796:(KKK), and always attacked at night. Physical attacks could include such things as whipping, drowning, firing shots into houses, arson, and other brutalities, with whipping and threats constituting the majority of the tactics used against victims. The White Caps also used non-violent means of intimidation to force certain residents from their homes. These included posting signs on doors of blacks' and merchants' homes, as well as cornering a target and verbally threatening them. If a resident or witness to a crime did not abandon their homes after being terrorized, White Caps sometimes murdered them.
42:
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black farmers who were seen as controlling too much land and competing with white farmers. As a result, Oklahoma became quite segregated, with some formerly mixed towns becoming all-white; black residents generally lived in all-black towns. Popular history and perception of the state generally omitted its black residents, especially during the 20th century, portraying only whites and
American Indians due to the whitecappers' successful campaign to push black life away from view in most of the state.
813:, the defendants' attorneys were the lieutenant governor and a candidate running for state prosecutor. Defendants were convicted, but sentenced only to one year and a day in prison, along with a $ 100 fine. The penalty for violating the blood oath of the White Caps was death. In some states, whitecapping societies were interconnected throughout the region. Members could call on members from another county to terrorize witnesses of crimes as a scare tactic.
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Any person or persons who shall, by placards, or other writing, or verbally, attempt by threats, direct or implied, of injury to the person or property of another, to intimidate such other person into an abandonment or change of home or employment, shall, upon conviction, be fined not exceeding five
799:
The victims of these attacks had little support from the legal authorities until 1893, when the threat from whitecapping began to be taken more seriously. But, even if suspects were prosecuted, local officials had difficulty clearing juries of White Cap members or sympathizers. In addition to white
762:
proclaiming
Oklahoma as a new opportunity to escape racism from elsewhere in the South. After the initial wave of settlement, tensions eventually rose, especially in mixed-race towns. Whitecappers would threaten violence and encourage blacks in mixed-race areas to move out, as well as threaten
766:
Over many years, whitecapping not only affected individuals, but communities and counties as a whole. In the South, whitecapping discouraged many merchants and industrialists from doing business in the counties. Added to the thousands of murders committed by whites in lynchings of blacks,
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was also high in the state. Active members of the
Whitecaps were found and punished by states in the early 1900s. Though the negative economic effects of whitecapping violence were the main reason for state response to the lawlessness, political leaders often expressed values of
686:, independent from the state. These groups became known as the "White Caps". The first White Cap operations generally aimed at those who went against a community's values. Men who neglected or abused their family, people who showed excessive laziness, and women who had
650:
After it was institutionalized in formal law, its legal definition became more general than the specific movement itself: "Whitecapping is the crime of threatening a person with violence. Ordinarily, members of the minority groups are the victims of whitecapping."
725:
contributed to the problem as well. Prosperous black men, or simply
African Americans who acquired land in the South, frequently faced resentment that could be expressed violently. White Caps were also part of the effort by whites to maintain
638:
during the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It was originally a ritualized form of extralegal actions to enforce community standards, appropriate behavior, and traditional rights. However, as it spread throughout the poorest areas of
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Many White Cap societies were disbanded by 1894 and their members were punished with fines. Some state governments were determined to disband the White Cap societies operating in their regions. While a segregationist, Mississippi
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and falling crop prices. With attention centered on producing cotton, the South's economy became very unbalanced. Many farmers went into debt and lost their lands to merchants through mortgage foreclosures.
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assembled an executive task force in 1904 in order to gather information about membership. He feared that the violence would drive too many black workers away from the state economy, as the number of
709:
from acquiring more land. In the South, Whitecaps tried to force victims to abandon their home or property. Whitecapping in the South is thought to have been related to the stresses of the
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during the 1890s after
Reconstruction, a period of increasing racial violence against blacks by whites, the targets changed. In the South, White Cap societies were generally made up of
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Despite the different whitecapping targets, the White Caps used similar methods. Generally, the members of this society were disguised in a way that somewhat resembled that of the
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In the late twentieth century, whitecapping continued to be an issue in the South: Mississippi passed a 1972 statute criminalizing its practice. The statute reads as follows:
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hundred dollars, or imprisoned in the county jail not exceeding six months, or in the penitentiary not exceeding five years, as the court, in its discretion may determine.
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1983:
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647:, white members operated from economically driven and anti-black biases. States passed laws against it, but whitecapping continued into the early 20th century.
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1011:
McCormick, Chris and Green, Len, eds. "Crime and
Deviance in Canada: Historical Perspectives." 1st ed. Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press Inc, 2005. pp 56
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4282:
3125:
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McCormick, Chris and Green, Len, eds. "Crime and
Deviance in Canada: Historical Perspectives." 1st ed. Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press Inc, 2005.
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around 1837, as white males began forming secret societies in order to attempt to deliver what they considered justice on the
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1191:"Indiana State Sentinel 19 June 1889 — Hoosier State Chronicles: Indiana's Digital Historic Newspaper Program"
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1381:"Whitecapping in Mississippi: Agrarian Violence in the Populist Era." Mid-America 1973 55(2): 134–148.
666:. They were known for committing "extralegal acts of violence targeting select groups, carried out by
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bias against black victims, part of the White Cap oath was to never help convict a fellow member.
721:
The dispossessed turned on merchants, African-American laborers, and sometimes new white tenants.
