Women in Japan - Knowledge

2673: 1934:(LDP) has made promises to increase the presence of women in Japanese politics, but has not achieved their stated goals. For example, in 2003, the LDP expressed commitment to achieving 30% female representation in political and administrative positions by 2020 per international norms. However, they remain far from this number. Scholars have noted that the internal structure and rules of the LDP do not favor female candidates. The LDP often seeks out candidates with experience in bureaucracy or local politics, which disadvantages women since they are less likely to have been in these positions. The LDP also has a bottom-up nomination process, whereby the initial nominations are made by local party offices. As these local offices are dominated by men, or the 1611: 2269: 1840: 1986:(DPJ) took over the House of Representatives from the LDP in a landslide victory. Out of the 46 female candidates ran by the DPJ, 40 were elected. However, the DPJ also failed to capitalize on this momentum to institutionalize gender quotas. While the DPJ implemented a few non-quota policies with the aim of increasing women's representation, the effects of these policies were only marginal. Similar to the LDP in 2005, the DPJ ran a large number of women candidates not because the party cared about gender equality, but due to political strategy. In fact, the DPJ imitated Prime Minister Koizumi's strategy of indicating reform and societal change through its nomination of women. 1995:

roles, which dictate that women should take care of children and the household. Research suggests that Japanese women are more willing to run for office if parties provide support with household duties during the campaign. Women candidates of reproductive age are also less likely than men to run in SMD in Japan, as opposed to party-list seats, which can be explained by the higher time commitment associated with running in SMD. Furthermore, when Japanese women marry, they often have to leave their home and move in with their husbands. As a result, Japanese women are less able to run for local assemblies because they lack connections with their locality.

2041: 2315: 1831:. In 1986, the Equal Employment Opportunity Law took effect, prohibiting discrimination in aspects like dismissal and retirement. The law was revised in 1997 to be more comprehensive, prohibiting discrimination in recruitment and promotion as well. Another round of revision in 2006 also prohibits job requirements that disproportionately advantage one gender over another, or indirect discrimination. However, women remain economically disadvantaged as a wage gap remains between full-time male and female workers. There also exists a wage gap between full-time and irregular workers despite the rising percentage of irregular workers among women. 26: 1600: 2024: 2224: 149: 2346: 2097: 2016:

1,247 female local assembly members had been sexually harassed by voters or other politicians. Even though the 1997 revision of the EEOL criminalized sexual harassment in the workplace, female politicians in Japan often do not have the same support when they are harassed by male colleagues. The LDP has been reluctant to implement measures to counter harassment within the party and to promote gender equality more generally. However, vocal female politicians of the party like

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that time period". Under article 772, a child born 300 days after divorce is presumed to be the legal child of the previous husband. In a ruling issued on December 16, 2015, the Supreme Court of Japan stated that, in light of the new law requiring 100 days before women's remarriage, any child born after 200 days of remarriage is to be considered the legal child of the current husband, so there is no confusion over the paternity of a child born to a woman who has remarried.

8070: 6788: 1689: 6798: 2498: 8059: 2628: 1669: 1779:, Japanese women and Japanese society are quite different from the strong stereotypes that exist in foreign media or travel guides, which paint the women in Japan as 'submissive' and devoid of any self-determination. Another strong stereotype about Japan is that women always stay in the home as housewives and that they do not participate in public life: in reality most women are employed – the 2084:

certain incomes. Additionally, in 1961, income for wives of working men were untaxed below $ 10,000; income above that amount contributed to overall household income. Corporate culture also plays a role; while many men are expected to socialize with their managers after long work days, women may find trouble balancing child-rearing roles with the demands of mandatory after-work social events.

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cooking, cleaning, and child-rearing and support their husbands so they can work without any worries about the family, as well as balancing the household's finances. Yet, as the number of dual-income households rises, women and men are sharing household chores, and research shows that this has led to increased satisfaction over households that divide labor in traditional ways.

1907:. In 2019, the proportion of female candidates in local assembly elections hit a record high of 17.3% in city assembly elections and 12.1% in town and village assembly elections. Similar to that in national politics, women's representation in Japan's local politics has seen a general upward trend since the 20th century, but still lags behind other developed countries. 2448:

abusive spouses and created support centers in every prefecture, but women are still reluctant to report abuse to doctors out of shame or fear that the report would be shared with the abuser. A 2001 survey showed that many health professionals were not trained to handle domestic abuse and blamed women who sought treatment.

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During the 21st century, Japanese women are working in higher proportions than the United States's working female population. Income levels between men and women in Japan are not equal; the average Japanese woman earns 40 percent less than the average man, and a tenth of management positions are held

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has grown since the reform. However, when it comes to women's representation in politics, Japan remains behind other developed democracies as well as many developing countries. As of 2019, Japan ranks 164th out of 193 countries when it comes to the percentage of women in the lower or single house. In

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were expected not to refuse their parents. Self-reliance of women was encouraged because needy women were seen as a burden on others. In these interviews with Japanese families, Lebra found that girls were assigned helping tasks while boys were more inclined to be left to schoolwork. Lebra's work has

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behavior in Japan followed several patterns of modesty, tidiness, courtesy, compliance, and self-reliance. Modesty extended to the effective use of silence in both daily conversations and activities. Tidiness included personal appearance and a clean home. Courtesy, another trait, was called upon from

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In 1872, the Japanese government issued an edict (May 4, 1872, Grand Council of State Edict 98) stating, "Any remaining practices of female exclusion on shrine and temple lands shall be immediately abolished, and mountain climbing for the purpose of worship, etc., shall be permitted". However, women

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to a daughter. Heads of households were responsible for house finances, but could delegate to another family member or retainer (employee). Women in these households were typically subject to arranged marriages at the behest of the household's patriarch, with more than half of all marriages in Japan

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is a traditional Japanese female entertainer who acts as a hostess and whose skills include performing various Japanese arts such as classical music, dance, games, serving tea and conversation, mainly to entertain male customers. Geisha are trained very seriously as skilled entertainers and are not

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In 2015, Article 733 of Japan's Civil Code stating that women could not remarry until six months after divorce was amended to specify 100 days. The six-month ban on remarriage for women previously aimed to "avoid uncertainty regarding the identity of the legally presumed father of any child born in

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after marriage. When mothers do work, they often pick up part-time, low-paying jobs based on their children's or husband's schedule. Taking care of the family and household is seen as a predominately female role, and working women are expected to fulfill it. Nevertheless, in recent years the number

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himself placed women at the top of the PR lists. As a result, all of the 26 LDP's women candidates won either by plurality in their SMD or from the PR list. However, Koizumi's top-down nomination was not a reflection of the LDP's prioritization of gender equality, but rather a political strategy to

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Products reflect several common anxieties among Japanese women. Multiple polls suggest that women worry about "fatness, breast size, hairiness and bust size". The idealized figure of a Japanese woman is generally fragile and petite. Japanese beauty ideals favor small features and narrow faces. Big

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By 1898, cruelty was added to the grounds for a woman to divorce; the law also allowed divorce through mutual agreement of the husband and wife. However, children were assumed to remain with the male head of the household. In contemporary Japan, children are more likely to live with single mothers

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Given the dominance of men in Japanese politics, female politicians often face gender-based discrimination and harassment in Japan. They experience harassment from the public, both through social media and in-person interactions, and from their male colleagues. A 2021 survey revealed that 56.7% of

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Survey experiments show that Japanese voters do not have a bias against female candidates; rather, the low levels of female representation in Japanese politics is due to Japanese women's reluctance to seek office. Japanese women are less likely to run for office because of socially mandated gender

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After a spate of research during the 1990s, Japan passed the Prevention of Spousal Violence and the Protection of Victims act in 2001. The law referred to domestic violence as "a violation of the constitutional principle of equal rights between sexes". This law established protection orders from

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The traditional role of women in Japan has been defined as "three submissions": young women submit to their fathers, married women submit to their husbands, and elderly women submit to their sons. Strains of this arrangement can be seen in contemporary Japan, where housewives are responsible for

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Some economists suggest that a better support system for working mothers, such as a shorter daily work schedule, would allow more women to work, increasing Japan's economic growth. To that end, in 2003, the Japanese government set a goal to have 30% of senior government roles filled by women. In

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Marriage shall be based only on the mutual consent of both sexes and it shall be maintained through mutual cooperation with the equal rights of husband and wife as a basis. With regard to choice of spouse, property rights, inheritance, choice of domicile, divorce and other matters pertaining to

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A number of government and private post-war policies have contributed to a gendered division of labor. These include a family wage offered by corporations which subsidized health and housing subsidies, marriage bonuses and additional bonuses for each child; and pensions for wives who earn below

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Under the Meiji system, however, the law limited grounds for divorce to seven events: sterility, adultery, disobedience to the parents-in-law, loquacity, larceny, jealousy, and disease. However, the law offered a protection for divorcees by guaranteeing a wife could not be sent away if she had

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household in which the husband is the breadwinner for the family while the wife is a dependant. When the wife is not employed, the family is eligible for social insurance services and tax deductions. With this system, the Japanese state can depend on the housewives for care-related work, which

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By the end of the Meiji period, there was a women's school in every prefecture in Japan, operated by a mix of government, missionary, and private interests. By 1910, very few universities accepted women. Graduation was not assured, as often women were pulled out of school to marry or to study

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The use of women-only cars in Japan has been critiqued from various perspectives. Some suggest that the presence of the cars makes women who choose not to use them more vulnerable. Public comment sometimes include the argument that women-only cars are a step too far in protecting women. Some

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as the central task of women, and allowed education of women toward this end. In Japanese society, mothers usually place a strong emphasis on their children's education and moral growth, with a special focus on nurturing values like politeness, respect and responsibility. Traditionally and

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that emphasized young-looking girls, or Lolitas. While these characters typically included larger eyes, research suggests that it was not a traditional standard of beauty in Japan, preferred in medical research and described as "unsightly" by cosmetic researchers of the Edo era.

2660:. Maiko (literally "dance girl") are apprentice geisha, and this stage can last for years. Maiko learn from their senior geisha mentor and follow them to all their engagements. Then at around the age of 20–22, the maiko is promoted to a full-fledged geisha in a ceremony called 2192:

The Ministry of Japan revealed the outline of an amendment for the Civil Code of Japan on February 18, 2016. This amendment shortens the women's remarriage period to 100 days and allows any woman who is not pregnant during the divorce to remarry immediately after divorce.

1971:, who were facing accusations of bribery, a sex scandal, and public dismay at its consumption tax policies at the time. As a result, these "Madonnas" were typical housewives with little to no political experience. However, the JSP quickly lost momentum afterwards. In the 2513:

academics have argued that the cars impose the burden of social segregation to women, rather than seeking the punishment of criminals. Another critique suggests the cars send the signal that men create a dangerous environment for women, who cannot protect themselves.

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The Japanese cosmetics industry is the second largest in the world, earning over $ 15 billion per year. The strong market for beauty products has been connected to the value placed on self-discipline and self-improvement in Japan, where the body is mastered through

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Government policies to increase the birthrate include early education designed to develop citizens into capable parents. Some critics of these policies believe that this emphasis on birth rate is incompatible with a full recognition of women's equality in Japan.

2307:. The 1871 education code established that students should be educated "without any distinction of class or sex". Nonetheless, after 1891 students were typically segregated after third grade, and many girls did not extend their educations past middle school. 2112:, relied on a patriarchal lineage of succession, with disobedience to the male head of the household punishable by expulsion from the family unit. Male heads of households with only daughters would adopt male heirs to succeed them, sometimes through 2557:

Another ideal is pale skin. Tanned skin was historically associated with the working-class, and pale skin associated with the nobility. Many women in Japan will take precaution to avoid the sun, and some lotions are sold to make the skin whiter.

