1704:. A positively charged dot is erased (filling the charge well) by drawing a second dot immediately adjacent to the one to be erased (most systems did this by drawing a short dash starting at the dot position, the extension of the dash erased the charge initially stored at the starting point). This worked because the negative halo around the second dot would fill in the positive center of the first dot. A collection of dots or spaces, often one horizontal row on the display, represents a computer word. Increasing beam energy made the dots bigger and last longer, but required them to be further apart, since nearby dots would erase each other.
1913:
1901:
1747:. This is read by placing a thin metal sheet just in front of the display side of the CRT. During a read operation, the beam first writes to the selected bit locations on the display. Those locations that were previously written to are already depleted of electrons, so no current flows, and no voltage appears on the plate. This allows the computer to determine there was a "1" in that location. If the location had not been written to previously, the write process will create a well and a pulse will be read on the sheet, indicating a "0".
22:
1925:
1781:
into the previously written well, filling it. The original systems produced this effect by writing a small dash, which was easy to accomplish without changing the master timers and simply producing the write current for a slightly longer period. The resulting pattern was a series of dots and dashes. There was a considerable amount of research on more effective erasing systems, with some systems using out-of-focus beams or complex patterns.
37:
1615:
1889:
56:
1750:
Reading a memory location creates a charge well whether or not one was previously there, thus destroying the original contents of that location. So any read has to be followed by a rewrite to reinstate the original data. In some systems this was accomplished using a second electron gun inside the CRT
1845:
was slower and not random access, as the bits were presented serially, which complicated programming. Delay lines also needed hand tuning, but did not age as badly and enjoyed some success in early digital electronic computing despite their data rate, weight, cost, thermal and toxicity problems. The
1683:
to be struck out of the phosphor. These electrons travel a short distance before being attracted back to the CRT surface and falling on it a short distance away. The overall effect is to cause a slight positive charge in the immediate region of the beam where there is a deficit of electrons, and a
1780:
Since the refresh process caused the same pattern to continually reappear on the display, there was a need to be able to erase previously written values. This was normally accomplished by writing to the display just beside the original location. The electrons released by this new write would fall
1797:
coating that made the data visible, while other tubes were purpose-built without such a coating. The presence or absence of this coating had no effect on the operation of the tube, and was of no importance to the operators, since the face of the tube was covered by the pickup plate. If a visible
1759:
Since the display would fade over time, the entire display had to be periodically refreshed using the same basic method. As the data is read and then immediately rewritten, this operation can be carried out by external circuitry while the
1589:
over each dot. The charge at the location of each of the dots is read by a thin metal sheet just in front of the display. Since the display faded over time, it was periodically refreshed. It operates faster than earlier
1714:
Because the electron beam is essentially inertia-free and can be moved anywhere on the display, the computer can access any location, making it a random access memory. Typically, the computer would load the
1598:. The system was adversely affected by nearby electrical fields, and required frequent adjustment to remain operational. Williams–Kilburn tubes were used primarily on high-speed computer designs.
1735:
Reading the memory took place via a secondary effect caused by the writing operation. During the short period when the write takes place, the redistribution of charges in the phosphor creates an
4093:
1601:
Williams and
Kilburn applied for British patents on 11 December 1946, and 2 October 1947, followed by United States patent applications on 10 December 1947, and 16 May 1949.
652:
1679:
that forms the display surface, it normally causes it to illuminate. If the beam energy is above a given threshold (depending on the phosphor mix) it also causes
1798:
output was needed, a second tube connected in parallel with the storage tube, with a phosphor coating, but without a pickup plate, was used as a display device.
3834:
4088:
1688:
remains on the surface of the tube for a fraction of a second while the electrons flow back to their original locations. The lifetime depends on the
2077:
2437:
2288:
1826:, which first successfully ran a program on 21 June, 1948. Rather than the Williams tube memory being designed for the Baby, the Baby was a
2088:
3487:
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3311:
2400:
1900:
647:
667:
2952:
2020:
4083:
1912:
1841:
Williams tubes tended to become unreliable with age, and most working installations had to be hand tuned. By contrast, mercury
1700:
The process of creating the charge well is used as the write operation in a computer memory, storing a single binary digit, or
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that would sweep the selected locations, reading from or writing to the internal registers, normally implemented as
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2500:
1708:
141:
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1707:
The beam energy had to be large enough to produce dots with a usable lifetime. This places an upper limit on the
1356:
1016:
960:
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1924:
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of numbers as large as 2. Tradition at the university has it that this was the only program
Kilburn ever wrote.
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1823:
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109:
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1005:
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28:
with a
Williams–Kilburn tube, a 5CP1A cathode ray tube, used in the memory array of the
3427:
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2962:
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2662:
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2181:
1764:(CPU) was busy carrying out other operations. This refresh operation is similar to the
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403:
328:
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2129:
Computer 50: The
University of Manchester Celebrates the Birth of the Modern Computer
2054:
1995:
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891:
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193:
1854:. Some early computers in the United States also used Williams tubes, including the
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slight negative charge around the dot where those electrons land. The resulting
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3917:
3699:
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3171:
3161:
2927:
2730:
1859:
1765:
1716:
1711:, and each Williams tube could typically store about 256 to 2560 bits of data.
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2154:
Williams, F.C.; Kilburn, T. (September 1948), "Electronic
Digital Computers",
2113:
2100:
2042:
1983:
1578:
digital storage device, and was used successfully in several early computers.
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21:
2205:"Universal High-Speed Digital Computers: A Small-Scale Experimental Machine"
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1594:, at the speed of the electrons inside the vacuum tube, rather than at the
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1979:
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29:
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3000:
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1751:
that could write to one location while the other was reading the next.
1639: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
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682:
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1850:, which used Williams tubes, was successfully commercialised as the
1614:
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704:
41:
1719:
as an X and Y pair into the driver circuitry and then trigger a
1585:(CRT). Due to the way CRTs work, this creates a small charge of
3966:
3961:
3614:
3578:
3573:
3550:
3365:
3056:
3020:
2985:
2545:
2517:
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2274:
A Storage System For Use With Binary
Digital Computing Machines
1316:
1276:
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388:
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797:
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2203:
Williams, F.C.; Kilburn, T.; Tootill, G.C. (February 1951),
3385:
2768:
2714:
2615:
2568:
2506:
1246:
533:
183:
55:
1581:
The
Williams tube works by displaying a grid of dots on a
1701:
1286:
1173:
943:
4094:
Department of
Computer Science, University of Manchester
1834:
wrote a 17-instruction program to calculate the highest
2252:. Office of Naval Research, Dept. of the Navy. p.