4539:
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4136:
4120:
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agricultural depression that occurred immediately after the Civil War. The South had issues with
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347:
287:
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217:
212:
4514:
4403:
4237:
4022:
3679:
1641:
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523:
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337:
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1216:"History, race, and attachment to place among elders in the rural all-black towns of Oklahoma"
933:
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297:
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after its creation and opening for settlement in 1890, with black migrant leaders such as
8:
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41:
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533:
405:
395:
169:
85:
63:
1393:
1039:
Holmes, Williams (1969). "Whitecapping: Agrarian
Violence in Mississippi, 1902–1906".
882:
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in their state, who aided them in avoiding harsher sentences in court. In the case of
4493:
4347:
4006:
3596:
3362:
3167:
1880:
1662:
1260:
1237:
1157:
979:
921:
739:
731:
683:
505:
140:
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4214:
3996:
3940:
3897:
3892:
3808:
3684:
3355:
3162:
1751:
1729:
1719:
1485:
1227:
1112:
1103:
Holmes, William (1980). "Moonshining and
Collective Violence: Georgia, 1889–1895".
1048:
837:
804:
767:
whitecapping threatened to drive away black laborers. Beginning around the time of
759:
655:
538:
367:
903:
775:, with 1.5 million leaving for northern and midwestern industrial cities by 1940.
4554:
4444:
4367:
The Second
Founding: How the Civil War and Reconstruction Remade the Constitution
4259:
4149:
4084:
3975:
3821:
3791:
3755:
3273:
1724:
1475:
1400:
1387:
889:
727:
500:
470:
107:
1257:
The Great Oklahoma Swindle, Race, Religion, and Lies in America's Weirdest State
4418:
4242:
3567:
1756:
1746:
1480:
1232:
1215:
714:
571:
490:
362:
1353:
Holmes, William. "Whitecapping: Agrarian Violence in Mississippi, 1902–1906."
1292:
Holmes, William. "Whitecapping: Agrarian Violence in Mississippi, 1902–1906."
1279:
Holmes, William. "Whitecapping: Agrarian Violence in Mississippi, 1902–1906."
4591:
4519:
4483:
4384:
4079:
3862:
3826:
3786:
1761:
1611:
1413:
For Whitecapping Negress; Fourteen White Men Indicted in a Mississippi Court.
842:
702:
659:
635:
90:
705:
and small landowners, who operated to control black laborers and to prevent
4529:
4321:
3960:
3872:
3648:
3411:
3288:
1766:
1704:
1689:
1684:
832:
793:
748:
663:
174:
147:
1241:
4352:
3760:
1599:
1594:
1589:
1310:
Holmes, William F. "Whitecapping in Late Nineteenth Century Georgia." In
768:
667:
4478:
4334:
1406:
1358:
1124:
1060:
734:
were also victims of whitecapping, particularly in the state of Texas.
698:
654:
Whitecapping was associated historically with such insurgent groups as
528:
475:
377:
3745:
1699:
1418:
706:
425:
80:
1346:
Holmes, William. "Whitecapping: Anti-Semitism in the Populist Era."
1116:
1073:
Holmes, William. "Whitecapping: Anti-Semitism in the Populist Era."
1052:
1020:
Holmes, William. "Whitecapping: Anti-Semitism in the Populist Era."
4544:
1694:
1672:
679:
3330:
Fort Smith Conference and Cherokee Reconstruction Treaty of 1866
1312:
From the Old South to the New: Essays on the Transitional South
976:
United States District Courts and Judges of Arkansas, 1836–1960
722:
1340:
The White-caps: A History of the Organization in Sevier County
1573:
United States Congressional Joint Committee on Reconstruction
543:
998:"The Pioneers of Morgan County, Memoirs of Noah J. Major",
4341:
Reconstruction: America's Unfinished Revolution, 1863–1877
870:
1st ed. Toronto: Canadian Scholars' Press Inc, 2005. pp 54
771:, tens of thousands of rural blacks began to leave in the
4550:
Technological and industrial history of the United States
1407:
Whitecapping: Agrarian Violence in Mississippi, 1902–1906
803:
Some members of the White Caps had elite connections to
1138:
Arnolodo, Calvert, Robert A, and De Leon (2010-06-12).
978:. Arkansas: University of Arkansas Press. p. 127.
754:
In Oklahoma, both white and black settlers migrated to
4510:
African American founding fathers of the United States
4412:
The Clansman: A Historical Romance of the Ku Klux Klan
1578:
United States House Select Committee on Reconstruction
904:"Whitecapping Law and Legal Definition | USLegal, Inc"
868:
Crime and Deviance in Canada: Historical Perspectives.
4643:
Right-wing militia organizations in the United States
4638:
Racially motivated violence against African Americans
1343:
Knoxville, Tenn. : Bean, Warters & Gaut 1899
16:
Vigilante violence against minorities in the 1800s US
3084:
The Equality of the Sexes and the Condition of Women
1394:
SEC. 97-3-87. Threats and intimidation; whitecapping
883:
SEC. 97-3-87. Threats and intimidation; whitecapping
3335:Choctaw and Chickasaw Treaty of Washington of 1866
3126:District of Columbia Compensated Emancipation Act
4589:
3470:Second impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson
1366:Painter, Nell. "The Flames of Racial Hatred."