2724:, is a subgenre of Japanese fantasy media (including anime, manga, light novels, and live-action media) centered around young girls who possess magical abilities, which they typically use through an ideal alter ego into which they can transform. 2341:

aimed to enforce equal education between sexes; this included a recommendation in 1946 to provide compulsory co-education until the age of 16. By the end of 1947, nearly all middle schools and more than half of high schools were co-educational.

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In the early Meiji period, many girls married at age 16; by the post-war period, it had risen to 23, and continued to rise. The average age for a Japanese woman's first marriage has steadily risen since 1970, from 24 to 29.3 years old in 2015.

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by women. Women are often found in part time or temporary jobs. 77% of these jobs were filled by women in 2012. Among women who do work, women-only unions are small in size and in relative power. A common occupation for young women is that of

1884:, which resulted in women winning 10.1 percent of House seats. The decrease in women's representation has taken place although the Japanese government has expressed a will to address this inequality of numbers in the 21st century of the 4216:

Anne Allison. 2000. Japanese Mothers and Obentōs: The Lunch Box as Ideological State Apparatus. Permitted and Prohibited Desires: Mothers, Comics, and Censorship in Japan, pp. 81-104. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.

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nowhere else to go. Furthermore, the law allowed a woman to request a divorce, so long as she was accompanied by a male relative and could prove desertion or imprisonment of the husband, profligacy, or mental or physical illness.

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In 2012, 98.1% of female students and 97.8% of male students were able to reach senior high school. Of those, 55.6% of men and 45.8% of women continued with undergraduate studies, although 10% of these female graduates attended

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The percentage of births to unmarried women in selected countries, 1980 and 2007. As can be seen in the figure, Japan has not followed the trend of other Western countries of children born outside of marriage to the same

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Modern education of women began in earnest during the Meiji era's modernization campaign. The first schools for women began during this time, though education topics were highly gendered, with women learning arts of the

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requires legally married spouses to have the same surname. Although the law is gender-neutral, meaning that either spouse is allowed to change his/her name to that of the other spouse, Japanese women have traditionally

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upheld the constitutionality of the law, noting that women could use their maiden names informally, and stating that it was for the legislature to decide on whether to pass new legislation on separate spousal names.

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This established several changes to women's roles in the family, such as the right to inherit the family home or land, and the right of women (over the age of 20) to marry without the consent of the house patriarch.

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who had been a stalking victim. With nearly 21,000 reports of stalking in 2013, 90.3% of the victims were women and 86.9% of the perpetrators were men. Anti-stalking laws in Japan were expanded in 2013 to include

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to the wife or mother of the man they are supposed to care for. Because women's abuse would be detrimental to the family of the abused, legal, medical and social intervention in domestic disputes was rare.

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is legal under some restrictions. The number per year has declined by 500,000 since 1975. Of the 200,000 abortions performed per year, however, 10% are teenage women, a number which has risen since 1975.

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of women who work has increased: in 2014, women made up 42.7% of the labour force of Japan. Japan has an especially high proportion of women who work part-time, and a majority of those women are mothers.

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reduces state social expenditures. Yet, the "male breadwinner" model has also entrenched gender roles by providing an optimal life course for families that discourage women participating in public life.

2326:, the first woman in Japan to earn a PhD, did so in the US, as no Meiji-era institution would allow her to receive her doctorate. She and other women who studied abroad and returned to Japan, such as 1578:

in 1945. While Japanese women's status has steadily improved in the decades since then, traditional expectations for married women and mothers are cited as a barrier to full economic equality. The

1717:, spelled out expectations for Japanese women, stating that "such is the stupidity of her character that it is incumbent on her, in every particular, to distrust herself and to obey her husband". 1827:. This allowed them greater freedom, equality to men, and a higher status within Japanese society. Other postwar reforms opened education institutions to women and required that women receive 2489:. They are raped in brothels and other locations and experience physical and psychological trauma. Japanese anti-sex trafficking legislation and laws have been criticized as being lacking. 5449: 2245:

Today, Japanese mothers are still seen as managers of a household, including the behavior of their children. For example, media reports often focus on the apologies of criminals' mothers.

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Briskin, Linda (1999). "Autonomy, diversity and integration: Union women's separate organising in North America and Western Europe in the context of restructuring and globalization".

261: 2471:, after the widely publicized 2012 murder of a young woman who had reported such harassment to police. Stalking reports are growing at a faster rate in Japan than any other country. 1660:, women in Japan could inherit property in their own names and manage it by themselves: "Women could own property, be educated, and were allowed, if discrete (sic), to take lovers." 1656:

The extent to which women could participate in Japanese society has varied over time and social classes. In the 8th century, Japan had an empress, and in the 12th century during the

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In 2013, 100,000 women reported domestic violence to shelters. Of the 10,000 entering protective custody at the shelter, nearly half arrived with children or other family members.

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In Japan, domestic disputes have traditionally been seen as a result of negligence or poor support from the female partner. A partner's outburst can therefore be a source of

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is 1.4 children born per woman (2015 estimate), which is below the replacement rate of 2.1. Japanese women have their first child at an average age of 30.3 (2012 estimate).

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Horii, Mitsutoshi; Burgess, Adam (February 2012). "Constructing sexual risk: 'Chikan', collapsing male authority and the emergence of women-only train carriages in Japan".

2584:, full-length silk robes, are worn by women on special occasions. Traditional patterns for women include many varieties of flowers found in Japan and across Asia such as 2170:

their wives simply through stating their intention to do so in a letter. Wives could not legally arrange for a divorce, but options included joining convents, such as at

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though there are no penalties for men to ride in a women-only car. Gropers can be punished with seven years or less of jail time and/or face fines of just under $ 500.

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After the Meiji period, the head of the household was required to approve of any marriage. Until 1908, it remained legal for husbands to murder wives for infidelity.

1938:, it is difficult for Japanese women to be nominated by the LDP. A break from this bottom-up process took place in 2005, when Prime Minister and President of the LDP 5587: 4333: 3989: 1880:

were women. Of these 186 candidates, 45 were elected, constituting 9.7 percent of the 465 seats in the lower chamber. This number represents a decline from the

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Beauty corporations have had a role in creating contemporary standards of beauty in Japan since the Meiji era. For example, the Japanese cosmetics firm,

1571:, economic conditions for women remain unbalanced. Modern policy initiatives to encourage motherhood and workplace participation have had mixed results. 1900: 1550: 4517: 2982: 5308:

Nemoto, Keiko; Rodriguez, Rachel; Valhmu, Lucy Mkandawire (May 2006). "Exploring the Health Care Needs of Women in Abusive Relationships in Japan".

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With the development of society, more and more girls are going to colleges to receive higher education. Today, more than half of Japanese women are

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Bochel, Catherine; Bochel, Hugh; Kasuga, Masashi; Takeyasu, Hideko (2003-04-01). "Against the System? Women in Elected Local Government in Japan".

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is another element in beauty standards for women in Japan, especially with traditional aesthetics. Again, femininity is a large factor; therefore,

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Tokyoto Iryo Syakai Jigyo Kyokai Iryo Fukushi Mondai Kenkyu Kai (2001). "Iryokikan ni okeru domesutikku baiorensu ni tsuite no chosa hokokusho ".

7766: 5457: 5103: 5509: 1967:, the JSP ran women outside of conventional political circles and emphasized their clean, "outsider" status to juxtapose themselves against the 3541: 3071: 4777:

Lenz, Ilse (2006). "From Mothers of the Nation to Global Civil Society: The changing role of the Japanese women's movement in Globalization".

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The Roles of Women, Animals, and Nature in Traditional Japanese and Western Folk Tales Carry Over into Modern Japanese and Western Culture

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The gender roles that discourage Japanese women from seeking elected office have been further consolidated through Japan's model of the

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Patessio, Mara (December 2013). "Women getting a 'university' education in Meiji Japan: discourses, realities, and individual lives".

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Women in Japan were forbidden from participation in Yamakasa, parades in which Shinto shrines are carried through a town, until 2001.

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tradition, where mothers prepare elaborate lunches for their children to take to school, is an example of a domestic female role.

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Huang, Placier, Haigen, Peggy (October 2015). "Four Generations of Women's Educational Experience in a Rural Chinese Community".

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marriage and the family, laws shall be enacted from the standpoint of individual dignity and the essential equality of the sexes.

409: 6400: 5077: 4978: 2535:, feminine beauty standards favored darkened teeth, some body fat, and eyebrows painted above the original (which were shaved). 1975:, only 4 women members of the JSP were reelected. The JSP also failed to take advantage of the Madonna Boom to institutionalize 6834: 4655: 2795: 2185:

When divorce was granted under equal measures to both sexes under the post-war constitution, divorce rates steadily increased.

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historically women were typically responsible for both parenting and managing household matters within the family structure.

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McAndrew, Malia (2014). "Beauty, Soft Power, and the Politics of Womanhood During the U.S. Occupation of Japan, 1945–1952".

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than single fathers; in 2013, 7.4% of children were living in single-mother households; only 1.3% live with their fathers.

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Japanese women fare better when it comes to local politics. As of 2015, women made up 27.8% of the local assemblies in the

702: 7579: 5706:"Japan Tries Women Only Train Cars to Stop Groping: Tokyo Subway Experiment Attempts to Slow Epidemic of Subway Fondling" 2924: 769: 6195:

Gelb, J; Estevez-Abe, M (1 October 1998). "Political women in Japan: a case study of the Seikatsusha network movement".

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DeWitt, Lindsey Elizabeth (1 March 2016). "Envisioning and Observing Women's Exclusion from Sacred Mountains in Japan".

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While women before the Meiji period were often considered incompetent in the raising of children, the Meiji period saw

2334:, were among the first wave of women's educators who lead the way to the incorporation of women in Japanese academia. 2076:

In one poll, 30% of mothers who returned to work reported being victims of "maternity harassment", or "matahara". The

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was legalized in 1999, much later than in most Western countries. Its use is still low, with many couples preferring

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2015, only 3.5% were; the government has since slashed the 2020 goal to 7%, and set a private industry goal to 15%.

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Francks, Penelope (June 2015). "Was Fashion a European Invention?: The Kimono and Economic Development in Japan".

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https://www.loc.gov/law/foreign-news/article/japan-new-instructions-allow-women-to-remarry-100-days-after-divorce/

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draw in votes by signaling change. After this election, the LDP has returned to its bottom-up nomination process.

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Bae, Jihey (2010). "Gender Role Division in Japan and Korea: The Relationship between Realities and Attitudes".

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Surveys show that between 28% and 70% of women have been groped on train cars. Some railway companies designate

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Tipton, Elise K. (1 May 2009). "How to Manage a Household: Creating Middle Class Housewives in Modern Japan".

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women in domestic roles and in entertaining guests, extended to activities such as preparing and serving tea.

7364: 6918: 4231: 2805: 1222: 789: 1959:(JSP), the largest left-wing opposition party to the LDP at the time, succeeded in electing 22 women to the 7547: 7359: 6906: 2727: 1796: 1457: 692: 610: 585: 518: 4257: 2002:. In particular, since the postwar period, Japan has adopted the "male breadwinner" model, which favors a 7170: 5729:

Freedman, Alisa (1 March 2002). "Commuting Gazes: Schoolgirls, Salarymen, and Electric Trains in Tokyo".

2858: 2113: 1963:. The record number of women elected to the Diet was dubbed the "Madonna Boom." Under the leadership of 1741: 687: 325: 4318: 3919:"A feminist critical discourse analysis of sexual harassment in the Japanese political and media worlds" 7796: 7466: 7339: 7311: 7095: 6827: 6512: 2700: 1482: 1072: 3918: 8099: 7976: 7690: 7572: 7532: 7454: 7404: 7266: 7236: 7155: 7053: 6928: 6913: 6758: 3173:

Tamanoi, Mariko Asano (October 1990). "Women's Voices: Their Critique of the Anthropology of Japan".

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who was enlisted to the subcommittee assigned to writing the section of the constitution devoted to

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The Post-War Constitution, however, codified women's right to choose their partners. Article 24 of

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Nemoto, Kumiko (September 2013). "Long Working Hours and the Corporate Gender Divide in Japan".

