Vitamin B12 - Knowledge

577: 79: 3797:. After his death in 1984, other physicians and naturopaths took up prescribing "intravenous micro-nutrient therapy" with unsubstantiated health claims for treating fatigue, low energy, stress, anxiety, migraine, depression, immunocompromised, promoting weight loss and more. However, other than a report on case studies there are no benefits confirmed in the scientific literature. Healthcare practitioners at clinics and spas prescribe versions of these intravenous combination products, but also intramuscular injections of just vitamin B 2538: 619:

InChI=1S/C62H90N13O14P.CN.Co/c1-29-20-39-40(21-30(29)2)75(28-70-39)57-52(84)53(41(27-76)87-57)89-90(85,86)88-31(3)26-69-49(83)18-19-59(8)37(22-46(66)80)56-62(11)61(10,25-48(68)82)36(14-17-45(65)79)51(74-62)33(5)55-60(9,24-47(67)81)34(12-15-43(63)77)38(71-55)23-42-58(6,7)35(13-16-44(64)78)50(72–42)32(4)54(59)73–56;1–2;/h20-21,23,28,31,34-37,41,52-53,56-57,76,84H,12-19,22,24-27H2,1-11H3,(H15,63,64,65,66,67,68,69,71,72,73,74,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,85,86);;/q;;+2/p-2/t31?,34-,35-,36-,37+,41-,52-,53-,56-,57+,59-,60+,61+,62+;;/m1../s1

1484: 2725: 3724: 3682: 2031: 3752: 3738: 3696: 63: 2479: 3710: 11341: 6693: 6653: 1512:. The oral daily dose is far in excess of the vitamin requirement because the normal transporter protein mediated absorption is absent, leaving only very inefficient intestinal passive absorption. Injection side effects include skin rash, itching, chills, fever, hot flushes, nausea and dizziness. Oral maintenance treatment avoids this problem and significantly reduces cost of treatment. 1670:(EFSA) refers to the collective set of information as "dietary reference values", with population reference intake (PRI) instead of RDA, and average requirement instead of EAR. AI and UL are defined by EFSA the same as in the United States. For women and men over age 18 the adequate intake (AI) is set at 4.0 4429:

US survey data from the NHANES What We Eat in America 2013e16 cohort reported the median vitamin B12 consumption for all adult men of 5.1 mcg and women of 3.5 mcg.95b Using the Estimated Average Requirement (EAR) for adults for Vitamin B12 of 2 mcg,93 less than 3% of men and 8% of women in the United

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decreases over months of nursing in both well-nourished and vitamin-deficient mothers. Exclusive or near-exclusive breastfeeding beyond six months is a strong indicator of low serum vitamin status in nursing infants. This is especially true when the vitamin status was poor during the pregnancy and if

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ligand and adenosyl group. A number of related species are known and these behave similarly, in particular all function as vitamins. This collection of compounds is sometimes referred to as "cobalamins". These chemical compounds have a similar molecular structure, each of which shows vitamin activity

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Dorner (LLD), which was used to make yogurt and other cultured dairy products. The culture medium for LLD required liver extract. Shorb knew that the same liver extract was used to treat pernicious anemia (her father-in-law had died from the disease), and concluded that LLD could be developed as an

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Fermented foods (such as tempeh), nori, spirulina, chlorella algae, and unfortified nutritional yeast cannot be relied upon as adequate or practical sources of B-12.39,40 Vegans must regularly consume reliable sources—meaning B-12 fortified foods or B-12 containing supplements—or they could become

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Low vitamin concentrations in human milk occur in families with low socioeconomic status or low consumption of animal products. Only a few countries, primarily in Africa, have mandatory food fortification programs for either wheat flour or maize flour; India has a voluntary fortification program.

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as 5-methyl-tetrahydrofolate, from which THF (the active form of folate) cannot be recovered. THF plays an important role in DNA synthesis, so reduced availability of THF results in ineffective production of cells with rapid turnover, in particular red blood cells, and also intestinal wall cells

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Women who consume little animal-sourced food, or who are vegetarian or vegan, are at higher risk of becoming vitamin depleted during pregnancy than those who consume more animal products. This depletion can lead to anemia, and also an increased risk that their breastfed infants become vitamin

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There is evidence that for elderly people, physicians often repeatedly prescribe and administer cyanocobalamin injections inappropriately, evidenced by the majority of subjects in one large study either having had normal serum concentrations or had not been tested prior to the injections.

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and, by necessity, enzymes associated with cobalt utilization, involve metal–carbon bonds. Animals have the ability to convert cyanocobalamin and hydroxocobalamin to the bioactive forms adenosylcobalamin and methylcobalamin by means of enzymatically replacing the cyano or hydroxyl groups.

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of selected microorganisms. As noted above, the completely synthetic laboratory synthesis of B12 was achieved by Robert Burns Woodward and Albert Eschenmoser in 1972, though this process has no commercial potential, requiring more than 70 steps and having a yield well below 0.01%.

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is of no practical consequence due to its length, taking 72 chemical steps and giving an overall chemical yield well under 0.01%. Although there have been sporadic synthetic efforts since 1972, the Eschenmoser–Woodward synthesis remains the only completed (formal) total synthesis.

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content in foods including microbiological assays, chemiluminescence assays, polarographic, spectrophotometric and high-performance liquid chromatography processes. The microbiological assay has been the most commonly used assay technique for foods, utilizing certain vitamin

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George Whipple, George Minot and William Murphy were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1934 for their work on the vitamin. Three other Nobel laureates, Alexander R. Todd (1957), Dorothy Hodgkin (1964) and Robert Burns Woodward (1965) made important contributions to its study.

1320:, so that newborn infants have a higher serum concentration than their mothers. As it is recently absorbed vitamin content that more effectively reaches the placenta, the vitamin consumed by the mother-to-be is more important than that contained in her liver tissue. 1439:

deficiency, but also in elderly people who have renal insufficiency, and elevated homocysteine is not conclusive, as it is also seen in people with folate deficiency. In addition, elevated methylmalonic acid levels may also be related to metabolic disorders such as

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Ballhausen D, Mittaz L, Boulat O, Bonafé L, Braissant O (December 2009). "Evidence for catabolic pathway of propionate metabolism in CNS: expression pattern of methylmalonyl-CoA mutase and propionyl-CoA carboxylase alpha-subunit in developing and adult rat brain".

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deficiency and megaloblastic anemia are unlikely, unless these drug therapies are prolonged for two or more years, or if in addition the person's dietary intake is below recommended levels. Symptomatic vitamin deficiency is more likely if the person is rendered

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deficiency and as a consequence the diagnosis requires consideration of both the clinical state of the patient and the results of investigations." The vitamin deficiency is typically suspected when a routine complete blood count shows anemia with an elevated

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Rearrangements in which a hydrogen atom is directly transferred between two adjacent atoms with concomitant exchange of the second substituent, X, which may be a carbon atom with substituents, an oxygen atom of an alcohol, or an amine. These use the

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Risk of deficiency persists if the post-weaning diet is low in animal products. Signs of low vitamin levels in infants and young children can include anemia, poor physical growth and neurodevelopmental delays. Children diagnosed with low serum

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is a widespread condition that is particularly prevalent in populations with low consumption of animal foods. Such diets can be due to a variety of reasons, such as low socioeconomic status, ethical considerations, or lifestyle choices such as

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Finkelstein JL, Fothergill A, Venkatramanan S, Layden AJ, Williams JL, Crider KS, et al. (Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group) (January 2024). "Vitamin B12 supplementation during pregnancy for maternal and child health outcomes".

2146:. Moreover, therapeutic protocols involving injection require health care people and commuting of patients to the hospital thus increasing the cost of the treatment and impairing the lifestyle of patients. Targeted delivery of vitamin B 2008:. The fortification ingredient is cyanocobalamin. Microbial fermentation yields adenosylcobalamin, which is then converted to cyanocobalamin by addition of potassium cyanide or thiocyanate in the presence of sodium nitrite and heat. 1357:

Various methods of gastric bypass or gastric restriction surgery are used to treat morbid obesity. Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery (RYGB) but not sleeve gastric bypass surgery or gastric banding, increases the risk of vitamin

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because cyanide stabilizes the molecule against degradation. Methylcobalamin is also offered as a dietary supplement. There is no advantage to the use of adenosylcobalamin or methylcobalamin forms for the treatment of vitamin

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is a major focus of modern prescriptions. For example, conveying the vitamin to the bone marrow and nerve cells would help myelin recovery. Currently, several nanocarriers strategies are being developed for improving vitamin

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Hodgkin DC, Pickworth J, Robertson JH, Trueblood KN, Prosen RJ, White JG (1955). "Structure of Vitamin B12: The Crystal Structure of the Hexacarboxylic Acid derived from B12 and the Molecular Structure of the Vitamin".

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deficiency in pregnant women is strongly associated with an increased risk of spontaneous abortion, congenital malformations such as neural tube defects, problems with brain development growth in the unborn child.

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synthesis. Based on animal research, it is thought that the increased methylmalonyl-CoA hydrolyzes to form methylmalonate (methylmalonic acid), a neurotoxic dicarboxylic acid, causing neurological deterioration.

1682:μg/day. These AIs are higher than the U.S. RDAs. The EFSA also reviewed the safety question and reached the same conclusion as in the United States—that there was not sufficient evidence to set a UL for vitamin B 3097:; therefore, nutritional deficiency of this vitamin is rare in adults in the absence of malabsorption disorders. In the absence of intrinsic factor or distal ileum receptors, only months to a year of vitamin B 1044:

deficiency. It can also be injected intravenously for the purpose of treating cyanide poisoning, as the hydroxyl group is displaced by cyanide, creating a non-toxic cyanocobalamin that is excreted in urine.

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Simplified schematic diagram of the folate methionine cycle. Methionine synthase transfers the methyl group to the vitamin and then transfers the methyl group to homocysteine, converting that to methionine.

2522:(cyanocobalamin and other vitamers) is present in its +3 oxidation state. Biochemically, the cobalt center can take part in both two-electron and one-electron reductive processes to access the "reduced" (B 2199:. These pseudo-vitamin compounds can be found in some types of shellfish, in edible insects, and at times as metabolic breakdown products of cyanocobalamin added to dietary supplements and fortified foods. 3591:

demonstrated that gastric juice contained an "intrinsic factor" which when combined with meat ingestion resulted in absorption of the vitamin in this condition. In 1934, George Whipple shared the 1934

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deficiency can potentially cause severe and irreversible damage, especially to the brain and nervous system. Deficiency at levels only slightly lower than normal can cause a range of symptoms such as

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deficiencies have a greater effect on young children, pregnant and elderly people, and are more common in middle and lower developed countries due to malnutrition. The most common cause of vitamin B

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The structures of the four most common vitamers of cobalamin, together with some synonyms. The structure of the 5'-deoxyadenosyl group, which forms the R group of adenosylcobalamin is also shown.

986:, which are converted to cyanocobalamin by the addition of potassium cyanide in the presence of sodium nitrite and heat. Once consumed, cyanocobalamin is converted to the biologically active AdoB 1175:, and loss of bladder or bowel control. These are thought to be due to defective DNA synthesis inhibiting replication in tissue sites with a high turnover of cells. This may also be due to the 2974:. The vitamin is then transferred to TC2, which serves as the circulating plasma transporter, Hereditary defects in production of TC2 and its receptor may produce functional deficiencies in B 7121: 5575:"Associations of Maternal Vitamin B12 Concentration in Pregnancy With the Risks of Preterm Birth and Low Birth Weight: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Individual Participant Data" 3656:

data and published in 1955 and 1956, for which, and for other crystallographic analyses, she was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1964. Hodgkin went on to decipher the structure of

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In the 1970s, John A. Myers, a physician residing in Baltimore, developed a program of injecting vitamins and minerals intravenously for various medical conditions. The formula included

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and William Gardner first described a case of neuropathy, Hayem described large red cells in the peripheral blood in this condition, which he called "giant blood corpuscles" (now called

3507:) from 19 nations. The synthesis constitutes a formal total synthesis, since the research groups only prepared the known intermediate cobyric acid, whose chemical conversion to vitamin B 10063: 7749:

Thauvin-Robinet C, Roze E, Couvreur G, Horellou MH, Sedel F, Grabli D, et al. (June 2008). "The adolescent and adult form of cobalamin C disease: clinical and molecular spectrum".

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Watanabe F, Katsura H, Takenaka S, Fujita T, Abe K, Tamura Y, et al. (November 1999). "Pseudovitamin B(12) is the predominant cobamide of an algal health food, spirulina tablets".

1816:. Re-ingestion allows for absorption of nutrients made available by bacterial fermentation, and also of vitamins and other nutrients synthesized by the gut bacteria, including vitamin B 1471:. This is conjectured to be a circulating storage function. Several serious, even life-threatening diseases cause elevated serum haptocorrin, measured as abnormally high serum vitamin B 4524: 1475:, while at the same time potentially manifesting as a symptomatic vitamin deficiency because of insufficient vitamin bound to transcobalamin II which transfers the vitamin to cells. 6275:"Systematic review and pragmatic clinical approach to oral and nasal vitamin B12 (cobalamin) treatment in patients with vitamin B12 deficiency related to gastrointestinal disorders" 1296:

for non-pregnant women, plus what will be transferred to the fetus during pregnancy and what will be delivered in breast milk. However, looking at the same scientific evidence, the

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Kumudha A, Selvakumar S, Dilshad P, Vaidyanathan G, Thakur MS, Sarada R (March 2015). "Methylcobalamin – a form of vitamin B12 identified and characterised in Chlorella vulgaris".

2843:-conservation of an active form of folate which is needed for efficient DNA production. Other cobalamin-requiring methyltransferase enzymes are also known in bacteria, such as Me-H 1972:, plant and algae sources all obtain the vitamin secondarily from symbiosis with various species of bacteria, or in the case of fermented plant foods, from bacterial fermentation. 5879:

Mahawar KK, Reid A, Graham Y, Callejas-Diaz L, Parmar C, Carr WR, et al. (July 2018). "Oral Vitamin B12 Supplementation After Roux-en-Y Gastric Bypass: a Systematic Review".

1226:—people who choose to not consume any animal-sourced foods—are at risk because plant-sourced foods do not contain the vitamin in sufficient amounts to prevent vitamin deficiency. 2939:

absorption — normally a very small portion of total absorption of the vitamin from food consumption — may exceed the haptocorrin- and IF-mediated absorption when oral doses of B

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10 million or more in annual food sales, and by 1 January 2021 for manufacturers with lower volume food sales. A table of the old and new adult daily values is provided at

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Non-ruminant, non-hindgut herbivores may have an enlarged forestomach and/or small intestine to provide a place for bacterial fermentation and B-vitamin production, including B

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NC(=O)C8(C)(CCC(N)=O)C=2/N=C8/C(/C)=C1/(CCC(N)=O)(C)(CC(N)=O)(C)(N1C#N)7/N=C(C(\C)=C3/N=C(/C=2)C(C)(C)3CCC(N)=O)(C)(CCC(=O)NCC(C)OP()(=O)O6(CO)O(n5cnc4cc(C)c(C)cc45)6O)7CC(N)=O

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pancreatic insufficiency, obstructive jaundice, tropical sprue and celiac disease, and radiation enteritis of the distal ileum. Age can be a factor. Elderly people are often

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What the nursing mother consumes is more important than her liver tissue content, as it is recently absorbed vitamin that more effectively reaches breast milk. Breast milk B

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deficiency is most commonly caused by malabsorption, but can also result from low intake, immune gastritis, low presence of binding proteins, or use of certain medications.

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mg in adults. Around 50% of this is stored in the liver. Approximately 0.1% of this is lost per day by secretions into the gut, as not all these secretions are reabsorbed.

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Majumder S, Soriano J, Louie Cruz A, Dasanu CA (2013). "Vitamin B12 deficiency in patients undergoing bariatric surgery: preventive strategies and key recommendations".

4979: 1635:μg/day. (AIs are established when there is insufficient information to determine EARs and RDAs.) For children ages 1–13 years the RDA increases with age from 0.9 to 1.8 11073: 9970: 6994: 8917: 7558: 7003: 5676:

Wilson RD, O'Connor DL (June 2022). "Guideline No. 427: Folic Acid and Multivitamin Supplementation for Prevention of Folic Acid-Sensitive Congenital Anomalies".

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and tissue regeneration and epigenetic regulation. Cellular reprogramming is the process by which somatic cells can be converted to a pluripotent state. Vitamin B

2868:-specific transport proteins or via passive diffusion. Transport-mediated absorption and tissue delivery is a complex process involving three transport proteins: 7614:"the metabolic fate and biological distribution of methylcobalamin and 5′-deoxyadenosylcobalamin are expected to be similar to that of other sources of vitamin B 7040: 5549: 2819:

which are responsible for absorption. THF may be regenerated via MTR or may be obtained from fresh folate in the diet. Thus all of the DNA synthetic effects of B

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deficiency and requires preventive post-operative treatment with either injected or high-dose oral supplementation. For post-operative oral supplementation,

194: 1312:, defined as serum concentration less than 148 pmol/L, increases the risk of miscarriage, preterm birth and newborn low birth weight. During pregnancy the 1242:

deficiency has been found in roughly 80% of the vegan population. As with vegetarians, vegans can avoid this by consuming a dietary supplement or eating B

8147: 2703:-dependent dehalogenases, which have potential commercial applications for degrading chlorinated pollutants. The microorganisms may either be capable of 699:

is the most chemically complex of all vitamins, and for humans the only vitamin that must be sourced from animal-derived foods or supplements. Only some

2530:, +1 oxidation state) forms. The ability to shuttle between the +1, +2, and +3 oxidation states is responsible for the versatile chemistry of vitamin B 7592:

added as a nutritional substance in food supplements: Scientific opinion of the Scientific Panel on Food Additives and Nutrient Sources added to food"

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Yamada K, Yamada Y, Fukuda M, Yamada S (November 1999). "Bioavailability of Dried Asakusanori (Porphyra tenera) as a Source of Cobalamin (Vitamin B

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is often suggested during pregnancy in a multivitamin along with folic acid especially for pregnant mothers who follow a vegetarian or vegan diet.

6396:"Hydroxocobalamin for acute cyanide poisoning: new data from preclinical and clinical studies; new results from the prehospital emergency setting" 2534:, allowing it to serve as a donor of deoxyadenosyl radical (radical alkyl source) and as a methyl cation equivalent (electrophilic alkyl source). 2107:

is often used if digestive absorption is impaired, but this course of action may not be necessary with high-dose oral supplements (such as 0.5–1.0

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solution (hydroxocobalamin) in a multi-dose bottle, with a single dose drawn up into a syringe for injection. Preparations are usually bright red.