2202:
2053:(4), The Computer Conservation Society, Summer 1992,
1906:
Diagram of
Williams tube memory from the 1947 patent
1878:(SWAC). Williams tubes were also used in the Soviet
2323:
1882:and in the Japan TAC (Tokyo Automatic Computer).
4070:
2406:Manchester Baby and the birth of Computer Memory
2246:United States Office of Naval Research (1953).
2153:
2300:(2nd ed.), The British Computer Society,
1830:to demonstrate the reliability of the memory.
1667:The Williams tube depends on an effect called
3828:
3481:
2431:
1974:
1972:
1970:
1535:
2018:
1675:(CRTs). When the electron beam strikes the
4089:History of computing in the United Kingdom
3835:
3821:
3488:
3474:
2438:
2424:
2287:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (
2043:"Early computers at Manchester University"
1984:"From Cathode Ray Tube to Ferranti Mark I"
1967:
1692:of the phosphor and the size of the well.
1542:
1528:
2445:
2411:RCA 6571 Computer storage tube data sheet
2348:
2295:
2233:
2175:
2012:
1655:Learn how and when to remove this message
2277:(Ph.D. thesis), University of Manchester
1994:(2), The Computer Conservation Society,
54:
35:
20:
2371:
2270:
2249:A survey of automatic digital computers
1978:
4071:
3816:
3495:
3469:
2419:
2321:
1944: – Used a type of memory called
1784:
1083:Vision Electronic Recording Apparatus
2870:Three-dimensional integrated circuit
1930:Diagram of SWAC Williams tube module
1876:Standards Western Automatic Computer
1637:adding citations to reliable sources
1608:
1604:
2651:Programmable unijunction transistor
1789:Some Williams tubes were made from
13:
2552:Multi-gate field-effect transistor
2315:
2125:
244:Data validation and reconciliation
14:
4120:
2530:Insulated-gate bipolar transistor
2394:
2379:(3rd ed.). Springer-Verlag.
2298:A History of Manchester Computers
2019:Brian Napper (25 November 1998).
294:Distributed file system for cloud
2774:Heterostructure barrier varactor
2501:Chemical field-effect transistor
2377:The Origins of Digital Computers
2192:The Origins of Digital Computers
1923:
1911:
1899:
1887:
1613:
142:Areal density (computer storage)
2822:Mixed-signal integrated circuit
2239:
2227:
2196:
1793:-type cathode-ray tubes with a
1624:needs additional citations for
961:Programmable metallization cell
2147:
2119:
2106:
2093:
2082:
2071:
2035:
1801:
524:Persistence (computer science)
40:Williams–Kilburn tube from an
1:
4084:History of computing hardware
3844:Primary computer data storage
1956:
1946:regenerative capacitor memory
1754:
1392:Electronic quantum holography
16:Early form of computer memory
2853:Silicon controlled rectifier
2715:Organic light-emitting diode
2605:Diffused junction transistor
2349:Lavington, Simon H. (1980).
743:Video RAM (dual-ported DRAM)
539:Non-RAID drive architectures
7:
2657:Static induction transistor
2594:Bipolar junction transistor
2546:MOS field-effect transistor
2518:Fin field-effect transistor
2355:Manchester University Press
1935:
1918:SWAC Williams tube assembly
10:
4125:
2864:Static induction thyristor
2322:Bashe, Charles J. (1986).
2023:. University of Manchester
1775:
1730:
1695:
1592:acoustic delay-line memory
1332:Holographic Versatile Disc
1231:Compact Disc Digital Audio
1103:Magnetic-tape data storage
722:Content-addressable memory
4031:
3995:
3944:
3935:
3905:
3889:
3860:
3851:
3789:
3748:
3611:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
3559:
3503:
3401:
3301:
3268:
3200:
3137:
3065:
3033:(Hexode, Heptode, Octode)
2971:
2903:
2785:Hybrid integrated circuit
2749:
2677:
2628:Light-emitting transistor
2582:
2464:
2453:
2296:Lavington, Simon (1998),
1858:(originally designed for
529:Persistent data structure
424:Digital rights management
50:Mountain View, California
3630:Backward-wave oscillator
3080:Backward-wave oscillator
2790:Light emitting capacitor
2646:Point-contact transistor
2616:Junction Gate FET (JFET)
1942:Atanasoff–Berry computer
1808:University of Manchester
1404:DNA digital data storage
1387:Holographic data storage
876:Solid-state hybrid drive
162:Network-attached storage
3091:Crossed-field amplifier
2610:Field-effect transistor
2351:Early British Computers
1894:A Williams–Kilburn tube
1824:stored-program computer
1822:, the first electronic
1818:storage medium for the
1762:central processing unit
1399:5D optical data storage
1216:3D optical data storage
939:Universal Flash Storage
344:Replication (computing)
289:Distributed file system
179:Single-instance storage
157:Direct-attached storage
137:Continuous availability
46:Computer History Museum
3504:Theoretical principles
3260:Voltage-regulator tube
2827:MOS integrated circuit
2692:Constant-current diode
2668:Unijunction transistor
2221:10.1049/pi-2.1951.0004
1570:, is an early form of
1562:named after inventors
1272:Nintendo optical discs
489:Storage virtualization
359:Information repository
299:Distributed data store
64:
52:
33:
3660:Inductive output tube
3329:Electrolytic detector
3102:Inductive output tube
2918:Low-dropout regulator
2833:Organic semiconductor
2764:Printed circuit board
2600:Darlington transistor
2447:Electronic components
2326:IBM's Early Computers
2114:U.S. patent 2,777,971
2101:U.S. patent 2,951,176
1951:Mellon optical memory
1690:electrical resistance
1560:Williams–Kilburn tube
775:Mellon optical memory
763:Williams–Kilburn tube
479:Locality of reference
284:Clustered file system
110:Memory access pattern
58:
39:
24:
4049:Magnetic-core memory
3802:List of tube sockets
3797:List of vacuum tubes
3635:Beam deflection tube
3147:Beam deflection tube
2816:Metal-oxide varistor
2709:Light-emitting diode
2563:Thin-film transistor
2524:Floating-gate MOSFET
2271:Kilburn, T. (1948),
1633:improve this article
1471:Magnetic-core memory
1118:Digital Data Storage
1078:Quadruplex videotape
519:In-memory processing
409:Information transfer
304:Distributed database
167:Storage area network
147:Block (data storage)
3937:Non-volatile memory
3720:Traveling-wave tube
3511:Thermionic emission
3123:Traveling-wave tube
2923:Switching regulator
2759:Printed electronics
2736:Step recovery diode
2513:Depletion-load NMOS
2168:1948Natur.162..487W
1772:in modern systems.