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found that nearly 70% of all Japanese polled agreed that men were given preferential treatment.

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Garon, Sheldon (1 August 2010). "State and family in modern Japan: a historical perspective".

5022: 4566: 3854:"What Explains Low Female Political Representation? Evidence from Survey Experiments in Japan" 2546:, with beauty advice for women emphasizing hair styles and contemporary fashion. The pre-war " 8019: 7951: 7843: 7781: 7747: 7717: 7646: 7476: 7471: 7439: 6991: 6820: 6672: 6637: 6592: 6106: 6042: 5998: 4833: 4293: 2135: 1956: 1502: 1447: 1377: 1357: 1342: 1212: 734: 697: 605: 469: 305: 7078: 6239:

Hastings, Sally A. (1 June 1993). "The Empress' New Clothes and Japanese Women, 1868–1912".

4908: 8034: 7776: 7515: 7384: 7344: 6961: 6562: 6557: 6452: 5420: 4682:"East Asia/Southeast Asia :: Japan — The World Factbook - Central Intelligence Agency" 3556:"Record no. of female city mayors, assembly members elected in Japan's unified local polls" 2463: 2253: 1915: 1904: 1824: 1387: 1382: 1327: 1277: 1262: 1147: 1037: 987: 867: 428: 389: 224: 214: 200: 4681: 4407: 3042: 1740:, but at the same time the Meiji Civil Code of 1898 (specifically the introduction of the 25: 8: 8024: 7956: 7946: 7829: 7707: 7589: 7559: 7256: 6742: 6682: 6657: 6572: 6552: 6502: 6472: 6462: 6413: 6217: 5682: 5191: 5166: 4375:

The Too-Good Wife: Alcohol, codependency, and the politics of nurturance in postwar Japan

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The too-good wife: alcohol, codependency, and the politics of nurturance in postwar Japan

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been critiqued for focusing specifically on a single economic segment of Japanese women.

1575: 1492: 1422: 1352: 1227: 1202: 1182: 1162: 1042: 917: 907: 784: 615: 537: 530: 525: 440: 345: 330: 290: 251: 65: 54: 4167: 3186: 1647: 1599: 7966: 7878: 7801: 7754: 7727: 7722: 7671: 7444: 7354: 7327: 7198: 7150: 7128: 7073: 7046: 6768: 6647: 6642: 6522: 6377: 6298: 6252: 6226:

Modern women in China and Japan: Gender, feminism and global modernity between the wars

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Umeda, S. (2016, February 26). Global Legal Monitor. Retrieved December 04, 2016, from

4471: 3946: 3881: 3831: 3746: 3698: 3535: 3352: 2987: 2688: 2682: 2284: 1800: 1507: 1402: 1362: 1232: 1127: 1092: 902: 892: 817: 759: 744: 595: 575: 552: 404: 384: 163: 5549:"The Sexual Exploitation of Young Girls in Japan Is 'On the Increase,' an Expert Says" 4027: 2550:" of Japan followed Western fashions as filtered through this kind of Japanese media. 7888: 7786: 7759: 7732: 7423: 7180: 7165: 7063: 6891: 6797: 6712: 6662: 6617: 6597: 6587: 6487: 6381: 6302: 6177: 6148: 6140: 6034: 5873: 5813: 5788: 5750: 5664: 5325: 5001: 4963: 4884: 4825: 4757: 4738: 4554: 4475: 4436: 4426: 4378: 4153: 4120: 4077: 3950: 3938: 3873: 3823: 3785: 3750: 3738: 3702: 3690: 3523: 3513: 3356: 3344: 3153: 3114: 3022: 2759: 2598: 2573: 2422: 2397: 2376: 2323: 2109: 1939: 1808: 1725: 1579: 1427: 1397: 1322: 1302: 1287: 1242: 1207: 1172: 1107: 1047: 982: 962: 957: 827: 812: 739: 729: 717: 627: 620: 600: 484: 399: 355: 285: 195: 6319:

Women and public life in early Meiji Japan: The development of the feminist movement

5971: 5870:

The search for the beautiful woman a cultural history of Japanese and Chinese beauty

5200: 5175: 5156: 4275:

The Animal-Wife: A Comparison of Japanese Folktales with their European Counterparts

3885: 2028: 1922:. The number of women candidates at the election also reached a record high of 181. 8029: 7868: 7821: 7806: 7742: 7624: 7567: 7449: 7068: 6873: 6863: 6687: 6602: 6582: 6467: 6457: 6369: 6290: 6248: 6204: 6165: 6136: 5738: 5652: 5317: 5142: 5132: 5051: 4951: 4813: 4786: 4726: 4463: 4149: 4023: 3930: 3865: 3815: 3777: 3730: 3682: 3632: 3336: 3182: 2810: 2749: 2277: 2223: 2118: 1860: 1775:

Although Japan remains a socially conservative society, with relatively pronounced

1767:'s traits for internal comportment of femininity included compliance; for example, 1512: 1497: 1487: 1467: 1437: 1372: 1347: 1272: 1252: 1247: 1192: 1112: 1077: 1062: 1027: 1012: 992: 937: 922: 912: 897: 882: 877: 872: 822: 799: 642: 637: 423: 394: 371: 234: 6996: 5337: 5223: 4817: 2949: 2501:

Women-only passenger cars were introduced to combat groping and sexual harassment.

1756:

In interviews with Japanese housewives in 1985, researchers found that socialized

7893: 7863: 7858: 7771: 7737: 7656: 7349: 7241: 7160: 7140: 7041: 6901: 6732: 6667: 6632: 6567: 6547: 6537: 6497: 6482: 6477: 6189: 6169: 6084: 5656: 5425: 4955: 4400: 3671:"Quota Nonadoption in Japan: The Role of the Women's Movement and the Opposition" 3089: 2744: 2412: 2380: 2345: 1982:

Another spike in the number of women in the Japanese Diet came in 2009, when the

1935: 1780: 1679: 1462: 1452: 1442: 1417: 1407: 1337: 1317: 1297: 1237: 1177: 1157: 1142: 1097: 1087: 1067: 1002: 952: 947: 932: 887: 832: 647: 320: 79: 6966: 6065: 6046: 5570:"For vulnerable high school girls in Japan, a culture of 'dates' with older men" 5350: 4704:

Shōshika shakai hakusho (Heisei 17nen han) – Shōshika taisaku no genjō to kadai

3133: 2565:" had emerged as a desirable aesthetic, which some scholars linked to a boom in 2117:

being preemptively arranged until the 1960s. Married women marked themselves by

2096: 8073: 8009: 7961: 7918: 7712: 7090: 6896: 6773: 6692: 6652: 6627: 6607: 6517: 6507: 6492: 4580: 3934: 3212: 2585: 2364: 2327: 2249: 2003: 1517: 1432: 1412: 1392: 1367: 1332: 1292: 1267: 1257: 1197: 1167: 1122: 1117: 1102: 1082: 1032: 977: 972: 927: 849: 682: 632: 542: 491: 435: 41: 6373: 5321: 4730: 3869: 3781: 3734: 3686: 3527: 3340: 2023: 1675: 8088: 7971: 7883: 7872: 7641: 7505: 7261: 6791: 6612: 6577: 6532: 6527: 6436: 5925: 5450:"Japan toughens anti-stalking laws, includes repeated emailing as harassment" 4889:. Cambridge, MA: Fleming H. Revell (Harvard University Preservation Program). 4440: 4192:"'You Mean Women Deserve Careers?' Patriarchal Japan Has Breakthrough Moment" 3942: 3877: 3827: 3789: 3742: 3694: 3348: 3279: 2853: 2834: 2815: 2593: 2468: 2128: 1999: 1960: 1885: 1714: 1522: 1307: 1282: 1217: 1187: 1137: 1132: 1057: 997: 967: 842: 677: 547: 508: 496: 474: 456: 271: 7214: 6986: 5121:"Envisioning and Observing Women's Exclusion from Sacred Mountains in Japan" 2785: 2174:, where men were not permitted to go, thus assuring a permanent separation. 1815:

for Japan in February 1946. Four women were in the working group, including

8063: 8039: 7982: 7848: 7676: 7495: 7020: 7008: 7003: 6981: 6976: 6971: 6306: 6294: 6208: 6097: 6038: 5528:"Why are foreign women continuing to be forced into prostitution in Japan?" 5329: 5147: 4398:

Yoshizumi, Kyoko (1995). Fujimura-Fanselow, Kumiko; Kameda, Atsuko (eds.).

3370: 2789: 2721: 2532: 2386: 2300: 2202: 1976: 1820: 1776: 1745: 1729: 1721: 1710: 1706: 1657: 1639: 1568: 807: 295: 7231: 7058: 6025:

Adams, Kenneth Alan (2009). "Modernization and dangerous women in Japan".

4790: 3238:"Beate Gordon, Long-Unsung Heroine of Japanese Women's Rights, Dies at 89" 2870: 7251: 7015: 6801: 5622: 4754:

Race for the exits: the unraveling of Japan's system of social protection

4406:. New York: Feminist Press at the City University of New York]. pp. 4218: 2780: 2707:

is highly valued. However, births outside marriage remain rare in Japan.

2650: 2610: 2547: 2331: 2054: 2050: 1919: 1764: 754: 724: 501: 7085: 5851: 5742: 5606:"LIGHTHOUSE NGO SERVES AS BEACON OF HOPE FOR VICTIMS OF SEX TRAFFICKING" 4601:

Niwa, Akiko (1993). "The Formation of the Myth of Motherhood in Japan".

3806:

Tomoaki, Iwai (1993). ""The Madonna Boom": Women in the Japanese Diet".

30:

A photograph of Japanese women from the book "Japan And Japanese" (1902)

7908: 7273: 7175: 7123: 7036: 6354: 6340: 6326: 6275: 6060: 5075: 4097: 3399:"'It is bullying, pure and simple': being a woman in Japanese politics" 2884: 2606: 2462:

were passed in 2000 after the media attention given to the murder of a

2288: 2163: 2069: 2017: 1964: 1757: 1702: 837: 779: 774: 6401:"Gender and Sexuality in Japan" syllabus by Professor Jeffry T. Hester 6310: 3835: 1688: 7998: 7301: 7145: 7135: 6347:

The New Japanese Woman: Modernity, Media, and Women in Interwar Japan

5588:"Schoolgirls for sale: why Tokyo struggles to stop the 'JK business'" 4581:"Japan top court upholds law on married couples' surnames - BBC News" 4531:"Japanese women in court fight to keep their surnames after marriage" 2497: 2248:

There is continuing debate about the role women's education plays in

2058: 5137: 5120: 3510:

Women and political inequality in Japan: gender-imbalanced democracy

1903:, 16.1% in general cities, 10.4% in towns and villages, and 9.1% in 5972:"Changing Patterns of Nonmarital Childbearing in the United States" 4467: 3852:

Kage, Rieko; Rosenbluth, Frances M.; Tanaka, Seiki (27 July 2018).

3819: 3303:

Mikanagi, Yumiko (2011). "The Japanese conception of citizenship".

2828: 2704: 2562: 2539: 2459: 2291:

graduates. The proportion of female researchers in Japan is 14.6%.

2171: 2127:

As late as the 1930s, arranged marriages continued, and so-called "

239: 7992: 5787:(2. ed.). Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. 2800: 8004: 7931: 7926: 6812: 2852:

This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the

2581: 2351: 2304: 2296: 2167: 1737: 794: 749: 6405: 6102:

Women and the economic miracle: Gender and work in postwar Japan

5908:"High heels at work are necessary, says Japan's labour minister" 4988:. Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and Technology 4402:

Japanese Women: new perspectives on the past, present and future

3966:"The Overlooked Issue of Sexual Harassment in Japanese Politics" 8014: 7936: 7913: 7898: 7853: 7187: 5718:"Women Only Cars on Commuter Trains Cause Controversy in Japan" 4977:(MEXT), Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports and Technology. 3327:

Eto, Mikiko (2010-06-01). "Women and Representation in Japan".