4770:"Comparative Bioavailability and Utilization of Particular Forms of B12 Supplements With Potential to Mitigate B12-related Genetic Polymorphisms" 2653:, meaning that its presence is required in some enzyme-catalyzed reactions. Listed here are the three classes of enzymes that sometimes require B 2095:μg cyanocobalamin tablet) is less than the daily consumption of cyanide from food, and therefore cyanocobalamin is not considered a health risk. 1643:

naturally occurring in foods, it is advisable for those older than 50 years to meet their RDA mainly by consuming foods fortified with vitamin B

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secreted into the stomach, HC binds the vitamin and protects it from acidic degradation. Upon leaving the stomach the hydrochloric acid of the

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For U.S. food and dietary supplement labeling purposes, the amount in a serving is expressed as a "percent of daily value" (%DV). For vitamin B

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mg tablets. The metabolic fate and biological distribution of methylcobalamin are expected to be similar to that of other sources of vitamin B

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There is some evidence that bacterial fermentation of plant foods and symbiotic relationships between algae and bacteria can provide vitamin B

7554: 4076:"B Vitamins in the nervous system: Current knowledge of the biochemical modes of action and synergies of thiamine, pyridoxine, and cobalamin" 1623:. RDA is higher than EAR so as to identify amounts that will cover people with higher than average requirements. RDA for pregnancy equals 2.6 1191: 109: 7929:

Yamada K, Shimodaira M, Chida S, Yamada N, Matsushima N, Fukuda M, et al. (2008). "Degradation of vitamin B12 in dietary supplements".

7187:"Vitamin B12 production by Citrobacter freundii or Klebsiella pneumoniae during tempeh fermentation and proof of enterotoxin absence by PCR" 6575: 5113: 4721:"Cobalamin coenzyme forms are not likely to be superior to cyano- and hydroxyl-cobalamin in prevention or treatment of cobalamin deficiency" 4516: 10926: 2214:

subsp. lactis is used, as the bacteria can utilize the pseudovitamin despite it being unavailable to humans. To get a reliable reading of B

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there is no UL, as there is no human data for adverse effects from high doses. Collectively the EARs, RDAs, AIs and ULs are referred to as

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group. Historically, the covalent carbon–cobalt bond is one of the first examples of carbon–metal bonds to be discovered in biology. The

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for discovery of an effective treatment for pernicious anemia using liver concentrate, later found to contain a large amount of vitamin B

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delivery with the aim to simplify administration, reduce costs, improve pharmacokinetics, and ameliorate the quality of patients' lives.

8313: 7157: 7113: 5543:"Overview on Dietary Reference Values for the EU population as derived by the EFSA Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies" 2900:, and pancreatic proteases release the vitamin from HC, making it available to be bound by IF, which is a protein secreted by gastric 2721:-dependent enzyme families corresponding to the first two reaction types, are known. These are typified by the following two enzymes: 11302: 5625:

Sebastiani G, Herranz Barbero A, Borrás-Novell C, Alsina Casanova M, Aldecoa-Bilbao V, Andreu-Fernández V, et al. (March 2019).

6670: 5770: 7673:"Oral vitamin B12 versus intramuscular vitamin B12 for vitamin B12 deficiency: a systematic review of randomized controlled trials" 3632:

from that company, developed the LLD assay. This identified "LLD factor" as essential for the bacteria's growth. Shorb, Folker and

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beyond the blood's binding capacity is typically excreted in urine. Owing to the extremely efficient enterohepatic circulation of B

857:, irreversible nerve damage, and many others. If left untreated in infants, deficiency may lead to neurological damage and anemia. 9146: 7336:"Dietary source of vitamin B(12) intake and vitamin B(12) status in female elderly Koreans aged 85 and older living in rural area" 4192: 1230:—people who consume animal byproducts such as dairy products and eggs, but not the flesh of any animal—are also at risk. Vitamin B 10859: 4897:

van der Put NM, van Straaten HW, Trijbels FJ, Blom HJ (April 2001). "Folate, homocysteine and neural tube defects: an overview".

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States had inadequate diets using this comparator. However, 11% of girls 14e18 years had intakes less than their EAR of 2.0 mcg.

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seemed to most rapidly cure the anemia of blood loss in dogs, and hypothesized that eating liver might treat pernicious anemia.

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is not one of the supplements recommended by the World Health Organization for healthy women who are pregnant, however vitamin B

8522:"Impact of vitamin B12 on formation of the tetrachloroethene reductive dehalogenase in Desulfitobacterium hafniense strain Y51" 7628:

Lane LA, Rojas-Fernandez C (July–August 2002). "Treatment of vitamin b(12)-deficiency anemia: oral versus parenteral therapy".

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itself. Later steps, especially the incorporation of the additional methyl groups of its structure, were investigated using C

2261:; or the attachment of an inactive ligand such as 4-ethylphenyl. These compounds have the potential to be used for analyzing B 10803: 9689: 9251: 8817: 8780: 8743: 8403: 8293: 6961: 6836: 6548: 5261: 5236: 4971: 4493: 4422: 4045: 3592: 3587:

prepared a liver extract that was 50 to 100 times more potent in treating pernicious anemia than the natural liver products.

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supplementation is given. If the deficiency is detected, metformin can be continued while the deficiency is corrected with B

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content in food. Previous reports have suggested that the RIDA method is able to detect higher concentrations of vitamin B

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are associated with lower than normal serum vitamin concentration. However, serum levels were higher in people prescribed

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Ermens AA, Vlasveld LT, Lindemans J (November 2003). "Significance of elevated cobalamin (vitamin B12) levels in blood".

5794:"Anaemia and related nutrient deficiencies after Roux-en-Y gastric bypass surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis" 1190:

Neurological symptoms: sensory or motor deficiencies (absent reflexes, diminished vibration or soft touch sensation) and

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Riether D, Mulzer J (2003). "Total Synthesis of Cobyric Acid: Historical Development and Recent Synthetic Innovations".

10177: 9101: 7245:"Effect of soybean processing on content and bioaccessibility of folate, vitamin B12 and isoflavones in tofu and tempe" 6989: 6762: 3640:, used the LLD assay to extract the anti-pernicious anemia factor from liver extracts, purify it, and name it vitamin B 1928: 1871:. Meat, liver, eggs and milk are therefore sources of the vitamin for other animals, including humans. For humans, the 1138: 1126:. Among other problems, weakened immunity, reduced fertility and interruption of blood circulation in women may occur. 160: 7028: 5735: 5542: 802:), because acid exposure frees protein-bound vitamin. For the same reason, people on long-term antacid therapy, using 9214: 4651: 2880:(TC2), and respective membrane receptor proteins. HC is present in saliva. As vitamin-containing food is digested by 611: 5280:

Melina V, Craig W, Levin S (December 2016). "Position of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics: Vegetarian Diets".

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for animals (including other insects and humans). Animal-derived food sources with a high concentration of vitamin B

1796:) consume high-fibre plants which pass through the gastrointestinal tract and undergo bacterial fermentation in the 10820: 10027: 9706: 8172: 7794:"Current Nanocarrier Strategies Improve Vitamin B12 Pharmacokinetics, Ameliorate Patients' Lives, and Reduce Costs" 7524: 4002: 3425: 2042:

is included in multivitamin pills; in some countries grain-based foods such as bread and pasta are fortified with B

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are at particular risk due to increased requirements during growth coupled with diets low in animal-sourced foods.

8198: 7385:"Discovery of novel sources of vitamin b(12) in traditional korean foods from nutritional surveys of centenarians" 5002: 4191:. Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. 4 June 2015. 3624:

assay method to identify the active compound. While at the University of Maryland she received a small grant from

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that is absorbed along the entire intestine by passive diffusion may be sufficient to provide a necessary amount.

1765:, such as cows and sheep, are foregut fermenters, meaning that plant food undergoes microbial fermentation in the 11376: 10492: 6999: 6630: 1234:

deficiency has been observed in between 40% and 80% of the vegetarian population who do not also take a vitamin B

1184: 343: 224: 141: 9426:"Propionibacterium spp.-source of propionic acid, vitamin B12, and other metabolites important for the industry" 5035:

Lachner C, Steinle NI, Regenold WT (2012). "The neuropsychiatry of vitamin B12 deficiency in elderly patients".

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analogues) that not only have no vitamin action, but also actively interfere with the activity of true vitamin B

1404: 11381: 9654: 7583: 2367:(a complete absence of gastric acid secretion), which occurs more frequently with proton pump inhibitors than H 2176: 2111:

mg or more), because with large quantities of the vitamin taken orally, even the 1% to 5% of free crystalline B

1667: 1297: 1207: 1061: 9375: 8155: 6146:

McCorvie TJ, Ferreira D, Yue WW, Froese DS (May 2023). "The complex machinery of human cobalamin metabolism".

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in humans and other animals, but it has long been thought that humans cannot absorb this as it is made in the

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Hodgkin DC, Kamper J, Mackay M, Pickworth J, Trueblood KN, White JG (July 1956). "Structure of vitamin B12".

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in 1972. The work required the effort of 91 postdoctoral fellows (mostly at Harvard) and 12 PhD students (at

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Some research shows that most people in the United States and the United Kingdom consume sufficient vitamin B

10022: 6903:"Contributions of microbes in vertebrate gastrointestinal tract to production and conservation of nutrients" 6221:"Inherited and acquired vitamin B12 deficiencies: Which administration route to choose for supplementation?" 2609:

ATCC7830. However, it is no longer the reference method due to the high measurement uncertainty of vitamin B

2011:

As of 2019, nineteen countries require food fortification of wheat flour, maize flour or rice with vitamin B

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Kovatcheva M, Melendez E, Chondronasiou D, Pietrocola F, Bernad R, Caballe A, et al. (November 2023).

6676: 6636: 3460: 1716:μg. Compliance with the updated labeling regulations was required by 1 January 2020 for manufacturers with 1652: 1604: 445: 7722:

Arslan SA, Arslan I, Tirnaksiz F (March 2013). "Cobalamins and Methylcobalamin: Coenzyme of Vitamin B12".

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Furthermore, this assay requires overnight incubation and may give false results if any inactive vitamin B

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of the vitamin, followed by maintenance via monthly injections of the same amount or daily oral dosing of

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Butler CC, Vidal-Alaball J, Cannings-John R, McCaddon A, Hood K, Papaioannou A, et al. (June 2006).

3777: 3489: 3479: 3400: 3006:

is released into the cytoplasm, where it is transformed into the bioactive coenzyme by cellular enzymes.

2620:

analogues are present in the foods. Currently, radioisotope dilution assay (RIDA) with labelled vitamin B

1552:. However, other research suggests that the proportion of people with low or marginal levels of vitamin B 1392: 767:

deficiency. They are usually taken by mouth, but for the treatment of deficiency may also be given as an

1102:, upset stomach, decreased appetite, difficulty walking (staggering balance problems), muscle weakness, 11331: 3061:

is obtained from the diet, how much is secreted and how much is absorbed. The total amount of vitamin B

6504: 3751: 1655:(known as ULs) are set for vitamins and minerals when evidence is sufficient. In the case of vitamin B 1268:

overdose or overuse converts the active monovalent form of vitamin B12 to the inactive bivalent form.

881:

in which the blood has a lower than normal number of red blood cells, due to a deficiency of vitamin B

861:

levels in the individual may affect the course of pathological changes and symptomatology of vitamin B

692:. Plants do not need cobalamin and carry out the reactions with enzymes that are not dependent on it. 8197:

Linnebank M, Moskau S, Semmler A, Widman G, Stoffel-Wagner B, Weller M, et al. (February 2011).

6520: 5711: 3419: 3225: 3169: 3082: 2142:

Conventional administration does not ensure specific distribution and controlled release of vitamin B

2065: 1968:. Since only bacteria and some archea possess the genes and enzymes necessary to synthesize vitamin B 1875:

from eggs is less than 9%, compared to 40% to 60% from fish, fowl and meat. Insects are a source of B

1694: 1607:

updated estimated average requirements (EARs) and recommended dietary allowances (RDAs) for vitamin B

1250:

as a regular part of their diet. The elderly are at increased risk because they tend to produce less

8478:"Vitamin B12, folate, and the methionine remethylation cycle-biochemistry, pathways, and regulation" 7689: 1689:

The Japan National Institute of Health and Nutrition set the RDA for people ages 12 and older at 2.4

10314: 10149: 7886:

in four edible insect species by immunoaffinity and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography".

6440: 5573:

Rogne T, Tielemans MJ, Chong MF, Yajnik CS, Krishnaveni GV, Poston L, et al. (February 2017).

5252:

Lerner NB (2016). "Vitamin B12 Deficiency". In Kliegman RM, Stanton B, St Geme J, Schor NF (eds.).

3998: 3237:

and other steps could be determined, thus fully establishing all the intermediates in the pathway.

2787: 2732: 2384: 1660: 1374:

According to one review: "At present, no 'gold standard' test exists for the diagnosis of vitamin B

1277: 1199: 1195: 9786: 5627:"The Effects of Vegetarian and Vegan Diet during Pregnancy on the Health of Mothers and Offspring" 4816:

Watanabe F, Bito T (September 2018). "Determination of Cobalamin and Related Compounds in Foods".

2083:

in the diet. The amount of cyanide in cyanocobalamin is generally not a concern, even in the 1,000

10808: 6564: 6359:

MacLennan L, Moiemen N (February 2015). "Management of cyanide toxicity in patients with burns".

5135:

Briani C, Dalla Torre C, Citton V, Manara R, Pompanin S, Binotto G, et al. (November 2013).

5105: 4028:

Yamada K (2013). "Cobalt: Its Role in Health and Disease". In Sigel A, Sigel H, Sigel RK (eds.).

3723: 3637: 3588: 2970:

complex binds to cubam the complex is disassociated and the free vitamin is transported into the

2904:

in response to the presence of food in the stomach. IF delivers the vitamin to receptor proteins

1581: 1536:

is displaced by the toxic cyanide ion, and the resulting non-toxic cyanocobalamin is excreted in

1380: 768: 657: 171: 9201:

Battersby A (2005). "Chapter 11: Discovering the wonder of how Nature builds its molecules". In

8017:

DeVault KR, Talley NJ (September 2009). "Insights into the future of gastric acid suppression".

4216:"Perspective: Practical Approach to Preventing Subclinical B12 Deficiency in Elderly Population" 3737: 2490:, occurring as dark red crystals that freely form cherry-colored transparent solutions in water. 11167: 10845: 10170: 7684: 6532: 3823: 3155: 2803: 2756: 2218:

content, more advanced techniques are available. One such technique involves pre-separation by

2119: 2062:. The vitamin can also be supplied on prescription and delivered via injection or other means. 1721: 1441: 1400: 1384: 1349:

can be treated with intramuscular injections, then transitioned to an oral dietary supplement.

1130: 1073: 803: 712: 276: 45: 9100:

Frank S, Brindley AA, Deery E, Heathcote P, Lawrence AD, Leech HK, et al. (August 2005).

8722:

Guéant JL, Guéant-Rodriguez RM, Alpers DH (2022). "Vitamin B12 absorption and malabsorption".

6951: 4469: 3681: 1639:μg/day. Because 10 to 30 percent of older people may be unable to effectively absorb vitamin B 434: 11266: 11245: 11173: 10087:"Prevalence of Inappropriateness of Parenteral Vitamin B12 Administration in Ontario, Canada" 8577:

Payne KA, Quezada CP, Fisher K, Dunstan MS, Collins FA, Sjuts H, et al. (January 2015).

7146: 4689: 4465: 3757: 3709: 3496: 3216: 3018: 2546: 2307: 669: 665: 248: 6524: 11361: 11163: 11153: 10877: 10769: 10549: 10273: 9873: 9822: 9735: 9579: 9275:

Martens JH, Barg H, Warren MJ, Jahn D (March 2002). "Microbial production of vitamin B12".

9056: 8590: 8533: 7469:

Martins JH, Barg H, Warren MJ, Jahn D (March 2002). "Microbial production of vitamin B12".

7242:

Mo H, Kariluoto S, Piironen V, Zhu Y, Sanders MG, Vincken JP, et al. (December 2013).

7198: 3645: 3405: 3229:

was used, in which eight of the genes involved in the biosynthesis of the vitamin had been

3189: 2979: 2824: 2126:) may require treatment with intravenous or intramuscular hydroxocobalamin or transdermal B 1805: 1597: 1149: 898: 830: 454: 308: 83: 41: 10145: 8843:"Proton pump inhibitor and histamine 2 receptor antagonist use and vitamin B12 deficiency" 8520:

Reinhold A, Westermann M, Seifert J, von Bergen M, Schubert T, Diekert G (November 2012).

6071: 4413:

Stabler SP (2020). "Vitamin B12". In Marriott BP, Birt DF, Stallings VA, Yates AA (eds.).

3695: 3025:

by preventing release from food in the stomach. Other causes of B12 malabsorption include

2454:. In addition, certain drugs may interfere with laboratory tests for the vitamin, such as 8: 11366: 11159: 11114: 11088: 10663: 7792:

Fidaleo M, Tacconi S, Sbarigia C, Passeri D, Rossi M, Tata AM, et al. (March 2021).

5762: 3433:

are more commonly used today. These are grown under special conditions to enhance yield.

3353: 3220: 3185: 3177: 3126: 2775: 2740: 1449: 878: 360: 178: 9877: 9826: 9583: 9102:"Anaerobic synthesis of vitamin B12: characterization of the early steps in the pathway" 9060: 8973: 8942: 8594: 8579:"Reductive dehalogenase structure suggests a mechanism for B12-dependent dehalogenation" 8537: 8421: 7202: 6324:

Hall AH, Rumack BH (1987). "Hydroxycobalamin/sodium thiosulfate as a cyanide antidote".

5078:

Bennett M (March 2001). "Vitamin B12 deficiency, infertility and recurrent fetal loss".

3917:"Inorganic Cyanide as Protecting Group in the Stereospecific Reconstitution of Vitamin B 2174:-like analogues that are biologically inactive in humans. Most cyanobacteria, including 369: 11371: 11279: 11149: 10442: 10337: 10119: 10086: 9943: 9918:

Dodson G (December 2002). "Dorothy Mary Crowfoot Hodgkin, 12 May 1910 – 29 July 1994".

9897: 9846: 9552: 9450: 9425: 9406: 9351: 9324: 9300: 9169: 9082: 9025: 8767:

Maton A, Hopkins J, McLaughlin CW, Johnson S, Warner MQ, LaHart D, et al. (1993).

8660: 8648: 8611: 8578: 8554: 8521: 8448: 8423: 8363: 8328: 8229: 8042: 7994: 7965: 7911: 7820: 7793: 7774: 7731: 7653: 7494: 7411: 7384: 7360: 7335: 7311: 7284: 7094: 6932: 6793: 6738: 6711: 6301: 6274: 6247: 6220: 6123: 6098: 6048: 6021: 6002: 5948: 5923: 5904: 5818: 5793: 5653: 5626: 5599: 5574: 5516: 5491: 5448: 5423: 5399: 5372: 5305: 5171: 5136: 5060: 4922: 4841: 4786: 4769: 4745: 4720: 4701: 4342: 4315: 4291: 4266: 4242: 4215: 4100: 4075: 3884: 3857: 3794: 3500: 3213: 2971: 2897: 2764: 1964: 1589: 1565: 1529: 1424: 1026: 842: 760: 756: 681: 9696:

Chapter 36: Megaloblastic anemias: disorders of impaired DNA synthesis by Ralph Carmel

9243: 8809: 7219: 7186: 6194: 4184: 2831:, resolve if sufficient dietary folate is present. Thus the best-known "function" of B 1064:, an algal health food sometimes erroneously claimed as having this vitamin activity. 11078: 11006: 10956: 10729: 10704: 10163: 10124: 10106: 10003: 9935: 9889: 9838: 9685: 9595: 9556: 9455: 9398: 9356: 9292: 9257: 9247: 9210: 9124: 9074: 9029: 9017: 8978: 8934: 8899: 8864: 8823: 8813: 8776: 8769: 8749: 8739: 8695: 8652: 8616: 8559: 8502: 8453: 8422:

Takahashi-Iñiguez T, García-Hernandez E, Arreguín-Espinosa R, Flores ME (June 2012).

