842:
cracks in either surface are created, known as fretting fatigue. It is the more serious of the two phenomena because it can lead to catastrophic failure of the bearing. An associated problem occurs when the small particles removed by wear are oxidized in air. The oxides are usually harder than the underlying metal, so wear accelerates as the harder particles abrade the metal surfaces further. Fretting corrosion acts in the same way, especially when water is present. Unprotected bearings on large structures like bridges can suffer serious degradation in behaviour, especially when salt is used the during winter to deice the highways carried by the bridges. The problem of fretting corrosion was involved in the
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material from the opposite surface. The common analogy is that of material being removed or displaced by a cutting or plowing operation. Three-body wear occurs when the particles are not constrained, and are free to roll and slide down a surface. The contact environment determines whether the wear is classified as open or closed. An open contact environment occurs when the surfaces are sufficiently displaced to be independent of one another
178:
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important factors and is widely recognized in literature. For ductile materials, the maximum wear rate is found when the impingement angle is approximately 30°, whilst for non-ductile materials the maximum wear rate occurs when the impingement angle is normal to the surface. A detailed theoretical analysis of dependency of the erosive wear on the inclination angle and material properties is provided in.
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Fretting wear is the repeated cyclical rubbing between two surfaces. Over a period of time fretting which will remove material from one or both surfaces in contact. It occurs typically in bearings, although most bearings have their surfaces hardened to resist the problem. Another problem occurs when
544:
Abrasive wear is commonly classified according to the type of contact and the contact environment. The type of contact determines the mode of abrasive wear. The two modes of abrasive wear are known as two-body and three-body abrasive wear. Two-body wear occurs when the grits or hard particles remove
351:
The type of mechanism and the amplitude of surface attraction varies between different materials but are amplified by an increase in the density of "surface energy". Most solids will adhere on contact to some extent. However, oxidation films, lubricants and contaminants naturally occurring generally
826:
Surface fatigue is a process in which the surface of a material is weakened by cyclic loading, which is one type of general material fatigue. Fatigue wear is produced when the wear particles are detached by cyclic crack growth of microcracks on the surface. These microcracks are either superficial
864:
Erosive wear can be defined as an extremely short sliding motion and is executed within a short time interval. Erosive wear is caused by the impact of particles of solid or liquid against the surface of an object. The impacting particles gradually remove material from the surface through repeated
1040:
Impact wear is caused by contact between two bodies. Unlike erosive wear, impact wear always occurs at the same, well-defined place. If the impact is repeated, then usually with constant kinetic energy at the moment of impact. The frequency of impacts can vary. Wear can occur on both bodies, but
868:
The rate of erosive wear is dependent upon a number of factors. The material characteristics of the particles, such as their shape, hardness, impact velocity and impingement angle are primary factors along with the properties of the surface being eroded. The impingement angle is one of the most
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Committee G-2 standardizes wear testing for specific applications, which are periodically updated. The
Society for Tribology and Lubrication Engineers (STLE) has documented a large number of frictional, wear and lubrication tests. Standardized wear tests are used to create comparative material
563:
Plowing occurs when material is displaced to the side, away from the wear particles, resulting in the formation of grooves that do not involve direct material removal. The displaced material forms ridges adjacent to grooves, which may be removed by subsequent passage of abrasive particles.
571:
Fragmentation occurs when material is separated from a surface by a cutting process and the indenting abrasive causes localized fracture of the wear material. These cracks then freely propagate locally around the wear groove, resulting in additional material removal by
548:
There are a number of factors which influence abrasive wear and hence the manner of material removal. Several different mechanisms have been proposed to describe the manner in which the material is removed. Three commonly identified mechanisms of abrasive wear are:
1149:
analysis is an alternative, indirect way of measuring wear. Here, wear is detected by the presence of wear particles in a liquid lubricant. To gain further insights into the nature of the particles, chemical (such as XRF, ICP-OES), structural (such as
1100:
rankings for a specific set of test parameter as stipulated in the test description. To obtain more accurate predictions of wear in industrial applications it is necessary to conduct wear testing under conditions simulating the exact wear process.
1082:
In explicit wear tests simulating industrial conditions between metallic surfaces, there are no clear chronological distinction between different wear-stages due to big overlaps and symbiotic relations between various friction mechanisms.
1027:
wear occurs both in lubricated and dry contacts. The fundamental cause are chemical reactions between the worn material and the corroding medium. Wear caused by a synergistic action of tribological stresses and corrosion is also called
1078:
So-called wear maps, demonstrating wear rate under different operation condition, are used to determine stable operation points for tribological contacts. Wear maps also show dominating wear modes under different loading conditions.