1086:Painter, Nell. "The Flames of Racial Hatred."
3444:First impeachment inquiry into Andrew Johnson
1434:
608:
1162:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
848:Vigilantism in the United States of America
1441:
1427:
615:
601:
4002:South Carolina civil disturbances of 1876
1231:
948:"Night Riders – Encyclopedia of Arkansas"
587:Mass racial violence in the United States
4525:History of the United States (1865–1917)
1137:
751:as the main reason to end whitecapping.
1213:
1000:Indiana Historical Society Publications
4623:History of racism in the United States
4590:
4184:Bibliography of the Reconstruction era
3230:Second inauguration of Abraham Lincoln
1448:
1102:
1038:
892:Mississippi Code of 1972, As Amended.
866:McCormick, Chris and Green, Len, eds.
456:1912 racial conflict in Forsyth County
4648:Secret societies in the United States
4469:Women's suffrage in the United States
3158:Lincoln's presidential Reconstruction
1422:
1348:American Jewish Historical Quarterly.
1306:
1304:
1302:
1098:
1096:
1022:American Jewish Historical Quarterly.
678:The Whitecapping movement started in
4663:White supremacy in the United States
3576:Proposed annexation of Santo Domingo
3264:Confederates surrender at Appomattox
3076:A Vindication of the Rights of Woman
1403:Mississippi Code of 1972, As Amended
1259:. U of Nebraska Press. p. 106.
1254:
1075:American Jewish Historical Quarterly
1034:
1032:
1030:
973:
969:
967:
878:
876:
4613:Discrimination in the United States
4432:United Daughters of the Confederacy
3563:American Woman Suffrage Association
3558:National Woman Suffrage Association
3485:Impeachment trial of Andrew Johnson
1784:Women during the Reconstruction era
670:under cover of night or disguise."
13:
4474:Labor history of the United States
3510:South Carolina readmitted to Union
3507:North Carolina readmitted to Union
3490:Impeachment managers investigation
3429:Constitutional conventions of 1867
3105:National Women's Rights Convention
1321:
1299:
1176:Anon. "For Whitecapping Negress."
1093:
14:
4674:
3715:United States expedition to Korea
3422:Reconstruction military districts
1374:
1027:
964:
873:
582:Civil rights movement (1896–1954)
577:Civil rights movement (1865–1896)
208:Nevlin Porter and Johnson Spencer
4658:Vigilantism in the United States
4598:Agriculture in the United States
3269:Assassination of Abraham Lincoln
1563:African-American representatives
1355:The Journal of Southern History.
1294:The Journal of Southern History.
901:
693:As whitecapping spread into the
268:Frazier B. Baker and Julia Baker
40:
4271:Black Reconstruction in America
4144:Wilmington insurrection of 1898
4054:1876 State of the Union Address
3981:1875 State of the Union Address
3908:1874 State of the Union Address
3832:1873 State of the Union Address
3771:1872 State of the Union Address
3720:1871 State of the Union Address
3659:1870 State of the Union Address
3608:1869 State of the Union Address
3603:First transcontinental railroad
3542:1868 State of the Union Address
3449:1867 State of the Union Address
3284:1865 State of the Union Address
3209:1864 State of the Union Address
3183:1863 State of the Union Address
3092:Woman in the Nineteenth Century
1286:
1281:The Journal of Southern History
1273:
1248:
1207:
1183:
1170:
1131:
1105:The Journal of American History
1080:
1067:
1041:The Journal of Southern History
974:Ross, Frances Mitchell (2016).
730:, particularly in the economy.
421:Wilmington insurrection of 1898
411:Spring Valley Race Riot of 1895
131:Expulsions of African Americans
4653:Terrorism in the United States
3344:Petition for Universal Freedom
3325:Southern Homestead Act of 1866
1415:The New York Times, 1903-11-10
1370:4 Feb 1996, national ed.: X03.
1090:4 Feb 1996, national ed.: X03.
1014:
1005:
992:
952:www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net
940:
895:
860:
787:
1:
4391:A Visit from the Old Mistress
4090:Great Railroad Strike of 1877
3956:Specie Payment Resumption Act
3581:Board of Indian Commissioners
3513:Louisiana readmitted to Union
3475:Impeachment of Andrew Johnson
3339:Tennessee readmitted to Union
3173:Women's Loyal National League
1876:Straight-Out Democratic Party
1647:Confederate States of America
853:
446:Springfield race riot of 1908
4618:History of racism in Indiana
4017:Battle of the Little Bighorn
3501:Arkansas readmitted to Union
3407:Knights of the White Camelia
3369:Slave Kidnapping Act of 1866
3315:New Orleans Massacre of 1866
3289:Founding of the Ku Klux Klan
3247:Special Field Orders No. 15
3070:Slavery in the United States
1334:10 Nov 1903, national ed.:1.
1214:McAuley, WJ (January 1998).
1180:10 Nov 1903, national ed.:1.
486:Washington race riot of 1919
7:
4535:Race (human categorization)
3925:United States v. Cruikshank
3516:Alabama readmitted to Union
3504:Florida readmitted to Union
1220:The Journals of Gerontology
816:
373:James Harvey and Joe Jordan
10:
4679:
4608:Crime in the United States
3736:General Mining Act of 1872
3705:New York custom house ring
3695:Meridian race riot of 1871
3639:Naturalization Act of 1870
1329:For Whitecapping Negress."
