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assumption of a generic user, without concern for qualifications, work environment, division of work, etc. 2.In particular the role of the artifact as it stands between the user and her materials, objects and outcomes was ill understood. 3. In validating findings and designs there was a heavy focus on novice users whereas everyday use by experienced users and concerns for the development of expertise were hardly addressed. 4.Detailed task analysis and the idealized models created through task analysis failed to capture the complexity and contingency of real-life action. 5.From the point of view of complex work settings, it was striking how most HCI focused on one user – one computer in contrast to the ever-ongoing cooperation and coordination of real work situations (this problem later lead to the development of
145:). AT provides a method of understanding and analyzing a phenomenon, finding patterns and making inferences across interactions, describing phenomena and presenting phenomena through a built-in language and rhetoric. A particular activity is a goal-directed or purposeful interaction of a subject with an object through the use of tools. These tools are exteriorized forms of mental processes manifested in constructs, whether physical or psychological. As a result the notion of tools in AT is broad and can involve stationary, digital devices, library materials, or even physical meeting spaces. AT recognizes the internalization and externalization of cognitive processes involved in the use of tools, as well as the transformation or development that results from the interaction.
361:—all human experience is shaped by the tools and sign systems we use." Nardi (p. 6) explained that "a basic tenet of activity theory is that a notion of consciousness is central to a depiction of activity. Vygotsky described consciousness as a phenomenon that unifies attention, intention, memory, reasoning, and speech..." and (p. 7) "Activity theory, with its emphasis on the importance of motive and consciousness—which belongs only to humans—sees people and things as fundamentally different. People are not reduced to 'nodes' or 'agents' in a system; 'information processing' is not seen as something to be modelled in the same way for people and machines."
357:. Kuutti's work is addressed below. Nardi's approach is, briefly, as follows: Nardi (p. 6) described activity theory as "...a powerful and clarifying descriptive tool rather than a strongly predictive theory. The object of activity theory is to understand the unity of consciousness and activity...Activity theorists argue that consciousness is not a set of discrete disembodied cognitive acts (decision making, classification, remembering), and certainly it is not the brain; rather, consciousness is located in everyday practice: you are what you do." Nardi (p. 5) also argued that "activity theory proposes a strong notion of
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an illustration, an activity might be the operation of an automated call centre. As we shall see later, many subjects may be involved in the activity and each subject may have one or more motives (e.g. improved supply management, career advancement or gaining control over a vital organisational power source). A simple example of an activity within a call centre might be a telephone operator (subject) who is modifying a customer's billing record (object) so that the billing data is correct (outcome) using a graphical front end to a database (tool).
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strong inspiration from
Scandinavian activity theory groups in psychology. Bannon (1990, 1991) and Grudin (1990a and b) made significant contributions to the furthering of the approach by making it available to the HCI audience. The work of Kaptelinin (1996) has been important to connect to the earlier development of activity theory in Russia. Nardi produced the, hitherto, most applicable collection of activity theoretical HCI literature (Nardi, 1996).
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208:, looking at the different degrees to which animals can be said to have mental processes. He concluded that Pavlov's reflexionism was not a sufficient explanation of animal behaviour and that animals have an active relation to reality, which he called "activity". In particular, the behaviour of higher primates such as chimpanzees could only be explained by the ape's formation of multi-phase plans using tools.
166:, a field that became the basis for modern AT; Leont'ev, one of the principal founders of activity theory, both developed and reacted against Vygotsky's work. Leont'ev's formulation of general activity theory is currently a strong influence in post-Soviet developments in AT, which have largely been in social-scientific, organizational, and writing-studies rather than psychological research and organization.
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122:, a leading theorist in AT, activity theory "focuses on practice, which obviates the need to distinguish 'applied' from 'pure' science—understanding everyday practice in the real world is the very objective of scientific practice. ... The object of activity theory is to understand the unity of consciousness and activity." Sometimes called "
423:(SSAT), this work represents a modern synthesis within activity theory which brings together the cultural-historical and systems-structural strands of the tradition (as well as other work within Soviet psychology such as the Psychology of Set) with findings and methods from Western human factors/ergonomics and cognitive psychology.