567:
Cutting occurs when material is separated from the surface in the form of primary debris, or microchips, with little or no material displaced to the sides of the grooves. This mechanism closely resembles conventional machining.
335:
Generally, adhesive wear occurs when two bodies slide over or are pressed into each other, which promote material transfer. This can be described as plastic deformation of very small fragments within the surface layers. The
344:) found on each surface affect the severity of how fragments of oxides are pulled off and added to the other surface, partly due to strong adhesive forces between atoms, but also due to accumulation of energy in the
681:
865:
deformations and cutting actions. It is a widely encountered mechanism in industry. Due to the nature of the conveying process, piping systems are prone to wear when abrasive particles have to be transported.
359:, which eventually breaches the oxidized surface layer and connects to the underlying bulk material, enhancing the possibility for a stronger adhesion and plastic flow around the lump.
324:
contact and generally refers to unwanted displacement and attachment of wear debris and material compounds from one surface to another. Two adhesive wear types can be distinguished:
430:
355:
Adhesive wear can lead to an increase in roughness and the creation of protrusions (i.e., lumps) above the original surface. In industrial manufacturing, this is referred to as
304:. Wear mechanisms and/or sub-mechanisms frequently overlap and occur in a synergistic manner, producing a greater rate of wear than the sum of the individual wear mechanisms.
223:, causes functional surfaces to degrade, eventually leading to material failure or loss of functionality. Thus, wear has large economic relevance as first outlined in the
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Several standard test methods exist for different types of wear to determine the amount of material removal during a specified time period under well-defined conditions.
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suppress adhesion, and spontaneous exothermic chemical reactions between surfaces generally produce a substance with low energy status in the absorbed species.
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Adhesive wear is caused by relative motion, "direct contact" and plastic deformation which create wear debris and material transfer from one surface to another.
331:
Cohesive adhesive forces, holds two surfaces together even though they are separated by a measurable distance, with or without any actual transfer of material.
1829:
242:. This process may occur by contact with other metals, nonmetallic solids, flowing liquids, solid particles or liquid droplets entrained in flowing gasses.
164:
1659:
Sinmazcelik, T. and I. Taskiran (2007). "Erosive wear behaviour of polyphenylenesulphide (PPS) composites." Materials in engineering 28(9): 2471-2477.
316:
SEM micrograph of adhesive wear (transferred materials) on 52100 steel sample sliding against Al alloy. (Yellow arrow indicate sliding direction)
1075:. The secondary stage is shortened with increasing severity of environmental conditions, such as high temperatures, strain rates and stresses.
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Secondary stage or mid-age process, where steady wear can be observed. Most of the component's operational life is spent in this stage.
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defines it as the loss of material due to hard particles or hard protuberances that are forced against and move along a solid surface.
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ASM Handbook
Committee (2002). ASM Handbook. Friction, Lubrication and Wear Technology. U.S.A., ASM International. Volume 18.
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Mamata, K. P. (2008). "A review on silt erosion in hydro turbines." Renewable & sustainable energy reviews 12(7): 1974.
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Primary stage or early run-in period, where surfaces adapt to each other and the wear-rate might vary between high and low.
181:
Rear (driven) bicycle sprockets. New, left, shows no wear. Right, used, shows obvious wear from being driven clockwise.
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The wear coefficient is a physical coefficient used to measure, characterize and correlate the wear of materials.
1188: – Instrument that measures friction and wear between surfaces — Equipment used to measure friction and wear
269:, in particular by the process of deposition and wearing out of the boundary lubrication layer. Depending on the
1477:
Stachowiak, G. W., and A. W. Batchelor (2005). Engineering
Tribology. Burlington, Elsevier Butterworth-Heinemann
1844:
1561:
Standard
Terminology Relating to Wear and Erosion, Annual Book of Standards, Vol 03.02, ASTM, 1987, pp. 243–250
579:
Abrasive wear can be measured as loss of mass by the Taber
Abrasion Test according to ISO 9352 or ASTM D 4060.
227:. Abrasive wear alone has been estimated to cost 1–4% of the gross national product of industrialized nations.
1439:
Williams, J. A. (2005). "Wear and wear particles – Some fundamentals." Tribology
International 38(10): 863–870
1373:"Is Tribology Approaching Its Golden Age? Grand Challenges in Engineering Education and Tribological Research"
234:
occurs by plastic displacement of surface and near-surface material and by detachment of particles that form
17:
1630:
CAR, Duarte; FJ, de Souza; VF, dos Santos (January 2016). "Mitigating elbow erosion with a vortex chamber".
387:
1819:
P. J. Blau, Tribosystem
Analysis - A Practical Approach to the Diagnosis of Wear Problems. CRC Press, 2016.