1721:time base generator
1574:. It was the first
1068:Phonograph cylinder
1006:Electrochemical RAM
858:Solid-state storage
474:Memory segmentation
172:Block-level storage
3428:Crystal oscillator
3288:Variable capacitor
2963:Switched capacitor
2905:Voltage regulators
2779:Integrated circuit
2663:Tetrode transistor
2641:Pentode transistor
2634:Organic LET (OLET)
2621:Organic FET (OFET)
1814:, it provided the
1785:Visibility of data
1737:electrical current
1669:secondary emission
1587:static electricity
1477:Plated-wire memory
1442:Paper data storage
1088:Magnetic recording
514:In-memory database
499:Memory-mapped file
444:Volume boot record
439:Master boot record
429:Volume (computing)
404:Data communication
329:Data deduplication
65:
59:Memory pattern on
53:
34:
4066:
4065:
4062:
4061:
3931:
3930:
3913:Delay-line memory
3810:
3809:
3749:Numbering systems
3730:Video camera tube
3715:Talaria projector
3497:Thermionic valves
3463:
3462:
3423:Ceramic resonator
3235:Mercury-arc valve
3187:Video camera tube
3139:Cathode-ray tubes
2899:
2898:
2507:Complementary MOS
2401:The Williams Tube
2307:978-1-902505-01-5
2089:GB Patent 657,591
2078:GB Patent 645,691
1848:Manchester Mark 1
1843:delay-line memory
1806:Developed at the
1673:cathode-ray tubes
1665:
1664:
1657:
1605:Working principle
1552:
1551:
1149:8 mm video format
1073:Phonograph record
892:Flash Core Module
870:Solid-state drive
769:Delay-line memory
728:Computational RAM
631:Scratchpad memory
469:Disk partitioning
194:Unstructured data
120:Secondary storage
63:Williams tube CRT
4116:
4079:Cathode ray tube
3942:
3941:
3858:
3857:
3837:
3830:
3823:
3814:
3813:
3620:Cathode-ray tube
3490:
3483:
3476:
3467:
3466:
3317:electrical power
3202:Gas-filled tubes
3086:Cavity magnetron
2913:Linear regulator
2462:
2461:
2440:
2433:
2426:
2417:
2416:
2390:
2368:
2345:
2329:
2310:
2292:
2286:
2278:
2258:
2257:
2243:
2237:
2231:
2225:
2224:
2200:
2194:
2189:
2179:
2177:10.1038/162487a0
2151:
2145:
2144:
2143:
2141:
2132:, archived from
2123:
2117:
2116:
2110:
2104:
2103:
2097:
2091:
2086:
2080:
2075:
2069:
2068:
2067:
2065:
2039:
2033:
2032:
2030:
2028:
2016:
2010:
2009:
2008:
2006:
1976:
1927:
1915:
1903:
1891:
1660:
1653:
1649:
1646:
1640:
1617:
1609:
1583:cathode-ray tube
1564:Freddie Williams
1544:
1537:
1530:
1489:Thin-film memory
1483:Core rope memory
1409:Universal memory
1372:Millipede memory
1362:Racetrack memory
1327:Ultra HD Blu-ray
1139:Linear Tape-Open
1093:Magnetic storage
1061:Analog recording
504:Software entropy
464:Disk aggregation
224:Data degradation
209:Data compression
105:Memory hierarchy
95:Memory coherence
67:
66:
4124:
4123:
4119:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4114:
4113:
4109:Computer memory
4069:
4068:
4067:
4058:
4027:
3991:
3927:
3901:
3885:
3853:Volatile memory
3847:
3841:
3811:
3806:
3785:
3771:Mullard–Philips
3744:
3695:Photomultiplier
3555:
3536:Suppressor grid
3499:
3494:
3464:
3459:
3397:
3312:audio and video
3297:
3264:
3196:
3133:
3061:
3042:Photomultiplier
2967:
2895:
2843:Quantum circuit
2751:
2745:
2687:Avalanche diode
2673:
2585:
2578:
2467:
2456:
2449:
2444:
2397:
2387:
2365:
2342:
2318:
2316:Further reading
2313:
2308:
2280:
2279:
2261:
2244:
2240:
2232:
2228:
2201:
2197:
2152:
2148:
2139:
2137:
2126:Napper, Brian,
2124:
2120:
2112:
2111:
2107:
2099:
2098:
2094:
2087:
2083:
2076:
2072:
2063:
2061:
2041:
2040:
2036:
2026:
2024:
2021:"Williams Tube"
2017:
2013:
2004:
2002:
1977:
1968:
1959:
1938:
1931:
1928:
1919:
1916:
1907:
1904:
1895:
1892:
1852:Ferranti Mark 1
1820:Manchester Baby
1804:
1787:
1778:
1757:
1733:
1698:
1671:that occurs on
1661:
1650:
1644:
1641:
1630:
1618:
1607:
1572:computer memory
1548:
1519:
1518:
1437:
1429:
1428:
1382:Patterned media
1352:
1344:
1343:
1211:
1201:
1200:
1196:Hard disk drive
1063:
1053:
1052:
1033:
1022:
1021:
976:
966:
965:
887:IBM FlashSystem
882:USB flash drive
821:
804:
803:
758:
750:
749:
738:Dual-ported RAM
616:
599:
598:
559:Cloud computing
419:Copy protection
339:Data redundancy
269:Shared resource
239:Data validation
214:Data corruption
189:Structured data
100:Cache coherence
85:
71:Computer memory
17:
12:
11:
5:
4122:
4112:
4111:
4106:
4101:
4096:
4091:
4086:
4081:
4064:
4063:
4060:
4059:
4057:
4056:
4054:Twistor memory
4051:
4046:
4041:
4035:
4033:
4029:
4028:
4026:
4025:
4020:
4015:
4010:
4005:
3999:
3997:
3993:
3992:
3990:
3989:
3984:
3979:
3974:
3969:
3964:
3959:
3948:
3946:
3939:
3933:
3932:
3929:
3928:
3926:
3925:
3920:
3918:Selectron tube
3915:
3909:
3907:
3903:
3902:
3900:
3899:
3893:
3891:
3887:
3886:
3884:
3883:
3878:
3877:
3876:
3864:
3862:
3855:
3849:
3848:
3840:
3839:
3832:
3825:
3817:
3808:
3807:
3805:
3804:
3799:
3793:
3791:
3787:
3786:
3784:
3783:
3778:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3752:
3750:
3746:
3745:
3743:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3702:
3700:Selectron tube
3697:
3692:
3687:
3682:
3677:
3672:
3667:
3662:
3657:
3652:
3647:
3642:
3637:
3632:
3627:
3622:
3617:
3612:
3606:
3601:
3596:
3591:
3586:
3581:
3576:
3571:
3565:
3563:
3557:
3556:
3554:
3553:
3548:
3543:
3538:
3533:
3528:
3523:
3518:
3513:
3507:
3505:
3501:
3500:
3493:
3492:
3485:
3478:
3470:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3457:
3456:
3455:
3450:
3440:
3435:
3430:
3425:
3420:
3419:
3418:
3407:
3405:
3399:
3398:
3396:
3395:
3394:
3393:
3391:Wollaston wire
3383:
3378:
3373:
3368:
3363:
3358:
3357:
3356:
3351:
3341:
3336:
3331:
3326:
3325:
3324:
3319:
3314:
3305:
3303:
3299:
3298:
3296:
3295:
3290:
3285:
3284:
3283:
3272:
3270:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3247:
3242:
3237:
3232:
3227:
3222:
3217:
3212:
3206:
3204:
3198:
3197:
3195:
3194:
3189:
3184:
3179:
3174:
3172:Selectron tube
3169:
3164:
3162:Magic eye tube
3159:
3154:
3149:
3143:
3141:
3135:
3134:
3132:
3131:
3126:
3120:
3115:
3110:
3105:
3099:
3094:
3088:
3083:
3076:
3074:
3063:
3062:
3060:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3044:
3039:
3034:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3008:
3003:
2998:
2993:
2988:
2983:
2977:
2975:
2969:
2968:
2966:
2965:
2960:
2955:
2950:
2945:
2940:
2935:
2930:
2925:
2920:
2915:
2909:
2907:
2901:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2894:
2893:
2888:
2883:
2878:
2873:
2867:
2861:
2856:
2850:
2845:
2840:
2835:
2830:
2824:
2819:
2813:
2808:
2803:
2798:
2793:
2787:
2782:
2776:
2771:
2766:
2761:
2755:
2753:
2747:
2746:
2744:
2743:
2738:
2733:
2731:Schottky diode
2728:
2723:
2718:
2712:
2706:
2700:
2695:
2689:
2683:
2681:
2675:
2674:
2672:
2671:
2665:
2660:
2654:
2648:
2643:
2638:
2637:
2636:
2625:
2624:
2623:
2618:
2607:
2602:
2597:
2590:
2588:
2580:
2579:
2577:
2576:
2571:
2566:
2560:
2555:
2549:
2543:
2538:
2533:
2527:
2521:
2515:
2510:
2504:
2498:
2493:
2488:
2483:
2478:
2472:
2470:
2459:
2451:
2450:
2443:
2442:
2435:
2428:
2420:
2414:
2413:
2408:
2403:
2396:
2395:External links
2393:
2392:
2391:
2385:
2373:Randell, Brian
2369:
2363:
2346:
2340:
2317:
2314:
2312:
2311:
2306:
2293:
2267:
2266:
2265:
2260:
2259:
2238:
2234:Lavington 1998
2226:
2195:
2146:
2118:
2105:
2092:
2081:
2070:
2034:
2011:
1965:
1964:
1963:
1958:
1955:
1954:
1953:
1948:
1937:
1934:
1933:
1932:
1929:
1922:
1920:
1917:
1910:
1908:
1905:
1898:
1896:
1893:
1886:
1860:Selectron tube
1803:
1800:
1786:
1783:
1777:
1774:
1766:memory refresh
1756:
1753:
1743:in any nearby
1732:
1729:
1717:memory address
1709:memory density
1697:
1694:
1663:
1662:
1621:
1619:
1612:
1606:
1603:
1596:speed of sound
1550:
1549:
1547:
1546:
1539:
1532:
1524:
1521:
1520:
1517:
1516:
1510:
1504:
1501:Twistor memory
1498:
1492:
1486:
1480:
1474:
1468:
1462:
1457:
1451:
1445:
1438:
1435:
1434:
1431:
1430:
1427:
1426:
1421:
1419:Quantum memory
1416:
1411:
1406:
1401:
1396:
1395:
1394:
1384:
1379:
1374:
1369:
1364:
1359:
1353:
1351:In development
1350:
1349:
1346:
1345:
1342:
1341:
1336:
1335:
1334:
1329:
1324:
1319:
1314:
1309:
1304:
1299:
1294:
1289:
1284:
1279:
1274:
1269:
1264:
1262:Super Video CD
1259:
1254:
1249:
1244:
1239:
1234:
1228:
1223:
1212:
1207:
1206:
1203:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1193:
1192:
1191:
1186:
1181:
1176:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1156:
1151:
1146:
1141:
1136:
1131:
1126:
1121:
1115:
1110:
1105:
1100:
1095:
1085:
1080:
1075:
1070:
1064:
1059:
1058:
1055:
1054:
1051:
1050:
1045:
1040:
1034:
1028:
1027:
1024:
1023:
1020:
1019:
1014:
1009:
1003:
998:
988:
983:
977:
972:
971:
968:
967:
964:
963:
958:
957:
956:
951:
946:
941:
936:
931:
926:
921:
919:MultiMediaCard
916:
911:
906:
896:
895:
894:
889:
884:
879:
873:
867:
855:
850:
849:
848:
843:
833:
828:
822:
817:
816:
813:
812:
806:
805:
802:
801:
795:
789:
784:
781:Selectron tube
778:
772:
766:
759:
756:
755:
752:
751:
748:
747:
746:
745:
735:
730:
725:
719:
714:
709:
708:
707:
697:
696:
695:
690:
685:
680:
675:
670:
665:
660:
655:
650:
645:
635:
634:
633:
628:
621:Hardware cache
617:
612:
611:
608:
607:
601:
600:
597:
596:
591:
586:
581:
576:
574:Edge computing
571:
566:
561:
556:
554:Grid computing
551:
549:Bank switching
546:
541:
536:
531:
526:
521:
516:
511:
506:
501:
496:
494:Virtual memory
491:
486:
481:
476:
471:
466:
461:
459:Disk mirroring
456:
451:
446:
441:
436:
431:
426:
421:
416:
414:Temporary file
411:
406:
401:
396:
391:
386:
381:
376:
371:
366:
364:Knowledge base
361:
356:
354:Storage record
351:
349:Memory refresh
346:
341:
336:
334:Data structure
331:
326:
321:
316:
311:
306:
301:
296:
291:
286:
281:
276:
271:
266:
261:
256:
251:
246:
241:
236:
231:
229:Data integrity
226:
221:
219:Data cleansing
216:
211:
206:
201:
196:
191:
186:
181:
176:
175:
174:
169:
159:
154:
152:Object storage
149:
144:
139:
134:
133:
132:
122:
117:
112:
107:
102:
97:
92:
86:
83:
82:
79:
78:
26:James Pomerene
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
4121:
4110:
4107:
4105:
4102:
4100:
4097:
4095:
4092:
4090:
4087:
4085:
4082:
4080:
4077:
4076:
4074:
4055:
4052:
4050:
4047:
4045:
4042:
4040:
4039:Bubble memory
4037:
4036:
4034:
4030:
4024:
4021:
4019:
4016:
4014:
4011:
4009:
4006:
4004:
4001:
4000:
3998:
3994:
3988:
3985:
3983:
3980:
3978:
3975:
3973:
3970:
3968:
3965:
3963:
3960:
3957:
3953:
3950:
3949:
3947:
3943:
3940:
3938:
3934:
3924:
3923:Williams tube
3921:
3919:
3916:
3914:
3911:
3910:
3908:
3904:
3898:
3895:
3894:
3892:
3888:
3882:
3879:
3875:
3871:
3870:
3869:
3866:
3865:
3863:
3859:
3856:
3854:
3850:
3845:
3838:
3833:
3831:
3826:
3824:
3819:
3818:
3815:
3803:
3800:
3798:
3795:
3794:
3792:
3788:
3782:
3779:
3777:
3774:
3772:
3769:
3767:
3766:Marconi-Osram
3764:
3762:
3759:
3757:
3754:
3753:
3751:
3747:
3741:
3740:Fleming valve
3738:
3736:
3735:Williams tube
3733:
3731:
3728:
3726:
3723:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3703:
3701:
3698:
3696:
3693:
3691:
3688:
3686:
3683:
3681:
3678:
3676:
3673:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3663:
3661:
3658:
3656:
3653:
3651:
3648:
3646:
3643:
3641:
3638:
3636:
3633:
3631:
3628:
3626:
3623:
3621:
3618:
3616:
3613:
3610:
3607:
3605:
3602:
3600:
3597:
3595:
3592:
3590:
3587:
3585:
3582:
3580:
3577:
3575:
3572:
3570:
3567:
3566:
3564:
3562:
3558:
3552:
3549:
3547:
3546:Glowing anode
3544:
3542:
3539:
3537:
3534:
3532:
3529:
3527:
3524:
3522:
3519:
3517:
3516:Work function
3514:
3512:
3509:
3508:
3506:
3502:
3498:
3491:
3486:
3484:
3479:
3477:
3472:
3471:
3468:
3454:
3453:mercury relay
3451:
3449:
3446:
3445:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3417:
3414:
3413:
3412:
3409:
3408:
3406:
3404:
3400:
3392:
3389:
3388:
3387:
3384:
3382:
3379:
3377:
3374:
3372:
3369:
3367:
3364:
3362:
3359:
3355:
3352:
3350:
3347:
3346:
3345:
3342:
3340:
3337:
3335:
3332:
3330:
3327:
3323:
3320:
3318:
3315:
3313:
3310:
3309:
3307:
3306:
3304:
3300:
3294:
3291:
3289:
3286:
3282:
3279:
3278:
3277:
3276:Potentiometer
3274:
3273:
3271:
3267:
3261:
3258:
3256:
3253:
3251:
3248:
3246:
3243:
3241:
3238:
3236:
3233:
3231:
3228:
3226:
3223:
3221:
3218:
3216:
3213:
3211:
3208:
3207:
3205:
3203:
3199:
3193:
3192:Williams tube
3190:
3188:
3185:
3183:
3180:
3178:
3175:
3173:
3170:
3168:
3165:
3163:
3160:
3158:
3155:
3153:
3150:
3148:
3145:
3144:
3142:
3140:
3136:
3130:
3127:
3124:
3121:
3119:
3116:
3114:
3111:
3109:
3106:
3103:
3100:
3098:
3095:
3092:
3089:
3087:
3084:
3081:
3078:
3077:
3075:
3072:
3068:
3064:
3058:
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3043:
3040:
3038:
3035:
3032:
3029:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3011:Fleming valve
3009:
3007:
3004:
3002:
2999:
2997:
2994:
2992:
2989:
2987:
2984:
2982:
2979:
2978:
2976:
2974:
2970:
2964:
2961:
2959:
2956:
2954:
2951:
2949:
2946:
2944:
2941:
2939:
2936:
2934:
2931:
2929:
2926:
2924:
2921:
2919:
2916:
2914:
2911:
2910:
2908:
2906:
2902:
2892:
2889:
2887:
2884:
2882:
2879:
2877:
2874:
2871:
2868:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2854:
2851:
2849:
2846:
2844:
2841:
2839:
2838:Photodetector
2836:
2834:
2831:
2828:
2825:
2823:
2820:
2817:
2814:
2812:
2809:
2807:
2806:Memtransistor
2804:
2802:
2799:
2797:
2794:
2791:
2788:
2786:
2783:
2780:
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2767:
2765:
2762:
2760:
2757:
2756:
2754:
2748:
2742:
2739:
2737:
2734:
2732:
2729:
2727:
2724:
2722:
2719:
2716:
2713:
2710:
2707:
2704:
2701:
2699:
2696:
2693:
2690:
2688:
2685:
2684:
2682:
2680:
2676:
2669:
2666:
2664:
2661:
2658:
2655:
2652:
2649:
2647:
2644:
2642:
2639:
2635:
2632:
2631:
2629:
2626:
2622:
2619:
2617:
2614:
2613:
2611:
2608:
2606:
2603:
2601:
2598:
2595:
2592:
2591:
2589:
2587:
2581:
2575:
2572:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2561:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2550:
2547:
2544:
2542:
2539:
2537:
2534:
2531:
2528:
2525:
2522:
2519:
2516:
2514:
2511:
2508:
2505:
2502:
2499:
2497:
2494:
2492:
2489:
2487:
2484:
2482:
2479:
2477:
2474:
2473:
2471:
2469:
2463:
2460:
2458:
2455:Semiconductor
2452:
2448:
2441:
2436:
2434:
2429:
2427:
2422:
2421:
2418:
2412:
2409:
2407:
2404:
2402:
2399:
2398:
2388:
2386:0-387-11319-3
2382:
2378:
2374:
2370:
2366:
2364:0-932376-08-8
2360:
2356:
2352:
2347:
2343:
2341:0-262-02225-7
2337:
2333:
2328:
2327:
2320:
2319:
2309:
2303:
2299:
2294:
2290:
2284:
2276:
2275:
2269:
2268:
2263:
2262:
2255:
2251:
2250:
2242:
2235:
2230:
2222:
2218:
2215:(61): 13–28,
2214:
2210:
2206:
2199:
2193:
2190:Reprinted in
2187:
2183:
2178:
2173:
2169:
2165:
2162:(4117): 487,
2161:
2157:
2150:
2136:on 4 May 2012
2135:
2131:
2130:
2122:
2115:
2109:
2102:
2096:
2090:
2085:
2079:
2074:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2044:
2038:
2022:
2015:
2001:
1997:
1993:
1989:
1985:
1981:
1975:
1973:
1971:
1966:
1961:
1960:
1952:
1949:
1947:
1943:
1940:
1939:
1926:
1921:
1914:
1909:
1902:
1897:
1890:
1885:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1862:memory), the
1861:
1857:
1853:
1849:
1844:
1839:
1837:
1836:proper factor
1833:
1829:
1825:
1821:
1817:
1813:
1809:
1799:
1796:
1792:
1782:
1773:
1771:
1767:
1763:
1752:
1748:
1746:
1742:
1739:that induces
1738:
1728:
1726:
1722:
1718:
1712:
1710:
1705:
1703:
1693:
1691:
1687:
1682:
1678:
1674:
1670:
1659:
1656:
1648:
1638:
1634:
1628:
1627:
1622:This section
1620:
1616:
1611:
1610:
1602:
1599:
1597:
1593:
1588:
1584:
1579:
1577:
1576:random-access
1573:
1569:
1565:
1561:
1557:
1556:Williams tube
1545:
1540:
1538:
1533:
1531:
1526:
1525:
1523:
1522:
1514:
1511:
1508:
1507:Bubble memory
1505:
1502:
1499:
1496:
1493:
1490:
1487:
1484:
1481:
1478:
1475:
1472:
1469:
1466:
1463:
1461:
1458:
1455:
1452:
1449:
1446:
1443:
1440:
1439:
1433:
1432:
1425:
1422:
1420:
1417:
1415:
1412:
1410:
1407:
1405:
1402:
1400:
1397:
1393:
1390:
1389:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1375:
1373:
1370:
1368:
1365:
1363:
1360:
1358:
1355:
1354:
1348:
1347:
1340:
1337:
1333:
1330:
1328:
1325:
1323:
1320:
1318:
1315:
1313:
1310:
1308:
1305:
1303:
1300:
1298:
1295:
1293:
1290:
1288:
1285:
1283:
1280:
1278:
1275:
1273:
1270:
1268:
1265:
1263:
1260:
1258:
1255:
1253:
1250:
1248:
1245:
1243:
1240:
1238:
1235:
1232:
1229:
1227:
1224:
1222:
1219:
1218:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1210:
1205:
1204:
1197:
1194:
1190:
1187:
1185:
1182:
1180:
1177:
1175:
1172:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1157:
1155:
1152:
1150:
1147:
1145:
1142:
1140:
1137:
1135:
1134:Cassette tape
1132:
1130:
1129:Videocassette
1127:
1125:
1122:
1119:
1116:
1114:
1111:
1109:
1106:
1104:
1101:
1099:
1098:Magnetic tape
1096:
1094:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1086:
1084:
1081:
1079:
1076:
1074:
1071:
1069:
1066:
1065:
1062:
1057:
1056:
1049:
1046:
1044:
1041:
1039:
1036:
1035:
1032:
1026:
1025:
1018:
1015:
1013:
1010:
1007:
1004:
1002:
999:
996:
992:
989:
987:
984:
982:
979:
978:
975:
970:
969:
962:
959:
955:
952:
950:
947:
945:
942:
940:
937:
935:
932:
930:
927:
925:
922:
920:
917:
915:
912:
910:
907:
905:
902:
901:
900:
897:
893:
890:
888:
885:
883:
880:
877:
874:
871:
868:
865:
862:
861:
859:
856:
854:
853:ROM cartridge
851:
847:
844:
842:
839:
838:
837:
834:
832:
829:
827:
824:
823:
820:
815:
814:
811:
808:
807:
799:
796:
793:
790:
788:
785:
782:
779:
776:
773:
770:
767:
764:
761:
760:
754:
753:
744:
741:
740:
739:
736:
734:
731:
729:
726:
723:
720:
718:
715:
713:
710:
706:
703:
702:
701:
698:
694:
691:
689:
686:
684:
681:
679:
676:
674:
671:
669:
666:
664:
661:
659:
656:
654:
651:
649:
646:
644:
641:
640:
639:
636:
632:
629:
627:
624:
623:
622:
619:
618:
615:
610:
609:
606:
603:
602:
595:
592:
590:
587:
585:
582:
580:
579:Dew computing
577:
575:
572:
570:
569:Fog computing
567:
565:
564:Cloud storage
