1991 Iraqi uprisings

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to long-range artillery attacks, followed by ground assaults resulting in "heavy casualties" and widespread destruction of property, along with allegations of mass executions. In November 1993, Iran reported that as a result of the drainage of the marshlands, marsh Iraqis could no longer fish or grow rice and that over 60,000 had fled to Iran since 1991; Iranian officials appealed to the world to send aid to help the refugees. That same month, the UN reported that 40% of the marshlands in the south were drained, while unconfirmed reports surfaced that the Iraq army had used poisonous gas against villages near the border of Iran. In December 1993, the U.S. Department of State accused Iraq of "indiscriminate military operations in the south, which include the burning of villages and forced relocation of non-combatants." On February 23, 1994, Iraq diverted waters from the Tigris river to areas south and east of the main marshlands, resulting in floods of up to 10 feet of water, in order to render the farmlands there useless and drive the rebels who have been hiding there to flee back to the marshes which were being drained of water. In March 1994, a team of British scientists estimated that 57% of the marshlands have been drained and that in 10 to 20 years the entire wetland ecosystem in southern Iraq will be gone. In April 1994, the U.S. officials said Iraq was continuing a military campaign in Iraq's remote marshes.

404: 1835: 384: 1823:(UNCHR) estimated that about 750,000 Iraqi Kurds had fled to Iran and 280,000 to Turkey, with 300,000 more gathered at the Turkish border. The approach towards the refugee immigration was met with a different approach by Iran and Turkey. Iran had opened its borders to the refugees, while Turkey first closed its borders and only opened its borders following international pressure and assurances of financial help to cope with the refugees. Iran also received much less international help to cope with the crisis than Turkey, mainly due to their strained relations with the USA. According to accounts from international relief organizations cited by 1804: 372: 200: 411: 2454: 1920: 2034: 598: 277: 647: 545: 534: 523: 512: 501: 490: 471: 117: 4751: 176: 296: 145: 1827:, Turkey received more than seven times the amount of help per refugee, as Iran received. Their exodus was sudden and chaotic with thousands of desperate refugees fleeing on foot, on donkeys, or crammed onto open-backed trucks and tractors. Many were gunned down by Republican Guard helicopters, which deliberately strafed columns of fleeing civilians in a number of incidents in both the north and south. Numerous refugees were also killed or maimed by stepping on land mines planted by Iraqi troops near the eastern border during 157: 605: 284: 133: 2442:, deputy director of operations for the Joint Chiefs of Staff, added that "there is no move on the U.S. forces... to let any weapons slip through , or to play any role whatsoever in fomenting or assisting any side." Consequently, U.S. troops that were deployed in southern Iraq defended arsenals or blew up them altogether to prevent the rebels from arming themselves, blocked the rebels from advancing onto Baghdad and even actively disarmed some rebel forces; according to Middle East expert 253: 427: 46: 587: 576: 557: 237: 6551: 6116: 4948: 616: 336: 265: 2563: 322: 6126: 188: 1973: 360: 451: 4996: 2549: 439: 1631: 6136: 2168: 6146: 627: 348: 2419:'s view that Saddam would prevail because of the rebels' "lack of organization and leadership." On the same day, Cheney said "it would be very difficult for us to hold the coalition together for any particular course of action dealing with internal Iraqi politics, and I don't think, at this point, our writ extends to trying to move inside Iraq." The U.S. Department of State spokesman 1912:

March–April 1992, using fixed-wing aircraft; a U.S. Department of State report claimed that Iraq dumped toxic chemicals in the waters in an effort to drive out the opposition. In July 1992, the government began trying to drain the marshlands and ordered the residents of settlements to evacuate, after which the army burned down their homes there to prevent them from returning. A

1529:(ADM) served as the principle Assyrian opposition group, although the group was more active in the 1980s. The ADM reported that the government displaced thousands of Assyrians in Kirkuk, as there were around 30,000 in the city prior to 1991. In the north, the defection of the government-recruited Kurdish home guard militias, known as 2093:(also known as "Chemical Ali"), over their alleged role in the murder of 60,000 to 100,000 people during the 1991 suppression took place in Baghdad in 2007 and 2008. According to the prosecutor, "the acts committed against the Iraqi people in 1991 by the security forces and by the defendants were one of the ugliest crimes ever 1434:

vehicles to attack the government buildings and prisons in the city; he was backed by a majority of the population. The uprising in Basra was entirely spontaneous and disorganised. The news of this event and Bush's radio broadcasts encouraged the Iraqi people to revolt against the regime in the other towns and cities. In

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In March 1993, a UN investigation reported hundreds of executions of Iraqis from the marshes in the preceding months, asserting that the Iraqi army's behavior in the south is the most "worrying development in the past year" and added that following the formation of the no-fly zone, the army switched

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and indiscriminate artillery barrages when the Ba'athists responded to the uprisings with crushing force. According to Human Rights Watch, "in their attempts to retake cities, and after consolidating control, loyalist forces killed thousands of anyone who opposes them whether a rebel or a civilian by

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I made clear from the very beginning that it was not an objective of the coalition or the United States to overthrow Saddam Hussein. So I don't think the Shiites in the south, those who are unhappy with Saddam in Baghdad, or the Kurds in the north ever felt that the United States would come to their

2427:

said: "We never, ever, stated as either a military or a political goal of the coalition or the international community the removal of Saddam Hussein." Other reasons given for not providing assistance to the uprising included fear of the "Lebanonization of Iraq," Iranian-backed Shias assuming power,

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At a special meeting of the UN Security Council on August 11, 1992, Britain, France, and the United States accused Iraq of conducting a "systematic military campaign" against the marshlands, warning that Baghdad could face possible consequences. On August 22, 1992, President Bush announced that the

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accepted the request of an Iraqi general to fly helicopters, including armed gunships, to transport government officials because of destroyed transport infrastructure, acting without Pentagon or White House instructions; almost immediately, the Iraqis began using the helicopters as gunships to put

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to care for those hiding out in the southern marshlands, but Iraqi forces did not allow UN relief workers into the marshlands or the people out. A large scale government offensive attack against the refugees estimated 10,000 fighters and 200,000 displaced persons hiding in the marshes began in

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The death toll was high throughout the country. The rebels killed many Ba'athist officials and officers. In response, thousands of unarmed civilians were killed by indiscriminate fire from loyalist tanks, artillery and helicopters, and many historical and religious structures in the south were

1614:

On March 7, in an effort to quiet the uprisings, Saddam Hussein offered the Shia and Kurd leaders shares in the central government in exchange for loyalty, but the opposing groups rejected the proposal. At the height of the revolution, the government lost effective control over 14 of Iraq's 18

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tank gunner, returning home after Iraq's defeat in Kuwait, fired a shell into a gigantic portrait of Saddam Hussein hanging over Basra's main square and onlooking soldiers applauded. The revolt in Basra was led at first by Muhammad Ibrahim Wali, an army officer who gathered a force of military

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secret police (years later, the building, known as Amna Suraka or "Red Security" in Kurdish, became a museum to the crimes of Saddam's regime). In a bloody revenge, they killed several hundred of captured Ba'athist officials and security officers without a trial; reportedly, over 900 security

1270:, called on Iraqis to overthrow the Ba'ath government and establish an Islamic state. Because of his incitement, many Shia Arabs were driven out of Iraq and some were recruited into armed militias backed by Iran, although the majority remained loyal to Iraq throughout the duration of the war. 1308:

There is another way for the bloodshed to stop: and that is, for the Iraqi military and the Iraqi people to take matters into their own hands and force Saddam Hussein, the dictator, to step aside and then comply with the United Nations' resolutions and rejoin the family of peace-loving

2392:, called it a "betrayal of Iraq", blaming the policy of "a dangerous illusion of stability in the Middle East, a 'stability' bought with the blood of Middle Easterners and that produced such horrors as the massive 1991 bloodletting of Iraqis who sought to overthrow Saddam Hussein." 2939:

Hundreds of thousands of Arab Shi'ites were driven out of , and many formed an armed opposition with Iranian support. While most of the remaining Arab Shi'ites remained loyal, their secular and religious leaders were kept under constant surveillance and sometimes imprisoned and

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and creation of a Kurdish Autonomous Republic in three provinces of northern Iraq. Tens of thousands of Iraqi soldiers dug-in along the front, backed by tanks and heavy artillery, while the Iraqi government established a blockade of food, fuel, and other goods to the area. The

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conceded that Shia rebels withdrew from the cities and that fighting was limited to rural areas. The Kurdish uprising in the north of the country collapsed even more quickly than it began. After ousting the Peshmerga from Kirkuk on March 29, the government tanks rolled into

1442:

became a gun battle between army deserters and Saddam's security forces. The rebels seized the shrine as Ba'ath Party officials fled the city or were killed; prisoners were freed from jails. The uprising spread within days to all of the largest Shia cities in southern Iraq:

2497:, stated that "the apology of the U.S. has come too late, and does not change what happened. The apology is not going to bring back to the widows their husbands, and bereaved mothers their sons and brothers that they lost in the massacre that followed the uprising." 1831:. According to the U.S. Department of State and international relief organizations, between 500 and 1,000 Kurds died each day along Iraq's Turkish border. According to some reports, up to hundreds of refugees died each day along the way to Iran as well. 2135:

allowed Saddam to fly military aircraft to put down the uprising. While thousands of U.S. troops were still on Iraqi soil and in some cases were close enough to watch, the tyrant unleashed the power of modern weaponry against men, women and children.

1346:. Al-Ali's message urged the Iraqis to overthrow the "criminal tyrant of Iraq" and asserted that Saddam "will flee the battlefield when he becomes certain that the catastrophe has engulfed every street, every house and every family in Iraq." He said: 2476:

The U.S. abandonment of the 1991 revolution was cited by many analysts as an explanation for the fact that the skeptical Iraqi Shia population did not welcome the U.S.-led coalition forces during the 2003 invasion of Iraq the way some officials of

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firing indiscriminately into the opposing areas; executing them on the streets, in homes and in hospitals; rounding up suspects, especially young men, during house-to-house searches, and arresting them with or without charge or shooting them

1858:

and provided humanitarian assistance to the Kurds. On April 17, U.S. forces began to take control of areas more than 60 miles into Iraq to build camps for Kurdish refugees; the last American soldiers left northern Iraq on July 15. In the

2446:, U.S. forces also "let one Iraqi division go through lines to get to Basra because the United States did not want the regime to collapse." In addition the destroying captured munitions, the Bush administration transferred some to the 1653:

managed to escape from the Saddam-proclaimed "mother of all battles" in Kuwait and that the Guard headquarters units also survived the war. In addition, the Gulf War ceasefire agreement of March 3 prohibited the Iraqi military's use of

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was also active to some extent) rebels, joined by tens of thousands of defecting militiamen and army deserters (reportedly, there were more than 50,000 of them throughout the region), took control of every city in the north except

1358:, at these decisive moments of your life, and while facing the danger of death at the hands of foreign forces, you have no option in order to survive and defend the homeland but put an end to the dictator and his criminal gang. 2395:

Soon after the uprisings began, fears of a disintegrating Iraq led the Bush administration to distance itself from the rebels. American military officials downplayed the significance of the revolts and spelled out a policy of

1818:

In March and early April, nearly two million Iraqis, 1.5 million of them Kurds, escaped from strife-torn cities to the mountains along the northern borders, into the southern marshes, and to Turkey and Iran. By April 6, the

1739:(PMOI, also known as MEK) assisted the Iraqi Republican Guard in suppressing the Kurdish uprisings; however this has been denied by the MEK, with other sources saying that the MEK supported a Kurdish rebellion in Iran. 1321:

In my own view...the Iraqi people should put aside, and that would facilitate the resolution of all these problems that exist and certainly would facilitate the acceptance of Iraq back into the family of peace-loving

2371:

has expressed regret for negotiating a ceasefire agreement that allowed Iraq to keep using helicopters, but also suggested a move to support the uprisings would have empowered Iran. Bush's national security adviser,

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assistance to overthrow this man...I have not misled anybody about the intentions of the United States of America, or has any other coalition partner, all of whom to my knowledge agree with me in this position.