740:Governor James K. Vardaman
673:
48:1906 Atlanta race massacre
4572:
4502:
4461:
4377:
4328:Been in the Storm So Long
4248:William Archibald Dunning
4208:The American Commonwealth
4176:
4169:
4098:
4062:
3989:
3916:
3878:Election Massacre of 1874
3840:
3779:
3728:
3667:
3616:
3586:Public Credit Act of 1869
3550:
3525:Fourth Reconstruction Act
3457:
3434:Habeas Corpus Act of 1867
3384:
3297:
3217:
3191:
3178:New York City draft riots
3148:Emancipation Proclamation
3140:
3057:
3050:
3000:
2022:
1976:
1930:
1823:National Union Convention
1803:
1796:
1655:
1632:
1568:Reconstruction Amendments
1558:African-American senators
1463:
1456:
1195:newspapers.library.in.gov
690:all were likely targets.
481:Chicago race riot of 1919
4044:Safe burglary conspiracy
3931:Civil Rights Act of 1875
3710:Civil service commission
3310:Memphis massacre of 1866
3305:Civil Rights Act of 1866
3121:Confiscation Act of 1862
3116:Confiscation Act of 1861
1871:Liberal Republican Party
1553:Conservative Republicans
1409:JSTOR scholarly journals
1390:Mississippi bibliography
1233:10.1093/geronb/53b.1.s35
441:Atlanta Massacre of 1906
4540:Reconstruction Treaties
4359:A Nation Under Our Feet
4307:From Slavery to Freedom
4137:Williams v. Mississippi
4121:United States v. Harris
4012:Great Sioux War of 1876
3951:Yazoo City Riot of 1875
3853:Battle of Liberty Place
3741:Crédit Mobilier scandal
3690:Alcorn State University
3629:Enforcement Act of 1870
3495:Articles of impeachment
3402:Indian Peace Commission
3320:Swing Around the Circle
3257:Freedmen's Bureau bills
3099:Seneca Falls Convention
1828:Radical Democracy Party
1779:Freedman's Savings Bank
1140:"Civil-Rights Movement"
908:definitions.uslegal.com
810:Hodges v. United States
688:children out of wedlock
554:Back to Africa movement
101:Anti-miscegenation laws
4515:Forty acres and a mule
4238:Walter Lynwood Fleming
4023:United States v. Reese
3680:Second Enforcement Act
1910:Prohibition Convention
1642:Southern United States
1255:Cobb, Russell (2020).
785:
524:Anti-lynching movement
461:1917 Chester race riot
451:Johnson–Jeffries riots
318:Laura and L. D. Nelson
4489:Civil rights movement
4425:The Birth of a Nation
4034:Centennial Exposition
3888:Black Hills Gold Rush
3803:Slaughter-House Cases
3675:Ku Klux Klan hearings
3153:General Order No. 143
1772:James Mitchell Ashley
1314:, 123. Praeger, 1981.
780:
416:Phoenix election riot
401:Rock Springs massacre
58:Historical background
4070:Electoral Commission
3946:Clifton Riot of 1875
3700:Treaty of Washington
3392:Tenure of Office Act
3350:National Labor Union
3065:American Indian Wars
1915:Electoral Commission
1905:Greenback Convention
1668:Free people of color
1608:Federal bureaucracy
1548:Moderate Republicans
1368:The Washington Post.
1357:35 (1969): 165–185.
1088:The Washington Post.
466:East St. Louis riots
436:Evansville race riot
431:Robert Charles riots
4419:D. W. Griffith
4404:The Leopard's Spots
4294:The American Crisis
4228:Columbia University
4195:The Prostrate State
4189:James Shepherd Pike
4106:Posse Comitatus Act
4029:Trader post scandal
3817:Coinage Act of 1873
3591:Black Friday (1869)
3439:Peonage Act of 1867
3417:Reconstruction Acts
3397:Command of Army Act
3132:Militia Act of 1862
1543:Radical Republicans
1491:Rutherford B. Hayes
1350:63 (1974): 244–261.
1332:The New York Times.
1178:The New York Times.
823:Acts of repudiation
529:Exodusters movement
496:Tulsa race massacre
390:Massacres and riots
4438:Gone with the Wind
4301:John Hope Franklin
4157:Disenfranchisement
4129:Plessy v. Ferguson
4113:Civil Rights Cases
4075:Compromise of 1877
3966:Wheeler Compromise
3883:Vicksburg massacre
3868:Timber Culture Act
3858:Coushatta massacre
3797:Timber Culture Act
3751:Star Route scandal
3634:Justice Department
3531:Georgia v. Stanton
3520:Opelousas massacre
3111:American Civil War
1920:Compromise of 1877
1622:Justice Department
1586:Federal judiciary
1465:Federal government
1450:Reconstruction era
1399:2007-08-15 at the
1386:2008-08-20 at the
932:has generic name (
888:2007-08-15 at the
828:Indiana White Caps
756:Oklahoma Territory
711:reconstruction Era
699:poor-white farmers
634:of farmers in the
632:vigilante movement
534:Atlanta Compromise
406:Thibodaux massacre
396:Opelousas massacre
170:Indiana White Caps
141:Lynching postcards
86:Compromise of 1877
64:Reconstruction era
4585:
4584:
4568:
4567:
4494:American frontier
4348:Kenneth M. Stampp
4165:
4164:
4007:Ellenton massacre
3848:Brooks–Baxter War
3597:Ex parte McCardle
3363:Ex parte Milligan
3252:Freedmen's Bureau
3168:National Bank Act
3046:
3045:
1881:Victoria Woodhull
1792:
1791:
1663:African Americans
1634:State governments
1617:Freedmen's Bureau
1077:. 63 (1974): 246.