8399: 8368: 8350: 8289: 8264: 8221: 8128: 8093: 8034: 7999: 7946: 7903: 7864: 7825: 7766: 7704: 7645: 7486: 7451: 7416: 7365: 7316: 7265: 7224: 7086: 6957: 6924: 6878: 6832: 6816: 6785: 6743: 6544: 6525: 6417: 6376: 6341: 6337: 6306: 6252: 6198: 6163: 6128: 6053: 6022:"The Controversial Role of Homocysteine in Neurology: From Labs to Clinical Practice" 5994: 5953: 5896: 5858: 5823: 5693: 5658: 5624: 5604: 5521: 5453: 5404: 5350: 5297: 5257: 5232: 5176: 5158: 5087: 5052: 5048: 5014: 4914: 4879: 4833: 4791: 4750: 4693: 4647: 4616: 4489: 4418: 4392: 4347: 4296: 4247: 4145: 4105: 4051: 4041: 3944: 3889: 3818: 3729: 3715: 3633: 3596: 3540: 3443: 3250: 3034: 3030: 2952: 2881: 2877: 2835:(that which is involved with DNA synthesis, cell-division, and anemia) is actually a 2828: 2752: 2676: 2545:

Four of the six coordination sites are provided by the corrin ring, and a fifth by a

2518:. As isolated as an air-stable solid and available commercially, cobalt in vitamin B 2130:, because oral cyanocobalamin is inadequate in the treatment of cobalamin C disease. 2005: 1985: 1247: 1134: 1103: 1087: 1056:

with a structure similar to the vitamin but without vitamin activity. Pseudovitamin B

1015: 926: 885:. The ability to absorb the vitamin declines with age, especially in people over 60. 826: 133: 78: 32: 10102: 9947: 9570:

Eschenmoser A, Wintner CE (June 1977). "Natural product synthesis and vitamin B12".

9410: 9304: 9173: 8664: 8046: 7915: 7778: 7498: 7210: 7098: 6797: 5908: 5492:"Cobalamin Status from Pregnancy to Early Childhood: Lessons from Global Experience" 5064: 5003:"Cobalamin-responsive psychosis as the sole manifestation of vitamin B12 deficiency" 4926: 4705: 2537: 794:

in order for absorption to occur. A second major cause is an age-related decline in

11292: 11201: 11195: 11145: 10938: 10739: 10714: 10634: 10114: 10098: 9927: 9901: 9881: 9850: 9830: 9789:. Department of Animal & Avian Sciences, University of Maryland. Archived from 9625: 9587: 9544: 9445: 9437: 9390: 9346: 9336: 9284: 9239: 9161: 9116: 9086: 9064: 9009: 8968: 8958: 8891: 8854: 8805: 8731: 8687: 8644: 8606: 8598: 8549: 8541: 8492: 8443: 8435: 8391: 8358: 8340: 8256: 8233: 8213: 8120: 8083: 8073: 8026: 7989: 7981: 7938: 7899: 7895: 7856: 7815: 7805: 7758: 7735: 7694: 7637: 7603: 7478: 7447: 7443: 7406: 7396: 7355: 7347: 7306: 7296: 7261: 7257: 7214: 7206: 7078: 6914: 6868: 6824: 6777: 6733: 6723: 6608: 6536: 6407: 6368: 6333: 6296: 6286: 6242: 6232: 6190: 6155: 6118: 6110: 6043: 6033: 6006: 5984: 5943: 5935: 5888: 5850: 5813: 5805: 5685: 5648: 5638: 5594: 5586: 5511: 5503: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5394: 5384: 5340: 5309: 5289: 5166: 5148: 5044: 4906: 4871: 4845: 4825: 4781: 4740: 4732: 4685: 4672: 4639: 4608: 4388: 4384: 4380: 4337: 4327: 4286: 4278: 4237: 4227: 4137: 4095: 4087: 4033: 3936: 3916: 3879: 3869: 3833: 3560: 3041:

due to reduced stomach parietal cell function, and thus have an increased risk of B

3026: 2873: 2795: 2104: 1037: 945: 854: 787: 752: 510: 394: 288: 258: 207: 119: 68: 20: 10414: 10409: 10404: 9424:

Piwowarek K, Lipińska E, Hać-Szymańczuk E, Kieliszek M, Ścibisz I (January 2018).

8895: 7657: 6936: 6919: 6902: 5939: 4612: 4575: 4314:

Obeid R, Heil SG, Verhoeven MM, van den Heuvel EG, de Groot LC, Eussen SJ (2019).

2836: 1415:

values above the cut-off point of deficiency do not necessarily confirm adequate B

11345: 11258: 11016: 10961: 10901: 10744: 10301: 10286: 9517: 8247:

Giedyk M, Goliszewska K, Gryko D (June 2015). "Vitamin B12 catalysed reactions".

7882:

Schmidt A, Call LM, Macheiner L, Mayer HK (May 2019). "Determination of vitamin B

7244: 6828: 5001:

Masalha R, Chudakov B, Muhamad M, Rudoy I, Volkov I, Wirguin I (September 2001).

3928: 3838: 3743: 3653: 3649: 3616: 3317: 3230: 3181: 3017:

drugs that neutralize stomach acid and drugs that block acid production (such as

2550: 2249:. The design of these compounds mainly involve replacement of the metal ion with 2068: 1989: 1892: 1872: 1801: 1758: 1754: 1445: 1435:

in blood. However, elevated MMA is not conclusive, as it is seen in people with B

1091: 1007: 959: 296: 282: 266: 28: 10392: 10387: 10382: 10377: 9763: 7942: 6372: 5854: 5809: 4037: 3940: 2018:

Vegan advocacy organizations, among others, recommend that every vegan consume B

821:

unless a dietary supplement is taken. A deficiency may be characterized by limb

11191: 11035: 11011: 10814: 10734: 10447: 10260: 9994:

Gaby AR (October 2002). "Intravenous nutrient therapy: the "Myers' cocktail"".

9142: 9013: 8963: 8124: 7860: 5689: 5293: 4910: 3858:"Navigating the B(12) road: assimilation, delivery, and disorders of cobalamin" 3828: 3801:. A Mayo Clinic review concluded that there is no solid evidence that vitamin B 3687: 3625: 3615:

While working at the Bureau of Dairy Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture,

3576: 3536: 3335: 3323: 3275: 2123: 1750: 1573: 1468: 1238:

supplement or consume vitamin-fortified food. In Hong Kong and India, vitamin B

931: 685: 677: 673: 87: 24: 10085:

Silverstein WK, Lin Y, Dharma C, Croxford R, Earle CC, Cheung MC (July 2019).

9441: 9341: 9288: 8735: 8030: 7482: 6728: 6412: 6395: 6237: 5973:"Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of cobalamin and folate disorders" 5892: 4141: 2924:

complex, and so will not bind to any vitamin content that is not bound to IF.

1678:μg/day. For children aged 1–14 years the AIs increase with age from 1.5 to 3.5 11355: 11310: 11219: 11213: 11137: 11106: 10966: 10583: 10573: 10558: 10278: 10110: 8859: 8842: 8796:

Seetharam B, Li N (2000). "Transcobalamin II and its cell surface receptor".

8354: 7762: 7351: 6697: 6657: 6114: 5162: 4829: 4282: 3544: 3434: 3377: 3341: 3329: 3287: 2901: 2467: 2435: 2299: 2046:. In the US, non-prescription products can be purchased providing up to 5,000 1832: 1557: 1532:. The mechanism of action is straightforward: the hydroxycobalamin hydroxide 1525: 1483: 1265: 1227: 1180: 1153: 922:, meaning that its presence is required for some enzyme-catalyzed reactions. 910: 837:, decreased ability to think, lightheadedness, shortness of breath, frequent 783: 748: 661: 186: 10221: 10216: 9165: 7699: 7672: 7608: 7587: 6873: 6856: 4332: 3874: 3644:. In 1955, Todd helped elucidate the structure of the vitamin. The complete 2931:

confirm that the upper limit of absorption per single oral dose is about 1.5

2410:

Certain medications can decrease the absorption of orally consumed vitamin B

1341:

the early-introduced foods fed to the still breastfeeding infant are vegan.

54: 11231: 10911: 10869: 10789: 10709: 10668: 10621: 10588: 10568: 10563: 10424: 10352: 10342: 10332: 10190: 10128: 10007: 9939: 9931: 9893: 9842: 9591: 9459: 9360: 9296: 9261: 9128: 9021: 8982: 8903: 8868: 8827: 8753: 8699: 8656: 8620: 8563: 8506: 8457: 8372: 8268: 8225: 8132: 8097: 8038: 8003: 7985: 7950: 7907: 7868: 7829: 7770: 7708: 7649: 7512: 7490: 7455: 7420: 7369: 7320: 7269: 7090: 6882: 6789: 6747: 6421: 6380: 6310: 6256: 6202: 6167: 6132: 6057: 5998: 5957: 5900: 5862: 5827: 5697: 5662: 5608: 5525: 5457: 5408: 5354: 5315:

deficient, as shown in case studies of vegan infants, children, and adults.

5301: 5195: 5180: 5091: 5056: 5018: 4918: 4883: 4837: 4795: 4754: 4736: 4697: 4634:

Butler P, Kräutler B (2006). "Biological Organometallic Chemistry of B12".

4620: 4599:

Baik HW, Russell RM (2021-11-18). "Vitamin B12 deficiency in the elderly".

4396: 4351: 4300: 4251: 4149: 4109: 4055: 3948: 3893: 3701: 3629: 3600: 3556: 3552: 3266: 3165: 3038: 2811: 2791: 2744: 2694: 2463: 2459: 2364: 2355: 2351: 2343: 2291: 2051: 1947: 1884: 1444:. If nervous system damage is present and blood testing is inconclusive, a 1420: 1255: 1251: 1203: 1172: 1019: 799: 795: 736: 202: 9402: 9078: 8439: 8395: 7401: 7228: 6928: 6345: 5507: 3129:. Mice undergoing in vivo reprogramming were found to become depleted in B 2724: 2030: 11209: 10906: 10837: 10578: 10399: 10291: 9599: 9202: 8940: 8545: 7810: 6273:

Andrès E, Zulfiqar AA, Serraj K, Vogel T, Kaltenbach G (September 2018).

6038: 5590: 4673:"The many faces of vitamin B12: catalysis by cobalamin-dependent enzymes" 4032:. Metal Ions in Life Sciences. Vol. 13. Springer. pp. 295–320. 3525: 3383: 3311: 3299: 3293: 3257: 3234: 3201: 2995: 2869: 2574: 2455: 2347: 2234: 2055: 1904: 1864: 1793: 1596:

intake, or risk serious health consequences. Children in some regions of

1504:

deficiency is initially corrected with daily intramuscular injections of

1460: 1111: 1099: 846: 744: 689: 182: 127: 9423: 8602: 7670: 6781: 4369: 3141:

increased reprogramming efficiency, indicating a cell-intrinsic effect.

2935:μg, with 50% efficiency. In contrast, the passive diffusion process of B 1187:(which can be referred to as watermelon stomach), and pernicious anemia. 414: 19:

This article is about the family of vitamers. For individual forms, see

11227: 11083: 10989: 10948: 10896: 10659: 10651: 10644: 10608: 10601: 10528: 10474: 10456: 10372: 10347: 10321: 10296: 10255: 9548: 9325:"Microbial production of vitamin B12: a review and future perspectives" 9120: 8947:

is a limiting factor for induced cellular plasticity and tissue repair"

8691: 8497: 8260: 8199:"Antiepileptic drugs interact with folate and vitamin B12 serum levels" 7588:"5′-deoxyadenosylcobalamin and methylcobalamin as sources for Vitamin B 7516: 7082: 7069:

Watanabe F (November 2007). "Vitamin B12 sources and bioavailability".

6712:"Microbial production of vitamin B12: a review and future perspectives" 6601:"Daily Value Reference of the Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD)" 6540: 6291: 6159: 5643: 5345: 5328: 4232: 3584: 3564: 3504: 3365: 3281: 3193: 3134: 2909: 2799: 2748: 2447: 2439: 2431: 2423: 2415: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2327: 2323: 2310:(PPI) drugs, can reduce absorption of protein-bound (dietary) vitamin B 2219: 2133: 2001: 1959: 1888: 1283: 1176: 1025:

Cyanocobalamin is the most common form used in dietary supplements and

822: 807: 653: 649: 549: 425: 9684:. Philadelphia, PA: Wolters Kluwer/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. 9394: 8345: 8217: 8088: 7641: 7301: 6565:"Food Labeling: Revision of the Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels" 5989: 5972: 5389: 5327:

Pawlak R, Parrott SJ, Raj S, Cullum-Dugan D, Lucus D (February 2013).

5153: 4875: 4316:"Vitamin B12 Intake From Animal Foods, Biomarkers, and Health Aspects" 4091: 2943:

are very large, with roughly 1% efficiency. Thus, dietary supplement B

2498:

is the most chemically complex of all the vitamins. The structure of B

2478: 1167:

Gastrointestinal symptoms: alteration in bowel motility, such as mild

11026: 10998: 10891: 10764: 10756: 10673: 10639: 10465: 10434: 10364: 10241: 10231: 10208: 9885: 9834: 9630:

10.1002/1099-0690(200301)2003:1<30::AID-EJOC30>3.0.CO;2-I

9069: 9044: 8996:

Vílchez-Acosta A, Desdín-Micó G, Ocampo A (November 2023). "Vitamin B

8882:

Baik HW, Russell RM (1999). "Vitamin B12 deficiency in the elderly".

8111:

Gilligan MA (February 2002). "Metformin and vitamin B12 deficiency".

6505:"Dietary Reference Intakes for Japanese 2010: Water-Soluble Vitamins" 6099:"Diagnosing vitamin B-12 deficiency on the basis of serum B-12 assay" 5373:"Vegan diet, subnormal vitamin B-12 status and cardiovascular health" 4964: 4643: 3548: 3452: 3359: 3113:

through its involvement in one-carbon metabolism plays a key role in

2661: 2570: 2507: 2451: 2443: 2419: 2387: 2277: 1912: 1908: 1813: 1809: 1388: 1211: 1161: 1123: 1095: 1053: 953: 838: 833:

in which red blood cells become abnormally large. This can result in

732: 380: 323: 113: 62: 9646: 8078: 8061: 7433: 6451:. Condé Nast, USDA National Nutrient Database, release SR-21. 2014. 4478:

Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B

4214:

Vincenti A, Bertuzzo L, Limitone A, D'Antona G, Cena H (June 2021).

4213: 1843:

injections or cobalt supplementation may be required for livestock.

11287: 10916: 10542: 9531:

Khan AG, Eswaran SV (June 2003). "Woodward's synthesis of vitamin B

9207:

The 1702 chair of chemistry at Cambridge: transformation and change

9045:"Biosynthesis of the pigments of life: formation of the macrocycle" 8519: 7748: 6956:(2nd ed.). Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. pp. 525, 539. 4896: 4638:. Topics in Organometallic Chemistry. Vol. 17. pp. 1–55. 3448: 3371: 3347: 3305: 3205: 3122: 2999: 2893: 2650: 2558: 2427: 2182: 1997: 1993: 1932: 1770: 1762: 1742: 1407:) in adults. However, serum values can be maintained while tissue B 1313: 1168: 919: 721: 704: 474: 405: 155: 9811: 9474: 5137:"Cobalamin Deficiency: Clinical Picture and Radiological Findings" 4488:. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. pp. 306–356. 3137:

starvation while supplementing reprogramming mice and cells with B

2581: 1701:μg/day as the adult recommended nutrient intake for this vitamin. 1183:

of the stomach in pernicious anemia. There is an association with

914:

in a vitamin-deficient biological system, they are referred to as

576: 11183: 10226: 10186: 10155: 7154:

USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference Release 28

6696:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

6656:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

3843: 3657: 3570: 3014: 2905: 2554: 2250: 2072: 1746: 1631:. For infants up to 12 months the adequate intake (AI) is 0.4–0.5 1521: 1427:(MMA) over 0.271 micromol/L are considered better indicators of B 1157: 1011: 939: 915: 834: 740: 700: 645: 6671:"Industry Resources on the Changes to the Nutrition Facts Label" 4313: 817:

The diets of vegetarians and vegans may not provide sufficient B

11065: 11059: 11053: 11047: 10699: 10686: 10616: 8995: 8678:

Marsh EN (1999). "Coenzyme B12 (cobalamin)-dependent enzymes".

5840: 5256:(20th ed.). Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 2319–2326. 3410: 2885: 2815: 2768: 2751:

into succinyl-CoA, which then enters energy production via the

2562: 2515: 2503: 2295: 2254: 1951: 1860: 1789: 1781: 1533: 1145: 1107: 967: 906: 902: 858: 850: 485: 328: 9042: 7582: 5878: 5329:"How prevalent is vitamin B(12) deficiency among vegetarians?" 4030:

Interrelations between Essential Metal Ions and Human Diseases

3244:

and the following individual species are known to synthesize B

2767:(MMA) concentration. The MUT function is necessary for proper 2707:

corrinoid biosynthesis or are dependent on exogenous vitamin B

2058:, usually at many times the recommended dietary allowance of B 1431:

deficiency, rather than relying only on the concentration of B

9790: 8766: 8314:"Vitamin B12: A review of analytical methods for use in food" 7791: 5792:

Weng TC, Chang CH, Dong YH, Chang YC, Chuang LM (July 2015).

5134: 4861: 3996: 3914: 3580: 3241: 2963:

without any correction of the underlying absorption defects.

2917: 2913: 2889: 2118:

A person with cobalamin C disease (which results in combined

1939: 1931:

considers plant and algae sources "unreliable", stating that

1856: 1797: 1766: 1585: 1572:

supplements are available as single or multivitamin tablets.

1561: 1537: 1223: 1119: 567: 301: 10084: 9863: 9043:

Battersby AR, Fookes CJ, Matcham GW, McDonald E (May 1980).

8721: 8633: 8196: 6531:(2nd ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization. pp. 5490:

Obeid R, Murphy M, Solé-Navais P, Yajnik C (November 2017).