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and reluctance to recommit U.S. soldiers into fighting. President George H. W. Bush himself insisted three days later, just as the Iraqi loyalist forces were putting down the last resistance in the cities:

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During the brief, roughly one-month period of unrest, tens of thousands of people died and nearly two million people were displaced. After the conflict, the Iraqi government intensified a prior systematic

2437:

The Bush administration sternly warned Iraqi authorities on March 7 against the use of chemical weapons during the unrest, but equivocated use of helicopter gunships by the government. U.S. Major General

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The Mojahedin's support of the Kurdish rebellion, their opposition to the Velayat-e Faqih, and their boycott of the constituional referendum in 1979 further strained their fragile relationship with the

1586:

in which the government forces had systematically killed tens of thousands of Iraqi Kurds and members of other ethnic minorities three years earlier in 1988; 14 tons of these documents were obtained by

1202:, and far-left groups. Following initial victories, the revolution was held back from continued success by internal divisions as well as a lack of anticipated American and/or Iranian support. Saddam's 2292: 2423:

said on March 6, "We don't think that outside powers should be interfering in the internal affairs of Iraq." On April 2, in a carefully crafted statement, U.S. State Department spokeswoman

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Rise to save the homeland from the clutches of dictatorship so that you can devote yourself to avoiding the dangers of the continuation of the war and destruction. Honorable Sons of the

4045:""Situation 'Fluid' in Southeast Iraq, Kurdish North." The Iraqi government appears to be establishing some degree of control in southeastern Iraq, but the situation is still unsettled" 1410:(SCIRI). Iraqi armed forces were composed largely of Shia conscripts and contained substantial anti-regime elements, and thus many of the government's troops quickly switched sides and 3955: 3480: 3385: 6444: 2049:

In the north, fighting continued until October when an agreement was made for Iraqi withdrawal from parts of Iraq's Kurdish-inhabited region. This led to the establishment of the

1010: 3019: 1703:, on a massive scale when "dozens" of improvised helicopter bombing sorties were flown against rebels in Karbala and the surrounding areas in March 1991; evidence of apparent 3354: 1727:

on April 1, and Sulaymaniyah, the last important town held by the rebels, on April 3. The advance of government forces was halted at Kore, a narrow valley near the ruins of

1649:

Soon, regime loyalists regrouped and went on an offensive to reclaim the cities. They were helped by the fact that about half of tanks of the elite and politically reliable

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when he was also convicted for his role in the events of 1991 and given another death sentence; he was executed in 2010. The issue was also given much attention during the

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In the political sphere, the Mojahedin attacked the regime for disrupting rallies and meetings; … violating the rights of the national minorities, especially of the Kurds.

1916:

was also enforced throughout the south, and government forces began arresting and moving large numbers of Iraqis into detention camps in the central part of the country.

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that, while Bush's rhetoric "may have given encouragement to the rebels", "our practical intention was to leave Baghdad enough power to survive as a threat to Iran that

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populated northern Iraq. Unlike the spontaneous rebellion in the South, the uprising in the North was organized by two rival Kurdish party-based militias: primarily the

4097:""US Forces Won't Intervene in Iraq's Civil War." President Bush firmly reiterated that he does not want US military forces to be involved in Iraq's internal turmoil" 3424: 6175: 2334: 4004: 1907:

of Lebanon), which after 2003 became the Marsh Arabs' main political party. On July 10, 1991, the United Nations announced plans to open a humanitarian center at

4556: 3255: 762: 4711: 1687:(UN) found that there was no evidence that Iraq used chemical weapons to repress the uprisings, but did not rule out the possibility that Iraq could have used 6500: 3831: 3594:

the MeK was alleged to have assisted the Iraqi Republican Guard in suppressing Shiite and Kurdish uprisings, although this has always been denied by the MeK

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administration had predicted before the war began, remaining reluctant to rise up against Saddam until Baghdad fell. In 2011, the U.S. ambassador to Iraq,

1501:, and even disaffected Ba'athists. Disastrously for them, all the diverse revolutionary groups, militias, and parties were united only in their desire for 1003: 3907: 6554: 6168: 5407: 1077: 871: 5677: 4149:

Understanding Iraq: The Whole Sweep of Iraqi History from Genghis Khan's Mongols to the Ottoman Turks to the British Mandate to the American Occupation

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Many Iraqi and American critics accused President George H. W. Bush and his administration of encouraging and abandoning the rebellion after halting

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since March 1991, to defend Kurds fleeing their homes in northern Iraq, the U.S. military also built and maintained several refugee camps in 1991.

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On April 5, the government announced "the complete crushing of acts of sedition, sabotage and rioting in all towns of Iraq." On that same day, the

137: 1854:

Beginning in March 1991, the U.S. and some of the Gulf War allies barred Saddam's forces from conducting jet aircraft attacks by establishing the

6464: 3537: 3232: 2489:, a top Iraqi Shia political leader, commented: "At the least, from what we are facing now, this would have been a much better solution than the 996: 906: 6379: 4337: 4321: 1747: 1190:

fell to rebel forces. Participants in the uprising were of diverse ethnic, religious and political affiliations, including military mutineers,

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in Afghanistan, and even returned some to the Iraqis; at the same time, the Bush administration accused Iran of sending arms to the rebels.

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down the uprisings. The outgunned rebels had few heavy weapons and few surface-to-air missiles, which made them almost defenseless against

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agenda and pro-Iranian slogans, for which SCIRI was later criticized by the Dawa Party. Ranks of the rebels throughout the region included

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deliberately targeted under orders from Saddam Hussein. Saddam's security forces entered the cities, often using women and children as

1616: 604: 283: 3559: 3186: 2786: 5295: 1339: 1207: 132: 3502: 3011: 1573:. Entire units surrendered without much or any resistance, including the whole 24th Division which did not fire a single bullet. In 1505:

as they had no common political or military program, no integrated leadership, and there was very little coordination between them.

6424: 5667: 4639: 3346: 3162: 2611: 2493:. The role of Iraq's people would have been fundamental, not like in 2003." A spokesman for a top Shia religious leader, Ayatollah 1082: 3857: 6608: 6419: 4236: 3759: 2756: 2320: 2069:, when due to the PUK alliance with Iran, the KDP called in Iraqi support and Saddam sent his military into Kurdistan, capturing 1879:

In southeastern Iraq, thousands of civilians, army deserters, and rebels began seeking precarious shelter in remote areas of the

1707:

attacks have been also reported in the areas of Najaf and Karbala by the U.S. forces that have been stationed there at the time.

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had registered between 2003 and 2006, the majority were in the South, including one believed to hold as many as 10,000 victims.

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officers were killed at Sulaymaniyah. They also captured enormous quantities of government documents related to the notorious

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In the south, Saddam's forces quelled all but a scattering of the resistance by the end of March. On March 29, SCIRI leader

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condemning the Iraqi government's oppression of the Kurds and requiring Iraq to respect the human rights of its citizens.

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over the country, but allowed them to fly helicopters because most bridges had been destroyed. This was because General

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provinces. However, the people of Baghdad remained largely passive, as the Dawa Party, the Communist Party, and the

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had become vulnerable to regime change. This perception of weakness was largely the result of the outcome of the

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and soon largely suppressed the rebels in a brutal campaign conducted by loyalist forces spearheaded by the

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to protect dissidents from attacks by the government, as sanctioned by UN Security Council Resolution 688.

1620: 1557: 1526: 1518: 1067: 944: 376: 352: 3446: 3086: 6638: 5961: 5726: 5689: 5621: 5390: 4733: 4418: 4398: 3097: 2601: 2250: 1834: 1561: 1331: 1247: 1062: 866: 804: 226: 3828:"Syria: Inventing a Religious War by Toby Matthiesen | NYRblog | The New York Review of Books" 2485:, officially apologized to Iraqi politicians and southern tribal leaders for the U.S. inaction in 1991. 1594:

Unlike in the south, the Kurdish rebellion was preceded by demonstrations with clear political slogans:

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Many of the rebels in southern Iraq, where the uprisings began, were either demoralized soldiers of the

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stated as the uprisings began: "I'm not sure whose side you'd want to be on." On March 5, Rear Admiral

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The Making Of Iran's Islamic Revolution: From Monarchy To Islamic Republic, Second Edition 2nd Edition

3228: 2041:(area controlled after October 1991 is a combination of both KDP and PUK areas, controlled by Kurdish 1478:

militants of SCIRI, crossed the borders and joined the rebellion. SCIRI concentrated their efforts on

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to continue enforcing the no-fly zone in the north the day after Operation Provide Comfort was over.

2059: 1855: 1839: 1772: 1239: 37: 4750: 6623: 6474: 6363: 6160: 5853: 5824: 5468: 4601: 4513: 4471: 4433: 3733: 2865: 2534: 2415:, acknowledged "chaotic and spontaneous" uprisings were under way in 13 cities of Iraq, but stated 2226: 2078: 1983: 1937: 1928: 1372: 939: 792: 166: 6389: 6353: 6081: 5829: 5493: 5226: 4951: 4728: 4625: 4569: 4378: 4306: 2507: 2256: 2154: 2106: 2094: 2066: 2038: 1987: 1650: 1643: 1376: 1215: 1121: 1106: 1038: 967: 562: 161: 3529: 2384:"I frankly wished hadn't happened ... we certainly would have preferred a coup." In 2006, 6613: 5784: 5643: 5513: 5488: 5358: 5110: 4606: 4521: 4403: 4204: 2494: 2408: 2368: 1847: 1384: 1368: 962: 934: 505: 494: 3881: 3203: 2808: 1691:

gas which would not have been detectable after the attack. According to the U.S. government's

6479: 6439: 6404: 6399: 6149: 5888: 5756: 5368: 5241: 5220: 5140: 5100: 4991: 4933: 4443: 4383: 4311: 4257: 2866:"View of The Prospects of the Shia Insurgency Movement in Iraq | Journal of Conflict Studies" 2720: 2621: 2412: 2298: 1494: 1128: 1111: 269: 2978: 2453: 2033: 1919: 1867:

in Turkey. Many Shia refugees fled to Syria, where thousands of them settled in the town of

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and Sulaymaniyah. Iraqi government forces retreated after the U.S. intervened by launching

1768: 1187: 1176: 1160:. The uprisings lasted from March to April 1991 after a ceasefire following the end of the 1043: 824: 609: 1860: 977: 8: 6495: 6358: 6215: 5925: 5883: 5809: 5684: 5606: 5135: 5105: 5090: 3506: 2397: 2262: 2090: 1941: 1896: 1783: 1711: 1655: 1545: 1195: 1048: 580: 527: 516: 180: 3853: 1959:

by the government. Like the 1991 uprisings, the 1999 uprising was violently suppressed.

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in its Shia dominated provinces in early 1999 following the killing of Grand Ayatollah

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On the evening of February 24, four days before the Gulf War ceasefire was signed, the

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Films that have used the southern rebellions as their subject include the 1999 film

1429:, at the end of February. On March 1, 1991, one day after the Gulf War ceasefire, a 45: 6394: 6328: 6298: 6288: 5968: 5903: 5893: 5567: 5548: 5543: 5538: 5478: 5453: 4895: 4782: 4546: 4456: 4413: 4373: 4278: 4096: 4044: 2626: 2568: 2512: 2490: 2486: 2482: 2439: 2128: 1864: 1811: 1676: 1498: 1293: 1199: 1175:

and the Gulf War, both of which occurred within a single decade and devastated the

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forces at Iraq's southern border with Kuwait at the end of the Gulf War. In 1996,

6348: 6323: 6308: 6066: 6031: 5920: 5915: 5834: 5745: 5483: 5336: 5248: 5236: 5160: 5155: 5145: 5080: 5055: 5040: 5027: 5015: 4919: 4352: 4027: 4008: 3959: 3911: 3888: 3814: 3763: 3740: 3718: 3665:"Refworld | Human Rights Watch World Report 1992 – Iraq and Occupied Kuwait" 3190: 3132: 3093: 2727: 2688: 2661: 2465: 2420: 2385: 2373: 2124: 2102: 1880: 1868: 1863:

in April, British and Turkish forces confronted each other over the treatment of

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since the fall of Saddam Hussein in April 2003. Of the 200 mass graves the Iraqi

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of Najaf and Karbala, alienating many people who did not subscribe to their Shia

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had all failed to build underground structures in the capital. There was only a

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in modern history." Al-Majid was already sentenced to death in June 2007 for

1502: 1297: 1157: 591: 549: 432: 1577:, the rebels besieged and captured the regional headquarters of the dreaded 1246:

over northern and southern Iraq, and the Kurdish opposition established the

6533: 6505: 6429: 6343: 6313: 6273: 5945: 5711: 5508: 5216: 5211: 5201: 5035: 4889: 4881: 4871: 3686: 2522: 2416: 2352: 2120: 1760: 1574: 20: 2956: 1931:, the U.S. and coalition enforcement of the no-fly zone over southern Iraq 6528: 6129: 6091: 5940: 5776: 5701: 5498: 5060: 4795: 3662: 3412: 3280: 2616: 2554: 2404: 1908: 1884: 1716: 1704: 1680: 1530: 1490: 1227: 1203: 988: 304: 1683:

being used during the assault on Basra. Following an investigation, the

1164:. The mostly uncoordinated insurgency was fueled by the perception that 5206: 4926: 2469: 2447: 1838:

Kurdish children in a refugee camp built during the U.S. and coalition

1779: 1399: 884: 538: 300: 218: 149: 3477:"How George H.W. Bush Helped Saddam Hussein Prevent an Iraqi Uprising" 6016: 5988: 5935: 5473: 5165: 5125: 2690:

The United States and Iraq's Shi'ite Clergy: Partners Or Adversaries?