805:defense attorneys
732:Mexican Americans
684:American frontier
625:
624:
506:Rosewood massacre
69:Voter suppression
32:Nadir of American
4670:
4603:Crime in Indiana
4451:Race and Reunion
4398:Thomas Dixon Jr.
4288:William R. Brock
4278:C. Vann Woodward
4265:W. E. B. Du Bois
4255:Charles A. Beard
4215:Claude G. Bowers
4174:
4173:
3997:Hamburg massacre
3976:Pratt & Boyd
3941:Mississippi Plan
3898:Anti-Moiety Acts
3893:Sanborn incident
3685:Ku Klux Klan Act
3356:Ex parte Garland
3163:Ten percent plan
3055:
3054:
1801:
1800:
1752:Thaddeus Stevens
1737:Republican Party
1730:Samuel J. Tilden
1720:Bourbon Democrat
1715:Democratic Party
1486:Ulysses S. Grant
1461:
1460:
1443:
1436:
1429:
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899:
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880:
871:
864:
838:The Night Riders
760:Edward P. McCabe
656:The Night Riders
617:
610:
603:
539:Niagara Movement
343:Anthony Crawford
333:Jesse Washington
273:John Henry James
263:Stephen Williams
248:Ephraim Grizzard
243:People's Grocery
159:Vigilante groups
74:Disfranchisement
46:Violence in the
44:
19:
18:
4678:
4677:
4673:
4672:
4671:
4669:
4668:
4667:
4633:Political masks
4588:
4587:
4586:
4581:
4564:
4555:White supremacy
4498:
4457:
4445:David W. Blight
4373:
4283:Joel Williamson
4260:Howard K. Beale
4161:
4150:Giles v. Harris
4094:
4085:Desert Land Act
4058:
3985:
3912:
3836:
3822:Long Depression
3792:Colfax massacre
3775:
3756:Salary Grab Act
3724:
3663:
3644:Kirk–Holden war
3612:
3546:
3453:
3380:
3293:
3274:Shaw University
3213:
3199:Wade–Davis Bill
3187:
3136:
3042:
2996:
2018:
1972:
1926:
1806:
1788:
1725:Horatio Seymour
1651:
1635:
1628:
1476:Abraham Lincoln
1466:
1452:
1447:
1401:Wayback Machine
1388:Wayback Machine
1377:
1324:
1322:Further reading
1319:
1318:
1309:
1300:
1291:
1287:
1283:. 35 (1969):177
1278:
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1267:
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1249:
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1101:
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1085:
1081:
1072:
1068:
1053:10.2307/2205711
1037:
1028:
1024:63 (1974): 247.
1019:
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890:Wayback Machine
881:
874:
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819:
790:
773:Great Migration
728:white supremacy
695:Southern states
676:
641:the rural South
621:
592:
591:
567:
559:
558:
549:Great Migration
519:
511:
510:
501:Perry race riot
471:Elaine massacre
391:
383:
382:
198:Andrew Richards
193:
185:
184:
121:
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112:
108:Convict leasing
59:
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4243:Dunning School
4240:
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4221:The Tragic Era
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4177:Historiography
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3465:14th Amendment
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3376:1866 elections
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3225:13th Amendment
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3204:1864 elections
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4551:
4548:
4546:
4543:
4541:
4538:
4536:
4533:
4531:
4528:
4526:
4523:
4521:
4520:Habeas corpus
4518:
4516:
4513:
4511:
4508:
4507:
4505:
4501:
4495:
4492:
4490:
4487:
4485:
4482:
4480:
4477:
4475:
4472:
4470:
4467:
4466:
4464:
4460:
4453:
4452:
4448:
4446:
4443:
4440:
4439:
4435:
4433:
4430:
4427:
4426:
4422:
4420:
4417:
4414:
4413:
4409:
4406:
4405:
4401:
4399:
4396:
4393:
4392:
4388:
4386:
4385:Winslow Homer
4383:
4382:
4380:
4376:
4369:
4368:
4364:
4361:
4360:
4356:
4354:
4351:
4349:
4346:
4343:
4342:
4338:
4336:
4333:
4330:
4329:
4325:
4323:
4320:
4317:
4316:
4315:After Slavery
4312:
4309:
4308:
4304:
4302:
4299:
4296:
4295:
4291:
4289:
4286:
4284:
4281:
4279:
4276:
4273:
4272:
4268:
4266:
4263:
4261:
4258:
4256:
4253:
4249:
4246:
4245:
4244:
4241:
4239:
4236:
4234:
4231:
4229:
4226:
4223:
4222:
4218:
4216:
4213:
4210:
4209:
4205:
4203:
4200:
4197:
4196:
4192:
4190:
4187:
4185:
4182:
4181:
4179:
4175:
4172:
4168:
4158:
4155:
4152:
4151:
4147:
4145:
4142:
4139:
4138:
4134:
4131:
4130:
4126:
4123:
4122:
4118:
4115:
4114:
4110:
4107:
4104:
4103:
4101:
4097:
4091:
4088:
4086:
4083:
4081:
4080:Nez Perce War
4078:
4076:
4073:
4071:
4068:
4067:
4065:
4061:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4037:
4035:
4032:
4030:
4027:
4025:
4024:
4020:
4018:
4015:
4013:
4010:
4008:
4005:
4003:
4000:
3998:
3995:
3994:
3992:
3988:
3982:
3979:
3977:
3974:
3972:
3971:Delano affair
3969:
3967:
3964:
3962:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3952:
3949:
3947:
3944:
3942:
3939:
3937:
3934:
3932:
3929:
3927:
3926:
3922:
3921:
3919:
3915:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3901:
3899:
3896:
3894:
3891:
3889:
3886:
3884:
3881:
3879:
3876:
3874:
3871:
3869:
3866:
3864:
3863:Red River War
3861:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3851:
3849:
3846:
3845:
3843:
3839:
3833:
3830:
3828:
3827:Comstock laws
3825:
3823:
3820:
3818:
3815:
3813:
3811:
3807:
3805:
3804:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3793:
3790:
3788:
3787:Panic of 1873
3785:
3784:
3782:
3778:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3752:
3749:
3747:
3744:
3742:
3739:
3737:
3734:
3733:
3731:
3727:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3672:
3670:
3666:
3660:
3657:
3655:
3652:
3650:
3647:
3645:
3642:
3640:
3637:
3635:
3632:
3630:
3627:
3625:
3622:
3621:
3619:
3615:
3609:
3606:
3604:
3601:
3599:
3598:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3570:
3566:
3564:
3561:
3559:
3556:
3555:
3553:
3549:
3543:
3540:
3538:
3535:
3533:
3532:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3515:
3512:
3509:
3506:
3503:
3500:
3496:
3493:
3491:
3488:
3486:
3483:
3481:
3478:
3477:
3476:
3473:
3471:
3468:
3466:
3463:
3462:
3460:
3456:
3450:
3447:
3445:
3442:
3440:
3437:
3435:
3432:
3430:
3427:
3423:
3420:
3419:
3418:
3415:
3413:
3410:
3408:
3405:
3403:
3400:
3398:
3395:
3393:
3390:
3389:
3387:
3383:
3377:
3374:
3373:
3370:
3367:
3365:
3364:
3360:
3358:
3357:
3353:
3351:
3348:
3346:
3345:
3341:
3338:
3336:
3333:
3331:
3328:
3326:
3323:
3321:
3318:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3300:
3296:
3290:
3287:
3285:
3282:
3280:
3279:New Departure
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3267:
3265:
3262:
3258:
3255:
3254:
3253:
3250:
3248:
3245:
3243:
3240:
3236:
3233:
3232:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3222:
3220:
3216:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3202:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3194:
3190:
3184:
3181:
3179:
3176:
3174:
3171:
3169:
3166:
3164:
3161:
3159:
3156:
3154:
3151:
3149:
3146:
3145:
3143:
3139:
3133:
3130:
3127:
3124:
3122:
3119:
3117:
3114:
3112:
3109:
3106:
3103:
3100:
3097:
3094:
3093:
3089:
3086:
3085:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3056:
3053:
3049:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3029:
3026:
3024:
3021:
3019:
3016:
3014:
3011:
3009:
3006:
3005:
3003:
2999:
2991:
2988:
2986:
2983:
2981:
2978:
2976:
2973:
2971:
2968:
2966:
2963:
2961:
2958:
2956:
2953:
2951:
2948:
2946:
2943:
2941:
2938:
2936:
2933:
2931:
2928:
2926:
2923:
2921:
2920:
2915:
2913:
2912:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2893:
2888:
2885:
2883:
2880:
2878:
2875:
2873:
2870:
2868:
2865:
2863:
2860:
2858:
2855:
2853:
2850:
2848:
2845:
2843:
2840:
2838:
2835:
2834:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2823:
2821:
2818:
2816:
2813:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2796:
2793:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2781:
2778:
2776:
2773:
2771:
2768:
2766:
2763:
2762:
2760:
2759:
2754:
2751:
2749:
2746:
2744:
2741:
2739:
2736:
2734:
2731:
2729:
2726:
2724:
2721:
2719:
2716:
2714:
2711:
2709:
2706:
2705:
2703:
2702:
2697:
2694:
2692:
2689:
2687:
2684:
2682:
2679:
2677:
2674:
2672:
2669:
2667:
2664:
2662:
2659:
2657:
2654:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2637:
2634:
2632:
2629:
2627:
2624:
2622:
2619:
2618:
2616:
2615:
2610:
2607:
2605:
2602:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2590:
2587:
2585:
2582:
2580:
2577:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2565:
2562:
2560:
2557:
2555:
2552:
2551:
2549:
2548:
2543:
2540:
2538:
2535:
2533:
2530:
2528:
2525:
2523:
2520:
2518:
2515:
2513:
2510:
2508:
2505:
2503:
2500:
2498:
2495:
2493:
2490:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2482:
2481:
2476:
2473:
2471:
2468:
2466:
2463:
2461:
2458:
2456:
2453:
2451:
2448:
2446:
2443:
2441:
2438:
2436:
2433:
2431:
2428:
2426:
2423:
2421:
2418:
2417:
2415:
2414:
2409:
2406:
2404:
2401:
2399:
2396:
2394:
2391:
2389:
2386:
2384:
2381:
2379:
2376:
2374:
2371:
2369:
2366:
2364:
2361:
2359:
2356:
2354:
2351:
2349:
2346:
2344:
2341:
2339:
2336:
2335:
2333:
2332:
2327:
2324:
2322:
2319:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2309:
2307:
2304:
2302:
2299:
2297:
2294:
2292:
2289:
2287:
2284:
2283:
2281:
2280:
2275:
2272:
2270:
2267:
2265:
2262:
2260:
2257:
2255:
2252:
2250:
2247:
2245:
2242:
2240:
2237:
2235:
2232:
2230:
2227:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2219:
2218:
2213:
2210:
2208:
2205:
2203:
2200:
2198:
2195:
2193:
2190:
2188:
2185:
2183:
2180:
2178:
2175:
2173:
2170:
2168:
2165:
2164:
2162:
2161:
2156:
2153:
2151:
2148:
2146:
2143:
2141:
2138:
2136:
2133:
2131:
2128:
2126:
2123:
2121:
2118:
2116:
2113:
2111:
2108:
2106:
2103:
2102:
2100:
2099:
2094:
2091:
2089:
2086:
2084:
2081:
2079:
2076:
2074:
2071:
2069:
2066:
2064:
2061:
2059:
2056:
2054:
2051:
2049:
2046:
2044:
2041:
2039:
2036:
2034:
2031:
2030:
2028:
2027:
2025:
2023:Gubernatorial
2021:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2005:
2002:
2000:
1997:
1995:
1992:
1990:
1987:
1985:
1982:
1981:
1979:
1975:
1969:
1966:
1964:
1961:
1959:
1956:
1954:
1951:
1949:
1946:
1944:
1941:
1939:
1936:
1935:
1933:
1929:
1921:
1918:
1916:
1913:
1911:
1908:
1906:
1903:
1901:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1892:
1891:
1888:
1887:
1882:
1879:
1877:
1874:
1872:
1869:
1867:
1864:
1862:
1859:
1858:
1857:
1854:
1853:
1848:
1845:
1843:
1840:
1839:
1838:
1835:
1834:
1829:
1826:
1824:
1821:
1819:
1816:
1815:
1814:
1811:
1810:
1808:
1802:
1799:
1795:
1785:
1782:
1780:
1777:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1762:Benjamin Wade
1760:
1758:
1755:
1753:
1750:
1748:
1745:
1743:
1740:
1739:
1738:
1735:
1731:
1728:
1726:
1723:
1721:
1718:
1717:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1691:
1688:
1686:
1685:Carpetbaggers
1683:
1679:
1676:
1674:
1671:
1669:
1666:
1665:
1664:
1661:
1660:
1658:
1654:
1648:
1645:
1643:
1640:
1639:
1637:
1631:
1623:
1620:
1618:
1615:
1613:
1612:Edwin Stanton
1610:
1609:
1607:
1606:
1601:
1598:
1596:
1593:
1591:
1588:
1587:
1585:
1584:
1579:
1576:
1574:
1571:
1569:
1566:
1564:
1561:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1541:
1539:
1536:
1534:
1531:
1529:
1526:
1524:
1521:
1519:
1516:
1514:
1511:
1509:
1506:
1504:
1501:
1500:
1498:
1497:
1492:
1489:
1487:
1484:
1482:
1479:
1477:
1474:
1473:
1471:
1470:
1468:
1462:
1459:
1455:
1451:
1444:
1439:
1437:
1432:
1430:
1425:
1424:
1421:
1414:
1411:
1408:
1405:
1402:
1398:
1395:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1382:
1379:
1378:
1369:
1365:
1362:
1360:
1356:
1352:
1349:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1333:
1330:
1326:
1325:
1313:
1307:
1305:
1303:
1296:35 (1969):169
1295:
1289:
1282:
1276:
1268:
1262:
1258:
1251:
1243:
1239:
1234:
1229:
1225:
1221:
1217:
1210:
1196:
1192:
1186:
1179:
1173:
1165:
1159:
1145:
1141:
1134:
1126:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1110:
1106:
1099:
1097:
1089:
1083:
1076:
1070:
1062:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1035:
1033:
1031:
1023:
1017:
1008:
1001:
995:
987:
981:
977:
970:
968:
953:
949:
943:
935:
923:
909:
905:
898:
891:
887:
884:
879:
877:
869:
863:
859:
849:
846:
844:
843:Bald Knobbers
841:
839:
836:
834:
831:
829:
826:
824:
821:
820:
814:
812:
811:
806:
801:
797:
795:
784:
779:
776:
774:
770:
764:
761:
757:
752:
750:
745:
741:
735:
733:
729:
724:
719:
716:
712:
708:
704:
703:sharecroppers
701:, frequently
700:
696:
691:
689:
685:
681:
671:
669:
665:
661:
660:Bald Knobbers
657:
652:
648:
646:
642:
637:
636:United States
633:
629:
618:
613:
611:
606:
604:
599:
598:
596:
595:
588:
585:
583:
580:
578:
575:
573:
570:
569:
563:
562:
555:
552:
550:
547:
545:
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
521:
515:
514:
507:
504:
502:
499:
497:
494:
492:
489:
487:
484:
482:
479:
477:
474:
472:
469:
467:
464:
462:
459:
457:
454:
452:
449:
447:
444:
442:
439:
437:
434:
432:
429:
427:
424:
422:
419:
417:
414:
412:
409:
407:
404:
402:
399:
397:
394:
393:
387:
386:
379:
376:
374:
371:
369:
366:
364:
361:
359:
358:George Taylor
356:
354:
351:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
313:Walker family
311:
309:
308:William Burns
306:
304:
301:
299:
296:
294:
291:
289:
286:
284:
281:
279:
276:
274:
271:
269:
266:
264:
261:
259:
256:
254:
253:Alfred Blount
251:
249:
246:
244:
241:
239:
236:
234:
231:
229:
226:
224:
221:
219:
216:
214:
211:
209:
206:
204:
203:Michael Green
201:
199:
196:
195:
189:
188:
181:
178:
176:
173:
171:
168:
166:
163:
162:
158:
157:
154:
151:
149:
146:
142:
139:
138:
137:
134:
132:
129:
128:
124:
123:
117:
116:
109:
106:
102:
99:
97:
94:
93:
92:
91:Jim Crow laws
89:
87:
84:
82:
79:
75:
72:
71:
70:
67:
65:
62:
61:
55:
54:
49:
43:
39:
38:
35:
30:
29:
25:
21:
20:
4628:Ku Klux Klan
4560:Whitecapping
4559:
4530:Paramilitary
4503:Other topics
4484:Jim Crow era
4449:
4436:
4423:
4410:
4402:
4389:
4365:
4357:
4339:
4326:
4322:Leon Litwack
4313:
4305:
4292:
4269:
4233:John Burgess
4219:
4206:
4193:
4148:
4135:
4127:
4119:
4111:
4021:
3961:Whiskey Ring
3923:
3873:White League
3809:
3801:
3649:Shoffner Act
3595:
3568:
3529:
3412:Pulaski riot
3361:
3354:
3342:
3090:
3082:
3074:
2918:
2910:
1805:Presidential
1767:John Bingham
1705:White League
1690:Ku Klux Klan
1457:Participants
1367:
1354:
1347:
1338:
1331:
1311:
1293:
1288:
1280:
1275:
1256:
1250:
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323:King Johnson
298:Watkinsville
175:Ku Klux Klan
165:Black Legion
153:Whitecapping
152:
148:Sundown town
4353:Steven Hahn
4202:James Bryce
3761:Amnesty Act
3242:Black Codes
1931:U.S. Senate
1678:Politicians
1600:Waite Court
1595:Chase Court
1590:Taney Court
1472:Presidents
930:|last=
788:Methodology
769:World War I
368:1920 Duluth
348:Ell Persons
288:David Wyatt
283:George Ward
218:Amos Miller
213:Eliza Woods
96:Segregation
4592:Categories
4479:Gilded Age
4335:Eric Foner
4039:Cattellism
3936:Red Shirts
3051:Key events
1977:U.S. House
1710:Red Shirts
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1200:2017-03-16
1149:2017-03-16
1111:(3): 609.
957:2017-03-14
913:2017-03-14
854:References
668:vigilantes
662:, and the
643:after the
476:Red Summer
378:Joe Pullen
328:John Evans
303:Ed Johnson
233:Jim Taylor
180:Red Shirts
4099:Aftermath
3810:Virginius
3746:Modoc War
1797:Elections
1742:Stalwarts
1700:Redeemers
1499:Congress
744:lynchings
707:merchants
645:Civil War
518:Reactions
426:Pana riot
192:Lynchings
136:Lynchings
120:Practices
81:Redeemers
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3480:Timeline
1695:Scalawag
1673:Freedman
1397:Archived
1384:Archived
1359:In JSTOR
1158:cite web
922:cite web
886:Archived
817:See also
278:Sam Hose
24:a series
22:Part of
4170:Aspects
3569:Alabama
3235:Address
3058:Prelude
2014:1876–77
2009:1874–75
2004:1872–73
1999:1870–71
1994:1868–69
1989:1866–67
1984:1864–65
1968:1876–77
1963:1874–75
1958:1872–73
1953:1870–71
1948:1868–69
1943:1866–67
1938:1864–65
1327:Anon. "
1242:9469178
1125:1889869
1061:2205711
680:Indiana
674:History
238:Joe Coe
4462:Legacy
4454:(2001)
4441:(1939)
4428:(1915)
4415:(1905)
4407:(1902)
4394:(1876)
4378:Memory
4370:(2019)
4362:(2003)
4344:(1988)
4331:(1979)
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4310:(1947)
4297:(1963)
4274:(1935)
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4108:(1878)
3812:Affair
3571:Claims
3128:(1862)
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3079:(1792)
1656:Others
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723:Racism
26:on the
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1261:ISBN
1238:PMID
1164:link
980:ISBN
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2917:CT
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1900:RNC
1895:DNC
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