3202:, by Adriana Boscaro, Franco Gatti, Massimo Raveri, pp. 164-173 2692: 2661: 2636: 2627: 2622: 2528:, repeated actions aspiring toward perfection, such as bowing. 2393:

in Japan today do not have complete access to all such places.

2238: 1946: 1876:, less than 18 percent of candidates (186 out of 1051) for the 1733: 310: 6231:

Hastings, Sally A. "Gender and Sexuality in Modern Japan." in

2554:

eyes are admired, especially when they have "double eyelids".

7988: 7838: 7834: 6843: 4979:"Gakko kihon chosa - Heisei 24 nendo (sokuho) kekka no gaiyo" 3427:"Japan's lower house has fewer women despite empowerment law" 2775: 2657: 2656:

A young geisha in training, under the age of 20, is called a

2566: 2440: 2385:

The first female Zen master in Japan was the Japanese abbess

2356: 2077: 2062: 1843:

Proportion of women in Japan's national parliament, 1997–2020

1768: 1694:

Yanagiwara Byakuren, a poet and member of the imperial family

1668: 244: 182: 5810:

The world of the shining prince: court life in ancient Japan

4377:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. p. 68. 3471: 3090:"Heroines: Heian Period (Women in World History Curriculum)" 2695:. Sexuality in Japan has developed separately from mainland 2210:

and 96% of women continue to do so as of 2015. In 2015, the

2020:

have publicly condemned male politicians' sexist statements.

1989: 1888:

through several focused initiatives, and a 2012 poll by the

5510:"Seven Cambodians Rescued in Sex Trafficking Bust in Japan" 5368:

Josei No Anzen to Kenko No Tameno Shien Kyoiku Senta Tushin

3152:(Pbk. ed.). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press. 3072:"Goldman's Matsui Turns Abe to Womenomics for Japan Growth" 2696: 2589: 2577: 2524: 1784: 1630:

Late 19th/early 20th century depictions of Japanese women,

1621: 5783:

Beauty up: exploring contemporary Japanese body aesthetics

4633:

The Japanese Woman: Traditional Image and Changing Reality

4168:"Labor force, female (% of total labor force) | Data" 3720: 3134:

The Meiji Reforms and Obstacles for Women Japan, 1878–1927

3043:"Birth of the Constitution of Japan - Chronological Table" 2485:

Japanese and foreign women and girls have been victims of

1867:. In general, the proportion of female legislators in the 1705:, the status of women declined. In the 17th century, the " 1567:

were recognized as having equal legal rights to men after

6056:"Women At Work Toward Equality In The Japanese Workplace" 5351:

The Gender Equality Bureau of the Cabinet Office (2002).

5118: 3200:

Rethinking Japan: Social sciences, ideology & thought

2580:, reds, bows, and frills are all found in their apparel. 2100:

A Japanese family as presented in a magazine in the 1950s

2053:, that is, a female office worker who performs generally 3633:"Record 35 Women Win Upper House Seats in Sun. Election" 5926:"Japan 'glasses ban' for women at work sparks backlash" 4648:"Tokyo official ties birth decline to higher education" 3899:

Takeda, Hiroko (2011). "Gender-related social policy".

1582:

is strictly male-only and a princess has to resign her

5833: 5831: 5829: 5076:

SUSAN SACHSPublished: November 22, 1998 (1998-11-22).

4756:(. ed.). Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. 4420: 207:

Gender representation on corporate boards of directors

5838:

Keene, Donald (1989). "The Japanese Idea of Beauty".

5564: 5562: 5385: 5383: 5381: 5307: 5021:

Cabinet Office, Gender Equality Bureau (April 2014).

4487: 4485: 4076:(1st Tuttle ed.). Rutland, Vt.: C.E. Tuttle Co. 3082: 6186:

Women's history and local community in postwar Japan

5941: 5939: 5872:. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 4425:. Philadelphia: Mason Crest Publishers. p. 38. 4232:"Japan slashes target for women in senior positions" 3851: 3277: 2605:

Some employers require their female workers to wear

2400:(Anglican Church in Japan) started to ordain women. 2010: 1925: 1834: 1748:

and subjugated them to the will of household heads.