2042: 1904: 1672:; and using helicopters to attack those who try to flee the cities." 1624: 1595: 1549: 1464: 1422: 1411: 1355: 326: 6190: 2119:

Prompted by foreign policy "realists" in his administration—such as

1972: 740: 5533: 5363: 5346: 5120: 5115: 4689: 4220: 4020: 2232: 2159: 2098: 1728: 1688: 1635: 1483: 1448: 1314: 1283: 1161: 841: 787: 2721:

Uppsala conflict data expansion: Non-State Actor Data: Version 3.3

1899:

of the local population. The Marsh Arab resistance was led by the

1313:

Bush made a similar appeal on March 1, a day after the end of the

5993: 5950: 5130: 5075: 4617: 2693:. Strategic Studies Institute, U.S. Army War College. p. 9. 1603: 1468: 1456: 1211: 222: 3925:"Ahmed Chalabi: The Libyan Uprising—Lessons From Iraq - WSJ.com" 3283:"Genocide in Iraq: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds – UNHCR" 2167: 1474:

Many exiled Iraqi dissidents, including thousands of Iran-based

5873: 5528: 3378:"Victory Over Iraq in 1991 Was Swift, but Flawed – NYTimes.com" 3323:

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (June 13, 1997).

3042:

The Great War for Civilisation: The Conquest of the Middle East

3012:"Uprising in Iraq may be slow because of U.S. inaction in 1991" 1913: 1700: 1566: 1513:

Another wave of insurgency broke out shortly afterwards in the

1487: 1444: 1351: 3978:

Republic of Fear: The Politics of Modern Iraq, Updated Edition

3087:

The Crimes of Saddam Hussein: Suppression of the 1991 Uprising

2839:"ENDLESS TORMENT, The 1991 Uprising in Iraq And Its Aftermath" 2809:"'Chemical Ali' on trial for brutal crushing of Shia uprising" 2077:

in 1996. On January 1, 1997, the U.S. and its allies launched

19:"Iraq uprising" redirects here. For the uprising in 1920, see 6445:

List of people assassinated by the People's Mujahedin of Iran

6086: 5070: 2070: 1724: 1720: 1696: 1570: 1541: 1452: 1435: 1426: 456: 313: 4173:

Endless Torment: The 1991 Uprising in Iraq and its Aftermath

4071:"US Department of State Daily Briefing #53: Tuesday, 4/2/91" 3882:'Chemical Ali' on trial for brutal crushing of Shia uprising 2742:

ENDLESS TORMENT: The 1991 Uprising in Iraq And Its Aftermath

1598:

for Iraq and autonomy for Kurdistan. After Mosul was taken,

5281: 5258: 5001: 4995: 4189: 3953:

A Long-Awaited Apology for Shiites, but the Wounds Run Deep

3407: 3405: 3403: 1430: 1149: 597: 444: 295: 276: 144: 2089:

The trial of 15 former aides to Saddam Hussein, including

1731:, where a successful defense was held by the Kurds led by 1471:. Smaller cities were swept up in the revolution as well. 3417:"Who Is to Blame for the Doomed Iraqi Uprisings of 1991?" 1843: 1460: 3808:

Kurdish Refugees Straggle Into Iran, Followed By Tragedy

3400: 1874: 2065:

This general stalemate was broken during the 1994–1997

1883:

straddling the Iranian border. After the uprising, the

1775:. Many suspects were tortured, raped, or burned alive. 1210:

regime managed to maintain control over the capital of

1288:

On February 15, 1991, President of the United States,

1186:

Within the first two weeks, most of Iraq's cities and

4175:. New York: Middle East Watch (Human Rights Watch). 2544: 2112: 1887:

were singled out for mass reprisals, accompanied by

1402:

or members of anti-regime groups, in particular the

1330:

radio station, allegedly funded and operated by the

4073:. Dosfan.lib.uic.edu. April 2, 1991. Archived from 1782:. Mass burial sites containing thousands of bodies 6501:List of works about the People's Mujahedin of Iran 3530:"Iran's Armed Opposition Wins a Battle — In Court" 3347:"1991: 'Mother of all battles' begins over Kuwait" 2912: 2365:remained bitterly hostile toward the United States 1408:Supreme Council for the Islamic Revolution in Iraq 3854:"The Iraqi Government Assault on the Marsh Arabs" 3184:Ominous deja vu as Saddam's victims watch Gaddafi 1695:, Iraqi military did in fact use the nerve agent 6565: 4170: 1735:. Some sources allege that Iranian organization 1569:(which eventually fell to them on March 20) and 6465:Background and causes of the Iranian Revolution 3663:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 3325:"Refworld | Chronology for Sunnis in Iraq" 3281:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. 1938:second no-fly zone for any Iraqi aircraft south 1846:gun which was abandoned by Iraqi forces during 872:Islamic State insurgency in Iraq (2017–present) 6380:1988 executions of Iranian political prisoners 3980:. University of California Press. p. XX. 1533:, gave a considerable force to the rebellion. 6176: 4977: 4633: 4205: 3256:"Amna Suraka Museum – Saddam's torture cells" 3253: 2915:Iraqi Security Forces: A Strategy for Success 2328: 1821:United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees 1771:thousands of people at random in a policy of 1257: 1004: 900: 756: 6226:Organization of Iranian American Communities 2893:. Osprey Publishing. pp. 1–8, 12–16, 19–82. 1962: 1144:were ethnic and religious uprisings against 3877: 3875: 3757:Kurds say Iraq's attacks serve as a warning 3474: 3006: 3004: 3002: 3000: 2666:. Cambridge University Press. p. 115. 2632:List of modern conflicts in the Middle East 2001:. Unsourced material may be challenged and 1927:soldiers wait to be deployed in support of 50:An Iraqi government tank disabled by rebels 16:Anti-government uprisings in Ba'athist Iraq 6183: 6169: 4984: 4970: 4640: 4626: 4212: 4198: 4151:. New York: Harper Perennial, 2005 p. 153 3734:Uncovering Iraq's Horrors in Desert Graves 3729: 3727: 3634: 3521: 2335: 2321: 1493:members of the military, leftists such as 1018: 1011: 997: 907: 893: 763: 749: 5292:Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region 4171:Goldstein, Eric; Whitley, Andrew (1992). 3948: 3946: 2953:"CRS Report: Iraq's Opposition Movements" 2910: 2021:Learn how and when to remove this message 1778:Many of the people killed were buried in 1627:while the rest of Baghdad remained calm. 6425:1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum 5116:Kassite dynasty of the Babylonian Empire 3872: 3787:. Lynn Rienner Publishers. p. 155. 3782: 3318: 3316: 3314: 3312: 3310: 3308: 3306: 3304: 3302: 3300: 2997: 2981:. Transcripts.cnn.com. January 5, 2001. 2979:"Unfinished War - CNN.com - Transcripts" 2452: 2032: 1918: 1833: 1802: 1629: 1438:, a demonstration near the city's great 1417:The turmoil first began in the towns of 1273: 914: 6420:Consolidation of the Iranian Revolution 6206:People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran 6192:People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran 3724: 3610:. Routledge; 2nd edition. p. 187. 3044:. London: Alfred A. Knopf, 2006 p. 646 2686: 1556:), and communist (from the ICP and the 6566: 6211:National Council of Resistance of Iran 4103:from the original on November 17, 2015 4051:from the original on November 17, 2015 4011:, washingtonpost.com, December 2, 2006 3975: 3943: 3628: 3605: 3483:from the original on November 11, 2013 3470: 3468: 3453:from the original on November 15, 2008 3375: 3153: 3151: 3149: 3147: 3145: 3143: 3141: 3121: 3119: 3117: 3115: 3113: 3111: 3109: 2819:from the original on December 28, 2016 2716: 2714: 2712: 2710: 2659: 1936:U.S. and its allies had established a 805:Iraq no-fly zones conflict (1991–2003) 6164: 5851: 5743: 5565: 5440: 5013: 4965: 4621: 4193: 3927:. Online.wsj.com. February 28, 2011. 3860:from the original on October 19, 2010 3778: 3776: 3693:from the original on October 12, 2017 3586:"Behind the Mujahideen-e-Khalq (MeK)" 3560:"Behind the Mujahideen-e-Khalq (MeK)" 3527: 3411: 3357:from the original on January 12, 2014 3297: 3235:from the original on February 8, 2013 3165:from the original on November 6, 2018 3022:from the original on February 1, 2014 2864:Cline, Lawrence E. (August 8, 2000). 2863: 2759:from the original on October 10, 2019 2663:Petro-Aggression: When Oil Causes War 2612:Human rights in Saddam Hussein's Iraq 2357:Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff 1875:Resistance and reprisals in the south 1609: 1508: 1393: 1292:, made a speech targeting Iraqis via 992: 888: 770: 744: 6145: 6087:Mesopotamian spring festival (Akitu) 3637:Radical Islam: The Iranian Mojahedin 2789:from the original on January 9, 2012 2660:Colgan, Jeff D. (January 31, 2013). 1999:adding citations to reliable sources 1966: 1540:) erupted on March 5 in the town of 1232:draining of the Mesopotamian Marshes 798:Iraqi Kurdish/Shi'a uprisings (1991) 6135: 3540:from the original on April 28, 2011 3465: 3388:from the original on August 1, 2017 3376:Gordon, Michael R. (January 2013). 3254:Time Magazine (September 7, 2011). 3138: 3106: 2707: 2411:, Director of Intelligence for the 2084: 2037:Area controlled by Kurds after the 1895:and the large-scale and systematic 1623:in the Shia-populated vast slum of 13: 6460:Timeline of the Iranian Revolution 6415:1980 Iranian presidential election 4647: 4164: 4129:from the original on June 27, 2017 3931:from the original on July 24, 2017 3834:from the original on June 18, 2013 3773: 3528:Graff, James (December 14, 2006). 3427:from the original on March 8, 2016 2845:from the original on June 15, 2010 1889:ecologically catastrophic drainage 14: 6650: 4837:Mother: Subha Tulfah al-Mussallat 4707:Saddam–al-Qaeda conspiracy theory 3712:Mass grave unearthed in Iraq city 2779:"2 Mass Graves in Iraq Unearthed" 2464:briefs U.S. Secretary of Defense 2113:U.S. non-intervention controversy 1798: 1602:proposed to march on the capital 1521:(PUK) and to a lesser extent the 1338:, an exiled former member of the 82:Iraqi government military victory 6550: 6549: 6221:National Democratic Front (Iran) 6144: 6134: 6124: 6115: 6114: 5420:2021–2022 Iraqi political crisis 4994: 4947: 4946: 4749: 3905:Iraqi Shia uprising trial begins 3817:, Associated Press, Apr 13, 1991 3126:Flashback: the 1991 Iraqi revolt 2985:from the original on May 4, 2012 2597:Iraqi Partisan movement, 1979–88 2561: 2547: 2166: 2075:missile strikes on southern Iraq 1971: 1617:pro-Syrian Ba'ath splinter party 1296:radio. Hoping to incite a swift 645: 625: 614: 603: 596: 585: 574: 555: 543: 532: 521: 510: 499: 488: 469: 449: 437: 425: 409: 402: 382: 370: 358: 346: 334: 320: 294: 282: 275: 263: 251: 235: 198: 186: 174: 155: 143: 131: 115: 44: 5899:Iraqi Turkmen/Turkoman dialects 5322:1979–1980 Shia uprising in Iraq 5312:1974–1975 Shatt al-Arab clashes 5051:Halaf-Ubaid Transitional period 4141: 4115: 4089: 4063: 4037: 4014: 3994: 3969: 3917: 3898: 3846: 3820: 3801: 3750: 3705: 3679: 3656: 3599: 3578: 3552: 3495: 3439: 3369: 3339: 3274: 3247: 3221: 3196: 3177: 3080: 3067: 3054: 3034: 2971: 2945: 2904: 2889:Karsh, Efraim (25 April 2002). 2458:Coalition Provisional Authority 2101:regarding his role in the 1988 1957:Mohammad Mohammad Sadeq al-Sadr 1744:United Nations Security Council 1579:Directorate of General Security 810:Iraq air strikes (January 1993) 6609:Iraqi chemical weapons program 5182:Muslim conquest of Mesopotamia 4834:Father: Hussein 'Abid al-Majid 4498:Iraqi rocket attacks on Israel 4002:A 1991 Kurdish Betrayal Redux? 3830:. Nybooks.com. June 12, 2013. 3475:Barry Lando (March 29, 2007). 2911:Cordesman, Anthony H. (2006). 2883: 2857: 2831: 2801: 2771: 2733: 2680: 2653: 2305:Colin Powell's UN presentation 2060:no-fly zone over northern Iraq 1856:no-fly zone over northern Iraq 1675:There were several reports of 951:Northern Iraq/Kurdistan Region 1: 6629:Shia–Sunni sectarian violence 6435:20 June 1981 Iranian protests 6334:Gholamreza Khosravi Savadjani 5441: 3914:, Al-Jazeera, August 22, 2007 3721:, BBC News, December 27, 2005 3258:. Demotix.com. Archived from 2647: 2220: 2051:Kurdistan Regional Government 1903:(completely unrelated to the 1810:trucks with aid supplies for 1753: 1554:Islamic Movement of Kurdistan 1381:Battle of Sulaymaniyah (1991) 1362: 1344:Revolutionary Command Council 1236:Tigris–Euphrates river system 837:Iraqi conflict (2003–present) 727: 718: 700: 688: 676: 661: 651: 94:Kurdistan Autonomous Republic 5678:in ISIL-controlled territory 5566: 4348:Iraq–United States relations 4219: 3639:. I.B. Tauris. p. 208. 3229:"Amna Suraka (Red Security)" 3193:, Al Arabiya, March 13, 2011 2891:The Iran–Iraq War: 1980–1988 2745:. Human Rights Watch. 1992. 2400:in Iraq's internal affairs. 2390:Washington Kurdish Institute 2281:U.S. invasion of Afghanistan 1793: 1558:Communist Party of Kurdistan 1536:The rebellion in the north ( 1527:Assyrian Democratic Movement 1519:Patriotic Union of Kurdistan 1497:(ICP) factions, anti-Saddam 1083:1983–1986 Kurdish rebellions 862:Iraqi insurgency (2011–2013) 857:Iraqi insurgency (2008–2011) 847:Iraqi insurgency (2003–2006) 7: 5852: 5744: 5589:Council of Representatives 5327:Weapons of mass destruction 5014: 3635:Abrahamian, Ervand (1989). 3135:, BBC News, August 21, 2007 2870:Journal of Conflict Studies 2687:Terrill, W. Andrew (2004). 2540: 2251:Iraqi no-fly zones conflict 1248:Kurdish Autonomous Republic 1117:2017 Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 852:Iraqi civil war (2006–2008) 820:Iraq missile strikes (1996) 815:Iraq missile strikes (1993) 10: 6655: 5317:1977 Shia uprising in Iraq 4289:Petroleum industry in Iraq 3910:February 10, 2011, at the 3887:December 28, 2016, at the 3739:December 28, 2016, at the 3231:. Travel Iraqi Kurdistan. 3161:. Merip.org. May 4, 1992. 