562:
560:
557:
555:
552:
550:
547:
545:
544:Memory paging
542:
540:
537:
535:
532:
530:
527:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
505:
502:
500:
497:
495:
492:
490:
487:
485:
482:
480:
477:
475:
472:
470:
467:
465:
462:
460:
457:
455:
452:
450:
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
415:
412:
410:
407:
405:
402:
400:
397:
395:
392:
390:
387:
385:
382:
380:
379:File deletion
377:
375:
372:
370:
369:Computer file
367:
365:
362:
360:
357:
355:
352:
350:
347:
345:
342:
340:
337:
335:
332:
330:
327:
325:
322:
320:
317:
315:
312:
310:
307:
305:
302:
300:
297:
295:
292:
290:
287:
285:
282:
280:
277:
275:
272:
270:
267:
265:
262:
260:
257:
255:
252:
250:
249:Data recovery
247:
245:
242:
240:
237:
235:
234:Data security
232:
230:
227:
225:
222:
220:
217:
215:
212:
210:
207:
205:
202:
200:
197:
195:
192:
190:
187:
185:
182:
180:
177:
173:
170:
168:
165:
164:
163:
160:
158:
155:
153:
150:
148:
145:
143:
140:
138:
135:
131:
130:floating-gate
128:
127:
126:
123:
121:
118:
116:
113:
111:
108:
106:
103:
101:
98:
96:
93:
91:
88:
87:
81:
80:
76:
72:
69:
68:
62:
57:
51:
47:
43:
38:
31:
27:
23:
19:
4104:Vacuum tubes
4099:Types of RAM
3977:Flash memory
3922:
3846:technologies
3734:
3705:Storage tube
3599:Beam tetrode
3531:Control grid
3526:Space charge
3210:Cold cathode
3191:
3177:Storage tube
3067:Vacuum tubes
3016:Neutron tube
2991:Beam tetrode
2973:Vacuum tubes
2558:Power MOSFET
2376:
2350:
2325:
2297:
2273:
2264:Bibliography
2248:
2241:
2236:, p. 11
2229:
2212:
2208:
2198:
2191:
2159:
2155:
2149:
2138:, retrieved
2134:the original
2128:
2121:
2108:
2095:
2084:
2073:
2062:, retrieved
2050:
2047:Resurrection
2046:
2037:
2025:. Retrieved
2014:
2003:, retrieved
1991:
1988:Resurrection
1987:
1980:Kilburn, Tom
1945:
1840:
1805:
1788:
1779:
1758:
1749:
1734:
1713:
1706:
1699:
1666:
1651:
1642:
1631:Please help
1626:verification
1623:
1600:
1580:
1559:
1555:
1553:
1454:Punched tape
1448:Punched card
1414:Time crystal
1282:Hyper CD-ROM
1221:Optical disc
1113:Tape library
1048:FeFET memory
1029:Early-stage
909:CompactFlash
904:Memory Stick
864:Flash memory
826:Diode matrix
810:Non-volatile
762:
594:Kryder's law
584:Amdahl's law
509:Software rot
484:Logical disk
384:File copying
319:Data storage
274:File sharing
259:Data cluster
75:data storage
30:IAS computer
18:
4044:Drum memory
3710:Sutton tube
3521:Hot cathode
3376:Transformer
3118:Sutton tube
2958:Charge pump
2811:Memory cell
2741:Zener diode
2703:Laser diode
2586:transistors
2468:transistors
1864:UNIVAC 1103
1856:IAS machine
1832:Tom Kilburn
1802:Development
1686:charge well
1568:Tom Kilburn
1513:Floppy disk
1465:Drum memory
899:Memory card
866:is used in:
800:(2002–2010)
765:(1946–1947)
589:Moore's law
434:Boot sector
374:Object file
279:File system
90:Memory cell
32:circa 1951
4073:Categories
4032:Historical
3906:Historical
3725:Trochotron
3655:Iconoscope
3645:Compactron
3640:Charactron
3584:Acorn tube
3448:reed relay
3438:Parametron
3371:Thermistor
3349:resettable
3308:Connector
3269:Adjustable
3245:Nixie tube
3215:Crossatron
3182:Trochotron
3157:Iconoscope
3152:Charactron
3129:X-ray tube
3001:Compactron
2981:Acorn tube
2938:Buck–boost
2859:Solaristor
2721:Photodiode
2698:Gunn diode
2694:(CLD, CRD)
2476:Transistor
1957:References
1768:cycles of
1755:Refreshing
1745:conductors
1725:flip-flops
1645:March 2016
1436:Historical
1108:Tape drive
934:SmartMedia
757:Historical
454:Disk image
449:Disk array
324:Data store
125:MOS memory
115:Memory map
3956:3D XPoint
3874:DDR SDRAM
3690:Phototube
3685:Monoscope
3680:Magnetron
3675:Magic eye
3665:Kinescope
3609:Pentagrid
3411:Capacitor
3255:Trigatron
3250:Thyratron
3240:Neon lamp
3167:Monoscope
3047:Phototube
3031:Pentagrid
2996:Barretter
2881:Trancitor
2876:Thyristor
2801:Memristor
2726:PIN diode
2503:(ChemFET)
2332:MIT Press
2209:Proc. IEE
2059:0958-7403
2027:1 October
2000:0958-7403
1681:electrons
1558:, or the
1495:Disk pack
1460:Plugboard
1297:DVD-Video
1226:LaserDisc
1124:Videotape
995:3D XPoint
986:Memristor
626:CPU cache
394:Core dump
314:Data bank
264:Directory
3790:Examples
3670:Klystron
3650:Eidophor
3625:Additron
3589:Nuvistor
3433:Inductor
3403:Reactive
3381:Varistor
3361:Resistor
3339:Antifuse
3225:Ignitron
3220:Dekatron
3108:Klystron
3097:Gyrotron
3026:Nuvistor
2943:Split-pi
2829:(MOS IC)
2796:Memistor
2554:(MuGFET)
2548:(MOSFET)
2520:(FinFET)
2375:(1982).