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methodical perspectives suited to deal with issues of flexibility and more advanced mediation between the human being, material and outcomes through the interface, it seemed promising to turn to the still rather young HCI research tradition that had emerged primarily in the US (for further discussion see Bannon & Bødker, 1991).
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systems are used to understand emergent contradictions in the work activity, which are temporarily resolved using information systems (tools) and/or arising from the introduction of information systems. Information science studies use a similar approach to activity theory in order to understand information behaviour "in context".
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between "activities", which satisfy a need, and the "actions" that constitute the activities. Leont'ev also argued that the activity in which a person is involved is reflected in their mental activity, that is (as he puts it) material reality is "presented" to consciousness, but only in its vital meaning or significance.
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classifying, generalising, abstracting and so forth, as a product of our social interactions with other people and of our use of tools." For
Activity Theorists "consciousness" seems to refer to any mental functioning, whereas most other approaches to psychology distinguish conscious from unconscious functions.
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and complexity of real-life activity. One of the strengths of AT is that it bridges the gap between the individual subject and the social reality—it studies both through the mediating activity. The unit of analysis in AT is the concept of object-oriented, collective and culturally mediated human activity, or
555:. Learning has been a favourite subject of management theorists, but it has often been presented in an abstract way separated from the work processes to which the learning should apply. Activity theory provides a potential corrective to this tendency. For instance, Engeström's review of Nonaka's work on
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Kuutti formulates activity theory in terms of the structure of an activity. "An activity is a form of doing directed to an object, and activities are distinguished from each other according to their objects. Transforming the object into an outcome motivates the existence of an activity. An object can
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Activity theory begins with the notion of activity. An activity is seen as a system of human "doing" whereby a subject works on an object in order to obtain a desired outcome. In order to do this, the subject employs tools, which may be external (e.g. an axe, a computer) or internal (e.g. a plan). As
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Over the last 15 years the use and exploration of activity theory in information systems has grown. One stream of research has focused on technology mediated change and the implementation of technologies and how they disrupt, change and improve organisational work activity. In these studies, activity
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Activity theory is more of a descriptive meta-theory or framework than a predictive theory. It considers an entire work/activity system (including teams, organizations, etc.) beyond just one actor or user. It accounts for environment, history of the person, culture, role of the artifact, motivations,
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The levels of activity are also characterised by their purposes: "Activities are oriented to motives, that is, the objects that are impelling by themselves. Each motive is an object, material or ideal, that satisfies a need. Actions are the processes functionally subordinated to activities; they are
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At the end of the 1990s, a group of
Russian and American activity theorists working in the systems-cybernetic tradition of Bernshtein and Anokhin began to publish English-language articles and books dealing with topics in human factors and ergonomics and, latterly, human–computer interaction. Under
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Some of the changes are a systematisation of Leont'ev's work. Although Leont'ev's exposition is clear and well structured, it is not as well-structured as the formulation by Yrjö Engeström. Kaptelinin remarks that
Engeström "proposed a scheme of activity different from that by Leont'ev; it contains
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Verenikina paraphrases Leont'ev as explaining that "the non-coincidence of action and operations... appears in actions with tools, that is, material objects which are crystallised operations, not actions nor goals. If a person is confronted with a specific goal of, say, dismantling a machine, then
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AT remained virtually unknown outside the Soviet Union until the mid-1980s, when it was picked up by
Scandinavian researchers. The first international conference on activity theory was not held until 1986. The earliest non-Soviet paper cited by Nardi is a 1987 paper by Yrjö Engeström: "Learning by
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Leont'ev then progressed to humans and pointed out that people engage in "actions" that do not in themselves satisfy a need, but contribute towards the eventual satisfaction of a need. Often, these actions only make sense in a social context of a shared work activity. This led him to a distinction
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Activity theory provides a number of useful concepts that can be used to address the lack of expression for 'soft' factors which are inadequately represented by most process modelling frameworks. One such concept is the internal plane of action. Activity theory recognises that each activity takes