5489: 5326: 2986:

related biochemistry, even in some cases with normal blood B

2390:. Deficiency does not develop if dietary intake of vitamin B 2191:

in Japan), have been found to contain mostly pseudovitamin-B

2015:. Most of these are in southeast Africa or Central America. 763:

and medications are available to treat and prevent vitamin B

11043: 9099: 7928: 7285:"Vitamin B₁₂-containing plant food sources for vegetarians" 5000: 3456: 3197: 3070: 2511: 2258: 2188: 1955: 1900: 1896: 1868: 1785: 1717: 1524:

poisoning, a large amount of hydroxocobalamin may be given

1271: 1114:, among others, especially in people over age 60. Vitamin B 849:

in the hands and feet, depression, memory loss, confusion,

465: 9647:"Synthesis of Cyanocobalamin by Robert B. Woodward (1973)" 8424:"Role of vitamin B12 on methylmalonyl-CoA mutase activity" 8062:"Metformin and Vitamin B12 Deficiency: Where Do We Stand?" 2685:) group transfers between two molecules. These use the MeB 40:"B12" and "Cbl" redirect here. For other uses of B12, see 8841:

Lam JR, Schneider JL, Zhao W, Corley DA (December 2013).

8576: 7881: 6995:

Department of Primary Industries and Regional Development

6519: 6475:"Tolerable Upper Intake Levels For Vitamins And Minerals" 6272: 6145: 5572: 4128:

Smith AG (2019-09-21). "Plants need their vitamins too".

3125:, which suppresses illegitimate transcription outside of 2590:

Several methods have been used to determine the vitamin B

2098: 1674:μg/day. AI for pregnancy is 4.5 μg/day, for lactation 5.0 1584:. Since there are few non-animal sources of the vitamin, 9487:

Pakistan Journal of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology

7931:

International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research

7849:

International Journal for Vitamin and Nutrition Research

7842: 7547:"Don't Vegetarians Have Trouble Getting Enough Vitamin B 7334:

Kwak CS, Lee MS, Lee HJ, Whang JY, Park SC (June 2010).

4517:"Acid-Reflux Drugs Tied to Lower Levels of Vitamin B-12" 4073: 3610: 3455:

and are generally recognized as safe (have been granted

2990:

levels. For the vitamin to serve inside cells, the TC2-B

1935:

should turn to fortified foods and supplements instead.

8475: 6180: 4417:. London: Academic Press (Elsevier). pp. 257–272. 3855: 3805:

injections provide an energy boost or aid weight loss.

3057:

levels change depends on the balance between how much B

2959:

absorption to be treated with daily oral megadoses of B

2763:, and can be measured clinically as an increased serum 2747:, an important step in the catabolic breakdown of some 2632:

in foods compared to the microbiological assay method.

2624:

and hog IF (pigs) have been used to determine vitamin B

1712:μg, but on May 27, 2016, it was revised downward to 2.4 1292:. Determination of these values was based on an RDA of 10056:"Are vitamin B-12 injections helpful for weight loss?" 9230:

Perlman D (1959). "Microbial synthesis of cobamides".

9000:

emerges as key player during cellular reprogramming".

8840: 8246: 7282: 7241: 5034: 3093:, the liver can store 3 to 5 years' worth of vitamin B 2782:

gene, is a methyltransferase enzyme which uses the MeB

2486:. Physically it resembles the other forms of vitamin B 1395:

may be seen. Diagnosis is supported based on vitamin B

1246:

fortified food such as cereal, plant-based milks, and

11329: 9274: 9209:. Cambridge University Press. pp. xvi, 257–282. 7721: 7468: 5970: 5924:"Vitamin B12 deficiency – A 21st century perspective" 5421: 4576:"Pernicious anemia: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia" 4464: 3669:

Nobel laureates for discoveries relating to vitamin B

3530: 9920:

Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society

9472: 8775:. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice Hall. 8285:

Bioorganometallics: Biomolecules, Labeling, Medicine

6811:

Graham RM, Deery E, Warren MJ (2009). "18: Vitamin B

5763:"Map: Count of Nutrients In Fortification Standards" 3915:

Prieto T, Neuburger M, Spingler B, Zelder F (2016).

3511:

was previously reported. This synthesis of vitamin B

2994:

complex must bind to a cell receptor protein and be

2786:

and reaction type 2 to transfer a methyl group from

1467:, rendering it unavailable for cellular delivery by 877:

was discovered as a result of pernicious anemia, an

8989: 7627: 6527:

Vitamin and Mineral Requirements in Human Nutrition

5231:. New York: Thieme Publishers. pp. 1187–1188. 672:. It is important in the normal functioning of the 9569: 8768: 7751:Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry 7243: 6815:: Biosynthesis of the Corrin Ring". In Warren MJ, 5791: 5675: 5275: 5273: 4671: 4545: 4543: 4541: 3999:"Vitamin B12: Fact Sheet for Health Professionals" 2927:Investigations into the intestinal absorption of B 2290:from protein for absorption. Reduced secretion of 1835:. Soil that is deficient in cobalt may result in B 1708:labeling purposes, 100% of the daily value was 6.0 1040:can be injected intramuscularly to treat vitamin B 9682:Wintrobe's Clinical Hematology Thirteenth Edition 8476:Froese DS, Fowler B, Baumgartner MR (July 2019). 8417: 8415: 8326: 8320: 8307: 8305: 8066:Journal of Pharmacy & Pharmaceutical Sciences 7283:Watanabe F, Yabuta Y, Bito T, Teng F (May 2014). 6810: 6218: 5971:Devalia V, Hamilton MS, Molloy AM (August 2014). 5620: 5618: 5370: 5282:Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 5203:Journal of the Association of Physicians of India 5196:"Gastric Antral Vascular Ectasia (GAVE) Syndrome" 4978:. National Health Service, England. 23 May 2019. 4408: 4406: 4074:Calderón-Ospina CA, Nava-Mesa MO (January 2020). 1812:" and are re-ingested, a practice referred to as 1761:, where the absorption of most nutrients occurs. 1192:subacute combined degeneration of the spinal cord 11353: 9736:"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1934" 8918:"Vitamin B12 Deficiency – Nutritional Disorders" 7064: 7062: 7060: 7058: 6358: 6214: 6212: 5279: 4718: 4669: 4415:Present Knowledge in Nutrition, Eleventh Edition 3793:of cyanocobalamin. This came to be known as the 2735:(MUT) is an isomerase enzyme which uses the AdoB 2282:-receptor antagonists and proton-pump inhibitors 2034:A blister pack of 500 μg methylcobalamin tablets 1831:, the animal must consume sufficient amounts of 1411:stores are becoming depleted. Therefore, serum B 393: 9963:"The Nobel Prize and the discovery of vitamins" 9611: 9609: 9376:"Cobalamin metabolism and its clinical aspects" 9373: 8627: 8379: 8154:. UK Medicines Information, NHS. Archived from 7333: 6850: 6848: 6508:Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology 6078:. US National Library of Medecine. October 2015 5428:Proceedings (Baylor University. Medical Center) 5270: 5193: 4942:"Vitamin B12 deficiency can be sneaky, harmful" 4857: 4855: 4811: 4809: 4807: 4805: 4665: 4663: 4538: 4267:"Vitamin B12 sources and microbial interaction" 3579:discovered that ingesting large amounts of raw 3447:, the other commonly used bacteria, produce no 2699:Some species of anaerobic bacteria synthesize B 656:. It is required by animals, which use it as a 368: 9641: 9639: 9417: 8789: 8471: 8469: 8467: 8412: 8302: 8190: 7141: 7139: 6896: 6894: 6892: 5921: 5874: 5872: 5615: 5424:"Nitrous oxide–induced vitamin B12 deficiency" 5371:Woo KS, Kwok TC, Celermajer DS (August 2014). 5030: 5028: 4994: 4633: 4403: 4069: 4067: 4065: 3997:Office of Dietary Supplements (6 April 2021). 3856:Gherasim C, Lofgren M, Banerjee R (May 2013). 3571:Identification of liver as an anti-anemia food 2482:Methylcobalamin (shown) is a form of vitamin B 2383:occur in up to 30% of people taking long-term 2087:μg dose, since the amount of cyanide there (20 1808:, the material from the cecum is expelled as " 1568:by having the vitamin added to them. Vitamin B 790:(IF) which must be bound to a food-source of B 11136: 10853: 10171: 9778: 9615: 9322: 8148:"What effect does metformin have on vitamin B 8016: 7922: 7836: 7555:Physicians Committee for Responsible Medicine 7382: 7055: 6709: 6268: 6266: 6209: 6019: 3470:in 2008 was 35,000 kg (77,175 lb). 1366:may be needed to prevent vitamin deficiency. 271:Readily absorbed in distal half of the ileum. 9675: 9673: 9671: 9606: 9473:Riaz M, Ansari ZA, Iqbal F, Akram M (2007). 9318: 9316: 9314: 7184: 6845: 6139: 5834: 5678:Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology Canada 5485: 5483: 5481: 5479: 5477: 5475: 5473: 5471: 5469: 5467: 4852: 4815: 4802: 4712: 4660: 4264: 2526:, +2 oxidation state) and "super-reduced" (B 2206:can show up as biologically active vitamin B 2022:from either fortified foods or supplements. 1749:. It is synthesized by some bacteria in the 351:α-(5,6-Dimethylbenzimidazolyl)cobamidcyanide 159: 9699: 9636: 9530: 8881: 8795: 8464: 7389:Current Gerontology and Geriatrics Research 7136: 6900: 6889: 6854: 6763:"The anaerobic biosynthesis of vitamin B12" 6760: 5964: 5869: 5098: 5025: 4598: 4460: 4458: 4373:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 4307: 4123: 4121: 4119: 4062: 2286:Gastric acid is needed to release vitamin B 1258:, thereby increasing their probability of B 1110:, poor reflexes, confusion, and pale skin, 10867: 10860: 10846: 10297:Calcitriol (1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol) 10178: 10164: 8760: 8717: 8715: 8713: 8711: 8709: 6823:. New York: Springer-Verlag. p. 286. 6323: 6263: 6219:Elangovan R, Baruteau J (September 2022). 6174: 5366: 5364: 5194:Amarapurka DN, Patel ND (September 2004). 5128: 4456: 4454: 4452: 4450: 4448: 4446: 4444: 4442: 4440: 4438: 3619:was assigned work on the bacterial strain 2187:(used to make a dried seaweed food called 2050:μg each, and it is a common ingredient in 1984:-fortified versions are available include 1543: 1495: 1194:. Deficiency symptoms in children include 974:Cyanocobalamin is a manufactured form of B 433: 10148:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine 10118: 9668: 9506:"New round of price slashing in vitamin B 9449: 9374:Linnell JC, Matthews DM (February 1984). 9350: 9340: 9311: 9200: 9141: 9068: 8972: 8962: 8858: 8610: 8553: 8496: 8447: 8362: 8344: 8167: 8165: 8087: 8077: 7993: 7819: 7809: 7698: 7688: 7607: 7410: 7400: 7359: 7310: 7300: 7218: 6918: 6872: 6737: 6727: 6411: 6300: 6290: 6246: 6236: 6122: 6047: 6037: 5988: 5947: 5817: 5652: 5642: 5598: 5566: 5515: 5464: 5447: 5398: 5388: 5344: 5226: 5170: 5152: 4785: 4767: 4744: 4719:Obeid R, Fedosov SN, Nexo E (July 2015). 4341: 4331: 4290: 4241: 4231: 4099: 3883: 3873: 3104: 1962:. Methylcobalamin has been identified in 1352: 814:or other antacids are at increased risk. 453: 9989: 9987: 9323:Fang H, Kang J, Zhang D (January 2017). 9147:"How Nature builds the pigments of life" 8311: 8110: 7963: 7383:Kwak CS, Lee MS, Oh SI, Park SC (2010). 7276: 7180: 7178: 7068: 6987: 6949: 6943: 6857:"Vitamin B12 in meat and dairy products" 6710:Fang H, Kang J, Zhang D (January 2017). 6623: 6605:Dietary Supplement Label Database (DSLD) 6480:. European Food Safety Authority. 2006. 6317: 5785: 5422:Stockton L, Simonsen C, Seago S (2017). 4976:or folate deficiency anaemia – Symptoms" 4939: 4761: 4690:10.1146/annurev.biochem.72.121801.161828 4116: 3767: 3413:, was the commercial source of vitamin B 3048: 2723: 2671:(adenosylcobalamin) form of the vitamin. 2549:group. The sixth coordination site, the 2536: 2477: 2314:, although not of supplemental vitamin B 2265:utilization pathways or even attacking B 2029: 1773:), and thus they are absorbing vitamin B 1482: 1419:status. For this reason, elevated serum 1272:Pregnancy, lactation and early childhood 16:Vitamin used in animal cells' metabolism 10014: 9913: 9911: 9229: 8706: 8288:. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH. pp. 17–25. 7742: 7578: 7576: 6990:"Cobalt deficiency in sheep and cattle" 6445:(based on levels per 100-gram serving)" 6096: 5537: 5535: 5361: 5077: 4725:Molecular Nutrition & Food Research 4486:, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline 4435: 4412: 4258: 4207: 3921:from an Artificial Green Secocorrinoid" 3466:The total world production of vitamin B 3437:improved yield via genetic engineering 3121:levels affect the histone modification 1846: 1827:. For gut bacteria to produce vitamin B 1732: 1615:for women and men ages 14 and up is 2.0 413: 291:is slightly higher than cyanocobalamin. 132: 90:(R = CN) based on the crystal structure 11354: 10020: 9917: 9277:Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 8485:Journal of Inherited Metabolic Disease 8281: 8162: 8053: 7527:from the original on December 19, 2012 7191:Applied and Environmental Microbiology 7124:from the original on November 11, 2017 7111: 7022: 7020: 6953:Vitamins in Animal and Human Nutrition 6631:"Changes to the Nutrition Facts Label" 6557: 6455:from the original on November 16, 2019 5757: 5755: 5251: 5007:The Israel Medical Association Journal 4179: 4027: 3992: 3990: 3988: 3986: 3984: 3982: 3980: 3978: 3784: 2920:. The receptor is specific to the IF-B 2689:(methylcobalamin) form of the vitamin. 2322:-receptor antagonist examples include 2099:Intramuscular or intravenous injection 1262:deficiency due to reduced absorption. 1118:deficiency can also cause symptoms of 233: 10841: 10159: 10066:from the original on 27 November 2019 10053: 10023:"A closer look at vitamin injections" 9984: 9960: 9784: 9679: 9618:European Journal of Organic Chemistry 9503: 8875: 8677: 8385: 8059: 7175: 7043:from the original on January 16, 2017 7026: 6435: 6433: 6431: 4670:Banerjee R, Ragsdale SW (July 2003). 4365: 4363: 4361: 4177: 4175: 4173: 4171: 4169: 4167: 4165: 4163: 4161: 4159: 4127: 3976: 3974: 3972: 3970: 3968: 3966: 3964: 3962: 3960: 3958: 3611:Identification of the active compound 3593:Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 3081:secreted in the bile is recycled via 2582:Methods for the analysis of vitamin B 1863:and some pass the vitamin into their 1308:for lactation. Low maternal vitamin B 1148:with bone marrow promegaloblastosis ( 994:. The two bioactive forms of vitamin 978:. Bacterial fermentation creates AdoB 782:deficiency in developed countries is 493: 242: 150: 118: 10035:from the original on 11 January 2020 9993: 9908: 8145: 7573: 7561:from the original on October 8, 2011 7163:from the original on 26 January 2017 7114:"Why Insects Should Be in Your Diet" 6393: 6020:Moretti R, Caruso P (January 2019). 5922:Shipton MJ, Thachil J (April 2015). 5532: 5229:Handbook of Neurosurgery 7th Edition 5080:The Journal of Reproductive Medicine 4952:from the original on 29 October 2019 4195:from the original on 29 October 2019 2847:-MPT, coenzyme M methyltransferase. 2739:form and reaction type 1 to convert 2640: 2272: 2158: 1647:or a supplement containing vitamin B 1515: 1300:(EFSA) sets adequate intake (AI) at 1152:). This is due to the inhibition of 206: 104:Vitamin B12, vitamin B-12, cobalamin 8329:"Vitamin B12 in Health and Disease" 7511: 7017: 6855:Gille D, Schmid A (February 2015). 6821:Tetrapyrroles Birth, Life and Death 6581:from the original on August 8, 2016 6523:(2005). "Chapter 14: Vitamin B12". 5752: 4982:from the original on 12 August 2017 4265:Watanabe F, Bito T (January 2018). 3409:, a bacterium once thought to be a 2599:-requiring microorganisms, such as 1918: 1780:Other mammalian species (examples: 1278:Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) 473: 384: 13: 10493:2-Methylnaphthalene-1,4-diamine (K 10185: 9707:"George H. Whipple – Biographical" 9475:"Microbial production of vitamin B 8649:10.1016/j.neuroscience.2009.08.028 8327:O'Leary F, Samman S (March 2010). 7235: 6901:Stevens CE, Hume ID (April 1998). 6428: 5773:from the original on 11 April 2019 5767:Global Fortification Data Exchange 5116:from the original on 14 March 2016 4768:Paul C, Brady DM (February 2017). 4358: 4156: 3955: 3849: 3772:Industrial production of vitamin B 3648:of the molecule was determined by 3531:Descriptions of deficiency effects 3166:tetrapyrrolic structural framework 2422:products, and antibiotics such as 2358:. Clinically significant vitamin B 2210:when a microbiological assay with 2134:Nanotechnologies used in vitamin B 1975: 1954:and seaweed-derived foods such as 1929:Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 1769:before entering the true stomach ( 1528:and sometimes in combination with 1254:as they age, a condition known as 962:, the adenosyl ligand in vitamin B 948:, the adenosyl ligand in vitamin B 934:, the adenosyl ligand in vitamin B 542: 14: 11398: 10139: 9760:"Mary Shorb Lecture in Nutrition" 7071:Experimental Biology and Medicine 6761:Moore SJ, Warren MJ (June 2012). 6326:The Journal of Emergency Medicine 6195:10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2003.08.004 4899:Experimental Biology and Medicine 2379:Reduced serum levels of vitamin B 1741:is produced in nature by certain 1627:μg/day. RDA for lactation equals 909:ligand and is further bound to a 905:, which occupies the center of a 11339: 10078: 10047: 9954: 9857: 9805: 9752: 9728: 9563: 9524: 9497: 9479:by methanol utilizing strain of 9466: 9367: 9268: 9232:Advances in Applied Microbiology 9223: 9194: 9135: 9109:Biochemical Society Transactions 9093: 9036: 8910: 8834: 8671: 8570: 8513: 8275: 8240: 8139: 8104: 6988:Erickson A (September 3, 2019). 6770:Biochemical Society Transactions 6691: 6651: 5216:from the original on 2016-03-04. 5049:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.11020052 4130:Current Opinion in Plant Biology 4003:US National Institutes of Health 3750: 3736: 3722: 3708: 3694: 3680: 3426:Propionibacterium freudenreichii 3233:, that the complete sequence of 3009: 2802:. This functionality is lost in 2755:. This functionality is lost in 2195:instead of biologically active B 530: 521: 77: 61: 10103:10.1001/jamainternmed.2019.1859 9973:from the original on 2023-08-20 9717:from the original on 2017-09-13 9657:from the original on 2018-02-16 9183:from the original on 2018-07-24 8922:MSD Manual Professional Edition 8010: 7957: 7875: 7785: 7715: 7664: 7621: 7539: 7505: 7462: 7427: 7376: 7340:Nutrition Research and Practice 7327: 7211:10.1128/AEM.60.5.1495-1499.1994 7185:Keuth S, Bisping B (May 1994). 7105: 7006:from the original on 2015-11-11 7000:Government of Western Australia 6981: 6970:from the original on 2017-09-08 6804: 6754: 6703: 6663: 6593: 6574:. May 27, 2016. p. 33982. 6513: 6498: 6487:from the original on 2019-10-15 6467: 6387: 6352: 6090: 6064: 6013: 5915: 5728: 5704: 5669: 5555:from the original on 2020-01-07 5415: 5320: 5245: 5220: 5187: 5071: 5037:J Neuropsychiatry Clin Neurosci 4933: 4890: 4627: 4592: 4568: 4551:"Vitamin B12 Deficiency Anemia" 4527:from the original on 2018-07-23 4509: 4009:from the original on 2021-10-08 3149: 3065:stored in the body is about 2–5 2839:function which is mediated by B 2733:Methylmalonyl coenzyme A mutase 2717:In humans, two major coenzyme B 2635: 1478: 1185:gastric antral vascular ectasia 1052:" refers to compounds that are 918:. The vitamin activity is as a 624:Key:RMRCNWBMXRMIRW-WYVZQNDMSA-L 10502:4-Amino-3-methyl-1-naphthol (K 10484:4-Amino-2-methyl-1-naphthol (K 7900:10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.12.039 7584:European Food Safety Authority 7448:10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.08.035 7262:10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.05.017 7112:Dossey AT (February 1, 2013). 5440:10.1080/08998280.2017.11929571 4385:10.1002/14651858.CD013823.pub2 4021: 3908: 3021:) will inhibit absorption of B 2955:and certain other defects in B 2947:supplementation at 500 to 1000 2506:ring, which is similar to the 2405: 2241:, compounds (often synthetic B 2025: 1668:European Food Safety Authority 1611:in 1998. The EAR for vitamin B 1448:may be carried out to measure 1298:European Food Safety Authority 536: 527: 515: 1: 9244:10.1016/S0065-2164(08)70476-3 8896:10.1146/annurev.nutr.19.1.357 8810:10.1016/s0083-6729(00)59012-8 8113:Archives of Internal Medicine 8019:Nat Rev Gastroenterol Hepatol 7974:Chemistry: A European Journal 7630:The Annals of Pharmacotherapy 7523:. Vegetarian Resource Group. 7029:"Do carnivores need Vitamin B 6920:10.1152/physrev.1998.78.2.393 5940:10.7861/clinmedicine.15-2-145 5254:Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics 4940:Skerrett PJ (February 2019). 4678:Annual Review of Biochemistry 4613:10.1146/annurev.nutr.19.1.357 3901: 3473: 3390: 2855: 2850: 2394:is adequate or prophylactic B 1653:tolerable upper intake levels 1463:binds 80-90% of circulating B 1098:, breathlessness, headaches, 1067: 1060:is the majority corrinoid in 888: 44:. For the musical group, see 9510:sector (Fine and Specialty)" 9504:Zhang Y (January 26, 2009). 8173:"Vitamin B-12: Interactions" 7964:Kräutler B (December 2020). 7027:Rooke J (October 30, 2013). 6829:10.1007/978-0-387-78518-9_18 6677:Food and Drug Administration 6637:Food and Drug Administration 6338:10.1016/0736-4679(87)90074-6 5736:"Pregnancy: Vegetarian Diet" 5712:"Nutrition During Pregnancy" 5106:"What Is Pernicious Anemia?" 3628:, and in collaboration with 3461:Food and Drug Administration 3417:for many years. The species 3403:of selected microorganisms. 3144: 2810:, resulting in an increased 2473: 2374: 1605:National Academy of Medicine 1393:polymorphonuclear leukocytes 1369: 7: 9430:Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol 8800:. Vitamins & Hormones. 8386:Obeid R, ed. (2017-07-12). 7970:-Some Inaugural Milestones" 7943:10.1024/0300-9831.78.45.195 6441:"Foods highest in Vitamin B 6373:10.1016/j.burns.2014.06.001 5855:10.1016/j.soard.2013.04.017 5810:10.1136/bmjopen-2014-006964 4636:Bioorganometallic Chemistry 4038:10.1007/978-94-007-7500-8_9 3941:10.1021/acs.orglett.6b02611 3812: 3240:Species from the following 2998:. TC2 is degraded within a 2514:. The central metal ion is 2434:. Anti-seizure medications 1399:blood levels below 150–180 1383:(MCV). In addition, on the 1112:feeling abnormal sensations 825:or a blood disorder called 10: 11403: 10054:Bauer BA (29 March 2018). 