2283:citation
2005:15 March
1982:(1990),
1936:See also
1880:Strela-1
1874:and the
1795:phosphor
1677:phosphor
1424:UltraRAM
1302:DVD card
1257:Video CD
1242:CD Video
1012:Nano-RAM
981:Memistor
954:XQD card
929:SIM card
787:Dekatron
673:XDR DRAM
668:EDO DRAM
605:Volatile
399:Hex dump
309:Database
204:Metadata
199:Big data
3945:Current
3861:Current
3781:Russian
3604:Pentode
3594:Tetrode
3334:Ferrite
3302:Passive
3293:Varicap
3281:digital
3230:Krytron
3052:Tetrode
3037:Pentode
2891:Varicap
2872:(3D IC)
2848:RF CMOS
2752:devices
2526:(FGMOS)
2457:devices
2186:4110351
2164:Bibcode
1872:IBM 702
1868:IBM 701
1828:testbed
1816:program
1812:England
1776:Erasing
1741:voltage
1731:Reading
1696:Writing
1509:(~1970)
1503:(~1968)
1485:(1960s)
1322:Blu-ray
1312:MiniDVD
1307:DVD-RAM
1267:Mini CD
1209:Optical
1169:U-matic
1164:MicroMV
1144:Betamax
1008:(ECRAM)
949:MicroP2
924:SD card
914:PC Card
705:1T-SRAM
663:QDRSRAM
254:Storage
84:General
44:at the
42:IBM 701
3996:Future
3967:EEPROM
3890:Future
3872:e.g.,
3615:Nonode
3579:Triode
3574:Audion
3551:Getter
3366:Switch
3057:Triode
3021:Nonode
2986:Audion
2866:(SITh)
2750:Other
2717:(OLED)
2679:Diodes
2630:(LET)
2612:(FET)
2584:Other
2532:(IGBT)
2509:(CMOS)
2496:BioFET
2491:BiCMOS
2383:
2361:
2338:
2304:
2184:
2156:Nature
2140:26 May
2064:7 July
2057:
1998:
1515:(1971)
1497:(1962)
1491:(1962)
1479:(1957)
1473:(1949)
1467:(1932)
1456:(1725)
1450:(1725)
1444:(1725)
1317:HD DVD
1277:CD-ROM
1233:(CDDA)
1159:MiniDV
878:(SSHD)
860:(SSS)
846:EEPROM
794:(2009)
783:(1952)
777:(1951)
771:(1947)
389:Backup
4023:SONOS
4003:FeRAM
3972:EPROM
3962:EAROM
3897:Z-RAM
3761:RETMA
3569:Diode
3561:Types
3541:Anode
3443:Relay
3416:types
3354:eFUSE
3125:(TWT)
3113:Maser
3104:(IOT)
3093:(CFA)
3082:(BWO)
3006:Diode
2953:SEPIC
2933:Boost
2886:TRIAC
2855:(SCR)
2818:(MOV)
2792:(LEC)
2711:(LED)
2670:(UJT)
2659:(SIT)
2653:(PUT)
2596:(BJT)
2565:(TFT)
2541:LDMOS
2536:ISFET
2182:S2CID
1962:Notes
1791:radar
1377:ECRAM
1357:CBRAM
1292:DVD+R
1252:CD-RW
1189:D-VHS
1184:VHS-C
1179:S-VHS
1120:(DDS)
1043:ReRAM
1038:FeRAM
1031:NVRAM
1017:CBRAM
974:NVRAM
872:(SSD)
841:EPROM
798:Z-RAM
792:T-RAM
724:(CAM)
712:ReRAM
678:RDRAM
658:LPDDR
653:SGRAM
648:SDRAM
643:eDRAM
77:types
48:, in
4018:PRAM
4013:NRAM
4008:MRAM
3982:PROM
3952:RRAM
3881:SRAM
3868:DRAM
3386:Wire
3344:Fuse
2928:Buck
2781:(IC)
2769:DIAC
2705:(LD)
2574:UMOS
2569:VMOS
2486:PMOS
2481:NMOS
2466:MOS
2381:ISBN
2359:ISBN
2336:ISBN
2302:ISBN
2289:link
2142:2012
2066:2010
2055:ISSN
2029:2016
2007:2012
1996:ISSN
1770:DRAM
1566:and
1554:The
1367:NRAM
1339:WORM
1247:CD-R
1001:MRAM
836:PROM
831:MROM
733:VRAM
717:QRAM
700:SRAM
688:GDDR
638:DRAM
534:RAID
184:Data
73:and
61:SWAC
3987:ROM
3776:JIS
3756:RMA
2948:Ćuk
2217:doi
2172:doi
2160:162
1810:in
1702:bit
1635:by
1287:DVD
1174:VHS
991:PCM
944:SxS
819:ROM
693:HBM
683:DDR
614:RAM
4075::
3954:(
3322:RF
3071:RF
2357:.
2353:.
2334:.
2330:.
2285:}}
2281:{{
2254:87
2213:98
2211:,
2207:,
2180:,
2170:,
2158:,
2049:,
2045:,
1990:,
1986:,
1969:^
1870:,
1866:,
1727:.
1237:CD
1154:DV
3958:)
3836:e
3829:t
3822:v
3489:e
3482:t
3475:v
3073:)
3069:(
2439:e
2432:t
2425:v
2389:.
2367:.
2344:.
2291:)
2256:.
2223:.
2219::
2188:.
2174::
2166::
2051:1
2031:.
1992:1
1658:)
1652:(
1647:)
1643:(
1629:.
1543:e
1536:t
1529:v
997:)
993:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.