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Tertiary stage or old-age period, where surfaces are subjected to rapid failure due to a high rate of wear.
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Deep 'groove' like surface indicates abrasive wear over cast iron (yellow arrow indicate sliding direction)
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Under nominal operation conditions, the wear rate normally changes in three different stages:
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usually, one body has significantly higher hardness and toughness and its wear is neglected.
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Wear mechanisms are the physical disturbance. For example, the mechanism of adhesive wear is
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788:
497:
1537:
Stachowiak, Gwidon (2006). "2.2.2 Wear Modes: Abrasive, Adhesive, Flow and
Fatigue Wear".
8:
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293:, the nature of disturbance at the worn surface or "mechanism", and whether it effects a
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138:
108:
73:
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is a test that is carried out to measure the resistance of a granular material to wear.
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is affected by factors such as type of loading (e.g., impact, static, dynamic), type of
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The wear rate is strongly influenced by the operating conditions and the formation of
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Rabinowicz, E. (1965). Friction and Wear of
Materials. New York, John Wiley and Sons.
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35:
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S. C. Lim. Recent
Development in Wear Mechanism Maps. Trib. Intl. 1998; 31; 87–97.
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M. W. Akram, K. Polychronopoulou, A. A. Polycarpou. Trib. Int.: 2013; 57;9 2–100.
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and treatments are used to minimize wear and extend the components working life.
212:
1194: – Damage to concrete affecting its mechanical strength and its durability
1104:
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Abrasive wear occurs when a hard rough surface slides across a softer surface.
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Akchurin, Aydar; Bosman, Rob; Lugt, Piet M.; Drogen, Mark van (2016-06-16).
1303:"Analysis of Wear Particles Formed in Boundary-Lubricated Sliding Contacts"
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Stoßprobleme in Physik, Technik und Medizin: Grundlagen und Anwendungen
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676:{\displaystyle V=\alpha \beta {\frac {WL}{H_{v}}}=K{\frac {WL}{H_{v}}}}
1800:, NASA-SP-8063, 1971, 75 pp. A nice, free and good document available
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Damaging, gradual removal or deformation of material at solid surfaces
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Other, less common types of wear are cavitation and diffusive wear.
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1200: – coefficient used in physics for mesuring matterial wearing
1012:
is typically between 2 - 2.5 for metals and 2.5 - 3 for ceramics.
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258:
193:
83:
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is the damaging, gradual removal or deformation of material at
745:
is the degrees of wear by an asperity (typically 0.1 to 1.0),
1024:
573:
204:). The study of wear and related processes is referred to as
189:
1473:
1471:
1182: – Dependence of the state of a system on its history
1711:
Advanced Thermally Assisted Surface Engineering Processes
1505:. Materials Park, OH: ASM International. pp. 72–75.
1750:"Lubrication theory in oil analysis| Learn Oil Analysis"
1468:
1300:
1408:
892:, can be fit with a power law dependence on velocity:
725:
is the shape factor of an asperity (typically ~ 0.1),
362:
A simple model for the wear volume for adhesive wear,
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Surface engineering for corrosion and wear resistance
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Surface engineering for corrosion and wear resistance
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Surface engineering for corrosion and wear resistance
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R. Bosman and D. J. Schipper. Wear 2012; 280; 54–62.
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Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback
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H.C. Meng and K. C Ludema. Wear 1995; 183; 443–457.
1736:
Various Modes of Wear and their Controlling Factors
1686:Stachwaik, Gwidon W.; Batchelor, Andrew W. (2005).
872:For a given particle morphology, the erosion rate,
320:Adhesive wear can be found between surfaces during
1685:
1343:
1243:Surface Wear - Analysis, Treatment, and Prevention
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238:. The particle size may vary from millimeters to
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348:between the asperities during relative motion.
34:"Worn out" redirects here. For the painting by
1830:University of Miskolc: Wear and wear mechanism
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1176: – Clearance between mating components
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1409:"Towards a unified classification of wear"
582:The wear volume for single-abrasive wear,
192:. Causes of wear can be mechanical (e.g.,
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1541:. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 11–14.
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1170: – Process of wearing down a surface
289:Types of wear are identified by relative
1786:. Springer-Verlag, London, 2008, 206 pp.
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311:
215:, together with other processes such as
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1738:. NASA Technical Memorendum TM X-52426.
1713:. MA, USA: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
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1629:
1539:Wear- Materials, Mechanism and Practice
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14:
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1119:is the classic wear prediction model.
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425:{\displaystyle V=K{\frac {WL}{H_{v}}}}
1592:. ASM International. pp. 61–67.