9154:Pure and Applied Chemistry 9014:10.1038/s42255-023-00917-5 8964:10.1038/s42255-023-00916-6 8884:Annual Review of Nutrition 8146:Copp S (1 December 2007). 8125:10.1001/archinte.162.4.484 7861:10.1024/0300-9831.69.6.412 5690:10.1016/j.jogc.2022.04.004 5294:10.1016/j.jand.2016.09.025 4911:10.1177/153537020122600402 4601:Annual Review of Nutrition 3523: 3519: 3477: 3395:Industrial production of B 3192:. The latter is the first 3153: 2912:, which together form the 2823:deficiency, including the 2814:level and the trapping of 2657:to function (in animals): 2222:and then assessment with B 2180:, and some algae, such as 1855:from their diets in their 1727: 1071: 727:Foods containing vitamin B 505:Chemical and physical data 39: 18: 11301: 11278: 11257: 11182: 11127: 11097: 11034: 11025: 10997: 10988: 10947: 10934: 10925: 10887: 10876: 10798: 10782: 10755: 10527: 10518: 10433: 10363: 10292:25-hydroxycholecalciferol 10240: 10207: 10198: 9785:Shorb MS (May 10, 2012). 9442:10.1007/s00253-017-8616-7 9342:10.1186/s12934-017-0631-y 9289:10.1007/s00253-001-0902-7 8736:10.1016/bs.vh.2022.01.016 8726:. Vitamins and Hormones. 8312:Lawrance P (March 2015). 8031:10.1038/nrgastro.2009.125 7483:10.1007/s00253-001-0902-7 7471:Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 6729:10.1186/s12934-017-0631-y 6521:World Health Organization 6413:10.1080/15563650600811607 6238:10.3389/fphar.2022.972468 5893:10.1007/s11695-017-3102-y 4142:10.1016/j.pbi.2007.04.009 3420:Pseudomonas denitrificans 3226:Pseudomonas denitrificans 3083:enterohepatic circulation 2602:Lactobacillus delbrueckii 2212:Lactobacillus delbrueckii 1980:Foods for which vitamin B 1695:World Health Organization 1661:dietary reference intakes 1588:are advised to consume a 1576:preparations of vitamin B 607: 587: 565: 548: 509: 504: 484: 464: 444: 424: 404: 379: 359: 339: 334: 322: 307: 295: 275: 265: 257: 223: 218: 193: 170: 140: 126: 108: 100: 95: 76: 60: 11074:Magnesium protoporphyrin 10150:Medical Subject Headings 10021:Gavura S (24 May 2013). 8860:10.1001/jama.2013.280490 8771:Human Biology and Health 8526:Appl. Environ. Microbiol 8249:Chemical Society Reviews 7763:10.1136/jnnp.2007.133025 7352:10.4162/nrp.2010.4.3.229 6716:Microbial Cell Factories 6115:10.1136/bmj.333.7564.385 6072:"Methylmalonic acidemia" 4830:10.5740/jaoacint.18-0045 4283:10.1177/1535370217746612 3559:in the bone marrow, and 3488:The complete laboratory 3077:excretion; most of the B 2788:5-methyltetrahydrofolate 2338:. PPIs examples include 1592:or fortified foods for B 788:gastric intrinsic factor 707:can synthesize vitamin B 318:(400 days in the liver). 9514:China Chemical Reporter 9166:10.1351/pac199365061113 7609:10.2903/j.efsa.2008.815 7037:Baltimore Post Examiner 6076:Genetics Home Reference 4555:www.hopkinsmedicine.org 4333:10.3389/fnut.2019.00093 3875:10.1074/jbc.R113.458810 3638:University of Cambridge 3535:Between 1849 and 1887, 3196:intermediate common to 3168:created by the enzymes 2916:receptor in the distal 2553:, is variable, being a 1851:Animals store vitamin B 1582:intramuscular injection 1544:Dietary recommendations 1496:Treatment of deficiency 1423:over 15 micromol/L and 1381:mean corpuscular volume 769:intramuscular injection 11377:Organocobalt compounds 10091:JAMA Internal Medicine 10028:Science-Based Medicine 9932:10.1098/rsbm.2002.0011 9592:10.1126/science.867037 8282:Jaouen G, ed. (2006). 8158:on September 27, 2007. 7986:10.1002/chem.202003788 7586:(September 25, 2008). 6097:Devalia V (Aug 2006). 4774:Integr Med (Encinitas) 4737:10.1002/mnfr.201500019 4271:Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 4001:. Bethesda, Maryland: 3824:Cobalamin biosynthesis 3526:Vitamin § History 3463:of the United States. 3221:genetically engineered 3156:Cobalamin biosynthesis 3115:cellular reprogramming 3105:Cellular reprogramming 3019:proton-pump inhibitors 2892:is neutralized in the 2729: 2542: 2491: 2269:-dependent pathogens. 2120:methylmalonic aciduria 2035: 1777:produced by bacteria. 1757:, downstream from the 1722:Reference Daily Intake 1492: 1442:methylmalonic acidemia 1385:peripheral blood smear 1353:Gastric bypass surgery 1137:, characterized by a 1131:vitamin B12 deficiency 804:proton-pump inhibitors 281:Very high to specific 46:Carbon Based Lifeforms 11382:Cobalt(III) compounds 11174:Protoporphyrinogen IX 10315:Dihydroergocalciferol 8440:10.1631/jzus.B1100329 8428:J Zhejiang Univ Sci B 8396:10.1201/9781315119540 7700:10.1093/fampra/cml008 6874:10.1093/nutrit/nuu011 5508:10.3945/an.117.015628 5496:Advances in Nutrition 4466:Institute of Medicine 3768:Commercial production 3758:Robert Burns Woodward 3524:Further information: 3497:Robert Burns Woodward 3219:. It was not until a 3217:S-adenosyl methionine 3073:is the main form of B 3049:Storage and excretion 2794:, thereby generating 2727: 2547:dimethylbenzimidazole 2540: 2481: 2308:proton-pump inhibitor 2233:A related concept is 2033: 1486: 1208:involuntary movements 865:deficiency. Vitamin B 684:in the maturation of 670:amino acid metabolism 652:. It is one of eight 644:, is a water-soluble 11387:Cobalt(II) compounds 11267:Bacteriochlorophyll 11246:Bacteriochlorophyll 10770:Dehydroascorbic acid 10274:7-Dehydrocholesterol 9793:on December 12, 2012 8546:10.1128/AEM.02173-12 7811:10.3390/nano11030743 6950:McDowell LR (2008). 6039:10.3390/ijms20010231 5227:Greenburg M (2010). 3776:is achieved through 3621:Lactobacillus lactis 3563:described a case of 3539:described a case of 3406:Streptomyces griseus 3399:is achieved through 3190:uroporphyrinogen III 2980:megaloblastic anemia 2825:megaloblastic anemia 2071:, which contains no 1950:plant foods such as 1942:sources of vitamin B 1847:Animal-derived foods 1806:hindgut fermentation 1733:Bacteria and archaea 1598:developing countries 1564:-based foods can be 1556:is up to 40% in the 1324:deficient. Vitamin B 1150:megaloblastic anemia 899:coordination complex 676:via its role in the 316:Approximately 6 days 42:B12 (disambiguation) 11280:Isobacteriochlorins 11115:Protochlorophyllide 11089:Zinc protoporphyrin 10664:Pyridoxal phosphate 9878:1956Natur.178...64H 9827:1955Natur.176..325H 9584:1977Sci...196.1410E 9578:(4297): 1410–1420. 9205:, Haley CD (eds.). 9061:1980Natur.285...17B 8603:10.1038/nature13901 8595:2015Natur.517..513P 8538:2012ApEnM..78.8025R 7980:(67): 15438–15445. 7724:FABAD J. Pharm. Sci 7402:10.1155/2010/374897 7203:1994ApEnM..60.1495K 7156:. 27 October 2015. 7147:"Vitamin B-12 (μg)" 6782:10.1042/BST20120066 6400:Clinical Toxicology 6148:J Inherit Metab Dis 5843:Surg Obes Relat Dis 5740:myhealth.alberta.ca 4946:Harvard Health Blog 4864:J. Agric. Food Chem 4482:, Folate, Vitamin B 3868:(19): 13186–13193. 3785:Society and culture 3186:hydroxymethylbilane 3178:aminolevulinic acid 2776:Methionine synthase 2741:L-methylmalonyl-CoA 2418:, extended-release 2075:, is available in 5 1619:μg/day; the RDA is 1450:cerebrospinal fluid 1391:and hypersegmented 1196:developmental delay 879:autoimmune disorder 784:impaired absorption 678:synthesis of myelin 57: 11160:Coproporphyrinogen 10825:Never to phase III 10338:Dihydrotachysterol 9711:www.nobelprize.org 9651:www.synarchive.com 9549:10.1007/BF02837864 9121:10.1042/BST0330811 8692:10.1042/bse0340139 8498:10.1002/jimd.12009 8261:10.1039/C5CS00165J 7636:(7–8): 1268–1272. 7521:in the Vegan Diet" 7083:10.3181/0703-MR-67 6681:. 21 December 2018 6292:10.3390/jcm7100304 6160:10.1002/jimd.12593 5644:10.3390/nu11030557 5591:10.1093/aje/kww212 5346:10.1111/nure.12001 4233:10.3390/nu13061913 3646:chemical structure 3575:During the 1920s, 3501:Albert Eschenmoser 3164:is derived from a 3133:and show signs of 2972:portal circulation 2951:μg per day allows 2864:is absorbed by a B 2765:methylmalonic acid 2730: 2677:Methyltransferases 2543: 2492: 2298:, from the use of 2036: 1965:Chlorella vulgaris 1938:Natural plant and 1590:dietary supplement 1530:sodium thiosulfate 1493: 1425:methylmalonic acid 1304:for pregnancy and 1027:food fortification 851:difficulty walking 759:with the vitamin. 682:circulatory system 53: 11327: 11326: 11323: 11322: 11319: 11318: 11123: 11122: 11079:Protoporphyrin IX 11007:Adenosylcobalamin 10984: 10983: 10980: 10979: 10957:Phycoerythrobilin 10835: 10834: 10778: 10777: 10730:Adenosylcobalamin 10705:Dihydrofolic acid 10514: 10513: 10097:(10): 1434–1436. 9691:978-1-4511-7268-3 9680:Greer JP (2014). 9395:10.1042/cs0660113 9329:Microb. Cell Fact 9253:978-0-12-002601-2 9115:(Pt 4): 811–814. 9008:(11): 1844–1845. 9002:Nature Metabolism 8957:(11): 1911–1930. 8951:Nature Metabolism 8819:978-0-12-709859-3 8782:978-0-13-981176-0 8745:978-0-323-99223-7 8589:(7535): 513–516. 8532:(22): 8025–8032. 8405:978-1-315-11954-0 8346:10.3390/nu2030299 8295:978-3-527-30990-0 8255:(11): 3391–3404. 8218:10.1002/ana.22229 8060:Ahmed MA (2016). 7642:10.1345/aph.1A122 7302:10.3390/nu6051861 7077:(10): 1266–1274. 6963:978-0-470-37668-3 6861:Nutrition Reviews 6838:978-0-387-78518-9 6550:978-92-4-154612-6 6510:2013(59):S67–S82. 6406:(Suppl. 1): 1–3. 6109:(7564): 385–386. 5990:10.1111/bjh.12959 5684:(6): 707–719.e1. 5390:10.3390/nu6083259 5333:Nutrition Reviews 5288:(12): 1970–1980. 5263:978-1-4557-7566-8 5238:978-1-60406-326-4 5154:10.3390/nu5114521 5147:(11): 4521–4539. 5112:. April 1, 2011. 4876:10.1021/jf990541b 4870:(11): 4736–4741. 4495:978-0-309-06554-2 4424:978-0-323-66162-1 4092:10.1111/cns.13207 4080:CNS Neurosci Ther 4047:978-94-007-7499-5 3935:(20): 5292–5295. 3819:Adenosylcobalamin 3730:Alexander R. Todd 3716:William P. Murphy 3634:Alexander R. Todd 3597:William P. Murphy 3541:pernicious anemia 3444:Propionibacterium 3251:Propionibacterium 3035:bariatric surgery 3031:pernicious anemia 2953:pernicious anemia 2882:hydrochloric acid 2878:transcobalamin II 2829:pernicious anemia 2753:citric acid cycle 2641:Coenzyme function 2273:Drug interactions 2006:nutritional yeast 1986:breakfast cereals 1839:deficiency, and B 1651:. As for safety, 1516:Cyanide poisoning 1469:transcobalamin II 1280:for pregnancy is 1248:nutritional yeast 1139:triad of symptoms 1135:pernicious anemia 1129:The main type of 1016:adenosylcobalamin 927:adenosylcobalamin 827:pernicious anemia 786:due to a loss of 753:breakfast cereals 632: 631: 578:Interactive image 246: 237: 153: 33:adenosylcobalamin 11394: 11344: 11343: 11342: 11335: 11293:Sirohydrochlorin 11259:Bacteriochlorins 11146:Uroporphyrinogen 11134: 11133: 11032: 11031: 10995: 10994: 10939:Phytochromobilin 10932: 10931: 10885: 10884: 10862: 10855: 10848: 10839: 10838: 10740:Hydroxocobalamin 10715:Levomefolic acid 10635:Pantothenic acid 10525: 10524: 10448:Phylloquinone (K 10205: 10204: 10180: 10173: 10166: 10157: 10156: 10133: 10132: 10122: 10082: 10076: 10075: 10073: 10071: 10051: 10045: 10044: 10042: 10040: 10018: 10012: 10011: 9991: 9982: 9981: 9979: 9978: 9958: 9952: 9951: 9915: 9906: 9905: 9886:10.1038/178064a0 9861: 9855: 9854: 9835:10.1038/176325a0 9821:(4477): 325–28. 9809: 9803: 9802: 9800: 9798: 9787:"Annual Lecture" 9782: 9776: 9775: 9773: 9771: 9766:on March 4, 2016 9762:. Archived from 9756: 9750: 9749: 9747: 9746: 9732: 9726: 9725: 9723: 9722: 9703: 9697: 9695: 9677: 9666: 9665: 9663: 9662: 9643: 9634: 9633: 9613: 9604: 9603: 9567: 9561: 9560: 9528: 9522: 9521: 9520:on May 13, 2013. 9516:. Archived from 9501: 9495: 9494: 9470: 9464: 9463: 9453: 9421: 9415: 9414: 9383:Clinical Science 9380: 9371: 9365: 9364: 9354: 9344: 9320: 9309: 9308: 9272: 9266: 9265: 9227: 9221: 9220: 9198: 9192: 9191: 9189: 9188: 9182: 9160:(6): 1113–1122. 9151: 9139: 9133: 9132: 9106: 9097: 9091: 9090: 9072: 9070:10.1038/285017a0 9040: 9034: 9033: 8993: 8987: 8986: 8976: 8966: 8938: 8932: 8931: 8929: 8928: 8914: 8908: 8907: 8879: 8873: 8872: 8862: 8838: 8832: 8831: 8793: 8787: 8786: 8774: 8764: 8758: 8757: 8719: 8704: 8703: 8675: 8669: 8668: 8631: 8625: 8624: 8614: 8574: 8568: 8567: 8557: 8517: 8511: 8510: 8500: 8482: 8473: 8462: 8461: 8451: 8419: 8410: 8409: 8383: 8377: 8376: 8366: 8348: 8324: 8318: 8317: 8309: 8300: 8299: 8279: 8273: 8272: 8244: 8238: 8237: 8203: 8194: 8188: 8187: 8185: 8183: 8169: 8160: 8159: 8143: 8137: 8136: 8108: 8102: 8101: 8091: 8081: 8057: 8051: 8050: 8014: 8008: 8007: 7997: 7961: 7955: 7954: 7937:(4–5): 195–203. 7926: 7920: 7919: 7879: 7873: 7872: 7840: 7834: 7833: 7823: 7813: 7789: 7783: 7782: 7746: 7740: 7739: 7719: 7713: 7712: 7702: 7692: 7668: 7662: 7661: 7625: 7619: 7613: 7611: 7580: 7571: 7570: 7568: 7566: 7543: 7537: 7536: 7534: 7532: 7509: 7503: 7502: 7466: 7460: 7459: 7431: 7425: 7424: 7414: 7404: 7380: 7374: 7373: 7363: 7331: 7325: 7324: 7314: 7304: 7295:(5): 1861–1873. 7280: 7274: 7273: 7256:(3): 2418–2425. 7247: 7239: 7233: 7232: 7222: 7197:(5): 1495–1499. 7182: 7173: 7172: 7170: 7168: 7162: 7151: 7143: 7134: 7133: 7131: 7129: 7109: 7103: 7102: 7066: 7053: 7052: 7050: 7048: 7024: 7015: 7014: 7012: 7011: 6985: 6979: 6978: 6976: 6975: 6947: 6941: 6940: 6922: 6898: 6887: 6886: 6876: 6852: 6843: 6842: 6808: 6802: 6801: 6767: 6758: 6752: 6751: 6741: 6731: 6707: 6701: 6695: 6694: 6690: 6688: 6686: 6667: 6661: 6655: 6654: 6650: 6648: 6646: 6627: 6621: 6620: 6618: 6616: 6607:. Archived from 6597: 6591: 6590: 6588: 6586: 6580: 6572:Federal Register 6569: 6561: 6555: 6554: 6530: 6517: 6511: 6502: 6496: 6495: 6493: 6492: 6486: 6479: 6471: 6465: 6464: 6462: 6460: 6437: 6426: 6425: 6415: 6394:Dart RC (2006). 6391: 6385: 6384: 6356: 6350: 6349: 6321: 6315: 6314: 6304: 6294: 6270: 6261: 6260: 6250: 6240: 6216: 6207: 6206: 6178: 6172: 6171: 6143: 6137: 6136: 6126: 6094: 6088: 6087: 6085: 6083: 6068: 6062: 6061: 6051: 6041: 6017: 6011: 6010: 5992: 5968: 5962: 5961: 5951: 5919: 5913: 5912: 5887:(7): 1916–1923. 5876: 5867: 5866: 5849:(6): 1013–1019. 5838: 5832: 5831: 5821: 5789: 5783: 5782: 5780: 5778: 5759: 5750: 5749: 5747: 5746: 5732: 5726: 5725: 5723: 5722: 5708: 5702: 5701: 5673: 5667: 5666: 5656: 5646: 5622: 5613: 5612: 5602: 5570: 5564: 5563: 5561: 5560: 5554: 5547: 5539: 5530: 5529: 5519: 5487: 5462: 5461: 5451: 5419: 5413: 5412: 5402: 5392: 5383:(8): 3259–3273. 5368: 5359: 5358: 5348: 5324: 5318: 5317: 5277: 5268: 5267: 5249: 5243: 5242: 5224: 5218: 5217: 5215: 5200: 5191: 5185: 5184: 5174: 5156: 5132: 5126: 5125: 5123: 5121: 5102: 5096: 5095: 5075: 5069: 5068: 5032: 5023: 5022: 4998: 4992: 4991: 4989: 4987: 4968: 4962: 4961: 4959: 4957: 4937: 4931: 4930: 4894: 4888: 4887: 4859: 4850: 4849: 4824:(5): 1308–1313. 4813: 4800: 4799: 4789: 4765: 4759: 4758: 4748: 4731:(7): 1364–1372. 4716: 4710: 4709: 4675: 4667: 4658: 4657: 4644:10.1007/3418_004 4631: 4625: 4624: 4596: 4590: 4589: 4587: 4586: 4572: 4566: 4565: 4563: 4562: 4547: 4536: 4535: 4533: 4532: 4513: 4507: 4506: 4504: 4502: 4462: 4433: 4432: 4410: 4401: 4400: 4391: 10772977. 4367: 4356: 4355: 4345: 4335: 4311: 4305: 4304: 4294: 4262: 4256: 4255: 4245: 4235: 4211: 4205: 4204: 4202: 4200: 4181: 4154: 4153: 4125: 4114: 4113: 4103: 4071: 4060: 4059: 4025: 4019: 4018: 4016: 4014: 3994: 3953: 3952: 3925: 3912: 3897: 3887: 3877: 3834:Hydroxocobalamin 3792: 3754: 3740: 3726: 3712: 3698: 3684: 3654:crystallographic 3561:Ludwig Lichtheim 3495:was achieved by 3439:P. denitrificans 3176:which transform 3068: 3027:intrinsic factor 2982:, and abnormal B 2950: 2934: 2874:intrinsic factor 2796:tetrahydrofolate 2110: 2105:hydroxycobalamin 2094: 2090: 2086: 2078: 2049: 1990:milk substitutes 1988:, plant-derived 1919:Plants and algae 1715: 1711: 1700: 1692: 1681: 1677: 1673: 1638: 1634: 1630: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1580:may be given by 1511: 1507: 1500:Severe vitamin B 1365: 1307: 1303: 1295: 1291: 1288:, for lactation 1287: 1090:, feeling weak, 1048:"Pseudovitamin B 1038:Hydroxocobalamin 1005: 1004: 1003: 946:hydroxocobalamin 831:a type of anemia 640:, also known as 580: 560: 558: 544: 538: 532: 529: 523: 517: 497: 477: 457: 437: 417: 397: 387: 386: 372: 312: 289:hydroxocobalamin 285:plasma proteins. 244: 241: 235: 232: 210: 189:(IM), intranasal 163: 152: 149: 136: 122: 81: 69:skeletal formula 65: 58: 56: 52: 21:hydroxocobalamin 11402: 11401: 11397: 11396: 11395: 11393: 11392: 11391: 11352: 11351: 11350: 11340: 11338: 11330: 11328: 11315: 11297: 11274: 11253: 11178: 11129: 11119: 11099:Phytoporphyrins 11093: 11036:Protoporphyrins 11021: 11017:Methylcobalamin 10976: 10972:Phycoviolobilin 10962:Phycocyanobilin 10943: 10921: 10902:Stercobilinogen 10880: 10872: 10866: 10836: 10831: 10830: 10815:Clinical trials 10794: 10774: 10751: 10745:Methylcobalamin 10725: 10696: 10683: 10655: 10631: 10612: 10598: 10553: 10539: 10520: 10510: 10505: 10496: 10487: 10478: 10469: 10460: 10457:Menaquinones (K 10451: 10429: 10359: 10325: 10311: 10302:Calcitroic acid 10287:Cholecalciferol 10282: 10270: 10252: 10236: 10200: 10194: 10184: 10142: 10137: 10136: 10083: 10079: 10069: 10067: 10052: 10048: 10038: 10036: 10019: 10015: 9992: 9985: 9976: 9974: 9959: 9955: 9916: 9909: 9872:(4524): 64–66. 9862: 9858: 9810: 9806: 9796: 9794: 9783: 9779: 9769: 9767: 9758: 9757: 9753: 9744: 9742: 9734: 9733: 9729: 9720: 9718: 9705: 9704: 9700: 9692: 9678: 9669: 9660: 9658: 9645: 9644: 9637: 9614: 9607: 9568: 9564: 9534: 9529: 9525: 9509: 9502: 9498: 9478: 9471: 9467: 9422: 9418: 9378: 9372: 9368: 9321: 9312: 9273: 9269: 9254: 9228: 9224: 9217: 9199: 9195: 9186: 9184: 9180: 9149: 9140: 9136: 9104: 9098: 9094: 9055:(5759): 17–21. 9041: 9037: 8999: 8994: 8990: 8946: 8939: 8935: 8926: 8924: 8916: 8915: 8911: 8880: 8876: 8853:(22): 2435–42. 