5826: 4717:Boling, Patricia (1998). "Family Policy in Japan". 3127: 6121:Managing women: Disciplining labor in modern Japan 5780: 5559: 5378: 5252: 4852: 4846: 4482: 4399: 1865:party list system with proportional representation 5936: 4074:Marriage in changing Japan: community and society 3278:Chanlett-Avery, Emma; Nelson, Rebecca M. (2014). 8086: 5812:( ed.). New York : Kodansha International. 5472: 5401:. Japanese Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office 5267:. Japanese Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office 5125:Journal of Asian Humanities at Kyushu University 5014: 4701: 4528: 4119:. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 49. 4114: 3035: 3021:. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 430:Science, technology, engineering and mathematics 6194: 6074:Widows of Japan: An anthropological perspective 5996: 5638: 5636: 5634: 5632: 5630: 5052:"Mugai Nyodai, First Woman to Head a Zen Order" 3110:Onna Daigaku A Treasure Box of Women's Learning 2976: 2974: 2972: 2970: 2031:, pioneering female author on 5000 yen banknote 5078:"Japanese Zen Master Honored by Her Followers" 5020: 4910:The changing social position of women in Japan 4803: 4325: 3607:"Record 35 women elected to Japan upper house" 3581:"Record 35 women elected to Japan upper house" 2667: 2641: 6828: 6421: 6053: 5914:. Agence France-Presse in Tokyo. 5 June 2019. 5868:Selden, Cho Kyo; translated by Kyoko (2012). 5353:Heisei 14 nenban danjo kyodo sankaku hakusho 4864:. Japan Gender Equality Bureau Cabinet Office 4498:. Japan Cabinet Office Gender Equality Bureau 4230:Yan, Sophia; Ogura, Junko (7 December 2015). 3489:. Japan Cabinet Office Gender Equality Bureau 3143: 3141: 2895: 2227:A Japanese mother with children on her back, 1544: 5892:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 5642: 5627: 5006:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4838:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list ( 4360:Journal of Political Science & Sociology 4007: 3371:"Women in Parliaments: World Classification" 3229: 2983:"To Rescue Economy, Japan Turns to Supermom" 2967: 2885:"Women in Parliaments: World Classification" 2068:Japan has a strong tradition of women being 1947:Opposition parties and female representation 1790: 6261:Liquid Life: Abortion and Buddhism in Japan 5958: 5543: 5541: 5102:: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list ( 5069: 4937: 4935: 4933: 4931: 3901:The Routledge Handbook of Japanese Politics 3305:The Routledge Handbook of Japanese Politics 3273: 3271: 3269: 2318:Girls' high school in early period, c. 1939 1912:2022 Japanese House of Councillors election 6835: 6821: 6428: 6414: 5997:Cosgrove-Mather, Bootie (20 August 2004). 5774: 5772: 5770: 5768: 5766: 5764: 5762: 5760: 5389: 5303: 5301: 5299: 5297: 5288:Japanese Women: Constraint and Fulfillment 5258: 5246:Women in the Language and Society of Japan 4675: 4673: 4454:Iwasaki, Yasu (1930). "Divorce in Japan". 4067: 4065: 4063: 4061: 4059: 4057: 3540:: CS1 maint: location missing publisher ( 3477: 3444: 3329:International Feminist Journal of Politics 3213:"Employment - Employment rate - OECD Data" 3150:Japanese women: constraint and fulfillment 3138: 1914:a record 35 women were elected to Japan's 1751: 1551: 1537: 24: 6396:Japanese Equal Employment Opportunity Law 6114:Lost leaves: women writers of Meiji Japan 5976:CDC/National Center for Health Statistics 5964: 5946:Dalby, Liza (1992). "Kimona and Geisha". 5722: 5146: 5136: 4970: 4902: 4900: 4898: 4896: 4695: 4397: 4391: 4288:Moscicki, Helen (8 July 1944). : 19. 4055: 4053: 4051: 4049: 4047: 4045: 4043: 4041: 4039: 4037: 3982: 3012: 3010: 3008: 3006: 3004: 1990:Explanations of low female representation 1783:of women (age 15–64) is 69.6% (data from 6280: 6238: 5728: 5538: 5390:Cabinet Office, Gender Equality Bureau. 5259:Cabinet Office, Gender Equality Bureau. 5243: 5237: 5119:Dewitt, Lindsey Elizabeth (March 2016). 4941: 4928: 4853:Gender Equality Bureau, Cabinet Office. 4522: 4287: 4277:. Los Angeles: University of California. 4272: 4266: 4229: 4115:Hirata, Keiko; Warschauer, Mark (2014). 4096: 4090: 3478:Cabinet Office, Gender Equality Bureau. 3302: 3266: 3065: 3063: 2671: 2626: 2496: 2344: 2313: 2267: 2222: 2095: 2039: 2022: 1838: 7108:Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) 6126: 5863: 5861: 5801: 5757: 5701: 5699: 5359: 5294: 5290:. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 5224:"When churches started to ordain women" 4751: 4745: 4670: 4453: 4447: 4372: 4262:. USA: East Tennessee State University. 4223: 4013: 3805: 3763: 3668: 3396: 3172: 3166: 3016: 1979:due to other priorities on its agenda. 8087: 6359: 5867: 5807: 5778: 5447: 5441: 5163: 4906: 4893: 4882: 4876: 4716: 4710: 4645: 4639: 4255: 4249: 4219:http://fds.duke.edu/db/attachment/1111 4139: 4133: 4108: 4071: 4034: 3963: 3916: 3912: 3910: 3898: 3453:"Unleashing the Power of 'Womenomics'" 3421: 3419: 3069: 3001: 2796:Overview of gender inequality in Japan 6816: 6409: 6333:The hidden sun: Women of modern Japan 6155: 6081:Women and Democracy in Cold War Japan 6024: 5945: 5837: 5285: 5279: 5044: 5023:"White Paper on Gender Equality 2013" 4620:THE UNIQUE IDENTITY OF JAPANESE GIRLS 4529:Reuters in Tokyo (11 December 2015). 4331: 4189: 4183: 3847: 3845: 3801: 3799: 3716: 3714: 3712: 3664: 3662: 3660: 3658: 3656: 3654: 3392: 3390: 3322: 3320: 3318: 3316: 3314: 3298: 3296: 3147: 3106: 3100: 3060: 2980: 2429: 2274:Summer Evening Beside the Lake (1897) 6092:Recreating Japanese Women, 1600–1945 5858: 5696: 4776: 4770: 4702:(Cabinet Office), Naikakufu (2005). 4630: 4624: 4600: 4594: 3070:Nohara, Yoshiaki (21 January 2014). 2925:"Human Development Report 2021/2022" 2434: 2396:In 1998 the General Assembly of the 2035: 703:Gender representation in video games 5623:"Tokyo police act on train gropers" 5421:"Stalker-killer's life term upheld" 5310:Health Care for Women International 4883:Burton, Margaret Emerstine (1914). 4357: 4351: 4190:Beech, Hannah (30 September 2013). 4016:Women's Studies International Forum 3923:Women's Studies International Forum 3907: 3507: 3450: 3416: 3397:McCurry, Justin (26 October 2021). 3326: 3257: 3235: 3187:10.1146/annurev.an.19.100190.000313 2208:adopted their husband's family name 2157: 1589: 13: 7284:2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami 6842: 6253:10.1111/j.1540-6563.1993.tb00918.x 6018: 4976: 4493:"Population, Family and Household" 4366: 3842: 3796: 3764:Gaunder, Alisa (26 January 2016). 3709: 3651: 3480:"Perceptions of Gender Inequality" 3387: 3311: 3293: 2981:Soble, Jonathan (1 January 2015). 2474: 2419:of any sex anywhere in the world. 2108:Families, prior to and during the 1973:1992 House of Councillors election 14: 8111: 7151:Imperial Constitution (1890–1947) 6435: 6389: 5355:. Tokyo: Zaimusyou insatsu Kyoku. 3451:Abe, Shinzo (25 September 2013). 3280:""Womenomics" in Japan: In Brief" 3236:Fox, Margalit (January 1, 2013). 2904:"LFS by sex and age - indicators" 2492: 2196: 2011:Sexism and harassment in politics 1926:The LDP and female representation 1835:Female representation in politics 1678:, wife of notable diplomat Count 8069: 8068: 8057: 6796: 6787: 6786: 6141:10.2752/175174115X14223685749368 5990: 5918: 5900: 5731:The Journal of Transport History 5711: 5671: 4679: 4654:. New York Times. Archived from 4154:10.1111/j.1468-0432.2012.00599.x 3669:Gaunder, Alisa (17 March 2015). 2901: 2847: 1687: 1667: 1636:Under the Shade of a Tree (1898) 1620: 1609: 1598: 220:Diversity, equity, and inclusion 147: 6233:A Companion to Japanese History 5616: 5598: 5580: 5520: 5502: 5413: 5344: 5216: 5110: 4886:The Education of Women in Japan 4855:"Education and Research Fields" 4797: 4613: 4573: 4510: 4421:Van Houten, Elizabeth. (2005). 4414: 4281: 4210: 4174: 4160: 4142:Gender, Work & Organization 3964:Dalton, Emma (8 October 2021). 3957: 3892: 3757: 3625: 3599: 3573: 3548: 3501: 3363: 3205: 3193: 2950:"Global Gender Gap Report 2022" 2349:Japanese schoolgirls wearing a 1709:", or "Learning for Women", by 7637:Agriculture, forestry, fishing 6754:British Indian Ocean Territory 6123:(U of California Press, 2007). 6094:(U of California Press, 1991). 5999:"Japanese Women Shun The Pill" 4646:Sanger, David (14 June 1990). 4334:"Holding back half the nation" 3990:"Holding back half the nation" 3287:Congressional Research Service 3148:Lebra, Takie Sugiyama (1985). 2942: 2917: 2877: 2699:, and Japan did not adopt the 2091: 2057:tasks such as serving tea and 1874:2021 Japanese general election 1813:drafting of a new constitution 1: 6321:(U of Michigan Press, 2020). 5027:Statistical Topics (Japanese) 4818:10.1080/09540253.2015.1069799 4456:American Journal of Sociology 4117:Japan: the paradox of harmony 4100:(1978). Corbyn, Marie (ed.). 4028:10.1016/S0277-5395(99)00053-9 3770:Journal of East Asian Studies 3175:Annual Review of Anthropology 2841: 2806:Women in agriculture in Japan 2631:Geisha in Miyagawa-chō, Kyoto 2272:Teenage girls reading books, 2228: 2218: 6197:Social Science Japan Journal 6170:10.1080/03085147.2010.486214 6076:(Trans Pacific Press, 2010). 6054:Akiba, Fumiko (March 1998). 6027:The Journal of Psychohistory 5681:. 2007-12-26. Archived from 5657:10.1080/13698575.2011.641523 5448:Aquino, Faith (2013-06-27). 4956:10.1080/09555803.2013.788053 4752:Schoppa, Leonard J. (2008). 4104:. Penguin Books. p. 98. 4102:Aspects of Japanese Marriage 3047:National Diet Library, Japan 2728:List of idol anime and manga 2263: 2121:and shaving their eyebrows. 1632:Woman in Red Clothing (1912) 1574:Women in Japan obtained the 671:Portrayal in American comics 262:Heads of state or government 7: 7225:1923 Great Kantō earthquake 7171:Abolition of the han system 4423:Women in the Japanese world 3917:Dalton, Emma (2019-11-01). 3808:Journal of Japanese Studies 3252:Correction: January 4, 2013 3094:www.womeninworldhistory.com 2930:. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORTS 2733: 2668:Contraception and sexuality 2454: 2370: 2250:Japan's declining birthrate 1847:In 1994, Japan implemented 1586:if she marries a commoner. 10: 8116: 6283:Journal of Women's History 6116:(U of Hawaii Press, 2000). 5645:Health, Risk & Society 3935:10.1016/j.wsif.2019.102276 2710: 2701:Confucian view of marriage 2680: 2620: 2478: 2374: 1801:Japanese surrender in WWII 8052: 7820: 7698: 7689: 7632: 7623: 7558: 7435: 7431: 7422: 7335: 7326: 7294: 7237:Japan during World War II 7207: 7116: 7054:Mongol invasions of Japan 7029: 6954: 6881: 6872: 6854: 6782: 6741: 6701: 6443: 6374:10.1080/10371390902780555 6090:Bernstein, Lee Gail. ed. 5480:"Japan's stalking crisis" 5322:10.1080/07399330500511774 4731:10.1017/s0047279498005285 4537:. Reuters. Archived from 4273:Kitamura, Mariko (1982). 