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The development of SSAT has been specifically oriented toward the analysis and design of the basic elements of human work activity: tasks, tools, methods, objects and results, and the skills, experience and abilities of involved subjects. SSAT has developed techniques for both the qualitative and
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Fjeld, M., Lauche, K., Bichsel, M., Voorhorst, F., Krueger, H., Rauterberg, M. (2002): Physical and
Virtual Tools: Activity Theory Applied to the Design of Groupware. In B. A. Nardi & D. F. Redmiles (eds.) A Special Issue of Computer Supported Cooperative Work (CSCW): Activity Theory and the
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into the discussions, and Ehn (1988) based his treatise of design of computer artifacts on Marx, Heidegger and
Wittgenstein. The development of the activity theoretical angle was primarily carried out by Bødker (1991, 1996) and by Kuutti (Bannon & Kuutti, 1993, Kuutti, 1991, 1996), both with
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Specifically the cognitive science-based theories lacked means of addressing a number of issues that came out of the empirical projects (see Bannon & Bødker, 1991): 1. Many of the early advanced user interfaces assumed that the users were the designers themselves, and accordingly built on an
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was originally introduced by
Vygotsky as "the internal reconstruction of an external operation." Internalisation has subsequently become a key term of the theory of tacit knowledge and has been defined as "a process of embodying explicit knowledge into tacit knowledge." Internalisation has been
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The concepts of motives, goals and conditions discussed above also contribute to the modelling of soft factors. One principle of activity theory is that many activities have multiple motivation ('polymotivation'). For instance, a programmer in writing a program may address goals aligned towards
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Kuutti asserts that "These three classes should be understood broadly. A tool can be anything used in the transformation process, including both material tools and tools for thinking. Rules cover both explicit and implicit norms, conventions, and social relations within a community. Division of
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In addition, Etengoff & Daiute have conducted recent work exploring how social media interfaces can be productively used to mediate conflicts. Their work has illustrated this perspective with analyses of online interactions between gay men and their religious family members and Sunni-Muslim
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Activity theory further argues that subjects are grouped into communities, with rules mediating between subject and community and a division of labour mediating between object and community. A subject may be part of several communities and a community, itself, may be part of other communities.
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Kuutti then adds a third term, the tool, which 'mediates' between the activity and the object. "The tool is at the same time both enabling and limiting: it empowers the subject in the transformation process with the historically collected experience and skill 'crystallised' to it, but it also
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The rise of the personal computer challenged the focus in traditional systems developments on mainframe systems for automation of existing work routines. It furthermore brought forth a need to focus on how to work on materials and objects through the computer. In the search of theoretical and
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Tools or tool mediation – the artifacts (or concepts) used by actors in the system (both material and abstract artifacts). Tools influence actor-structure interactions, they change with accumulating experience. In addition to physical shape, the knowledge also evolves. Tools are influenced by
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In a later work, Nardi et al. in comparing activity theory with cognitive science, argue that "activity theory is above all a social theory of consciousness" and therefore "... activity theory wants to define consciousness, that is, all the mental functioning including remembering, deciding,
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Karl Marx, a sociological theorist, argued that humans are unique compared to other species in that humans create everything they need to survive. According to Marx, this is described as species-being. Marx believed we find our true identity in what we produce in our personal labor.
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expanding". This resulted in a reformulation of AT. Kuutti notes that the term "activity theory" "can be used in two senses: referring to the original Soviet tradition or referring to the international, multi-voiced community applying the original ideas and developing them further."
118:. This system includes the object (or objective), subject, mediating artifacts (signs and tools), rules, community and division of labor. The motive for the activity in AT is created through the tensions and contradictions within the elements of the system. According to ethnographer
405:(Hydén 1981, Engeström, 1987). Philosophers such as Heidegger and Wittgenstein came to play an important role, primarily through discussions of the limitations of AI (Winograd & Flores 1986, Dreyfus & Dreyfus 1986). Suchman (1987) with a similar focus introduced
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The origins of activity theory can be traced to several sources, which have subsequently given rise to various complementary and intertwined strands of development. This account will focus on three of the most important of these strands. The first is associated with the
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Engeström developed an extended model of an activity, which adds another component, community ("those who share the same object"), and then adds rules to mediate between subject and community, and the division of labour to mediate between object and community.
