ernst Abbe
153:palynology
112:resolution
95:such as a
72:microscopy
36:poliovirus
7971:Max Knoll
7626:Stigmator
6760:1749-4885
6685:0027-8424
6604:: 63–73.
6582:0022-3735
6539:0034-6748
6461:137919989
6324:137098960
6154:305444239
5961:197631706
5862:: 72–79.
5832:0304-3991
5777:: 10–15.
5756:203607267
5740:0935-9648
5695:136475122
5687:1938-1425
5625:: 14–20.
5576:: 86–95.
5532:0022-0744
5492:136678366
5365:247158917
5277:138802942
5253:: 38–45.
5016:138891812
4973:222255773
4865:2045-2322
4843:: 45594.
4800:1046-2023
3968:cite book
3819:137491811
3811:1431-9276
3776:0168-9002
3681:0022-2720
3646:0304-3991
3463:1600-5724
2871:"Viruses"
2697:λ
2475:actuators
2470:stiffness
2389:nanowires
2227:β
2200:α
2108:nanowires
1851:squared (
1655:zone axis
1414:∗
1409:Ψ
1405:Ψ
1377:∫
1360:−
1316:amplitude
1288:Apertures
1254:permalloy
1246:spherical
1152:Φ
1149:−
1139:
1040:trackball
983:cold trap
677:rest mass
563:λ
489:λ
484:≈
478:α
475:
462:λ
414:Electrons
408:Electrons
349:IG Farben
268:Max Knoll
233:electrons
227:In 1858,
200:In 1873,
164:Max Knoll
137:pollution
76:electrons
8126:Category
8073:CrysTBox
8061:Software
7732:Cryo-TEM
7539:Electron
7294:27877937
7218:19392535
7168:27877936
7108:41889433
7050:20016598
6921:15883380
6852:20378810
6703:26438835
6636:31779409
6628:28139341
6418:16195381
6359:12455370
6150:ProQuest
6098:10431993
6090:19189313
5884:23831940
5840:28049586
5791:25490533
5748:31566272
5647:44069323
5639:29802911
5600:27566048
5540:21427119
5457:26680204
5416:21379512
5408:12872162
5357:35609254
5224:28228169
5177:27869059
5128:19036817
5065:15149719
4965:33035837
4918:19094016
4883:28374755
4818:26931652
4786:: 3–15.
4698:37311577
4690:13124776
4655:37311577
4647:24482357
4596:17012274
4547:24114311
4512:23872036
4463:16730409
4428:27272459
4333:19208223
4037:10633064
3917:24189638
3868:19541421
3741:27572721
3689:11012823
3575:16872749
3539:17913494
3406:27877933
3251:Fultz, B
3234:31952480
3226:17731040
2799:See also
2446:hardness
2397:gear box
2275:Cryo-TEM
2119:nanowire
2096:lamellae
1983:proteins
1949:such as
1917:Staining
1036:joystick
1015:airlocks
1009:sections
968:ion pump
933:10
864:, doped
724:tungsten
718:filament
353:air raid
129:virology
93:detector
8138:Commons
7786:4D STEM
7759:4D STEM
7737:Cryo-ET
7709:SEM-XRF
7699:CryoSEM
7656:Cryo-EM
7514:History
7448:(2008).
7311:Science
7285:5099806
7264:Bibcode
7198:Bibcode
7159:5099805
7138:Bibcode
7088:Bibcode
7058:4423704
7030:Bibcode
6989:Bibcode
6948:Bibcode
6912:1129142
6889:Bibcode
6860:5449372
6832:Bibcode
6824:Science
6809:1186765
6787:Bibcode
6740:Bibcode
6694:4620897
6663:Bibcode
6562:Bibcode
6519:Bibcode
6441:Bibcode
6409:1253576
6386:Bibcode
6304:Bibcode
6269:Bibcode
6216:Bibcode
6177:Bibcode
6016:Bibcode
5931:Bibcode
5864:Bibcode
5591:5100813
5478:: 123.
5435:Science
5388:Bibcode
5232:6801783
5204:Bibcode
5155:Bibcode
5119:2643745
4996:Bibcode
4926:6487344
4874:5379487
4845:Bibcode
4809:4854231
4780:Methods
4721:Bibcode
4638:3907272
4587:1635295
4488:: 1–5.
4419:4896123
4398:Bibcode
4324:2649040
4243:Bibcode
4060:Bibcode
3908:3876735
3859:2937214
3697:2034467
3443:Bibcode
3397:5099802
3376:Bibcode
3206:Bibcode
3198:Science
3171:Bibcode
2981:Bibcode
2932:Bibcode
2835:(HRTEM)
2829:(EFTEM)
2642:is the
2572:Caltech
2479:sensors
1959:uranium
1841:neutron
1783:,
1779:,
1761:,
1189:is the
675:is the
664:is the
523:is the
430:photons
383:at the
344:Siemens
335:at the
288:Siemens
229:Plücker
206:limited
175:History
91:, or a
81:focused
70:) is a
8083:EMsoft
8068:CASINO
8047:TESCAN
7912:Others
7811:cryoEM
7502:Basics
7388:about
7348:821768
7346:
7292:
7282:
7216:
7166:
7156:
7106:
7056:
7048:
7022:Nature
6919:
6909:
6858:
6850:
6807:
6758:
6701:
6691:
6683:
6634:
6626:
6580:
6537:
6490:
6459:
6416:
6406:
6357:
6322:
6236:860719
6234:
6152:
6127:
6096:
6088:
5990:
5959:
5882:
5838:
5830:
5789:
5754:
5746:
5738:
5693:
5685:
5645:
5637:
5598:
5588:
5538:
5530:
5490:
5455:
5414:
5406:
5363:
5355:
5275:
5230:
5222:
5175:
5126:
5116:
5063:
5014:
4971:
4963:
4924:
4916:
4881:
4871:
4863:
4816:
4806:
4798:
4754:
4696:
4688:
4653:
4645:
4635:
4594:
4584:
4545:
4510:
4461:
4426:
4416:
4357:
4331:
4321:
4278:
4209:
4184:
4156:
4128:
4096:
4035:
3998:
3956:
3915:
3905:
3866:
3856:
3817:
3809:
3774:
3739:
3729:
3695:
3687:
3679:
3644:
3607:
3573:
3537:
3497:
3461:
3404:
3394:
3336:
3311:
3286:
3261:
3232:
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