3870:10.1017/S1743923X18000223 3782:10.1017/S1598240800008092 3735:10.1080/03003930308559368 3687:10.1017/S1743923X1400066X 3341:10.1080/14616741003665227 2865:Federal Research Division 2664:(turning of the collar). 2642: 2616: 2516: 2507:women-only passenger cars 2406: 2389:(born 1223 - died 1298). 1984:Democratic Party of Japan 1791:Political status of women 1732:reduced the authority of 124: 116: 109: 101: 93: 86: 74: 63: 53: 40: 35: 23: 7511:House of Representatives 7307:2019 imperial transition 7279:Great Hanshin earthquake 7247:Second Sino-Japanese War 7220:Japan during World War I 6503:East Timor (Timor-Leste) 6215:Goldstein-Gidoni, Ofra. 6184:Gayle, Curtis Anderson. 5392:"Violence against Women" 5261:"Women and Men in Japan" 5244:Takemaru, Naoko (2010). 5226:. Religioustolerance.org 4907:Koyama, Takashi (1961). 4719:Journal of Social Policy 4603:US Japan Women's Journal 4256:Cooper, Jessica (2013). 3723:Local Government Studies 2715: 2487:sex trafficking in Japan 2481:Sex trafficking in Japan 1932:Liberal Democratic Party 1878:House of Representatives 1869:House of Representatives 1829:equal pay for equal work 7194:First Sino-Japanese War 6764:Cocos (Keeling) Islands 6335:(Westview Press, 1983) 6331:Robins-Mowry, Dorothy. 6268:Women in changing Japan 4635:. New York: Free Press. 3107:Ekken, Kaibara (2010). 1857:single-member districts 1825:women's rights in Japan 1752:Behavioral expectations 1682:. Photographed in 1888. 257:Conservatives in the US 230:Explorers and travelers 111:Global Gender Gap Index 88:Gender Inequality Index 7662:Science and technology 7101:Council of Five Elders 7096:Azuchi–Momoyama period 6295:10.1353/jowh.2014.0063 5779:Miller, Laura (2006). 4301:Cite journal requires 2955:. World Economic Forum 2771:Good Wife, Wise Mother 2765:Gender Equality Bureau 2755:Family policy in Japan 2740:Birth control in Japan 2678: 2632: 2542:published a magazine, 2502: 2359: 2319: 2280: 2234: 2212:Japanese Supreme Court 2119:blackening their teeth 2101: 2045: 2032: 1853:mixed electoral system 1844: 560:In Shakespeare's works 7607:Deputy Prime Minister 6992:Asuka Kiyomihara Code 6263:(Princeton UP, 1992). 6112:Copeland, Rebecca L. 6107:U of California Press 5948:The Threepenny Review 5808:Morris, Ivan (1995). 5286:Lebra, Takie (1984). 4631:Iwao, Sumiko (1993). 4583:. Bbc.com. 2015-12-16 4373:Borovoy, Amy (2005). 3858:Politics & Gender 3675:Politics & Gender 3459:. Wall Street Journal 3017:Borovoy, Amy (2005). 2681:Further information: 2675: 2630: 2500: 2415:of Japanese women is 2348: 2317: 2311:"practical matters". 2271: 2226: 2099: 2043: 2026: 1957:Japan Socialist Party 1897:Tokyo's Special Wards 1882:2017 general election 1842: 1795:Women were given the 1744:system) denied women 1644:Japanese Woman (1903) 316:Nobel Prize laureates 75:Women in labour force 7516:House of Councillors 7410:World Heritage Sites 6678:United Arab Emirates 6259:LaFleur, William R. 6209:10.1093/ssjj/1.2.263 5840:The Wilson Quarterly 5708:An ABC News article. 5685:on December 26, 2007 4806:Gender and Education 4779:Social Science Japan 4072:Hendry, Joy (1986). 3508:Eto, Mikiko (2021). 2649:to be confused with 2254:total fertility rate 2136:Japan's Constitution 1916:House of Councillors 1646:by Hungarian artist 1473:United Arab Emirates 410:in the United States 225:Economic development 215:Diversity (politics) 201:Female entrepreneurs 7533:Self-Defense Forces 6705:limited recognition 6224:Gulliver, Katrina. 6218:Housewives of Japan 6188:(Routledge, 2013). 6158:Economy and Society 6083:(Bloomsbury, 2015) 5743:10.7227/TJTH.23.1.4 5679:"Untitled Document" 5574:The Washington Post 5555:. October 29, 2019. 5532:Mainichi Daily News 5516:. January 24, 2017. 5490:on 5 September 2015 5429:. December 21, 2005 5192:semanticscholar.org 5167:semanticscholar.org 4791:10.1093/ssjj/jyk011 4541:on 11 December 2015 3560:Mainichi Daily News 3457:Wall Street Journal 3431:Mainichi Daily News 2203:Civil Code of Japan 2044:A Kimono-clad woman 1855:that included both 1817:Beate Sirota Gordon 1799:in 1945, after the 1458:Trinidad and Tobago 693:Speculative fiction 586:Theological figures 531:Feminist philosophy 331:Reproductive rights 137:Part of a series on 66:secondary education 64:Women over 25 with 55:Women in parliament 45: (per 100,000) 20: 7667:Telecommunications 7199:Russo-Japanese War 7129:Tokugawa shogunate 7079:Nanboku-chō period 7074:Ashikaga shogunate 7047:Kamakura shogunate 6270:(Routledge, 20190 6228:(IB Tauris, 2012). 5932:. 8 November 2019. 5083:The New York Times 4565:has generic name ( 3512:. Abingdon, Oxon. 3263:Dower, pp. 365-367 3242:The New York Times 3113:. Gardners Books. 2988:The New York Times 2689:contraceptive pill 2683:Sexuality in Japan 2679: 2633: 2503: 2464:university student 2460:Anti-stalking laws 2430:Laws of protection 2360: 2320: 2305:flower arrangement 2281: 2235: 2102: 2046: 2033: 1845: 1023:Dominican Republic 790:Mixed martial arts 760:Fastpitch softball 341:Violence and abuse 326:Positions of power 42:Maternal mortality 36:General Statistics 18: 8082: 8081: 8048: 8047: 7797:Sexual minorities 7685: 7684: 7619: 7618: 7615: 7614: 7528:Political parties 7467:Foreign relations 7418: 7417: 7322: 7321: 7312:COVID-19 pandemic 7181:Satsuma Rebellion 7166:Meiji Restoration 7064:Kenmu Restoration 6924:Foreign relations 6810: 6809: 6747:other territories 6349:(Duke UP, 2003). 6307:Project MUSE 5454:Japan Daily Press 4313:Missing or empty 3519:978-1-003-05691-1 3487:www.gender.go.jp/ 2837:, female warriors 2760:Feminism in Japan 2599:camellia japonica 2469:e-mail harassment 2435:Domestic violence 2423:Abortion in Japan 2411:At 87 years, the 2398:Nippon Sei Ko Kai 2377:Women in Buddhism 2339:Allied occupation 2324:Tsuruko Haraguchi 2114:arranged marriage 2110:Meiji restoration 2036:Professional life 1940:Junichiro Koizumi 1936:old boys' network 1901:designated cities 1851:and introduced a 1809:Douglas MacArthur 1726:industrialization 1561: 1560: 765:Football / soccer 688:Fictional pirates 480:Art history field 356:Exchange of women 132: 131: 8107: 8100:Women by country 8072: 8071: 8064:Japan portal 8062: 8061: 8060: 7977:National symbols 7696: 7695: 7630: 7629: 7433: 7432: 7429: 7428: 7333: 7332: 7267:Economic miracle 7069:Muromachi period 6879: 6878: 6837: 6830: 6823: 6814: 6813: 6800: 6790: 6789: 6759:Christmas Island 6445:Sovereign states 6430: 6423: 6416: 6407: 6406: 6385: 6362:Japanese Studies 6317:Patessio, Mara. 6314: 6266:Lebra, Joyce C. 6256: 6212: 6181: 6152: 6119:Faison, Elyssa. 6098:Brinton, Mary C. 6069: 6064:. Archived from 6050: 6013: 6012: 6010: 6009: 5994: 5988: 5987: 5985: 5983: 5968: 5962: 5956: 5955: 5943: 5934: 5933: 5922: 5916: 5915: 5904: 5898: 5897: 5891: 5883: 5865: 5856: 5855: 5835: 5824: 5823: 5805: 5799: 5798: 5786: 5776: 5755: 5754: 5726: 5720: 5715: 5709: 5703: 5694: 5693: 5691: 5690: 5675: 5669: 5668: 5640: 5625: 5620: 5614: 5613: 5602: 5596: 5595: 5594:. June 15, 2019. 5584: 5578: 5577: 5566: 5557: 5556: 5545: 5536: 5535: 5534:. June 10, 2017. 5524: 5518: 5517: 5506: 5500: 5499: 5497: 5495: 5486:. Archived from 5476: 5470: 5469: 5467: 5465: 5456:. Archived from 5445: 5439: 5438: 5436: 5434: 5417: 5411: 5410: 5408: 5406: 5396: 5387: 5376: 5375: 5363: 5357: 5356: 5348: 5342: 5341: 5305: 5292: 5291: 5283: 5277: 5276: 5274: 5272: 5256: 5250: 5249: 5241: 5235: 5234: 5232: 5231: 5220: 5214: 5211: 5210:on 3 March 2019. 5209: 5203:. 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Tokyo: Gyosei. 4699: 4693: 4692: 4690: 4689: 4677: 4668: 4667: 4665: 4663: 4643: 4637: 4636: 4628: 4622: 4617: 4611: 4610: 4598: 4592: 4591: 4589: 4588: 4577: 4571: 4570: 4564: 4560: 4558: 4550: 4548: 4546: 4526: 4520: 4514: 4508: 4507: 4505: 4503: 4497: 4489: 4480: 4479: 4451: 4445: 4444: 4418: 4412: 4411: 4405: 4395: 4389: 4388: 4370: 4364: 4363: 4355: 4349: 4348: 4346: 4344: 4329: 4323: 4322: 4316: 4310: 4304: 4299: 4297: 4289: 4285: 4279: 4278: 4270: 4264: 4263: 4253: 4247: 4246: 4244: 4242: 4227: 4221: 4214: 4208: 4207: 4205: 4203: 4187: 4181: 4178: 4172: 4171: 4164: 4158: 4157: 4137: 4131: 4130: 4112: 4106: 4105: 4098:Morsbach, Helmut 4094: 4088: 4087: 4069: 4032: 4031: 4011: 4005: 4004: 4002: 4000: 3986: 3980: 3979: 3977: 3976: 3961: 3955: 3954: 3914: 3905: 3904: 3896: 3890: 3889: 3849: 3840: 3839: 3803: 3794: 3793: 3761: 3755: 3754: 3718: 3707: 3706: 3666: 3649: 3648: 3646: 3644: 3629: 3623: 3622: 3620: 3618: 3603: 3597: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3577: 3571: 3570: 3568: 3567: 3552: 3546: 3545: 3539: 3531: 3505: 3499: 3498: 3496: 3494: 3484: 3475: 3469: 3468: 3466: 3464: 3448: 3442: 3441: 3439: 3438: 3423: 3414: 3413: 3411: 3409: 3394: 3385: 3384: 3382: 3381: 3367: 3361: 3360: 3324: 3309: 3308: 3300: 3291: 3290: 3284: 3275: 3264: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3249: 3248: 3233: 3227: 3226: 3224: 3223: 3209: 3203: 3197: 3191: 3190: 3170: 3164: 3163: 3145: 3136: 3131: 3125: 3124: 3104: 3098: 3097: 3086: 3080: 3079: 3067: 3058: 3057: 3055: 3053: 3039: 3033: 3032: 3014: 2999: 2998: 2996: 2995: 2978: 2965: 2964: 2962: 2960: 2954: 2946: 2940: 2939: 2937: 2935: 2929: 2921: 2915: 2914: 2912: 2911: 2906:. Stats.oecd.org 2899: 2893: 2892: 2881: 2868: 2851: 2850: 2811:Yamato nadeshiko 2750:Empress of Japan 2647: 2645: 2644: 2337:After 1945, the 2278:Fujishima Takeji 2233: 2230: 2158:Right to divorce 1918:, the country's 1849:electoral reform 1807:ruler of Japan, 1691: 1671: 1648:Bertalan Székely 1624: 1613: 1602: 1590:Cultural history 1553: 1546: 1539: 1223:Marshall Islands 800:Paralympic Games 431: 208: 173: 151: 142:Women in society 134: 133: 128:116th out of 146 46: 28: 21: 17: 8115: 8114: 8110: 8109: 8108: 8106: 8105: 8104: 8085: 8084: 8083: 8078: 8058: 8056: 8044: 7864:Class S (genre) 7816: 7792:Sex trafficking 7767:Life expectancy 7703:Anti-monarchism 7681: 7611: 7554: 7521:List of members 7501:Law enforcement 7414: 7318: 7290: 7242:Mukden Incident 7203: 7161:Meiji oligarchy 7141:Empire of Japan 7112: 7042:Kamakura period 7025: 6950: 6868: 6850: 6841: 6811: 6806: 6778: 6746: 6737: 6718:Northern Cyprus 6704: 6697: 6439: 6434: 6392: 6345:Sato, Barbara. 6079:Bardsley, Jan. 6021: 6019:Further reading 6016: 6007: 6005: 5995: 5991: 5981: 5979: 5970: 5969: 5965: 5959: 5944: 5937: 5924: 5923: 5919: 5906: 5905: 5901: 5885: 5884: 5880: 5866: 5859: 5836: 5827: 5820: 5806: 5802: 5795: 5777: 5758: 5727: 5723: 5716: 5712: 5704: 5697: 5688: 5686: 5677: 5676: 5672: 5641: 5628: 5621: 5617: 5612:. May 15, 2018. 