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1793:, Elsevier, Amsterdam, 1987, 560 pp.
1791:Microstructure and wear of materials
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1377:Frontiers in Mechanical Engineering
1209: – Model used to describe wear
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24:
1777:Friction and Lubrication of Solids
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1272:. ASM International. p. 56.
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1117:Reye–Archard–Khrushchov wear law
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1798:Lubrication, Friction, and Wear
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1154:) or optical analysis (such as
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1779:(Oxford:Clarendon Press 1950).
1690:(3rd ed.). Elsevier Inc.
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1245:. OH, USA: ASM-International.
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13:
1:
1675:(in German). Springer Vieweg.
1346:Metals Handbook: Desk Edition
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827:cracks or subsurface cracks.
785:is the sliding distance, and
494:is the sliding distance, and
1644:10.1016/j.powtec.2015.10.032
1016:Corrosion and oxidation wear
340:or microscopic high points (
7:
1489:Glaeser, W. A., Ed. (1993).
1371:Popov, Valentin L. (2018).
1161:
114:Metal-induced embrittlement
10:
1866:
1734:Bisson, Edmond E. (1968).
1709:Chattopadhyay, R. (2004).
1241:Chattopadhyay, R. (2001).
1131:
857:
834:
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104:Liquid metal embrittlement
33:
26:
1669:Willert, Emanuel (2020).
1499:Davis, Joseph R. (2001).
1426:10.1007/s40544-013-0027-x
1342:Davis, J.R., ed. (1998).
1320:10.1007/s11249-016-0701-z
765:is the wear coefficient,
474:is the wear coefficient,
285:Wear types and mechanisms
119:Stress corrosion cracking
1450:"Wear – About Tribology"
1390:10.3389/fmech.2018.00016
992:is a velocity exponent.
923:{\displaystyle E=kv^{n}}
51:Mechanical failure modes
718:{\displaystyle \alpha }
602:, can be described by:
382:, can be described by:
124:Sulfide stress cracking
1784:Solid Particle Erosion
1782:Kleis I. and Kulu P.:
1407:Varenberg, M. (2013).
1174:Backlash (engineering)
1006:
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738:{\displaystyle \beta }
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94:Hydrogen embrittlement
1845:Materials degradation
1688:Engineering tribology
1586:Davis, J. R. (2001).
1350:. ASM International.
1266:Davis, J. R. (2001).
1168:Abrasion (mechanical)
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1754:learnoilanalysis.com
1192:Concrete degradation
1158:) can be performed.
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27:For other uses, see
1696:2005entr.book.....W
1085:Surface engineering
1045:Other Types of Wear
848:Mianus River Bridge
109:Mechanical overload
1142:Lubricant analysis
1097:ASTM International
1002:
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822:Fatigue (material)
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40:At Eternity's Gate
1720:978-1-4020-7696-1
1632:Powder Technology
1548:978-0-470-01628-2
1512:978-0-87170-700-0
1307:Tribology Letters
1252:978-0-87170-702-4
1213:Reye's hypothesis
1005:{\displaystyle n}
985:{\displaystyle n}
972:is velocity, and
965:{\displaystyle v}
945:{\displaystyle k}
885:{\displaystyle E}
812:is the hardness.
778:{\displaystyle L}
758:{\displaystyle K}
698:{\displaystyle W}
671:
643:
595:{\displaystyle V}
521:is the hardness.
487:{\displaystyle L}
467:{\displaystyle K}
447:{\displaystyle W}
420:
375:{\displaystyle V}
342:surface roughness
295:self regenerative
281:can be observed.
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69:Corrosion fatigue
16:(Redirected from
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1152:ferrography
1053:Wear stages
1036:Impact Wear
271:tribosystem
267:lubrication
263:temperature
236:wear debris
225:Jost Report
1839:Categories
1759:2017-11-30
1608:1027005806
1288:1027005806
1226:References
1186:Tribometer
1180:Hysteresis
1073:tribofilms
858:See also:
850:accident.
338:asperities
322:frictional
275:wear types
240:nanometers
1850:Tribology
1329:1023-8883
1313:(2): 16.
1147:Lubricant
1025:oxidation
1021:Corrosion
733:β
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247:wear rate
206:tribology
202:corrosion
64:Corrosion
1638:: 6–25.
1521:69243337
1413:Friction
1162:See also
837:Fretting
574:spalling
302:adhesion
230:Wear of
211:Wear in
198:chemical
139:Yielding
89:Fracture
59:Buckling
1692:Bibcode
556:Cutting
553:Plowing
357:galling
259:rolling
255:sliding
253:(e.g.,
217:fatigue
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194:erosion
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38:, see
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1802:here
1715:ISBN
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