3131:December 10, 2017, at the 3092:November 30, 2011, at the 3075:Great War for Civilisation 3062:Great War for Civilisation 3016:Seattle Post-Intelligencer 2921:Greenwood Publishing Group 2726:February 21, 2014, at the 2587:1999 Shia uprising in Iraq 2582:1977 Shia uprising in Iraq 2577:1935–36 Iraqi Shia revolts 2500: 2095:committed against humanity 1901:Hezbollah Movement in Iraq 1763:, where they detained and 1737:People's Mujahedin of Iran 1523:Kurdistan Democratic Party 1366: 1277: 1258:Earlier calls for uprising 830:1999 Shia uprising in Iraq 18: 6589:April 1991 events in Asia 6584:March 1991 events in Asia 6547: 6514: 6488: 6470:Foreign relations of Iran 6450:2013 Camp Ashraf massacre 6372: 6234: 6198: 6110: 6009: 5864: 5860: 5847: 5752: 5739: 5574: 5561: 5449: 5436: 5257: 5174: 5026: 5022: 5009: 4943: 4904: 4864:Uncle and Father-in-Law: 4825: 4804: 4758: 4747: 4655: 4594: 4578: 4506: 4485: 4467:Operation Senior Surprise 4462:Operation Instant Thunder 4442: 4366: 4330: 4297: 4266: 4245: 4227: 4099:. Fas.org. May 30, 2008. 4047:. Fas.org. May 30, 2008. 4007:October 20, 2017, at the 3768:Christian Science Monitor 3717:October 12, 2017, at the 3189:October 12, 2017, at the 2955:. Fas.org. Archived from 2592:Kurdish Rebellion of 1983 2402:U.S. Secretary of Defense 2287:Alleged Prague connection 1963:Kurdish sovereign enclave 1840:Operation Provide Comfort 1773:collective responsibility 1525:(KDP). Additionally, the 1266:, Iran's supreme leader, 1030: 926: 793:Invasion of Kuwait (1990) 783:Iran–Iraq War (1980–1988) 778: 733:killed (mostly civilians) 712: 637: 462: 107: 54: 43: 38:aftermath of the Gulf War 35: 30: 6594:Chemical weapons attacks 6475:2011 raid on Camp Ashraf 6364:Alejo Vidal-Quadras Roca 5668:in Saddam Hussein's Iraq 5579:Administrative divisions 4602:History of the M1 Abrams 4472:Amiriyah shelter bombing 3785:Kurdish Ethnonationalism 3783:Entessar, Nader (1992). 2642: 2607:Second Iraqi–Kurdish War 2227:Iraqi invasion of Kuwait 2079:Operation Northern Watch 1929:Operation Southern Watch 1699:, as well as non-lethal 1679:attacks, including of a 1562:Kurdistan Workers' Party 1373:Battle of Karbala (1991) 1068:Second Iraqi–Kurdish War 167:Special Republican Guard 6390:Execution of Ali Saremi 6354:Mohammad Ali Haj Aghaei 5227:Mandate for Mesopotamia 5101:First Babylonian Empire 4952:Category:Saddam Hussein 4668:1979 Ba'ath Party Purge 4537:Draining of the marshes 4307:Battle of Dasman Palace 3958:April 26, 2017, at the 3606:Milani, Mohsen (1994). 2602:First Iraqi–Kurdish War 2531:Saddam's Killing Fields 2472:mass grave site in 2003 2367:." Coalition Commander 2359:, admitted in his book 2257:Iraq disarmament crisis 2107:trial of Saddam Hussein 2067:Iraqi Kurdish Civil War 2058:continued to enforce a 2039:Iraqi Kurdish Civil War 1377:Battle of Kirkuk (1991) 1063:First Iraqi–Kurdish War 1039:Mahmud Barzanji revolts 867:War in Iraq (2013–2017) 6455:Albania–Iran relations 5386:Insurgency (2011–2013) 5307:Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 5111:Middle Assyrian Empire 4607:Lion of Babylon (tank) 4457:"Package Q" air strike 4331:Coalition intervention 4026:July 25, 2008, at the 3976:Makiya, Kanan (1998). 3813:July 29, 2013, at the 3449:. Human Rights Watch. 2730:pp. 146; 217; 218; 502 2525:, as well as the 1993 2495:Basheer Hussain Najafi 2473: 2435: 2409:John Michael McConnell 2369:Norman Schwarzkopf Jr. 2239:Sanctions against Iraq 2187:Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 2138: 2046: 1932: 1851: 1848:Operation Desert Storm 1815: 1646: 1544:. Within 10 days, the 1385:Battle of Tuz Khormato 1369:Battle of Basra (1991) 1360: 1324: 1311: 1216:Iraqi Republican Guard 1022:Iraqi–Kurdish conflict 495:Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri 463:Commanders and leaders 62:1 March – 5 April 1991 6599:Collective punishment 6480:2023 Tirana camp raid 6440:2003 invasion of Iraq 6405:Operation Shining Sun 6400:Operation Forty Stars 5673:in post-invasion Iraq 5379:U.S. troop withdrawal 5141:Neo-Babylonian Empire 4493:Iraq–Israel relations 4312:Battle of the Bridges 3762:July 6, 2008, at the 3566:on September 28, 2009 3421:National Interest.org 2460:Human Rights Officer 2456: 2430: 2413:Joint Chiefs of Staff 2299:Wood Green ricin plot 2117: 2036: 1922: 1837: 1806: 1788:Human Rights Ministry 1633: 1495:Iraqi Communist Party 1367:Further information: 1348: 1319: 1306: 1278:Further information: 1274:U.S. radio broadcasts 1129:2023 Makhmour clashes 1112:2003 invasion of Iraq 1078:Arabization campaigns 731: 25,000–180,000 713:Casualties and losses 665: 59,000–107,000 289:Pro-Syrian Ba'athists 92:Establishment of the 6619:Shia–Sunni relations 6579:20th century in Iraq 6574:1991 Iraqi uprisings 6385:Trial of Hamid Nouri 6284:Mohammad-Reza Kolahi 5622:Council of Ministers 5504:Mesopotamian Marshes 4776:The Fortified Castle 4769:Zabibah and the King 4237:Disarmament timeline 3592:on August 11, 2003. 3509:on February 23, 2009 3503:"The Cult of Rajavi" 3353:. October 20, 2011. 3262:on December 27, 2013 2275:U.S. anthrax attacks 2269:September 11 attacks 1995:improve this section 1480:the Shia holy cities 1196:Kurdish nationalists 1142:1991 Iraqi uprisings 1044:Ahmed Barzani revolt 918:1991 Iraqi uprisings 842:Iraq War (2003–2011) 788:Gulf War (1990–1991) 692: 15,000–45,000 680: 40,000–50,000 610:Fawzi Mutlaq al-Rawi 205:Intelligence Service 31:1991 Iraqi uprisings 6634:Religion-based wars 6496:Mojahed (newspaper) 6359:Hedayatollah Hatami 6216:Quintuple Coalition 5884:Mesopotamian Arabic 5690:Freedom of religion 5136:Neo-Assyrian Empire 5106:Old Assyrian Period 5091:Neo-Sumerian Empire 4702:Human rights record 4595:Military technology 4570:Iraq–Kuwait barrier 4338:U.N. Resolution 661 4322:U.N. Resolution 660 2959:on November 3, 2012 2815:. August 22, 2007. 2388:, president of the 2361:My American Journey 2263:Arms-to-Iraq affair 2091:Ali Hassan al-Majid 1784:have been uncovered 1712:Abdul Aziz al-Hakim 1665:helicopter gunships 1656:fixed-wing aircraft 1546:Kurdish nationalist 1049:1943 Barzani revolt 825:Iraq bombing (1998) 704: 4,000–12,000 581:Abdul Aziz al-Hakim 517:Ali Hassan al-Majid 307:deserters/defectors 6639:Civil wars in Iraq 6410:Iranian Revolution 6319:Alireza Jafarzadeh 5815:Telecommunications 5790:Foreign Investment 5727:Wars and conflicts 5663:in pre-Saddam Iraq 5627:Presidency Council 5413:2019–2021 protests 5342:Invasion of Kuwait 5166:Sassanid Asorestan 5161:Parthian Babylonia 5156:Seleucid Babylonia 5151:Achaemenid Assyria 5066:Jemdet Nasr period 4934:The Devil's Double 4913:Al-ayyam al-tawila 4663:17 July Revolution 4542:Gulf War oil spill 4358:Military equipment 4299:Invasion of Kuwait 4147:Polk, William R.. 3966:, November 8, 2011 3964:The New York Times 3745:The New York Times 3687:"Justice For Iraq" 3382:The New York Times 3103:, January 24, 2006 2637:Kurdish Mujahideen 2474: 2205:Ba'ath Party Purge 2199:Iranian Revolution 2193:17 July Revolution 2181:14 July Revolution 2047: 1933: 1852: 1816: 1765:summarily executed 1660:Norman Schwarzkopf 1647: 1638:leaflet depicting 1610:Loyalist offensive 1589:Human Rights Watch 1509:Northern uprisings 1404:Islamic Dawa Party 1394:Southern uprisings 1342:and the Ba'athist 1328:Voice of Free Iraq 1244:Iraqi no-fly zones 1240:Gulf War Coalition 724:killed or captured 569:Commander-in-Chief 483:Commander-in-Chief 365:Kurdish mujahideen 98:Iraqi no-fly zones 6561: 6560: 6294:Somayeh Mohammadi 6279:Mehdi Abrishamchi 6158: 6157: 6106: 6105: 6102: 6101: 6092:Mandaean New Year 5843: 5842: 5735: 5734: 5717:Political parties 5612:Foreign relations 5557: 5556: 5464:Lower Mesopotamia 5459:Upper Mesopotamia 5432: 5431: 5428: 5427: 5192:Abbasid Caliphate 5187:Umayyad Caliphate 5096:Isin-Larsa period 4959: 4958: 4866:Khairallah Talfah 4860:Samira Shahbandar 4615: 4614: 4552:Gulf War syndrome 4527:Kuwaiti oil fires 4399:Phase Line Bullet 4317:Battle of Failaka 4232:Conflict timeline 4000:Najmaldin Karim, 3895:, August 22, 2007 3794:978-1-55587-250-2 3415:(March 7, 2016). 3351:Otago Daily Times 3018:. April 4, 2003. 2899:978-1-84176-371-2 2700:978-1-58487-153-8 2673:978-1-107-31129-9 2518:Dawn of the World 2462:Sandra Hodgkinson 2444:William B. Quandt 2425:Margaret Tutwiler 2345: 2344: 2031: 2030: 2023: 1897:forcible transfer 1861:Yeşilova incident 1829:the war with Iran 1693:Iraq Survey Group 1584:Al-Anfal Campaign 1499:Arab nationalists 1336:Salah Omar al-Ali 1290:George H. W. Bush 1268:Ruhollah Khomeini 1224:forced relocation 1200:Kurdish Islamists 1152:that were led by 1137: 1136: 1107:1994–97 Civil War 986: 985: 882: 881: 772:Persian Gulf Wars 737: 736: 103: 102: 96:, as well as the 6646: 6553: 6552: 6395:Operation Mersad 6329:Abdolreza Rajabi 6299:Abdolreza Rajabi 6289:Hassan Nayebagha 6185: 6178: 6171: 6162: 6161: 6148: 6147: 6138: 6137: 6128: 6118: 6117: 5862: 5861: 5849: 5848: 5780: 5741: 5740: 5592: 5563: 5562: 5549:Sinjar Mountains 5539:Zagros Mountains 5479:Hamrin Mountains 5438: 5437: 5401:Mosul liberation 5374:Iraqi insurgency 5296:National Command 5285: 5121:Simurrum culture 5024: 5023: 5011: 5010: 5000: 4999: 4998: 4986: 4979: 4972: 4963: 4962: 4950: 4949: 4896:Mustapha Hussein 4817:Alleged shredder 4783:Men and the City 4753: 4642: 4635: 4628: 4619: 4618: 4547:Depleted uranium 4486:Impact on Israel 4414:Highway of Death 4279:Operation Simoom 4214: 4207: 4200: 4191: 4190: 4186: 4159: 4145: 4139: 4138: 4136: 4134: 4119: 4113: 4112: 4110: 4108: 4093: 4087: 4086: 4084: 4082: 4077:on July 24, 2008 4067: 4061: 4060: 4058: 4056: 4041: 4035: 4034:, March 27, 2003 4018: 4012: 3998: 3992: 3991: 3973: 3967: 3950: 3941: 3940: 3938: 3936: 3921: 3915: 3902: 3896: 3879: 3870: 3869: 3867: 3865: 3850: 3844: 3843: 3841: 3839: 3824: 3818: 3805: 3799: 3798: 3780: 3771: 3754: 3748: 3731: 3722: 3709: 3703: 3702: 3700: 3698: 3683: 3677: 3676: 3674: 3672: 3660: 3654: 3653: 3632: 3626: 3625: 3623:fundamentalists. 3603: 3597: 3596: 3588:. 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June 5, 2006. 