5610:UW–Madison News 5604: 5603: 5599: 5586: 5585: 5581: 5576:. May 16, 2017. 5568: 5567: 5560: 5547: 5546: 5539: 5526: 5525: 5521: 5508: 5507: 5503: 5493: 5491: 5478: 5477: 5473: 5463: 5461: 5446: 5442: 5432: 5430: 5426:The Japan Times 5419: 5418: 5414: 5404: 5402: 5394: 5388: 5379: 5364: 5360: 5349: 5345: 5306: 5295: 5284: 5280: 5270: 5268: 5257: 5253: 5242: 5238: 5229: 5227: 5222: 5221: 5217: 5207: 5186: 5182: 5148:1854/LU-8636481 5138:10.5109/1654566 5115: 5111: 5095: 5094: 5088: 5086: 5074: 5070: 5061: 5059: 5058:. Lisa Erickson 5050: 5049: 5045: 5035: 5033: 5019: 5015: 4999: 4998: 4991: 4989: 4981: 4975: 4971: 4940: 4929: 4919: 4917: 4916:. 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Time Magazine 4188: 4184: 4179: 4175: 4166: 4165: 4161: 4138: 4134: 4127: 4113: 4109: 4095: 4091: 4084: 4070: 4035: 4012: 4008: 3998: 3996: 3988: 3987: 3983: 3974: 3972: 3962: 3958: 3915: 3908: 3897: 3893: 3850: 3843: 3804: 3797: 3762: 3758: 3719: 3710: 3667: 3652: 3642: 3640: 3631: 3630: 3626: 3616: 3614: 3605: 3604: 3600: 3590: 3588: 3579: 3578: 3574: 3565: 3563: 3554: 3553: 3549: 3533: 3532: 3520: 3506: 3502: 3492: 3490: 3482: 3476: 3472: 3462: 3460: 3449: 3445: 3436: 3434: 3425: 3424: 3417: 3407: 3405: 3395: 3388: 3379: 3377: 3375:archive.ipu.org 3369: 3368: 3364: 3325: 3312: 3301: 3294: 3282: 3276: 3267: 3262: 3258: 3246: 3244: 3234: 3230: 3221: 3219: 3211: 3210: 3206: 3198: 3194: 3171: 3167: 3160: 3146: 3139: 3132: 3128: 3121: 3105: 3101: 3088: 3087: 3083: 3068: 3061: 3051: 3049: 3041: 3040: 3036: 3029: 3015: 3002: 2993: 2991: 2979: 2968: 2958: 2956: 2952: 2948: 2947: 2943: 2933: 2931: 2927: 2923: 2922: 2918: 2909: 2907: 2900: 2896: 2883: 2882: 2878: 2860:Country Studies 2857: 2848: 2844: 2818:Women in Shinto 2745:Class S (genre) 2736: 2718: 2713: 2685: 2670: 2639: 2625: 2619: 2586:cherry blossoms 2561:By the 1970s, " 2519: 2495: 2483: 2477: 2475:Sex trafficking 2457: 2437: 2432: 2413:life expectancy 2409: 2383: 2381:Women in Shinto 2373: 2299:class, such as 2266: 2231: 2221: 2199: 2164:Tokugawa period 2160: 2094: 2038: 2013: 1992: 1949: 1928: 1837: 1793: 1781:employment rate 1754: 1699: 1698: 1697: 1696: 1695: 1692: 1684: 1683: 1680:Mutsu Munemitsu 1672: 1654: 1653: 1652: 1651: 1627: 1626: 1625: 1616: 1615: 1614: 1605: 1604: 1603: 1592: 1557: 1528: 1527: 863: 853: 852: 845: 833:Track and field 720: 710: 709: 661: 660:Popular culture 653: 652: 581: 580: 565: 564: 519:Science fiction 465: 464: 446: 445: 429: 380: 379: 361: 360: 336:Venture capital 301:Law enforcement 206: 191:Animal advocacy 187: 167: 164:Women's history 159: 105:22nd out of 191 80:employment rate 44: 31: 12: 11: 5: 8113: 8103: 8102: 8097: 8095:Women in Japan 8080: 8079: 8077: 8076: 8066: 8053: 8050: 8049: 8046: 8045: 8043: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8002: 7995: 7986: 7979: 7974: 7969: 7964: 7959: 7954: 7949: 7944: 7939: 7934: 7929: 7924: 7921: 7919:Henohenomoheji 7916: 7911: 7906: 7901: 7896: 7891: 7886: 7881: 7876: 7866: 7861: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7841: 7832: 7826: 7824: 7818: 7817: 7815: 7814: 7809: 7804: 7799: 7794: 7789: 7784: 7779: 7774: 7769: 7764: 7763: 7762: 7752: 7751: 7750: 7740: 7735: 7730: 7725: 7720: 7715: 7710: 7705: 7699: 7693: 7687: 7686: 7683: 7682: 7680: 7679: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7659: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7639: 7633: 7627: 7621: 7620: 7617: 7616: 7613: 7612: 7610: 7609: 7604: 7603: 7602: 7595:Prime Minister 7592: 7587: 7585:Foreign policy 7582: 7577: 7576: 7575: 7564: 7562: 7556: 7555: 7553: 7552: 7551: 7550: 7545: 7540: 7530: 7525: 7524: 7523: 7518: 7513: 7503: 7498: 7493: 7492: 7491: 7481: 7480: 7479: 7469: 7464: 7462:Imperial House 7459: 7458: 7457: 7447: 7442: 7436: 7426: 7420: 7419: 7416: 7415: 7413: 7412: 7407: 7402: 7397: 7392: 7387: 7382: 7377: 7372: 7370:Extreme points 7367: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7342: 7336: 7330: 7324: 7323: 7320: 7319: 7317: 7316: 7315: 7314: 7309: 7298: 7296: 7292: 7291: 7289: 7288: 7287: 7286: 7281: 7271: 7270: 7269: 7264: 7259: 7254: 7249: 7244: 7239: 7229: 7228: 7227: 7222: 7211: 7209: 7205: 7204: 7202: 7201: 7196: 7191: 7185: 7184: 7183: 7178: 7173: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7153: 7143: 7138: 7133: 7132: 7131: 7120: 7118: 7114: 7113: 7111: 7110: 7105: 7104: 7103: 7098: 7091:Sengoku period 7088: 7083: 7082: 7081: 7076: 7066: 7061: 7056: 7051: 7050: 7049: 7039: 7033: 7031: 7030:Post-Classical 7027: 7026: 7024: 7023: 7018: 7013: 7012: 7011: 7001: 7000: 6999: 6994: 6989: 6979: 6974: 6969: 6964: 6958: 6956: 6952: 6951: 6949: 6948: 6947: 6946: 6941: 6936: 6926: 6921: 6916: 6911: 6910: 6909: 6904: 6899: 6894: 6885: 6883: 6876: 6870: 6869: 6867: 6866: 6861: 6855: 6852: 6851: 6840: 6839: 6832: 6825: 6817: 6808: 6807: 6805: 6804: 6794: 6783: 6780: 6779: 6777: 6776: 6771: 6766: 6761: 6756: 6750: 6748: 6739: 6738: 6736: 6735: 6730: 6725: 6720: 6715: 6709: 6707: 6699: 6698: 6696: 6695: 6690: 6685: 6680: 6675: 6670: 6665: 6660: 6655: 6650: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6630: 6625: 6620: 6615: 6610: 6605: 6600: 6595: 6590: 6585: 6580: 6575: 6570: 6565: 6560: 6555: 6550: 6545: 6540: 6535: 6530: 6525: 6520: 6515: 6510: 6505: 6500: 6495: 6490: 6485: 6480: 6475: 6470: 6465: 6460: 6455: 6449: 6447: 6441: 6440: 6437:Women in Asia 6433: 6432: 6425: 6418: 6410: 6404: 6403: 6398: 6391: 6390:External links 6388: 6387: 6386: 6357: 6343: 6329: 6315: 6278: 6264: 6257: 6247:(4): 677–692. 6236: 6229: 6222: 6213: 6203:(2): 263–279. 6192: 6182: 6164:(3): 317–336. 6153: 6135:(3): 331–361. 6129:Fashion Theory 6124: 6117: 6110: 6095: 6088: 6077: 6072:Aoki, Debora. 6070: 6068:on 2002-03-21. 6051: 6020: 6017: 6015: 6014: 5989: 5978:. May 13, 2009 5963: 5957: 5935: 5917: 5899: 5878: 5857: 5846:(1): 128–135. 5825: 5819:978-1568360294 5818: 5800: 5793: 5756: 5721: 5710: 5695: 5670: 5626: 5615: 5597: 5579: 5558: 5537: 5519: 5501: 5471: 5440: 5412: 5377: 5358: 5343: 5316:(4): 290–306. 5293: 5278: 5251: 5236: 5215: 5213: 5212: 5180: 5161: 5109: 5068: 5043: 5013: 4969: 4950:(4): 556–581. 4927: 4892: 4875: 4845: 4812:(6): 599–617. 4796: 4769: 4763:978-0801474453 4762: 4744: 4725:(2): 173–190. 4709: 4694: 4669: 4658:on 25 May 2015 4652:New York Times 4638: 4623: 4612: 4593: 4572: 4563:|author1= 4521: 4509: 4481: 4468:10.1086/215417 4462:(3): 435–446. 4446: 4431: 4413: 4390: 4383: 4365: 4350: 4324: 4303:|journal= 4280: 4265: 4248: 4222: 4209: 4182: 4173: 4159: 4148:(5): 512–527. 4132: 4126:978-0300186079 4125: 4107: 4089: 4082: 4033: 4022:(5): 543–554. 4006: 3981: 3956: 3906: 3891: 3864:(2): 285–309. 3841: 3820:10.2307/132866 3814:(1): 103–120. 3795: 3776:(3): 441–466. 3756: 3708: 3681:(1): 176–186. 3650: 3639:. 11 July 2022 3624: 3613:. 11 July 2022 3598: 3587:. 11 July 2022 3572: 3547: 3518: 3500: 3470: 3443: 3415: 3386: 3362: 3335:(2): 177–201. 3310: 3292: 3265: 3256: 3228: 3204: 3192: 3165: 3158: 3137: 3126: 3120:978-0955979675 3119: 3099: 3081: 3059: 3034: 3027: 3000: 2966: 2941: 2916: 2894: 2875: 2874: 2873: 2843: 2840: 2839: 2838: 2832: 2831:, female spies 2820: 2819: 2813: 2808: 2803: 2798: 2793: 2783: 2778: 2773: 2768: 2762: 2757: 2752: 2747: 2742: 2735: 2732: 2731: 2730: 2725: 2717: 2714: 2712: 2709: 2687:In Japan, the 2669: 2666: 2621:Main article: 2618: 2615: 2594:chrysanthemums 2518: 2515: 2494: 2493:Sexual assault 2491: 2479:Main article: 2476: 2473: 2456: 2453: 2436: 2433: 2431: 2428: 2408: 2405: 2372: 2369: 2365:junior college 2328:Yoshioka Yayoi 2301:tea ceremonies 2265: 2262: 2220: 2217: 2198: 2197:Surname change 2195: 2159: 2156: 2147: 2146: 2093: 2090: 2037: 2034: 2029:Ichiyō Higuchi 2012: 2009: 2004:nuclear-family 1991: 1988: 1948: 1945: 1927: 1924: 1890:Cabinet Office 1836: 1833: 1792: 1789: 1753: 1750: 1701:From the late 1693: 1686: 1685: 1673: 1666: 1665: 1664: 1663: 1662: 1629: 1628: 1619: 1618: 1617: 1608: 1607: 1606: 1597: 1596: 1595: 1594: 1593: 1591: 1588: 1584:imperial title 1565:women in Japan 1559: 1558: 1556: 1555: 1548: 1541: 1533: 1530: 1529: 1526: 1525: 1520: 1515: 1510: 1505: 1500: 1495: 1490: 1485: 1480: 1478:United Kingdom 1475: 1470: 1465: 1460: 1455: 1450: 1445: 1440: 1435: 1430: 1425: 1420: 1415: 1410: 1405: 1400: 1395: 1390: 1385: 1380: 1375: 1370: 1365: 1360: 1355: 1350: 1345: 1340: 1335: 1330: 1325: 1320: 1315: 1310: 1305: 1300: 1295: 1290: 1285: 1280: 1275: 1270: 1265: 1260: 1255: 1250: 1245: 1240: 1235: 1230: 1225: 1220: 1215: 1210: 1205: 1200: 1195: 1190: 1185: 1180: 1175: 1170: 1165: 1160: 1155: 1150: 1145: 1140: 1135: 1130: 1125: 1120: 1115: 1110: 1105: 1100: 1095: 1090: 1085: 1080: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1060: 1055: 1050: 1045: 1040: 1035: 1030: 1025: 1020: 1015: 1010: 1000: 995: 990: 985: 980: 975: 970: 965: 960: 955: 950: 945: 940: 935: 930: 925: 920: 915: 910: 905: 900: 895: 890: 885: 880: 875: 870: 864: 859: 858: 855: 854: 850:List of sports 847: 846: 840: 835: 830: 825: 820: 815: 810: 805: 802: 797: 792: 787: 782: 777: 772: 767: 762: 757: 752: 747: 742: 737: 732: 727: 721: 716: 715: 712: 711: 708: 707: 706: 705: 695: 690: 685: 680: 675: 674: 673: 662: 659: 658: 655: 654: 651: 650: 645: 640: 635: 630: 625: 624: 623: 618: 613: 603: 598: 593: 588: 582: 579: 578: 572: 571: 570: 567: 566: 563: 562: 557: 556: 555: 550: 540: 535: 534: 533: 523: 522: 521: 511: 506: 505: 504: 502:"Chick flicks" 494: 489: 488: 487: 485:Women's cinema 477: 472: 466: 463: 462: 459: 453: 452: 451: 448: 447: 444: 443: 438: 433: 426: 421: 416: 415: 414: 413: 412: 397: 392: 387: 381: 378: 377: 374: 368: 367: 366: 363: 362: 359: 358: 353: 348: 343: 338: 333: 328: 323: 318: 313: 308: 303: 298: 293: 288: 283: 282: 281: 280: 279: 269: 264: 259: 249: 248: 247: 237: 232: 227: 222: 217: 212: 211: 210: 203: 193: 186: 185: 179: 178: 175: 174: 160: 157: 156: 153: 152: 144: 143: 139: 138: 130: 129: 126: 122: 121: 118: 114: 113: 107: 106: 103: 99: 98: 95: 91: 90: 84: 83: 76: 72: 71: 68: 61: 60: 57: 51: 50: 47: 38: 37: 33: 32: 29: 19:Women in Japan 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8112: 8101: 8098: 8096: 8093: 8092: 8090: 8075: 8067: 8065: 8055: 8054: 8051: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8001: 8000: 7996: 7994: 7990: 7987: 7985: 7984: 7980: 7978: 7975: 7973: 7970: 7968: 7965: 7963: 7960: 7958: 7955: 7953: 7950: 7948: 7945: 7943: 7942:LGBTQ culture 7940: 7938: 7935: 7933: 7930: 7928: 7925: 7922: 7920: 7917: 7915: 7912: 7910: 7907: 7905: 7902: 7900: 7897: 7895: 7892: 7890: 7887: 7885: 7882: 7880: 7877: 7874: 7870: 7867: 7865: 7862: 7860: 7857: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7842: 