8839: 8835: 8820: 8794: 8790: 8783: 8765: 8761: 8746: 8720: 8707: 8676: 8672: 8632: 8628: 8575: 8571: 8518: 8514: 8480: 8474: 8465: 8420: 8413: 8406: 8384: 8380: 8325: 8321: 8310: 8303: 8296: 8280: 8276: 8245: 8241: 8201: 8195: 8191: 8181: 8179: 8171: 8170: 8163: 8151: 8144: 8140: 8109: 8105: 8079:10.18433/J3PK7P 8058: 8054: 8015: 8011: 7969: 7966:"Antivitamins B 7962: 7958: 7927: 7923: 7885: 7880: 7876: 7846: 7841: 7837: 7790: 7786: 7747: 7743: 7720: 7716: 7690:10.1.1.488.7931 7677:Family Practice 7669: 7665: 7626: 7622: 7617: 7591: 7581: 7574: 7564: 7562: 7550: 7545: 7544: 7540: 7530: 7528: 7520: 7510: 7506: 7467: 7463: 7432: 7428: 7381: 7377: 7332: 7328: 7281: 7277: 7240: 7236: 7183: 7176: 7166: 7164: 7160: 7149: 7145: 7144: 7137: 7127: 7125: 7110: 7106: 7067: 7056: 7046: 7044: 7032: 7025: 7018: 7009: 7007: 6986: 6982: 6973: 6971: 6964: 6948: 6944: 6899: 6890: 6853: 6846: 6839: 6814: 6809: 6805: 6765: 6759: 6755: 6708: 6704: 6692: 6684: 6682: 6669: 6668: 6664: 6652: 6644: 6642: 6629: 6628: 6624: 6614: 6612: 6611:on 7 April 2020 6599: 6598: 6594: 6584: 6582: 6578: 6567: 6563: 6562: 6558: 6551: 6518: 6514: 6503: 6499: 6490: 6488: 6484: 6477: 6473: 6472: 6468: 6458: 6456: 6444: 6439: 6438: 6429: 6392: 6388: 6357: 6353: 6322: 6318: 6271: 6264: 6225:Front Pharmacol 6217: 6210: 6179: 6175: 6144: 6140: 6095: 6091: 6081: 6079: 6070: 6069: 6065: 6018: 6014: 5977:Br. J. Haematol 5969: 5965: 5928:Clin Med (Lond) 5920: 5916: 5877: 5870: 5839: 5835: 5790: 5786: 5776: 5774: 5761: 5760: 5753: 5744: 5742: 5734: 5733: 5729: 5720: 5718: 5710: 5709: 5705: 5674: 5670: 5623: 5616: 5571: 5567: 5558: 5556: 5552: 5545: 5541: 5540: 5533: 5488: 5465: 5420: 5416: 5369: 5362: 5325: 5321: 5278: 5271: 5264: 5250: 5246: 5239: 5225: 5221: 5213: 5198: 5192: 5188: 5133: 5129: 5119: 5117: 5104: 5103: 5099: 5076: 5072: 5033: 5026: 4999: 4995: 4985: 4983: 4975: 4970: 4969: 4965: 4955: 4953: 4938: 4934: 4895: 4891: 4860: 4853: 4814: 4803: 4766: 4762: 4717: 4713: 4668: 4661: 4654: 4632: 4628: 4597: 4593: 4584: 4582: 4580:medlineplus.gov 4574: 4573: 4569: 4560: 4558: 4557:. 8 August 2021 4549: 4548: 4539: 4530: 4528: 4515: 4514: 4510: 4500: 4498: 4496: 4485: 4481: 4473: 4463: 4436: 4425: 4411: 4404: 4379:(1): CD013823. 4368: 4359: 4312: 4308: 4263: 4259: 4212: 4208: 4198: 4196: 4188: 4183: 4182: 4157: 4126: 4117: 4072: 4063: 4048: 4026: 4022: 4012: 4010: 3995: 3956: 3923: 3920: 3913: 3909: 3904: 3852: 3850:Further reading 3839:Methylcobalamin 3815: 3804: 3800: 3795:Myers' cocktail 3790: 3787: 3775: 3770: 3765: 3764: 3763: 3760: 3755: 3746: 3744:Dorothy Hodgkin 3741: 3732: 3727: 3718: 3713: 3704: 3699: 3690: 3685: 3674: 3673: 3672: 3650:Dorothy Hodgkin 3643: 3617:Mary Shaw Shorb 3613: 3606: 3573: 3533: 3528: 3522: 3514: 3510: 3493: 3486: 3484:total synthesis 3483: 3476: 3469: 3459:status) by the 3416: 3398: 3393: 3318:Corynebacterium 3247: 3214:methyl-labelled 3211: 3182:porphobilinogen 3163: 3158: 3152: 3147: 3140: 3132: 3120: 3112: 3107: 3100: 3096: 3092: 3088: 3080: 3076: 3066: 3064: 3060: 3056: 3051: 3044: 3024: 3012: 3005: 2993: 2989: 2985: 2977: 2969: 2962: 2958: 2948: 2946: 2942: 2938: 2932: 2930: 2923: 2867: 2863: 2858: 2853: 2846: 2842: 2834: 2822: 2807: 2785: 2760: 2738: 2720: 2710: 2702: 2688: 2684: 2670: 2656: 2649:functions as a 2648: 2643: 2638: 2631: 2627: 2623: 2619: 2612: 2598: 2593: 2588: 2585: 2569:) or a 5′-deoxy 2568: 2561:group (–OH), a 2551:reactive center 2533: 2529: 2525: 2521: 2501: 2497: 2489: 2485: 2476: 2413: 2408: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2382: 2377: 2370: 2361: 2321: 2317: 2313: 2303: 2289: 2284: 2281: 2275: 2268: 2264: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2225: 2217: 2209: 2205: 2202:Pseudovitamin-B 2198: 2194: 2173: 2169: 2166:Pseudovitamin-B 2164: 2162: 2159:Pseudovitamin-B 2154: 2149: 2145: 2140: 2138:supplementation 2137: 2129: 2114: 2108: 2101: 2092: 2088: 2084: 2082: 2076: 2069:methylcobalamin 2061: 2047: 2045: 2041: 2028: 2021: 2014: 1983: 1978: 1976:Fortified foods 1971: 1945: 1927:. However, the 1926: 1921: 1882: 1878: 1873:bioavailability 1854: 1849: 1842: 1838: 1830: 1826: 1819: 1802:large intestine 1776: 1759:small intestine 1740: 1735: 1730: 1713: 1709: 1707: 1698: 1690: 1685: 1679: 1675: 1671: 1658: 1650: 1646: 1642: 1636: 1632: 1628: 1624: 1620: 1616: 1614: 1610: 1595: 1579: 1571: 1555: 1551: 1546: 1518: 1509: 1505: 1503: 1498: 1490: 1481: 1474: 1466: 1455: 1446:lumbar puncture 1438: 1434: 1430: 1418: 1414: 1410: 1398: 1377: 1372: 1363: 1361: 1355: 1348: 1339: 1331: 1327: 1319: 1311: 1305: 1301: 1293: 1289: 1281: 1274: 1261: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1221: 1117: 1092:lightheadedness 1085: 1080: 1077: 1070: 1059: 1051: 1043: 1033: 1008:methylcobalamin 1002: 999: 998: 997: 995: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 966:is replaced by 965: 960:methylcobalamin 952:is replaced by 951: 938:is replaced by 937: 896: 891: 884: 876: 868: 864: 820: 811: 793: 781: 777: 766: 730: 716: 710: 698: 686:red blood cells 638: 628: 625: 620: 615: 614: 603: 600: 595: 594: 583: 556: 554: 541: 535: 526: 520: 500: 480: 460: 440: 420: 400: 383: 375: 355: 352: 347: 346: 317: 310: 286: 283:transcobalamins 277:Protein binding 267:Bioavailability 259:Pharmacokinetic 253: 214: 173: 166: 91: 72: 49: 36: 29:methylcobalamin 17: 12: 11: 5: 11400: 11390: 11389: 11384: 11379: 11374: 11369: 11364: 11349: 11348: 11325: 11324: 11321: 11320: 11317: 11316: 11314: 11313: 11307: 11305: 11299: 11298: 11296: 11295: 11290: 11284: 11282: 11276: 11275: 11273: 11272: 11263: 11261: 11255: 11254: 11252: 11251: 11243: 11225: 11207: 11192:Chlorophyllide 11188: 11186: 11180: 11179: 11177: 11176: 11171: 11157: 11142: 11140: 11138:Porphyrinogens 11131: 11125: 11124: 11121: 11120: 11118: 11117: 11112: 11103: 11101: 11095: 11094: 11092: 11091: 11086: 11081: 11076: 11071: 11040: 11038: 11029: 11023: 11022: 11020: 11019: 11014: 11012:Cyanocobalamin 11009: 11003: 11001: 10992: 10986: 10985: 10982: 10981: 10978: 10977: 10975: 10974: 10969: 10964: 10959: 10953: 10951: 10945: 10944: 10942: 10941: 10935: 10929: 10923: 10922: 10920: 10919: 10914: 10909: 10904: 10899: 10894: 10888: 10882: 10874: 10873: 10865: 10864: 10857: 10850: 10842: 10833: 10832: 10829: 10828: 10827: 10826: 10823: 10812: 10806: 10800: 10799: 10796: 10795: 10793: 10792: 10786: 10784: 10780: 10779: 10776: 10775: 10773: 10772: 10767: 10761: 10759: 10753: 10752: 10750: 10749: 10748: 10747: 10742: 10737: 10735:Cyanocobalamin 10732: 10723: 10719: 10718: 10717: 10712: 10707: 10702: 10694: 10691: 10690: 10689: 10681: 10678: 10677: 10676: 10671: 10666: 10653: 10649: 10648: 10647: 10642: 10637: 10629: 10626: 10625: 10624: 10619: 10610: 10606: 10605: 10604: 10596: 10593: 10592: 10591: 10586: 10581: 10576: 10571: 10566: 10561: 10551: 10547: 10546: 10545: 10537: 10533: 10531: 10522: 10516: 10515: 10512: 10511: 10509: 10508: 10503: 10499: 10494: 10490: 10485: 10481: 10476: 10472: 10467: 10463: 10458: 10454: 10449: 10445: 10443:Naphthoquinone 10439: 10437: 10431: 10430: 10428: 10427: 10422: 10421: 10420: 10417: 10412: 10407: 10397: 10396: 10395: 10390: 10385: 10380: 10369: 10367: 10361: 10360: 10358: 10357: 10356: 10355: 10350: 10345: 10340: 10335: 10327: 10323: 10319: 10318: 10317: 10309: 10306: 10305: 10304: 10299: 10294: 10289: 10284: 10280: 10276: 10268: 10265: 10264: 10263: 10261:Ergocalciferol 10258: 10250: 10246: 10244: 10238: 10237: 10235: 10234: 10229: 10224: 10219: 10213: 10211: 10202: 10196: 10195: 10183: 10182: 10175: 10168: 10160: 10154: 10153: 10146:Cyanocobalamin 10141: 10140:External links 10138: 10135: 10134: 10077: 10046: 10013: 10002:(5): 389–403. 9996:Altern Med Rev 9983: 9967:nobelprize.org 9961:Carpenter KJ. 9953: 9907: 9856: 9804: 9777: 9751: 9740:NobelPrize.org 9727: 9698: 9690: 9667: 9635: 9605: 9562: 9532: 9523: 9507: 9496: 9476: 9465: 9436:(2): 515–538. 9416: 9389:(2): 113–121. 9366: 9310: 9283:(3): 275–285. 9267: 9252: 9222: 9215: 9193: 9134: 9092: 9035: 8997: 8988: 8944: 8933: 8909: 8874: 8833: 8818: 8788: 8781: 8759: 8744: 8705: 8680:Essays Biochem 8670: 8643:(2): 578–587. 8626: 8569: 8512: 8491:(4): 673–685. 8463: 8434:(6): 423–437. 8411: 8404: 8378: 8339:(3): 299–316. 8319: 8316:. LGC Limited. 8301: 8294: 8274: 8239: 8212:(2): 352–359. 8189: 8161: 8149: 8138: 8119:(4): 484–485. 8103: 8072:(3): 382–398. 8052: 8025:(9): 524–532. 8009: 7967: 7956: 7921: 7888:Food Chemistry 7883: 7874: 7855:(6): 412–418. 7844: 7835: 7784: 7757:(6): 725–728. 7741: 7730:(3): 151–157. 7714: 7683:(3): 279–285. 7663: 7620: 7615: 7589: 7572: 7548: 7538: 7518: 7504: 7477:(3): 275–285. 7461: 7436:Food Chemistry 7426: 7375: 7346:(3): 229–234. 7326: 7275: 7250:Food Chemistry 7234: 7174: 7135: 7104: 7054: 7030: 7016: 6980: 6962: 6942: 6913:(2): 393–427. 6888: 6867:(2): 106–115. 6844: 6837: 6812: 6803: 6776:(3): 581–586. 6753: 6702: 6662: 6622: 6592: 6556: 6549: 6512: 6497: 6466: 6449:Nutrition Data 6442: 6427: 6386: 6351: 6332:(2): 115–121. 6316: 6285:(10): 304–17. 6262: 6208: 6173: 6138: 6089: 6063: 6012: 5983:(4): 496–513. 5963: 5934:(2): 145–150. 5914: 5868: 5833: 5804:(7): e006964. 5784: 5751: 5727: 5703: 5668: 5614: 5585:(3): 212–223. 5579:Am J Epidemiol 5565: 5531: 5502:(6): 971–979. 5463: 5434:(2): 171–172. 5414: 5360: 5339:(2): 110–117. 5319: 5269: 5262: 5244: 5237: 5219: 5186: 5127: 5097: 5086:(3): 209–212. 5070: 5024: 5013:(9): 701–703. 4993: 4973: 4963: 4932: 4905:(4): 243–270. 4889: 4851: 4801: 4760: 4711: 4659: 4652: 4626: 4591: 4567: 4537: 4508: 4494: 4483: 4479: 4471: 4434: 4423: 4402: 4357: 4306: 4277:(2): 148–158. 4257: 4206: 4186: 4155: 4136:(3): 266–275. 4115: 4061: 4046: 4020: 3954: 3918: 3906: 3905: 3903: 3900: 3899: 3898: 3851: 3848: 3847: 3846: 3841: 3836: 3831: 3829:Cyanocobalamin 3826: 3821: 3814: 3811: 3802: 3798: 3786: 3783: 3773: 3769: 3766: 3762: 3761: 3756: 3749: 3747: 3742: 3735: 3733: 3728: 3721: 3719: 3714: 3707: 3705: 3700: 3693: 3691: 3688:George Whipple 3686: 3679: 3676: 3675: 3670: 3668: 3667: 3666: 3641: 3612: 3609: 3604: 3589:William Castle 3577:George Whipple 3572: 3569: 3537:Thomas Addison 3532: 3529: 3521: 3518: 3512: 3508: 3491: 3490:synthesis of B 3481: 3478:Main article: 3475: 3472: 3467: 3414: 3396: 3392: 3389: 3336:Micromonospora 3324:Flavobacterium 3276:Acetobacterium 3245: 3209: 3161: 3154:Main article: 3151: 3148: 3146: 3143: 3138: 3130: 3127:gene promoters 3118: 3110: 3106: 3103: 3098: 3094: 3090: 3086: 3078: 3074: 3062: 3058: 3054: 3050: 3047: 3042: 3022: 3011: 3008: 3003: 2991: 2987: 2983: 2978:and infantile 2975: 2967: 2966:After the IF/B 2960: 2956: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2928: 2921: 2902:parietal cells 2865: 2861: 2857: 2854: 2852: 2849: 2844: 2840: 2832: 2820: 2805: 2783: 2758: 2736: 2718: 2715: 2714: 2713: 2712: 2708: 2700: 2692: 2691: 2690: 2686: 2682: 2674: 2673: 2672: 2668: 2654: 2646: 2642: 2639: 2637: 2634: 2629: 2625: 2621: 2617: 2610: 2596: 2591: 2587: 2583: 2580: 2566: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2510:ring found in 2502:is based on a 2499: 2495: 2487: 2483: 2475: 2472: 2411: 2407: 2404: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2380: 2376: 2373: 2368: 2359: 2319: 2315: 2311: 2301: 2287: 2283: 2279: 2276: 2274: 2271: 2266: 2262: 2246: 2242: 2238: 2223: 2215: 2207: 2203: 2196: 2192: 2171: 2167: 2163: 2160: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2132: 2127: 2124:homocystinuria 2112: 2100: 2097: 2080: 2059: 2043: 2039: 2027: 2024: 2019: 2012: 1981: 1977: 1974: 1969: 1943: 1924: 1920: 1917: 1880: 1876: 1852: 1848: 1845: 1840: 1836: 1828: 1824: 1817: 1774: 1751:gut microbiota 1738: 1734: 1731: 1729: 1726: 1705: 1683: 1656: 1648: 1644: 1640: 1612: 1608: 1593: 1577: 1574:Pharmaceutical 1569: 1553: 1549: 1545: 1542: 1517: 1514: 1501: 1497: 1494: 1488: 1480: 1477: 1472: 1464: 1453: 1436: 1432: 1428: 1416: 1412: 1408: 1396: 1375: 1371: 1368: 1364:1000 μg/d 1359: 1354: 1351: 1346: 1337: 1329: 1325: 1317: 1316:concentrates B 1309: 1286:per day (μg/d) 1273: 1270: 1259: 1243: 1239: 1235: 1231: 1219: 1216: 1215: 1188: 1181:parietal cells 1179:attack on the 1165: 1156:(specifically 1115: 1083: 1075: 1072:Main article: 1069: 1066: 1057: 1049: 1041: 1031: 1000: 991: 987: 983: 979: 975: 972: 971: 963: 957: 949: 943: 935: 932:cyanocobalamin 929: 894: 890: 887: 882: 874: 866: 862: 855:blurred vision 818: 809: 791: 779: 775: 764: 749:dairy products 731:include meat, 728: 714: 708: 696: 674:nervous system 664:, and in both 636: 630: 629: 627: 626: 623: 621: 618: 610: 609: 608: 605: 604: 602: 601: 598: 590: 589: 588: 585: 584: 582: 581: 573: 571: 563: 562: 552: 546: 545: 539: 533: 524: 518: 513: 507: 506: 502: 501: 499: 498: 490: 488: 482: 481: 479: 478: 470: 468: 462: 461: 459: 458: 450: 448: 442: 441: 439: 438: 430: 428: 422: 421: 419: 418: 410: 408: 402: 401: 399: 398: 390: 388: 377: 376: 374: 373: 365: 363: 357: 356: 354: 353: 350: 342: 341: 340: 337: 336: 332: 331: 326: 320: 319: 314: 305: 304: 299: 293: 292: 279: 273: 272: 269: 263: 262: 255: 254: 252: 251: 239: 229: 227: 221: 220: 216: 215: 213: 212: 199: 197: 191: 190: 181:, sublingual, 176: 174:administration 168: 167: 165: 164: 146: 144: 138: 137: 130: 124: 123: 116: 106: 105: 102: 98: 97: 93: 92: 88:cyanocobalamin 82: 74: 73: 66: 25:cyanocobalamin 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 11399: 11388: 11385: 11383: 11380: 11378: 11375: 11373: 11370: 11368: 11365: 11363: 11360: 11359: 11357: 11347: 11337: 11336: 11333: 11312: 11311:Cofactor F430 11309: 11308: 11306: 11304: 11300: 11294: 11291: 11289: 11286: 11285: 11283: 11281: 11277: 11271: 11270: 11265: 11264: 11262: 11260: 11256: 11250: 11249: 11244: 11241: 11240: 11235: 11234: 11229: 11226: 11223: 11222: 11217: 11216: 11211: 11208: 11205: 11204: 11199: 11198: 11193: 11190: 11189: 11187: 11185: 11181: 11175: 11172: 11169: 11165: 11161: 11158: 11155: 11151: 11147: 11144: 11143: 11141: 11139: 11135: 11132: 11126: 11116: 11113: 11111: 11110: 11105: 11104: 11102: 11100: 11096: 11090: 11087: 11085: 11082: 11080: 11077: 11075: 11072: 11069: 11068: 11063: 11062: 11057: 11056: 11051: 11050: 11045: 11042: 11041: 11039: 11037: 11033: 11030: 11028: 11024: 11018: 11015: 11013: 11010: 11008: 11005: 11004: 11002: 11000: 10996: 10993: 10991: 10987: 10973: 10970: 10968: 10967:Phycourobilin 10965: 10963: 10960: 10958: 10955: 10954: 10952: 10950: 10946: 10940: 10937: 10936: 10933: 10930: 10928: 10924: 10918: 10915: 10913: 10910: 10908: 10905: 10903: 10900: 10898: 10895: 10893: 10890: 10889: 10886: 10883: 10879: 10875: 10871: 10870:tetrapyrroles 10863: 10858: 10856: 10851: 10849: 10844: 10843: 10840: 10824: 10822: 10819: 10818: 10816: 10813: 10810: 10807: 10805: 10802: 10801: 10797: 10791: 10790:Multivitamins 10788: 10787: 10785: 10781: 10771: 10768: 10766: 10765:Ascorbic acid 10763: 10762: 10760: 10758: 10754: 10746: 10743: 10741: 10738: 10736: 10733: 10731: 10728: 10727: 10726: 10720: 10716: 10713: 10711: 10708: 10706: 10703: 10701: 10698: 10697: 10692: 10688: 10685: 10684: 10679: 10675: 10672: 10670: 10667: 10665: 10661: 10658: 10657: 10656: 10650: 10646: 10643: 10641: 10638: 10636: 10633: 10632: 10627: 10623: 10620: 10618: 10615: 10614: 10613: 10607: 10603: 10600: 10599: 10594: 10590: 10587: 10585: 10584:Prosultiamine 10582: 10580: 10577: 10575: 10574:Fursultiamine 10572: 10570: 10567: 10565: 10562: 10560: 10559:Acefurtiamine 10557: 10556: 10555: 10548: 10544: 10541: 10540: 10535: 10534: 10532: 10530: 10526: 10523: 10517: 10507: 10500: 10498: 10491: 10489: 10482: 10480: 10473: 10471: 10464: 10462: 10455: 10453: 10446: 10444: 10441: 10440: 10438: 10436: 10432: 10426: 10423: 10418: 10416: 10413: 10411: 10408: 10406: 10403: 10402: 10401: 10398: 10394: 10391: 10389: 10386: 10384: 10381: 10379: 10376: 10375: 10374: 10371: 10370: 10368: 10366: 10362: 10354: 10351: 10349: 10346: 10344: 10341: 10339: 10336: 10334: 10331: 10330: 10328: 10326: 10320: 10316: 10313: 10312: 10307: 10303: 10300: 10298: 10295: 10293: 10290: 10288: 10285: 10283: 10277: 10275: 10272: 10271: 10266: 10262: 10259: 10257: 10254: 10253: 10248: 10247: 10245: 10243: 10239: 10233: 10230: 10228: 10225: 10223: 10220: 10218: 10215: 10214: 10212: 10210: 10206: 10203: 10197: 10192: 10188: 10181: 10176: 10174: 10169: 10167: 10162: 10161: 10158: 10151: 10147: 10144: 10143: 10130: 10126: 10121: 10116: 10112: 10108: 10104: 10100: 10096: 10092: 10088: 10081: 10065: 10061: 10057: 10050: 10034: 10030: 10029: 10024: 10017: 10009: 10005: 10001: 9997: 9990: 9988: 9972: 9968: 9964: 9957: 9949: 9945: 9941: 9937: 9933: 9929: 9925: 9921: 9914: 9912: 9903: 9899: 9895: 9891: 9887: 9883: 9879: 9875: 9871: 9867: 9860: 9852: 9848: 9844: 9840: 9836: 9832: 9828: 9824: 9820: 9816: 9808: 9792: 9788: 9781: 9765: 9761: 9755: 9741: 9737: 9731: 9716: 9712: 9708: 9702: 9693: 9687: 9683: 9676: 9674: 9672: 9656: 9652: 9648: 9642: 9640: 9631: 9627: 9623: 9619: 9612: 9610: 9601: 9597: 9593: 9589: 9585: 9581: 9577: 9573: 9566: 9558: 9554: 9550: 9546: 9542: 9538: 9527: 9519: 9515: 9511: 9500: 9492: 9488: 9484: 9482: 9469: 9461: 9457: 9452: 9447: 9443: 9439: 9435: 9431: 9427: 9420: 9412: 9408: 9404: 9400: 9396: 9392: 9388: 9384: 9377: 9370: 9362: 9358: 9353: 9348: 9343: 9338: 9334: 9330: 9326: 9319: 9317: 9315: 9306: 9302: 9298: 9294: 9290: 9286: 9282: 9278: 9271: 9263: 9259: 9255: 9249: 9245: 9241: 9237: 9233: 9226: 9218: 9216:0-521-82873-2 9212: 9208: 9204: 9197: 9179: 9175: 9171: 9167: 9163: 9159: 9155: 9148: 9144: 9138: 9130: 9126: 9122: 9118: 9114: 9110: 9103: 9096: 9088: 9084: 9080: 9076: 9071: 9066: 9062: 9058: 9054: 9050: 9046: 9039: 9031: 9027: 9023: 9019: 9015: 9011: 9007: 9003: 8992: 8984: 8980: 8975: 8970: 8965: 8960: 8956: 8952: 8948: 8937: 8923: 8919: 8913: 8905: 8901: 8897: 8893: 8889: 8885: 8878: 8870: 8866: 8861: 8856: 8852: 8848: 8844: 8837: 8829: 8825: 8821: 8815: 8811: 8807: 8803: 8799: 8792: 8784: 8778: 8773: 8772: 8763: 8755: 8751: 8747: 8741: 8737: 8733: 8729: 8725: 8718: 8716: 8714: 8712: 8710: 8701: 8697: 8693: 8689: 8685: 8681: 8674: 8666: 8662: 8658: 8654: 8650: 8646: 8642: 8638: 8630: 8622: 8618: 8613: 8608: 8604: 8600: 8596: 8592: 8588: 8584: 8580: 8573: 8565: 8561: 8556: 8551: 8547: 8543: 8539: 8535: 8531: 8527: 8523: 8516: 8508: 8504: 8499: 8494: 8490: 8486: 8479: 8472: 8470: 8468: 8459: 8455: 8450: 8445: 8441: 8437: 8433: 8429: 8425: 8418: 8416: 8407: 8401: 8397: 8393: 8390:. CRC Press. 