2775: 2769: 2768: 2766: 2764: 2737: 2731: 2718: 2705: 2704: 2684: 2678: 2677: 2657: 2627:Syrian Civil War 2622:Libyan Civil War 2571: 2569:Kurdistan portal 2566: 2565: 2564: 2557: 2552: 2551: 2550: 2515:, the 2008 film 2513:David O. Russell 2491:solution of 2003 2487:Adel Abdul Mahdi 2483:James F. Jeffrey 2440:Martin Brandtner 2398:non-intervention 2337: 2330: 2323: 2222: 2170: 2150: 2149: 2146: 2085:Post–2003 trials 2026: 2019: 2015: 2012: 2006: 1975: 1967: 1893:Iraqi marshlands 1865:Kurdish refugees 1812:Kurdish refugees 1677:chemical warfare 1651:Republican Guard 1294:Voice of America 1146:Saddam Hussein's 1025: 1023: 1013: 1006: 999: 990: 989: 921: 919: 909: 902: 895: 886: 885: 773: 765: 758: 751: 742: 741: 732: 729: 723: 720: 705: 702: 693: 690: 681: 678: 666: 663: 656: 653: 650: 649: 648: 630: 629: 628: 619: 618: 617: 608: 607: 601: 600: 590: 589: 588: 579: 578: 577: 560: 559: 558: 548: 547: 546: 537: 536: 535: 526: 525: 524: 515: 514: 513: 504: 503: 502: 493: 492: 491: 474: 473: 472: 455: 453: 452: 443: 441: 440: 431: 429: 428: 414: 413: 412: 407: 406: 405: 387: 386: 385: 375: 374: 373: 363: 362: 361: 351: 350: 349: 339: 338: 337: 325: 324: 323: 299: 298: 287: 286: 280: 279: 268: 267: 266: 256: 255: 254: 240: 239: 238: 210:Special Security 203: 202: 201: 193:General Security 191: 190: 189: 179: 178: 177: 162:Republican Guard 160: 159: 158: 148: 147: 136: 135: 121: 119: 118: 56: 55: 48: 28: 27: 6654: 6653: 6649: 6648: 6647: 6645: 6644: 6643: 6624:Torture in Iraq 6564: 6563: 6562: 6557: 6543: 6510: 6484: 6368: 6349:Marjan (singer) 6324:Pouran Bazargan 6309:Masoud Keshmiri 6230: 6194: 6189: 6159: 6154: 6098: 6082:Public holidays 6005: 5856: 5839: 5778: 5748: 5731: 5590: 5570: 5553: 5484:Iraqi Kurdistan 5474:Euphrates river 5445: 5424: 5391:War (2014–2017) 5337:Operation Opera 5283: 5253: 5249:Arab Federation 5237:Kingdom of Iraq 5170: 5146:Fall of Babylon 5081:Akkadian Empire 5056:Samarra culture 5041:Hassuna culture 5018: 5005: 4993: 4992: 4990: 4960: 4955: 4939: 4920:House of Saddam 4900: 4894:Grandchildren: 4840:Half-brothers: 4821: 4800: 4754: 4745: 4651: 4646: 4616: 4611: 4590: 4574: 4564:Provide Comfort 4502: 4481: 4452:Air engagements 4438: 4362: 4353:Carter Doctrine 4326: 4293: 4262: 4241: 4223: 4218: 4183: 4167: 4165:Further reading 4162: 4146: 4142: 4132: 4130: 4121: 4120: 4116: 4106: 4104: 4095: 4094: 4090: 4080: 4078: 4069: 4068: 4064: 4054: 4052: 4043: 4042: 4038: 4028:Wayback Machine 4019: 4015: 4009:Wayback Machine 3999: 3995: 3988: 3974: 3970: 3960:Wayback Machine 3951: 3944: 3934: 3932: 3923: 3922: 3918: 3912:Wayback Machine 3903: 3899: 3889:Wayback Machine 3880: 3873: 3863: 3861: 3852: 3851: 3847: 3837: 3835: 3826: 3825: 3821: 3815:Wayback Machine 3806: 3802: 3795: 3781: 3774: 3764:Wayback Machine 3755: 3751: 3741:Wayback Machine 3732: 3725: 3719:Wayback Machine 3710: 3706: 3696: 3694: 3689:. Mafhoum.com. 3685: 3684: 3680: 3670: 3668: 3661: 3657: 3647: 3633: 3629: 3618: 3604: 3600: 3584: 3583: 3579: 3569: 3567: 3558: 3557: 3553: 3543: 3541: 3526: 3522: 3512: 3510: 3501: 3500: 3496: 3486: 3484: 3473: 3466: 3456: 3454: 3445: 3444: 3440: 3430: 3428: 3410: 3401: 3391: 3389: 3374: 3370: 3360: 3358: 3345: 3344: 3340: 3330: 3328: 3321: 3298: 3288: 3286: 3279: 3275: 3265: 3263: 3252: 3248: 3238: 3236: 3227: 3226: 3222: 3212: 3210: 3202: 3201: 3197: 3191:Wayback Machine 3182: 3178: 3168: 3166: 3157: 3156: 3139: 3133:Wayback Machine 3124: 3107: 3094:Wayback Machine 3085: 3081: 3072: 3068: 3059: 3055: 3039: 3035: 3025: 3023: 3010: 3009: 2998: 2988: 2986: 2977: 2976: 2972: 2962: 2960: 2951: 2950: 2946: 2935: 2909: 2905: 2888: 2884: 2874: 2872: 2862: 2858: 2848: 2846: 2837: 2836: 2832: 2822: 2820: 2807: 2806: 2802: 2792: 2790: 2777: 2776: 2772: 2762: 2760: 2753: 2739: 2738: 2734: 2728:Wayback Machine 2719: 2708: 2701: 2685: 2681: 2674: 2658: 2654: 2650: 2645: 2567: 2562: 2560: 2553: 2548: 2546: 2543: 2503: 2466:Donald Rumsfeld 2421:Richard Boucher 2386:Najmaldin Karim 2374:Brent Scowcroft 2341: 2312: 2293:Iraq Resolution 2245:Iraqi uprisings 2157: 2148: 2140: 2125:Brent Scowcroft 2115: 2103:Operation Anfal 2087: 2027: 2016: 2010: 2007: 1992: 1976: 1965: 1881:Hawizeh Marshes 1877: 1869:Sayyidah Zaynab 1814:, 29 April 1991 1801: 1796: 1756: 1733:Massoud Barzani 1612: 1538:Iraqi Kurdistan 1511: 1440:Imam Ali Mosque 1414:to the rebels. 1396: 1391: 1389:Battle of Zakho 1365: 1304:, Bush stated: 1286: 1276: 1260: 1252:Iraqi Kurdistan 1206:Arab-dominated 1181:economy of Iraq 1166:Iraqi President 1138: 1133: 1102: 1097: 1058: 1053: 1035: 1033:Early conflicts 1026: 1021: 1019: 1017: 987: 982: 953: 931: 922: 917: 915: 913: 883: 878: 774: 771: 769: 730: 721: 708: 703: 699: 691: 687: 679: 675: 668: 664: 654: 646: 644: 626: 624: 623: 621:Massoud Barzani 615: 613: 612: 602: 595: 594: 586: 584: 583: 575: 573: 572: 566: 556: 554: 544: 542: 541: 533: 531: 530: 522: 520: 519: 511: 509: 508: 500: 498: 497: 489: 487: 486: 480: 470: 468: 450: 448: 447: 438: 436: 435: 426: 424: 423: 410: 408: 403: 401: 400: 383: 381: 371: 369: 359: 357: 347: 345: 335: 333: 321: 319: 318: 308: 293: 281: 274: 270:Communist Party 264: 262: 252: 250: 236: 234: 199: 197: 187: 185: 175: 173: 156: 154: 142: 130: 116: 114: 88: 74: 49: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 6652: 6642: 6641: 6636: 6631: 6626: 6621: 6616: 6611: 6606: 6601: 6596: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6576: 6559: 6558: 6548: 6545: 6544: 6542: 6541: 6536: 6531: 6526: 6520: 6518: 6512: 6511: 6509: 6508: 6503: 6498: 6492: 6490: 6486: 6485: 6483: 6482: 6477: 6472: 6467: 6462: 6457: 6452: 6447: 6442: 6437: 6432: 6427: 6422: 6417: 6412: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6387: 6382: 6376: 6374: 6370: 6369: 6367: 6366: 6361: 6356: 6351: 6346: 6341: 6339:Zohreh Akhyani 6336: 6331: 6326: 6321: 6316: 6311: 6306: 6301: 6296: 6291: 6286: 6281: 6276: 6271: 6266: 6261: 6259:Mousa Khiabani 6256: 6254:Zahra Merrikhi 6251: 6249:Massoud Rajavi 6246: 6240: 6238: 6232: 6231: 6229: 6228: 6223: 6218: 6213: 6208: 6202: 6200: 6196: 6195: 6188: 6187: 6180: 6173: 6165: 6156: 6155: 6153: 6152: 6142: 6132: 6122: 6111: 6108: 6107: 6104: 6103: 6100: 6099: 6097: 6096: 6095: 6094: 6089: 6079: 6074: 6069: 6064: 6059: 6054: 6049: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6029: 6024: 6019: 6013: 6011: 6007: 6006: 6004: 6003: 6002: 6001: 5996: 5991: 5986: 5981: 5971: 5966: 5965: 5964: 5959: 5953: 5948: 5943: 5938: 5933: 5928: 5923: 5918: 5908: 5907: 5906: 5901: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5876: 5870: 5868: 5858: 5857: 5845: 5844: 5841: 5840: 5838: 5837: 5832: 5827: 5822: 5820:Transportation 5817: 5812: 5810:Stock Exchange 5807: 5805:Reconstruction 5802: 5797: 5792: 5787: 5785:Infrastructure 5782: 5774: 5769: 5764: 5759: 5753: 5750: 5749: 5737: 5736: 5733: 5732: 5730: 5729: 5724: 5719: 5714: 5709: 5704: 5699: 5698: 5697: 5692: 5687: 5682: 5681: 5680: 5670: 5665: 5655: 5654: 5653: 5652: 5651: 5644:Prime Minister 5641: 5640: 5639: 5629: 5624: 5614: 5609: 5604: 5599: 5594: 5586: 5581: 5575: 5572: 5571: 5559: 5558: 5555: 5554: 5552: 5551: 5546: 5541: 5536: 5531: 5526: 5521: 5516: 5511: 5506: 5501: 5496: 5491: 5486: 5481: 5476: 5471: 5466: 5461: 5456: 5450: 5447: 5446: 5434: 5433: 5430: 5429: 5426: 5425: 5423: 5422: 5417: 5416: 5415: 5405: 5404: 5403: 5398: 5388: 5383: 5382: 5381: 5376: 5371: 5361: 5356: 5355: 5354: 5352:1991 uprisings 5344: 5339: 5334: 5329: 5324: 5319: 5314: 5309: 5304: 5302:Saddam Hussein 5299: 5288: 5287: 5279: 5274: 5269: 5263: 5261: 5255: 5254: 5252: 5251: 5246: 5245: 5244: 5234: 5232:Mandatory Iraq 5229: 5224: 5221:Mamluk dynasty 5214: 5209: 5204: 5199: 5194: 5189: 5184: 5178: 5176: 5172: 5171: 5169: 5168: 5163: 5158: 5153: 5148: 5143: 5138: 5133: 5128: 5123: 5118: 5113: 5108: 5103: 5098: 5093: 5088: 5086:Gutian dynasty 5083: 5078: 5073: 5068: 5063: 5058: 5053: 5048: 5043: 5038: 5032: 5030: 5020: 5019: 5007: 5006: 4989: 4988: 4981: 4974: 4966: 4957: 4956: 4944: 4941: 4940: 4938: 4937: 4930: 4923: 4916: 4908: 4906: 4902: 4901: 4899: 4898: 4892: 4878: 4868: 4862: 4852: 4838: 4835: 4831: 4829: 4823: 4822: 4820: 4819: 4814: 4812:Killing babies 4808: 4806: 4802: 4801: 4799: 4798: 4793: 4790:Begone, Demons 4786: 4779: 4772: 4764: 4762: 4756: 4755: 4748: 4746: 4744: 4743: 4742: 4741: 4731: 4726: 4721: 4716: 4715: 4714: 4704: 4699: 4698: 4697: 4695:1991 uprisings 4687: 4685:Anfal campaign 4682: 4681: 4680: 4670: 4665: 4659: 4657: 4653: 4652: 4649:Saddam Hussein 4645: 4644: 4637: 4630: 4622: 4613: 4612: 4610: 4609: 4604: 4598: 4596: 4592: 4591: 4589: 4588: 4582: 4580: 4576: 4575: 4573: 4572: 4567: 4559: 4554: 4549: 4544: 4539: 4534: 4532:1991 uprisings 4529: 4524: 4522:Iraq sanctions 4519: 4516:Southern Watch 4510: 4508: 4504: 4503: 4501: 4500: 4495: 4489: 4487: 4483: 4482: 4480: 4479: 4474: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4454: 4448: 4446: 4440: 4439: 4437: 4436: 4431: 4426: 4421: 4416: 4411: 4406: 4401: 4396: 4391: 4386: 4381: 4376: 4370: 4368: 4364: 4363: 4361: 4360: 4355: 4350: 4345: 4340: 4334: 4332: 4328: 4327: 4325: 4324: 4319: 4314: 4309: 4303: 4301: 4295: 4294: 4292: 4291: 4286: 4284:Ba'athist Iraq 4281: 4276: 4270: 4268: 4264: 4263: 4261: 4260: 4255: 4249: 4247: 4243: 4242: 4240: 4239: 4234: 4228: 4225: 4224: 4217: 4216: 4209: 4202: 4194: 4188: 4187: 4181: 4166: 4163: 4161: 4160: 4140: 4114: 4088: 4062: 4036: 4013: 3993: 3986: 3968: 3942: 3916: 3897: 3871: 3845: 3819: 3800: 3793: 3772: 3770:, May 13, 2002 3749: 3747:, June 5, 2006 3723: 3704: 3678: 3655: 3645: 3627: 3617:978-0813384764 3616: 3598: 3577: 3551: 3520: 3494: 3464: 3438: 3399: 3368: 3338: 3296: 3273: 3246: 3220: 3195: 3176: 3137: 3105: 3079: 3066: 3053: 3040:Fisk, Robert. 