7840: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7828: 7827: 7825: 7823: 7819: 7813: 7810: 7808: 7805: 7803: 7800: 7798: 7795: 7793: 7790: 7788: 7785: 7783: 7780: 7778: 7775: 7773: 7770: 7768: 7765: 7761: 7758: 7757: 7756: 7753: 7749: 7746: 7745: 7744: 7741: 7739: 7736: 7734: 7731: 7729: 7726: 7724: 7721: 7719: 7716: 7714: 7711: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7700: 7697: 7694: 7692: 7688: 7678: 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7658: 7655: 7653: 7652:Manufacturing 7650: 7648: 7645: 7643: 7640: 7638: 7635: 7634: 7631: 7628: 7626: 7622: 7608: 7605: 7601: 7598: 7597: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7580:Fiscal policy 7578: 7574: 7571: 7570: 7569: 7566: 7565: 7563: 7561: 7557: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7541: 7539: 7536: 7535: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7526: 7522: 7519: 7517: 7514: 7512: 7509: 7508: 7507: 7506:National Diet 7504: 7502: 7499: 7497: 7494: 7490: 7489:Supreme Court 7487: 7486: 7485: 7482: 7478: 7475: 7474: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7456: 7453: 7452: 7451: 7448: 7446: 7443: 7441: 7438: 7437: 7434: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7421: 7411: 7408: 7406: 7403: 7401: 7398: 7396: 7393: 7391: 7388: 7386: 7383: 7381: 7378: 7376: 7373: 7371: 7368: 7366: 7363: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7337: 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6920: 6917: 6915: 6912: 6908: 6905: 6903: 6900: 6898: 6895: 6893: 6890: 6889: 6887: 6886: 6884: 6880: 6877: 6875: 6871: 6865: 6862: 6860: 6857: 6856: 6853: 6849: 6845: 6838: 6833: 6831: 6826: 6824: 6819: 6818: 6815: 6803: 6799: 6795: 6793: 6785: 6784: 6781: 6775: 6772: 6770: 6767: 6765: 6762: 6760: 6757: 6755: 6752: 6751: 6749: 6744: 6740: 6734: 6731: 6729: 6728:South Ossetia 6726: 6724: 6721: 6719: 6716: 6714: 6711: 6710: 6708: 6706: 6700: 6694: 6691: 6689: 6686: 6684: 6681: 6679: 6676: 6674: 6671: 6669: 6666: 6664: 6661: 6659: 6656: 6654: 6651: 6649: 6646: 6644: 6641: 6639: 6636: 6634: 6631: 6629: 6626: 6624: 6621: 6619: 6616: 6614: 6611: 6609: 6606: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6594: 6591: 6589: 6586: 6584: 6581: 6579: 6576: 6574: 6571: 6569: 6566: 6564: 6561: 6559: 6556: 6554: 6551: 6549: 6546: 6544: 6541: 6539: 6536: 6534: 6531: 6529: 6526: 6524: 6521: 6519: 6516: 6514: 6511: 6509: 6506: 6504: 6501: 6499: 6496: 6494: 6491: 6489: 6486: 6484: 6481: 6479: 6476: 6474: 6471: 6469: 6466: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6450: 6448: 6446: 6442: 6438: 6431: 6426: 6424: 6419: 6417: 6412: 6411: 6408: 6402: 6399: 6397: 6394: 6393: 6383: 6379: 6375: 6371: 6368:(1): 95–110. 6367: 6363: 6358: 6356: 6352: 6348: 6344: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6330: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6289:(4): 83–107. 6288: 6284: 6279: 6277: 6273: 6269: 6265: 6262: 6258: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6241:The Historian 6237: 6235:(2007): 372+. 6234: 6230: 6227: 6223: 6220: 6219: 6214: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6193: 6191: 6187: 6183: 6179: 6175: 6171: 6167: 6163: 6159: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6125: 6122: 6118: 6115: 6111: 6108: 6104: 6103: 6099: 6096: 6093: 6089: 6086: 6082: 6078: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6063: 6062: 6057: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6036: 6032: 6028: 6023: 6022: 6004: 6000: 5993: 5982:September 24, 5977: 5973: 5967: 5961: 5953: 5949: 5942: 5940: 5931: 5927: 5921: 5913: 5909: 5903: 5895: 5889: 5881: 5879:9781442218956 5875: 5871: 5864: 5862: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5834: 5832: 5830: 5821: 5815: 5811: 5804: 5796: 5794:9780520245082 5790: 5785: 5784: 5775: 5773: 5771: 5769: 5767: 5765: 5763: 5761: 5752: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5725: 5719: 5714: 5707: 5702: 5700: 5684: 5680: 5674: 5666: 5662: 5658: 5654: 5650: 5646: 5639: 5637: 5635: 5633: 5631: 5624: 5619: 5611: 5607: 5601: 5593: 5589: 5583: 5575: 5571: 5565: 5563: 5554: 5550: 5544: 5542: 5533: 5529: 5523: 5515: 5511: 5505: 5489: 5485: 5481: 5475: 5460:on 2015-09-28 5459: 5455: 5451: 5444: 5433:September 16, 5428: 5427: 5422: 5416: 5400: 5393: 5386: 5384: 5382: 5373: 5369: 5362: 5354: 5347: 5339: 5335: 5331: 5327: 5323: 5319: 5315: 5311: 5304: 5302: 5300: 5298: 5289: 5282: 5266: 5262: 5255: 5247: 5240: 5225: 5219: 5206: 5202: 5198: 5194: 5193: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5173: 5169: 5168: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5149: 5144: 5139: 5134: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5117: 5116: 5113: 5105: 5099: 5085: 5084: 5079: 5072: 5057: 5056:Buddhism Site 5053: 5047: 5032: 5028: 5024: 5017: 5009: 5003: 4987: 4980: 4973: 4965: 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Economist 3991: 3985: 3971: 3967: 3960: 3952: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3913: 3911: 3902: 3895: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3855: 3848: 3846: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3825: 3821: 3817: 3813: 3809: 3802: 3800: 3791: 3787: 3783: 3779: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3760: 3752: 3748: 3744: 3740: 3736: 3732: 3728: 3724: 3717: 3715: 3713: 3704: 3700: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3676: 3672: 3665: 3663: 3661: 3659: 3657: 3655: 3638: 3634: 3628: 3612: 3608: 3602: 3586: 3582: 3576: 3561: 3557: 3551: 3543: 3537: 3529: 3525: 3521: 3515: 3511: 3504: 3488: 3481: 3474: 3458: 3454: 3447: 3432: 3428: 3422: 3420: 3404: 3400: 3393: 3391: 3376: 3372: 3366: 3358: 3354: 3350: 3346: 3342: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3323: 3321: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3306: 3299: 3297: 3288: 3281: 3274: 3272: 3270: 3260: 3253: 3243: 3239: 3232: 3218: 3214: 3208: 3201: 3196: 3188: 3184: 3180: 3176: 3169: 3161: 3155: 3151: 3144: 3142: 3135: 3130: 3122: 3116: 3112: 3111: 3103: 3095: 3091: 3085: 3077: 3073: 3066: 3064: 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As the new 1802: 1798: 1797:right to vote 1788: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1773: 1770: 1766: 1762: 1759: 1749: 1747: 1743: 1739: 1735: 1731: 1727: 1723: 1718: 1716: 1715:Kaibara Ekken 1712: 1708: 1704: 1690: 1681: 1677: 1670: 1661: 1659: 1649: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1623: 1612: 1601: 1587: 1585: 1581: 1577: 1576:right to vote 1572: 1570: 1566: 1554: 1549: 1547: 1542: 1540: 1535: 1534: 1532: 1531: 1524: 1521: 1519: 1516: 1514: 1511: 1509: 1506: 1504: 1501: 1499: 1496: 1494: 1491: 1489: 1486: 1484: 1483:United States 1481: 1479: 1476: 1474: 1471: 1469: 1466: 1464: 1461: 1459: 1456: 1454: 1451: 1449: 1446: 1444: 1441: 1439: 1436: 1434: 1431: 1429: 1426: 1424: 1421: 1419: 1416: 1414: 1411: 1409: 1406: 1404: 1401: 1399: 1396: 1394: 1391: 1389: 1386: 1384: 1381: 1379: 1376: 1374: 1371: 1369: 1366: 1364: 1361: 1359: 1356: 1354: 1351: 1349: 1346: 1344: 1341: 1339: 1336: 1334: 1331: 1329: 1326: 1324: 1321: 1319: 1316: 1314: 1311: 1309: 1306: 1304: 1301: 1299: 1296: 1294: 1291: 1289: 1286: 1284: 1281: 1279: 1276: 1274: 1271: 1269: 1266: 1264: 1261: 1259: 1256: 1254: 1251: 1249: 1246: 1244: 1241: 1239: 1236: 1234: 1231: 1229: 1226: 1224: 1221: 1219: 1216: 1214: 1211: 1209: 1206: 1204: 1201: 1199: 1196: 1194: 1191: 1189: 1186: 1184: 1181: 1179: 1176: 1174: 1171: 1169: 1166: 1164: 1161: 1159: 1156: 1154: 1151: 1149: 1146: 1144: 1141: 1139: 1136: 1134: 1131: 1129: 1126: 1124: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1114: 1111: 1109: 1106: 1104: 1101: 1099: 1096: 1094: 1091: 1089: 1086: 1084: 1081: 1079: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1069: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1059: 1056: 1054: 1053:FS Micronesia 1051: 1049: 1046: 1044: 1041: 1039: 1036: 1034: 1031: 1029: 1026: 1024: 1021: 1019: 1016: 1014: 1011: 1008: 1004: 1001: 999: 996: 994: 991: 989: 986: 984: 981: 979: 976: 974: 971: 969: 966: 964: 961: 959: 956: 954: 951: 949: 946: 944: 941: 939: 936: 934: 931: 929: 926: 924: 921: 919: 916: 914: 911: 909: 906: 904: 901: 899: 896: 894: 891: 889: 886: 884: 881: 879: 876: 874: 871: 869: 866: 865: 862: 857: 856: 851: 844: 843:Winter sports 841: 839: 836: 834: 831: 829: 826: 824: 821: 819: 816: 814: 811: 809: 806: 803: 801: 798: 796: 793: 791: 788: 786: 783: 781: 778: 776: 773: 771: 768: 766: 763: 761: 758: 756: 753: 751: 748: 746: 743: 741: 738: 736: 733: 731: 728: 726: 723: 722: 719: 714: 713: 704: 701: 700: 699: 696: 694: 691: 689: 686: 684: 681: 679: 678:Film industry 676: 672: 669: 668: 667: 664: 663: 657: 656: 649: 646: 644: 641: 639: 636: 634: 631: 629: 626: 622: 619: 617: 614: 612: 609: 608: 607: 604: 602: 599: 597: 594: 592: 589: 587: 584: 583: 577: 574: 573: 569: 568: 561: 558: 554: 551: 549: 546: 545: 544: 541: 539: 538:Photographers 536: 532: 529: 528: 527: 524: 520: 517: 516: 515: 512: 510: 507: 503: 500: 499: 498: 495: 493: 490: 486: 483: 482: 481: 478: 476: 473: 471: 468: 467: 460: 458: 455: 454: 450: 449: 442: 439: 437: 434: 432: 427: 425: 422: 420: 419:Organizations 417: 411: 408: 407: 406: 403: 402: 401: 398: 396: 393: 391: 388: 386: 383: 382: 375: 373: 370: 369: 365: 364: 357: 354: 352: 349: 347: 346:Voting rights 344: 342: 339: 337: 334: 332: 329: 327: 324: 322: 319: 317: 314: 312: 309: 307: 304: 302: 299: 297: 294: 292: 289: 287: 284: 278: 275: 274: 273: 272:Queen regnant 270: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 255: 254: 253: 250: 246: 243: 242: 241: 238: 236: 233: 231: 228: 226: 223: 221: 218: 216: 213: 209: 204: 202: 199: 198: 197: 194: 192: 189: 188: 184: 181: 180: 177: 176: 171: 165: 162: 161: 155: 154: 150: 146: 145: 141: 140: 136: 135: 127: 123: 119: 115: 112: 108: 104: 100: 96: 92: 89: 85: 81: 77: 73: 69: 67: 62: 58: 56: 52: 48: 43: 39: 34: 27: 22: 16: 8020:Tea ceremony 7997: 7991: / 7983:No-pan kissa 7981: 7952:Martial arts 7844:Architecture 7837: / 7811: 7782:Prostitution 7748:Homelessness 7718:Demographics 7642:Central bank 7472:Human rights 7440:Constitution 7295:Contemporary 7117:Early Modern 7021:Heian period 7009:Monmu period 7004:Taika Reform 6982:Asuka period 6977:Kofun period 6972:Yayoi period 6967:Jōmon period 6743:Dependencies 6673:Turkmenistan 6638:Saudi Arabia 6542: 6365: 6361: 6346: 6332: 6318: 6286: 6282: 6267: 6260: 6244: 6240: 6232: 6225: 6216: 6200: 6196: 6185: 6161: 6157: 6132: 6128: 6120: 6113: 6100: 6091: 6080: 6073: 6066:the original 6059: 6033:(1): 33–44. 6030: 6026: 6006:. 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