8389: 8382: 8374: 8370: 8365: 8360: 8356: 8352: 8347: 8342: 8338: 8334: 8330: 8323: 8315: 8308: 8306: 8297: 8291: 8287: 8286: 8278: 8270: 8266: 8262: 8258: 8254: 8250: 8243: 8235: 8231: 8227: 8223: 8219: 8215: 8211: 8207: 8200: 8193: 8178: 8174: 8168: 8166: 8157: 8153: 8142: 8134: 8130: 8126: 8122: 8118: 8114: 8107: 8099: 8095: 8090: 8085: 8080: 8075: 8071: 8067: 8063: 8056: 8048: 8044: 8040: 8036: 8032: 8028: 8024: 8020: 8013: 8005: 8001: 7996: 7991: 7987: 7983: 7979: 7975: 7971: 7960: 7952: 7948: 7944: 7940: 7936: 7932: 7925: 7917: 7913: 7909: 7905: 7901: 7897: 7893: 7889: 7878: 7870: 7866: 7862: 7858: 7854: 7850: 7839: 7831: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7803: 7799: 7798:Nanomaterials 7795: 7788: 7780: 7776: 7772: 7768: 7764: 7760: 7756: 7752: 7745: 7737: 7733: 7729: 7725: 7718: 7710: 7706: 7701: 7696: 7691: 7686: 7682: 7678: 7674: 7667: 7659: 7655: 7651: 7647: 7643: 7639: 7635: 7631: 7624: 7618:in the diet". 7610: 7605: 7601: 7597: 7593: 7585: 7579: 7577: 7560: 7556: 7552: 7542: 7526: 7522: 7514: 7508: 7500: 7496: 7492: 7488: 7484: 7480: 7476: 7472: 7465: 7457: 7453: 7449: 7445: 7441: 7437: 7430: 7422: 7418: 7413: 7408: 7403: 7398: 7394: 7390: 7386: 7379: 7371: 7367: 7362: 7357: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7337: 7330: 7322: 7318: 7313: 7308: 7303: 7298: 7294: 7290: 7286: 7279: 7271: 7267: 7263: 7259: 7255: 7251: 7246: 7238: 7230: 7226: 7221: 7216: 7212: 7208: 7204: 7200: 7196: 7192: 7188: 7181: 7179: 7159: 7155: 7148: 7142: 7140: 7123: 7119: 7118:The Scientist 7115: 7108: 7100: 7096: 7092: 7088: 7084: 7080: 7076: 7072: 7065: 7063: 7061: 7059: 7042: 7038: 7034: 7033:supplements?" 7023: 7021: 7005: 7001: 6997: 6996: 6991: 6984: 6969: 6965: 6959: 6955: 6954: 6946: 6938: 6934: 6930: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6912: 6908: 6904: 6897: 6895: 6893: 6884: 6880: 6875: 6870: 6866: 6862: 6858: 6851: 6849: 6840: 6834: 6830: 6826: 6822: 6818: 6807: 6799: 6795: 6791: 6787: 6783: 6779: 6775: 6771: 6764: 6757: 6749: 6745: 6740: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6721: 6717: 6713: 6706: 6699: 6698:public domain 6680: 6678: 6672: 6666: 6659: 6658:public domain 6641:. 27 May 2016 6640: 6638: 6632: 6626: 6610: 6606: 6602: 6596: 6577: 6573: 6566: 6560: 6552: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6529: 6528: 6522: 6516: 6509: 6506: 6501: 6483: 6476: 6470: 6454: 6450: 6446: 6436: 6434: 6432: 6423: 6419: 6414: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6390: 6382: 6378: 6374: 6370: 6366: 6362: 6355: 6347: 6343: 6339: 6335: 6331: 6327: 6320: 6312: 6308: 6303: 6298: 6293: 6288: 6284: 6280: 6276: 6269: 6267: 6258: 6254: 6249: 6244: 6239: 6234: 6230: 6226: 6222: 6215: 6213: 6204: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6189:(8): 585–90. 6188: 6184: 6177: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6154:(3): 406–20. 6153: 6149: 6142: 6134: 6130: 6125: 6120: 6116: 6112: 6108: 6104: 6100: 6093: 6077: 6073: 6067: 6059: 6055: 6050: 6045: 6040: 6035: 6031: 6027: 6026:Int J Mol Sci 6023: 6016: 6008: 6004: 6000: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5967: 5959: 5955: 5950: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5918: 5910: 5906: 5902: 5898: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5875: 5873: 5864: 5860: 5856: 5852: 5848: 5844: 5837: 5829: 5825: 5820: 5815: 5811: 5807: 5803: 5799: 5795: 5788: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5758: 5756: 5741: 5737: 5731: 5717: 5713: 5707: 5699: 5695: 5691: 5687: 5683: 5679: 5672: 5664: 5660: 5655: 5650: 5645: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5621: 5619: 5610: 5606: 5601: 5596: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5580: 5576: 5569: 5551: 5544: 5538: 5536: 5527: 5523: 5518: 5513: 5509: 5505: 5501: 5497: 5493: 5486: 5484: 5482: 5480: 5478: 5476: 5474: 5472: 5470: 5468: 5459: 5455: 5450: 5445: 5441: 5437: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5418: 5410: 5406: 5401: 5396: 5391: 5386: 5382: 5378: 5374: 5367: 5365: 5356: 5352: 5347: 5342: 5338: 5334: 5330: 5323: 5316: 5311: 5307: 5303: 5299: 5295: 5291: 5287: 5283: 5276: 5274: 5265: 5259: 5255: 5248: 5240: 5234: 5230: 5223: 5212: 5208: 5204: 5197: 5190: 5182: 5178: 5173: 5168: 5164: 5160: 5155: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5138: 5131: 5115: 5111: 5107: 5101: 5093: 5089: 5085: 5081: 5074: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5054: 5050: 5046: 5042: 5038: 5031: 5029: 5020: 5016: 5012: 5008: 5004: 4997: 4981: 4977: 4967: 4951: 4947: 4943: 4936: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4908: 4904: 4900: 4893: 4885: 4881: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4865: 4858: 4856: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4835: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4812: 4810: 4808: 4806: 4797: 4793: 4788: 4783: 4779: 4775: 4771: 4764: 4756: 4752: 4747: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4715: 4707: 4703: 4699: 4695: 4691: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4674: 4666: 4664: 4655: 4653:3-540-33047-X 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4630: 4622: 4618: 4614: 4610: 4606: 4602: 4595: 4581: 4577: 4571: 4556: 4552: 4546: 4544: 4542: 4526: 4522: 4518: 4512: 4497: 4491: 4487: 4475: 4467: 4461: 4459: 4457: 4455: 4453: 4451: 4449: 4447: 4445: 4443: 4441: 4439: 4431: 4426: 4420: 4416: 4409: 4407: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4366: 4364: 4362: 4353: 4349: 4344: 4339: 4334: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4310: 4302: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4272: 4268: 4261: 4253: 4249: 4244: 4239: 4234: 4229: 4225: 4221: 4217: 4210: 4194: 4190: 4180: 4178: 4176: 4174: 4172: 4170: 4168: 4166: 4164: 4162: 4160: 4151: 4147: 4143: 4139: 4135: 4131: 4124: 4122: 4120: 4111: 4107: 4102: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4077: 4070: 4068: 4066: 4057: 4053: 4049: 4043: 4039: 4035: 4031: 4024: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3993: 3991: 3989: 3987: 3985: 3983: 3981: 3979: 3977: 3975: 3973: 3971: 3969: 3967: 3965: 3963: 3961: 3959: 3950: 3946: 3942: 3938: 3934: 3931: 3930: 3922: 3911: 3907: 3895: 3891: 3886: 3881: 3876: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3862:J. Biol. Chem 3859: 3854: 3853: 3845: 3842: 3840: 3837: 3835: 3832: 3830: 3827: 3825: 3822: 3820: 3817: 3816: 3810: 3806: 3796: 3782: 3779: 3759: 3753: 3748: 3745: 3739: 3734: 3731: 3725: 3720: 3717: 3711: 3706: 3703: 3697: 3692: 3689: 3683: 3678: 3677: 3665: 3661: 3659: 3655: 3651: 3647: 3639: 3635: 3631: 3627: 3622: 3618: 3608: 3602: 3598: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3568: 3566: 3562: 3558: 3554: 3550: 3546: 3545:William Osler 3542: 3538: 3527: 3517: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3485: 3471: 3464: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3445: 3440: 3436: 3435:Rhone-Poulenc 3432: 3428: 3427: 3422: 3421: 3412: 3408: 3407: 3402: 3388: 3386: 3385: 3380: 3379: 3378:Streptococcus 3374: 3373: 3368: 3367: 3362: 3361: 3356: 3355: 3350: 3349: 3344: 3343: 3342:Mycobacterium 3338: 3337: 3332: 3331: 3330:Lactobacillus 3326: 3325: 3320: 3319: 3314: 3313: 3308: 3307: 3302: 3301: 3296: 3295: 3290: 3289: 3288:Agrobacterium 3284: 3283: 3278: 3277: 3272: 3269: 3268: 3263: 3262:denitrificans 3260: 3259: 3254: 3252: 3243: 3238: 3236: 3232: 3231:overexpressed 3228: 3227: 3222: 3218: 3215: 3207: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3175: 3171: 3167: 3157: 3142: 3136: 3128: 3124: 3116: 3102: 3084: 3072: 3046: 3040: 3036: 3032: 3028: 3020: 3016: 3010:Malabsorption 3007: 3001: 2997: 2981: 2973: 2964: 2954: 2925: 2919: 2915: 2911: 2907: 2903: 2899: 2895: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2879: 2875: 2871: 2848: 2838: 2830: 2826: 2817: 2813: 2809: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2770: 2766: 2762: 2754: 2750: 2746: 2742: 2734: 2726: 2722: 2706: 2698: 2697: 2696: 2695:Dehalogenases 2693: 2680: 2679: 2678: 2675: 2665: 2664: 2663: 2660: 2659: 2658: 2652: 2633: 2614: 2608: 2607: 2603: 2579: 2576: 2572: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2539: 2535: 2517: 2513: 2509: 2505: 2480: 2471: 2469: 2468:pyrimethamine 2465: 2461: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2437: 2436:phenobarbital 2433: 2429: 2425: 2421: 2417: 2403: 2402:supplements. 2389: 2386: 2385:anti-diabetic 2372: 2366: 2357: 2353: 2349: 2345: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2329: 2325: 2309: 2305: 2297: 2293: 2270: 2260: 2256: 2252: 2236: 2231: 2229: 2221: 2213: 2200: 2190: 2186: 2184: 2179: 2178: 2156: 2131: 2125: 2121: 2116: 2106: 2103:Injection of 2096: 2091:μg in a 1,000 2074: 2070: 2067: 2063: 2057: 2053: 2052:energy drinks 2032: 2023: 2016: 2009: 2007: 2003: 1999: 1995: 1991: 1987: 1973: 1967: 1966: 1961: 1957: 1953: 1949: 1941: 1936: 1934: 1930: 1916: 1914: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1874: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1858: 1844: 1834: 1821: 1815: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1799: 1795: 1791: 1787: 1783: 1778: 1772: 1768: 1764: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1748: 1744: 1725: 1723: 1719: 1702: 1697:also uses 2.4 1696: 1687: 1669: 1664: 1662: 1654: 1629:2.8 μg/d 1621:2.4 μg/d 1606: 1601: 1599: 1591: 1587: 1583: 1575: 1567: 1563: 1559: 1558:Western world 1541: 1539: 1535: 1531: 1527: 1526:intravenously 1523: 1513: 1485: 1476: 1470: 1462: 1457: 1451: 1447: 1443: 1426: 1422: 1406: 1402: 1394: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1367: 1350: 1342: 1333: 1321: 1315: 1306:5.0 μg/d 1302:4.5 μg/d 1299: 1294:2.4 μg/d 1290:2.8 μg/d 1285: 1279: 1269: 1267: 1266:Nitrous oxide 1263: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1229: 1225: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1186: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1170: 1166: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1154:DNA synthesis 1151: 1147: 1144: 1143: 1142: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1127: 1125: 1121: 1113: 1109: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1079: 1065: 1063: 1055: 1046: 1039: 1035: 1028: 1023: 1021: 1017: 1013: 1009: 969: 961: 958: 955: 947: 944: 941: 933: 930: 928: 925: 924: 923: 921: 917: 912: 911:benzimidazole 908: 904: 900: 886: 880: 871: 860: 856: 852: 848: 844: 843:poor appetite 840: 836: 832: 828: 824: 815: 813: 805: 801: 797: 789: 785: 772: 770: 762: 758: 754: 750: 746: 742: 738: 734: 725: 723: 718: 706: 702: 693: 691: 687: 683: 680:, and in the 679: 675: 671: 667: 663: 662:DNA synthesis 659: 655: 651: 647: 643: 639: 622: 617: 616: 613: 606: 597: 596: 593: 586: 579: 575: 574: 572: 569: 564: 553: 551: 547: 514: 512: 508: 503: 496: 495:ChEMBL2110563 492: 491: 489: 487: 483: 476: 472: 471: 469: 467: 463: 456: 452: 451: 449: 447: 443: 436: 432: 431: 429: 427: 423: 416: 412: 411: 409: 407: 403: 396: 392: 391: 389: 382: 378: 371: 367: 366: 364: 362: 358: 349: 348: 345: 338: 333: 330: 327: 325: 321: 315: 313: 306: 303: 300: 298: 294: 290: 284: 280: 278: 274: 270: 268: 264: 260: 256: 250: 240: 231: 230: 228: 226: 222: 217: 209: 204: 201: 200: 198: 196: 192: 188: 187:intramuscular 184: 180: 177: 175: 169: 162: 157: 148: 147: 145: 143: 139: 135: 131: 129: 125: 121: 117: 115: 111: 107: 103: 99: 96:Clinical data 94: 89: 85: 80: 75: 71:of cobalamins 70: 64: 59: 51: 47: 43: 38: 34: 30: 26: 22: 11268: 11247: 11238: 11232: 11220: 11214: 11202: 11196: 11108: 11107:Chlorophyll 11066: 11060: 11054: 11048: 10912:Urobilinogen 10783:Combinations 10721: 10710:Folinic acid 10669:Pyridoxamine 10640:Dexpanthenol 10589:Sulbutiamine 10569:Benfotiamine 10564:Allithiamine 10466:Menadione (K 10425:Tocofersolan 10353:Paricalcitol 10343:Calcipotriol 10333:Alfacalcidol 10329:D analogues 10279:Previtamin D 10094: 10090: 10080: 10068:. Retrieved 10059: 10049: 10037:. Retrieved 10026: 10016: 9999: 9995: 9975:. Retrieved 9966: 9956: 9923: 9919: 9869: 9865: 9859: 9818: 9814: 9807: 9795:. Retrieved 9791:the original 9780: 9768:. Retrieved 9764:the original 9754: 9743:. Retrieved 9739: 9730: 9719:. Retrieved 9710: 9701: 9681: 9659:. Retrieved 9650: 9621: 9617: 9575: 9571: 9565: 9540: 9536: 9526: 9518:the original 9513: 9499: 9490: 9486: 9480: 9468: 9433: 9429: 9419: 9386: 9382: 9369: 9332: 9328: 9280: 9276: 9270: 9235: 9231: 9225: 9206: 9196: 9185:. Retrieved 9157: 9153: 9143:Battersby AR 9137: 9112: 9108: 9095: 9052: 9048: 9038: 9005: 9001: 8991: 8954: 8950: 8936: 8925:. Retrieved 8921: 8912: 8887: 8883: 8877: 8850: 8846: 8836: 8801: 8797: 8791: 8770: 8762: 8727: 8723: 8683: 8679: 8673: 8640: 8637:Neuroscience 8636: 8629: 8586: 8582: 8572: 8529: 8525: 8515: 8488: 8484: 8431: 8427: 8387: 8381: 8336: 8332: 8322: 8284: 8277: 8252: 8248: 8242: 8209: 8205: 8192: 8180:. Retrieved 8176: 8156:the original 8141: 8116: 8112: 8106: 8069: 8065: 8055: 8022: 8018: 8012: 7977: 7973: 7959: 7934: 7930: 7924: 7891: 7887: 7877: 7852: 7848: 7838: 7801: 7797: 7787: 7754: 7750: 7744: 7727: 7723: 7717: 7680: 7676: 7666: 7633: 7629: 7623: 7602:(10): 1–21. 7599: 7596:EFSA Journal 7595: 7563:. Retrieved 7541: 7529:. Retrieved 7507: 7474: 7470: 7464: 7439: 7435: 7429: 7392: 7388: 7378: 7343: 7339: 7329: 7292: 7288: 7278: 7253: 7249: 7237: 7194: 7190: 7165:. Retrieved 7153: 7126:. Retrieved 7117: 7107: 7074: 7070: 7045:. Retrieved 7036: 7008:. Retrieved 6993: 6983: 6972:. Retrieved 6952: 6945: 6910: 6907:Physiol. Rev 6906: 6864: 6860: 6820: 6806: 6773: 6769: 6756: 6719: 6715: 6705: 6683:. Retrieved 6674: 6665: 6643:. Retrieved 6634: 6625: 6613:. Retrieved 6609:the original 6604: 6595: 6583:. Retrieved 6571: 6559: 6526: 6515: 6507: 6500: 6489:. Retrieved 6469: 6459:February 16, 6457:. Retrieved 6448: 6403: 6399: 6389: 6367:(1): 18–24. 6364: 6360: 6354: 6329: 6325: 6319: 6282: 6278: 6228: 6224: 6186: 6183:Clin Biochem 6182: 6176: 6151: 6147: 6141: 6106: 6102: 6092: 6080:. Retrieved 6075: 6066: 6029: 6025: 6015: 5980: 5976: 5966: 5931: 5927: 5917: 5884: 5880: 5846: 5842: 5836: 5801: 5797: 5787: 5775:. Retrieved 5766: 5743:. Retrieved 5739: 5730: 5719:. Retrieved 5716:www.acog.org 5715: 5706: 5681: 5677: 5671: 5634: 5630: 5582: 5578: 5568: 5557:. Retrieved 5499: 5495: 5431: 5427: 5417: 5380: 5376: 5336: 5332: 5322: 5313: 5285: 5281: 5253: 5247: 5228: 5222: 5206: 5202: 5189: 5144: 5140: 5130: 5118:. Retrieved 5109: 5100: 5083: 5079: 5073: 5040: 5036: 5010: 5006: 4996: 4984:. Retrieved 4966: 4954:. Retrieved 4945: 4935: 4902: 4898: 4892: 4867: 4863: 4821: 4817: 4780:(1): 42–49. 4777: 4773: 4763: 4728: 4724: 4714: 4681: 4677: 4635: 4629: 4604: 4600: 4594: 4583:. Retrieved 4579: 4570: 4559:. Retrieved 4554: 4529:. Retrieved 4520: 4511: 4499:. Retrieved 4477: 4428: 4414: 4376: 4372: 4323: 4319: 4309: 4274: 4270: 4260: 4223: 4219: 4209: 4197:. Retrieved 4133: 4129: 4083: 4079: 4029: 4023: 4011:. Retrieved 3932: 3927: 3910: 3865: 3861: 3807: 3791:1000 μg 3788: 3778:fermentation 3771: 3702:George Minot 3662: 3630:Karl Folkers 3620: 3614: 3601:George Minot 3574: 3557:megaloblasts 3553:Paul Ehrlich 3534: 3487: 3465: 3442: 3438: 3430: 3424: 3418: 3404: 3401:fermentation 3394: 3382: 3376: 3370: 3364: 3358: 3352: 3346: 3340: 3334: 3328: 3322: 3316: 3310: 3304: 3298: 3292: 3286: 3280: 3274: 3270: 3267:Streptomyces 3265: 3261: 3256: 3249: 3239: 3224: 3174:cosynthetase 3159: 3150:Biosynthesis 3108: 3101:are stored. 3052: 3045:deficiency. 3039:achlorhydric 3029:deficiency, 3013: 3002:, and free B 2965: 2926: 2859: 2812:homocysteine 2792:homocysteine 2779: 2774: 2745:succinyl-CoA 2731: 2716: 2704: 2644: 2636:Biochemistry 2615: 2605: 2601: 2589: 2575:hydrogenases 2544: 2493: 2464:methotrexate 2460:erythromycin 2414:, including 2409: 2378: 2365:achlorhydric 2356:esomeprazole 2352:pantoprazole 2344:lansoprazole 2292:gastric acid 2285: 2232: 2227: 2211: 2201: 2181: 2175: 2165: 2141: 2117: 2102: 2064: 2056:energy shots 2037: 2017: 2010: 1979: 1963: 1937: 1922: 1850: 1822: 1779: 1736: 1703: 1693:μg/day. The 1688: 1665: 1602: 1547: 1519: 1510:1000 μg 1506:1000 μg 1499: 1479:Medical uses 1458: 1421:homocysteine 1373: 1356: 1343: 1334: 1322: 1275: 1264: 1256:achlorhydria 1252:stomach acid 1217: 1204:irritability 1173:constipation 1128: 1100:mouth ulcers 1081: 1047: 1036: 1034:deficiency. 1024: 1020:mitochondria 973: 892: 872: 816: 800:achlorhydria 798:production ( 796:stomach acid 773: 726: 694: 648:involved in 641: 634: 633: 309:Elimination 225:Legal status 219:Legal status 142:License data 50: 37: 11362:Vitamin B12 11210:Chlorophyll 10949:Phycobilins 10927:Phytobilins 10907:Stercobilin 10811:from market 10622:Niacinamide 10579:Octotiamine 10400:Tocotrienol 10060:Mayo Clinic 9926:: 181–219. 9543:(6): 8–16. 9481:Pseudomonas 8730:: 241–274. 8686:: 139–154. 8388:Vitamin B12 8206:Ann. 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