3033: 2996: 2970: 2944: 2933: 2903: 2882: 2856: 2830: 2800: 2770: 2751: 2732: 2706: 2699: 2679: 2672: 2651: 2649: 2646: 2644: 2641: 2640: 2639: 2634: 2629: 2624: 2619: 2614: 2609: 2604: 2599: 2594: 2589: 2584: 2579: 2573: 2572: 2558: 2542: 2539: 2502: 2499: 2479:George W. Bush 2382:Peter Jennings 2343: 2342: 2340: 2339: 2332: 2325: 2317: 2314: 2313: 2311: 2310: 2309: 2308: 2302: 2296: 2290: 2284: 2278: 2272: 2266: 2260: 2254: 2248: 2242: 2236: 2230: 2224: 2214: 2208: 2202: 2196: 2190: 2184: 2175: 2172: 2171: 2163: 2162: 2116: 2114: 2111: 2086: 2083: 2056:U.S. Air Force 2029: 2028: 1979: 1977: 1970: 1964: 1961: 1953:further unrest 1876: 1873: 1825:Nader Entassar 1800: 1799:Refugee crisis 1797: 1795: 1792: 1755: 1752: 1748:Resolution 688 1685:United Nations 1640:Saddam Hussein 1621:limited unrest 1611: 1608: 1600:Jalal Talabani 1510: 1507: 1419:Abu Al-Khaseeb 1395: 1392: 1364: 1361: 1302:Saddam Hussein 1280:Ba'athist Iraq 1275: 1272: 1259: 1256: 1169:Saddam Hussein 1135: 1134: 1132: 1131: 1126: 1125: 1124: 1114: 1109: 1096: 1095: 1093:1991 uprisings 1090: 1088:Anfal campaign 1085: 1080: 1075: 1073:PUK insurgency 1070: 1065: 1052: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1031: 1028: 1027: 1016: 1015: 1008: 1001: 993: 984: 983: 981: 980: 975: 970: 965: 960: 948: 947: 942: 937: 927: 924: 923: 912: 911: 904: 897: 889: 880: 879: 877: 876: 875: 874: 869: 864: 859: 854: 849: 844: 834: 833: 832: 827: 822: 817: 812: 802: 801: 800: 795: 785: 779: 776: 775: 768: 767: 760: 753: 745: 735: 734: 725: 715: 714: 710: 709: 707: 706: 694: 682: 669: 658: 655: 300,000 640: 639: 635: 634: 632:Jalal Talabani 563:Mohammad Baqir 552: 477:Saddam Hussein 465: 464: 460: 459: 418: 394: 393: 392: 391: 379: 367: 355: 343: 310: 309: 291: 272: 260: 248: 214: 213: 212: 207: 195: 183: 171: 170: 169: 164: 152: 110: 109: 105: 104: 101: 100: 90: 84: 83: 80: 76: 75: 70: 68: 64: 63: 60: 52: 51: 41: 40: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 6651: 6640: 6637: 6635: 6632: 6630: 6627: 6625: 6622: 6620: 6617: 6615: 6614:Islam in Iraq 6612: 6610: 6607: 6605: 6602: 6600: 6597: 6595: 6592: 6590: 6587: 6585: 6582: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6571: 6569: 6556: 6546: 6540: 6539:Camp Ashraf 3 6537: 6535: 6532: 6530: 6527: 6525: 6524:Camp Fallujah 6522: 6521: 6519: 6517: 6513: 6507: 6504: 6502: 6499: 6497: 6494: 6493: 6491: 6487: 6481: 6478: 6476: 6473: 6471: 6468: 6466: 6463: 6461: 6458: 6456: 6453: 6451: 6448: 6446: 6443: 6441: 6438: 6436: 6433: 6431: 6428: 6426: 6423: 6421: 6418: 6416: 6413: 6411: 6408: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6386: 6383: 6381: 6378: 6377: 6375: 6371: 6365: 6362: 6360: 6357: 6355: 6352: 6350: 6347: 6345: 6342: 6340: 6337: 6335: 6332: 6330: 6327: 6325: 6322: 6320: 6317: 6315: 6312: 6310: 6307: 6305: 6304:Mahnaz Samadi 6302: 6300: 6297: 6295: 6292: 6290: 6287: 6285: 6282: 6280: 6277: 6275: 6272: 6270: 6269:Habib Khabiri 6267: 6265: 6264:Ashraf Rabiei 6262: 6260: 6257: 6255: 6252: 6250: 6247: 6245: 6244:Maryam Rajavi 6242: 6241: 6239: 6237: 6233: 6227: 6224: 6222: 6219: 6217: 6214: 6212: 6209: 6207: 6204: 6203: 6201: 6199:Organizations 6197: 6193: 6186: 6181: 6179: 6174: 6172: 6167: 6166: 6163: 6151: 6143: 6141: 6133: 6131: 6127: 6123: 6121: 6113: 6112: 6109: 6093: 6090: 6088: 6085: 6084: 6083: 6080: 6078: 6075: 6073: 6070: 6068: 6065: 6063: 6060: 6058: 6055: 6053: 6050: 6048: 6045: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6028: 6025: 6023: 6020: 6018: 6015: 6014: 6012: 6008: 6000: 5997: 5995: 5992: 5990: 5987: 5985: 5982: 5980: 5977: 5976: 5975: 5972: 5970: 5967: 5963: 5960: 5957: 5956:Iraqi Turkmen 5954: 5952: 5949: 5947: 5944: 5942: 5939: 5937: 5934: 5932: 5929: 5927: 5924: 5922: 5919: 5917: 5914: 5913: 5912: 5909: 5905: 5902: 5900: 5897: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5881: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5871: 5869: 5867: 5863: 5859: 5855: 5850: 5846: 5836: 5833: 5831: 5828: 5826: 5823: 5821: 5818: 5816: 5813: 5811: 5808: 5806: 5803: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5791: 5788: 5786: 5783: 5781: 5775: 5773: 5770: 5768: 5765: 5763: 5760: 5758: 5755: 5754: 5751: 5747: 5742: 5738: 5728: 5725: 5723: 5720: 5718: 5715: 5713: 5710: 5708: 5705: 5703: 5700: 5696: 5693: 5691: 5688: 5686: 5683: 5679: 5676: 5675: 5674: 5671: 5669: 5666: 5664: 5661: 5660: 5659: 5656: 5650: 5647: 5646: 5645: 5642: 5638: 5635: 5634: 5633: 5630: 5628: 5625: 5623: 5620: 5619: 5618: 5615: 5613: 5610: 5608: 5605: 5603: 5600: 5598: 5595: 5593: 5591:(legislative) 5587: 5585: 5582: 5580: 5577: 5576: 5573: 5569: 5564: 5560: 5550: 5547: 5545: 5542: 5540: 5537: 5535: 5532: 5530: 5527: 5525: 5524:Syrian Desert 5522: 5520: 5519:Shatt al-Arab 5517: 5515: 5512: 5510: 5507: 5505: 5502: 5500: 5497: 5495: 5492: 5490: 5487: 5485: 5482: 5480: 5477: 5475: 5472: 5470: 5467: 5465: 5462: 5460: 5457: 5455: 5454:Faw peninsula 5452: 5451: 5448: 5444: 5439: 5435: 5421: 5418: 5414: 5411: 5410: 5409: 5406: 5402: 5399: 5397: 5396:Fall of Mosul 5394: 5393: 5392: 5389: 5387: 5384: 5380: 5377: 5375: 5372: 5370: 5369:U.S. invasion 5367: 5366: 5365: 5362: 5360: 5357: 5353: 5350: 5349: 5348: 5345: 5343: 5340: 5338: 5335: 5333: 5332:Iran–Iraq War 5330: 5328: 5325: 5323: 5320: 5318: 5315: 5313: 5310: 5308: 5305: 5303: 5300: 5297: 5293: 5290: 5289: 5286: 5280: 5278: 5275: 5273: 5270: 5268: 5265: 5264: 5262: 5260: 5256: 5250: 5247: 5243: 5240: 5239: 5238: 5235: 5233: 5230: 5228: 5225: 5222: 5218: 5215: 5213: 5210: 5208: 5205: 5203: 5200: 5198: 5197:Buyid dynasty 5195: 5193: 5190: 5188: 5185: 5183: 5180: 5179: 5177: 5173: 5167: 5164: 5162: 5159: 5157: 5154: 5152: 5149: 5147: 5144: 5142: 5139: 5137: 5134: 5132: 5129: 5127: 5124: 5122: 5119: 5117: 5114: 5112: 5109: 5107: 5104: 5102: 5099: 5097: 5094: 5092: 5089: 5087: 5084: 5082: 5079: 5077: 5074: 5072: 5069: 5067: 5064: 5062: 5059: 5057: 5054: 5052: 5049: 5047: 5046:Halaf culture 5044: 5042: 5039: 5037: 5034: 5033: 5031: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5012: 5008: 5003: 4997: 4987: 4982: 4980: 4975: 4973: 4968: 4967: 4964: 4954: 4953: 4942: 4936: 4935: 4931: 4929: 4928: 4924: 4922: 4921: 4917: 4915: 4914: 4910: 4909: 4907: 4903: 4897: 4893: 4891: 4887: 4883: 4879: 4877: 4873: 4869: 4867: 4863: 4861: 4857: 4856:Sajida Talfah 4853: 4851: 4847: 4843: 4839: 4836: 4833: 4832: 4830: 4828: 4824: 4818: 4815: 4813: 4810: 4809: 4807: 4803: 4797: 4794: 4792: 4791: 4787: 4785: 4784: 4780: 4778: 4777: 4773: 4771: 4770: 4766: 4765: 4763: 4761: 4757: 4752: 4740: 4737: 4736: 4735: 4732: 4730: 4727: 4725: 4724:Interrogation 4722: 4720: 4717: 4713: 4710: 4709: 4708: 4705: 4703: 4700: 4696: 4693: 4692: 4691: 4688: 4686: 4683: 4679: 4676: 4675: 4674: 4673:Iran–Iraq War 4671: 4669: 4666: 4664: 4661: 4660: 4658: 4654: 4650: 4643: 4638: 4636: 4631: 4629: 4624: 4623: 4620: 4608: 4605: 4603: 4600: 4599: 4597: 4593: 4587: 4584: 4583: 4581: 4577: 4571: 4568: 4566: 4565: 4560: 4558: 4555: 4553: 4550: 4548: 4545: 4543: 4540: 4538: 4535: 4533: 4530: 4528: 4525: 4523: 4520: 4518: 4517: 4512: 4511: 4509: 4505: 4499: 4496: 4494: 4491: 4490: 4488: 4484: 4478: 4475: 4473: 4470: 4468: 4465: 4463: 4460: 4458: 4455: 4453: 4450: 4449: 4447: 4445: 4441: 4435: 4432: 4430: 4427: 4425: 4422: 4420: 4417: 4415: 4412: 4410: 4407: 4405: 4402: 4400: 4397: 4395: 4392: 4390: 4387: 4385: 4382: 4380: 4379:Wadi al-Batin 4377: 4375: 4372: 4371: 4369: 4365: 4359: 4356: 4354: 4351: 4349: 4346: 4344: 4341: 4339: 4336: 4335: 4333: 4329: 4323: 4320: 4318: 4315: 4313: 4310: 4308: 4305: 4304: 4302: 4300: 4296: 4290: 4287: 4285: 4282: 4280: 4277: 4275: 4274:Iran–Iraq War 4272: 4271: 4269: 4265: 4259: 4256: 4254: 4251: 4250: 4248: 4244: 4238: 4235: 4233: 4230: 4229: 4226: 4222: 4215: 4210: 4208: 4203: 4201: 4196: 4195: 4192: 4184: 4182:1-56432-069-3 4178: 4174: 4169: 4168: 4158: 4154: 4150: 4144: 4128: 4124: 4123:"U.S. Policy" 4118: 4102: 4098: 4092: 4076: 4072: 4066: 4050: 4046: 4040: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4022: 4017: 4010: 4006: 4003: 3997: 3989: 3987:9780520921245 3983: 3979: 3972: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3954: 3949: 3947: 3930: 3926: 3920: 3913: 3909: 3906: 3901: 3894: 3890: 3886: 3883: 3878: 3876: 3859: 3855: 3849: 3833: 3829: 3823: 3816: 3812: 3809: 3804: 3796: 3790: 3786: 3779: 3777: 3769: 3765: 3761: 3758: 3753: 3746: 3742: 3738: 3735: 3730: 3728: 3720: 3716: 3713: 3708: 3692: 3688: 3682: 3666: 3659: 3652: 3648: 3646:1-85043-077-2 3642: 3638: 3631: 3624: 3619: 3613: 3609: 3602: 3595: 3591: 3587: 3581: 3565: 3561: 3555: 3539: 3535: 3531: 3524: 3508: 3504: 3498: 3482: 3478: 3471: 3469: 3452: 3448: 3442: 3426: 3422: 3418: 3414: 3408: 3406: 3404: 3387: 3383: 3379: 3372: 3356: 3352: 3348: 3342: 3326: 3319: 3317: 3315: 3313: 3311: 3309: 3307: 3305: 3303: 3301: 3284: 3277: 3261: 3257: 3250: 3234: 3230: 3224: 3209: 3205: 3199: 3192: 3188: 3185: 3180: 3164: 3160: 3154: 3152: 3150: 3148: 3146: 3144: 3142: 3134: 3130: 3127: 3122: 3120: 3118: 3116: 3114: 3112: 3110: 3102: 3099: 3095: 3091: 3088: 3083: 3076: 3070: 3063: 3057: 3051: 3050:1-84115-007-X 3047: 3043: 3037: 3021: 3017: 3013: 3007: 3005: 3003: 3001: 2984: 2980: 2974: 2958: 2954: 2948: 2941: 2936: 2934:9780275989088 2930: 2926: 2922: 2917: 2916: 2907: 2900: 2896: 2892: 2886: 2875:September 10, 2871: 2867: 2860: 2849:September 25, 2844: 2840: 2834: 2818: 2814: 2810: 2804: 2788: 2784: 2780: 2774: 2758: 2754: 2752:1-56432-069-3 2748: 2744: 2743: 2736: 2729: 2725: 2722: 2717: 2715: 2713: 2711: 2702: 2696: 2692: 2691: 2683: 2675: 2669: 2665: 2664: 2656: 2652: 2638: 2635: 2633: 2630: 2628: 2625: 2623: 2620: 2618: 2615: 2613: 2610: 2608: 2605: 2603: 2600: 2598: 2595: 2593: 2590: 2588: 2585: 2583: 2580: 2578: 2575: 2574: 2570: 2559: 2556: 2545: 2538: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2519: 2514: 2510: 2509: 2498: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2484: 2480: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2449: 2445: 2441: 2434: 2429: 2426: 2422: 2418: 2414: 2410: 2406: 2403: 2399: 2393: 2391: 2387: 2383: 2379: 2375: 2370: 2366: 2362: 2358: 2354: 2350: 2338: 2333: 2331: 2326: 2324: 2319: 2318: 2316: 2315: 2306: 2303: 2300: 2297: 2294: 2291: 2288: 2285: 2282: 2279: 2276: 2273: 2270: 2267: 2264: 2261: 2258: 2255: 2252: 2249: 2246: 2243: 2240: 2237: 2234: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2218: 2215: 2212: 2211:Iran–Iraq War 2209: 2206: 2203: 2200: 2197: 2194: 2191: 2188: 2185: 2182: 2179: 2178: 2177: 2176: 2174: 2173: 2169: 2165: 2164: 2161: 2156: 2152: 2151: 2147: 2144: 2143:Ahmed Chalabi 2137: 2134: 2130: 2129:Richard Haass 2126: 2122: 2110: 2108: 2104: 2100: 2096: 2092: 2082: 2080: 2076: 2072: 2068: 2063: 2061: 2057: 2052: 2044: 2040: 2035: 2025: 2022: 2014: 2011:February 2018 2004: 2000: 1996: 1990: 1989: 1985: 1980:This section 1978: 1974: 1969: 1968: 1960: 1958: 1954: 1949: 1945: 1943: 1942:32nd parallel 1939: 1930: 1926: 1921: 1917: 1915: 1910: 1906: 1902: 1898: 1894: 1890: 1886: 1882: 1872: 1870: 1866: 1862: 1857: 1849: 1845: 1841: 1836: 1832: 1830: 1826: 1822: 1813: 1809: 1805: 1791: 1789: 1785: 1781: 1776: 1774: 1770: 1769:"disappeared" 1766: 1762: 1761:human shields 1751: 1749: 1745: 1740: 1738: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1723:on March 30, 1722: 1718: 1713: 1708: 1706: 1702: 1698: 1694: 1690: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1673: 1671: 1666: 1661: 1657: 1652: 1645: 1641: 1637: 1632: 1628: 1626: 1622: 1618: 1607: 1605: 1601: 1597: 1592: 1590: 1585: 1580: 1576: 1572: 1568: 1563: 1559: 1555: 1552:), Islamist ( 1551: 1547: 1543: 1539: 1534: 1532: 1528: 1524: 1520: 1516: 1506: 1504: 1503:regime change 1500: 1496: 1492: 1489: 1485: 1481: 1477: 1476:Badr Brigades 1472: 1470: 1466: 1462: 1458: 1454: 1450: 1446: 1441: 1437: 1432: 1428: 1424: 1420: 1415: 1413: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1390: 1386: 1382: 1378: 1374: 1370: 1359: 1357: 1353: 1347: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1329: 1323: 1318: 1316: 1310: 1305: 1303: 1299: 1298:military coup 1295: 1291: 1285: 1281: 1271: 1269: 1265: 1264:Iran–Iraq War 1255: 1253: 1249: 1245: 1241: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1219: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1184: 1182: 1178: 1174: 1173:Iran–Iraq War 1170: 1167: 1163: 1159: 1155: 1151: 1147: 1143: 1130: 1127: 1123: 1120: 1119: 1118: 1115: 1113: 1110: 1108: 1105: 1104: 1103: 1101: 1094: 1091: 1089: 1086: 1084: 1081: 1079: 1076: 1074: 1071: 1069: 1066: 1064: 1061: 1060: 1059: 1057: 1050: 1047: 1045: 1042: 1040: 1037: 1036: 1034: 1029: 1024: 1014: 1009: 1007: 1002: 1000: 995: 994: 991: 979: 976: 974: 971: 969: 966: 964: 961: 959: 956: 955: 954: 952: 946: 943: 941: 938: 936: 933: 932: 930: 929:Southern Iraq 925: 920: 910: 905: 903: 898: 896: 891: 890: 887: 873: 870: 868: 865: 863: 860: 858: 855: 853: 850: 848: 845: 843: 840: 839: 838: 835: 831: 828: 826: 823: 821: 818: 816: 813: 811: 808: 807: 806: 803: 799: 796: 794: 791: 790: 789: 786: 784: 781: 780: 777: 766: 761: 759: 754: 752: 747: 746: 743: 739: 726: 717: 716: 711: 698: 695: 686: 683: 674: 671: 670: 667: 659: 657: 642: 641: 636: 633: 622: 611: 606: 599: 593: 592:Hadi al-Amiri 582: 570: 565: 564: 553: 551: 550:Qusay Hussein 540: 529: 518: 507: 506:Hussein Kamel 496: 484: 479: 478: 467: 466: 461: 458: 446: 434: 433:United States 422: 419: 417: 399: 396: 395: 390: 380: 378: 368: 366: 356: 354: 344: 342: 332: 331: 330: 328: 317: 315: 306: 302: 297: 292: 290: 285: 278: 273: 271: 261: 259: 249: 247: 246:Badr Brigades 243: 233: 232: 231: 230: 228: 224: 220: 215: 211: 208: 206: 196: 194: 184: 182: 172: 168: 165: 163: 153: 151: 146: 141: 140: 139: 134: 129: 128: 127: 126: 125: 112: 111: 106: 99: 95: 91: 86: 85: 81: 78: 77: 73: 69: 66: 65: 61: 58: 57: 53: 47: 42: 39: 34: 29: 26: 22: 6534:Camp Liberty 6506:Simaye Azadi 6430:1981 in Iran 6344:Jafar Kazemi 6314:Jafar Kazemi 6274:Kazem Rajavi 5984:Christianity 5866:Demographics 5800:Oil reserves 5795:Oil Industry 5762:Central Bank 5658:Human rights 5584:Constitution 5529:Tigris river 5509:Persian Gulf 5351: 5217:Ottoman Iraq 5202:Qara Qoyunlu 5036:Ubaid period 4945: 4932: 4925: 4918: 4911: 4788: 4781: 4774: 4767: 4694: 4678:U.S. support 4563: 4531: 4515: 4444:Air campaign 4404:Medina Ridge 4246:Participants 4172: 4148: 4143: 4131:. Retrieved 4117: 4105:. Retrieved 4091: 4079:. Retrieved 4075:the original 4065: 4053:. Retrieved 4039: 4031: 4016: 3996: 3977: 3971: 3963: 3933:. Retrieved 3919: 3900: 3893:The Guardian 3892: 3862:. Retrieved 3848: 3836:. Retrieved 3822: 3803: 3784: 3767: 3752: 3744: 3707: 3695:. Retrieved 3681: 3669:. Retrieved 3658: 3650: 3636: 3630: 3621: 3607: 3601: 3593: 3590:the original 3580: 3568:. Retrieved 3564:the original 3554: 3542:. Retrieved 3533: 3523: 3511:. Retrieved 3507:the original 3497: 3485:. Retrieved 3479:. Alternet. 3455:. Retrieved 3441: 3429:. Retrieved 3420: 3413:Zenko, Micah 3392:February 14, 3390:. Retrieved 3381: 3371: 3359:. Retrieved 3350: 3341: 3329:. Retrieved 3287:. Retrieved 3276: 3264:. Retrieved 3260:the original 3249: 3237:. Retrieved 3223: 3211:. Retrieved 3207: 3198: 3179: 3167:. Retrieved 3100: 3082: 3074: 3069: 3061: 3056: 3041: 3036: 3024:. Retrieved 3015: 2987:. Retrieved 2973: 2961:. Retrieved 2957:the original 2947: 2938: 2914: 2906: 2890: 2885: 2873:. Retrieved 2869: 2859: 2847:. Retrieved 2833: 2823:December 16, 2821:. Retrieved 2813:The Guardian 2812: 2803: 2791:. Retrieved 2782: 2773: 2761:. Retrieved 2741: 2735: 2689: 2682: 2662: 2655: 2535:Michael Wood 2530: 2529:documentary 2523:Abbas Fahdel 2516: 2506: 2504: 2475: 2436: 2431: 2417:the Pentagon 2394: 2360: 2353:Colin Powell 2346: 2244: 2139: 2121:Colin Powell 2118: 2088: 2064: 2048: 2045:rebel forces 2017: 2008: 1993:Please help 1981: 1950: 1946: 1934: 1925:3rd Infantry 1878: 1853: 1850:, 1 May 1991 1817: 1777: 1757: 1741: 1709: 1674: 1669: 1648: 1613: 1593: 1575:Sulaymaniyah 1535: 1512: 1473: 1416: 1397: 1349: 1340:Ba'ath Party 1325: 1320: 1312: 1307: 1287: 1261: 1242:established 1220: 1208:Ba'ath Party 1185: 1141: 1139: 1099: 1098: 1092: 1055: 1054: 1032: 973:Tuz Khormato 958:Sulaymaniyah 950: 949: 928: 916: 797: 738: 722: 5,000 696: 684: 672: 660: 643: 561: 475: 420: 397: 312: 311: 225:elements of 217: 216: 181:Popular Army 138:Ba'ath Party 123: 113: 108:Belligerents 36:Part of the 25: 21:Iraqi Revolt 6529:Camp Ashraf 6140:WikiProject 5941:Marsh Arabs 5926:Circassians 5607:Foreign aid 5499:Mesopotamia 5061:Uruk period 4880:Daughters: 4796:Blood Quran 4384:Al Busayyah 4125:. Hrw.org. 3856:. Hrw.org. 3285:. Unhcr.org 3208:www.hrw.org 2841:. Hrw.org. 2617:Arab Spring 2555:Iraq portal 2508:Three Kings 2405:Dick Cheney 1909:Lake Hammar 1885:Marsh Arabs 1780:mass graves 1705:mustard gas 1681:nerve agent 1625:Saddam City 1425:, south of 1262:During the 1228:Marsh Arabs 1194:Islamists, 1100:Later phase 945:Saddam City 87:Territorial 6568:Categories 6057:Television 6037:Literature 5999:Irreligion 5974:Secularism 5911:Minorities 5779:(currency) 5772:Corruption 5617:Government 5408:Insurgency 5207:Aq Qoyunlu 5028:Chronology 4927:South Park 4805:Propaganda 4562:Operation 4514:Operation 4409:2nd Kuwait 4394:73 Easting 4389:67 Easting 4267:Background 4157:0060764686 4133:August 14, 4107:August 14, 4081:August 14, 4055:August 14, 4021:Shia Folly 3935:August 14, 3864:August 14, 3838:August 14, 3697:August 14, 3671:August 14, 3487:August 14, 3457:August 14, 3361:August 14, 3331:August 14, 3289:August 14, 3266:August 14, 3239:August 14, 3169:August 14, 3026:August 12, 2989:August 14, 2963:August 14, 2923:. p. 2793:August 12, 2648:References 2470:Al-Mahawil 2448:Mujahideen 2155:leading up 1842:play on a 1754:Casualties 1400:Iraqi Army 1363:Revolution 1300:to topple 1177:population 1156:Arabs and 1148:regime in 1056:Main phase 539:Tariq Aziz 528:Taha Yasin 227:opposition 150:Iraqi Army 124:Government 6516:Locations 6077:Squatting 6042:Education 5989:Mandaeism 5958:/Turkoman 5936:Mandaeans 5921:Assyrians 5916:Armenians 5879:Languages 5767:Companies 5722:Judiciary 5632:President 5602:Elections 5597:Democracy 5443:Geography 5359:Sanctions 5277:2003–2011 5272:1968–2003 5267:1958–1968 5126:Babylonia 4739:reactions 4734:Execution 4656:Biography 4579:Memorials 4507:Aftermath 4343:Coalition 4253:Australia 3570:August 3, 3544:April 13, 3513:August 3, 3101:Frontline 2527:Frontline 2349:Coalition 2265:1992–1996 2259:1991–2003 2253:1991–2003 2241:1990–2003 2235:1990–1991 2213:1980–1988 2201:1978–1979 2189:1961–1991 2043:Peshmerga 1982:does not 1951:Iraq saw 1905:Hezbollah 1794:Aftermath 1746:approved 1596:democracy 1550:Peshmerga 1465:Nasiriyah 1423:Az Zubayr 1356:Euphrates 1192:Shia Arab 1188:provinces 327:Peshmerga 6604:Gulf War 6555:Category 6120:Category 5969:Religion 5946:Persians 5830:Railways 5825:Airlines 5707:Military 5568:Politics 5544:Wildlife 5534:Umm Qasr 5364:Iraq War 5347:Gulf War 5259:Republic 5212:Safavids 5175:638–1958 4712:timeline 4690:Gulf War 4221:Gulf War 4127:Archived 4101:Archived 4049:Archived 4024:Archived 4005:Archived 3956:Archived 3929:Archived 3908:Archived 3885:Archived 3858:Archived 3832:Archived 3811:Archived 3760:Archived 3737:Archived 3715:Archived 3691:Archived 3538:Archived 3481:Archived 3451:Archived 3431:March 7, 3425:Archived 3386:Archived 3355:Archived 3233:Archived 3213:March 8, 3187:Archived 3163:Archived 3129:Archived 3090:Archived 3077:, p. 646 3064:, p. 647 3020:Archived 2983:Archived 2843:Archived 2817:Archived 2787:Archived 2783:LA Times 2763:July 23, 2757:Archived 2724:Archived 2541:See also 2233:Gulf War 2217:Iraqgate 2160:Iraq War 2133:Mr. Bush 2099:genocide 1729:Qaladiza 1689:phosgene 1670:en masse 1636:Gulf War 1488:mutinous 1484:Islamist 1449:Diwaniya 1412:defected 1322:nations. 1315:Gulf War 1309:nations. 1284:Gulf War 1230:and the 1162:Gulf War 978:Yeşilova 638:Strength 421:Support: 398:Support: 67:Location 6150:Commons 6067:Smoking 6032:Culture 6027:Cuisine 6010:General 5994:Yazidis 5951:Solluba 5904:Persian 5894:Kurdish 5889:Aramaic 5854:Society 5835:Tourism 5746:Economy 5494:Islands 5469:Borders 5294: ( 5284:present 5219:(incl. 5131:Assyria 5076:Subartu 5016:History 4854:Wives: 4719:Capture 4477:Samurra 4429:Rumaila 4424:Norfolk 4419:Jalibah 4367:Battles 3667:. UNHCR 3327:. UNHCR 2940:killed. 2501:In film 2468:on the 2376:, told 2158:to the 2153:Events 2145:in 2011 2003:removed 1988:sources 1940:of the 1891:of the 1604:Baghdad 1515:Kurdish 1469:Samawah 1457:Karbala 1234:in the 1212:Baghdad 940:Karbala 316:rebels: 314:Kurdish 305:militia 223:leftist 89:changes 6373:Events 6236:People 6130:Portal 6072:Sports 6047:Health 6022:Cinema 5874:Iraqis 5777:Dinar 5712:Police 5514:Places 5004:topics 4888:, and 4886:Raghad 4870:Sons: 4850:Barzan 4848:, and 4846:Sabawi 4842:Watban 4827:Family 4586:London 4557:Awards 4434:Safwan 4374:Khafji 4179: 4155: 3984: 3791: 3643: 3614: 3447:"Iraq" 3204:"Iraq" 3073:Fisk. 3060:Fisk. 3048: 2931: 2897: 2749: 2697: 2670: 1914:curfew 1701:CS gas 1567:Kirkuk 1560:; the 1445:Amarah 1387:, and 1352:Tigris 1238:. 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1991 Iraqi uprisings

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