573:, which according to Nonaka, "is highly personal and hard to formalise, making it difficult to communicate to others or to share with others." Leont'ev's concept of operation provides an important insight into this problem. In addition, the key idea of
126:", this approach is particularly useful for studying a group that exists "largely in virtual form, its communications mediated largely through electronic and printed texts." Cultural-Historical Activity Theory has accordingly also been applied to
181:. This work was subsequently developed by researchers such as Pushkin, Zinchenko & Gordeeva, Ponomarenko, Zarakovsky and others, and is currently most well-known through the work on systemic-structural activity theory being carried out by
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Because of these shortcomings, it was necessary to move outside cognitive science-based HCI to find or develop the necessary theoretical platform. European psychology had taken different paths than had
American with much inspiration from
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suggests enhancements based on activity theory, in particular suggesting that the organisational learning process includes preliminary stages of goal and problem formation not found in Nonaka. Lompscher, rather than seeing learning as
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Activity theory therefore includes the notion that an activity is carried out within a social context, or specifically in a community. The way in which the activity fits into the context is thus established by two resulting concepts:
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they must make use of a variety of operations; it makes no difference how the individual operations were learned because the formulation of the operation proceeds differently to the formulation of the goal that initiated the action."
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place in two planes: the external plane and the internal plane. The external plane represents the objective components of the action while the internal plane represents the subjective components of the action. Kaptelinin defines the
274:, which is not found in Leont'ev, was introduced. Also, the notion of collective subject was introduced in the 1970s and 1980s (Leont'ev refers to "joint labour activity", but only has individuals, not groups, as activity subjects).
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Mazzoni, E. (2006). "Extending Web Sites' Usability: from a
Cognitive Perspective to an Activity Theory Approach". In S. Zappala and C. Gray (Eds.) Impact of e-Commerce on Consumers and Small Firms. Aldershot, Hampshire (England),
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quantitative description of work activity. Its design-oriented analyses specifically focus on the interrelationship between the structure and self-regulation of work activity and the configuration of its material components.
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Allen, D., Karanasios, S., & Slavova, M. (2011). Working with activity theory: Context, technology, and information behavior. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 62(4), 776–788.
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Verenikina, I. & Gould, E. (1998) Cultural-historical Psychology & Activity Theory. In Hasan, H., Gould., E. & Hyland, P. (Eds.) Activity Theory and Information Systems (7–18), Vol. 1.Wollongong: UOW
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As Verenikina remarks, tools are "social objects with certain modes of operation developed socially in the course of labour and are only possible because they correspond to the objectives of a practical action."
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as " a concept developed in activity theory that refers to the human ability to perform manipulations with an internal representation of external objects before starting actions with these objects in reality."
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Nardi, B. A. (1996). Activity theory and human computer interaction In B. A. Nardi (Ed.), Context and Consciousness: Activity Theory and Human-Computer Interaction (pp. 1–8). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT
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Object-orientedness – the objective of the activity system. Object refers to the objectiveness of the reality; items are considered objective according to natural sciences but also have social and cultural
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Human creativity plays an important role in activity theory, that "human beings... are essentially creative beings" in "the creative, non-predictable character". Tikhomirov also analyses the importance of
900:"Pushkin on Literature. Selected, trans., and ed. Tatiana Wolff. Rev. ed., with an introductory essay, John Bayley. Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1998. xxxviii, 554 pp. Plates. $ 24.95, paper"
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Bedny, G. Z. & Karwowski, W. (2003b). A Systemic-Structural Activity Approach to the Design of Human-Computer Interaction Tasks. International Journal of Human-Computer Interaction, 16, pp. 235–260.
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Etengoff, C. & Daiute, C. (2015). Online Coming Out Communications between Gay Men and their Religious Family Allies: A Family of Choice and Origin Perspective, Journal of GLBT Family Studies.
376:(ICT) and development (a field of study within information systems), activity theory has also been used to inform development of IT systems and to frame the study of ICT in development settings.
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to consider how quasi-stabilized forms of communication regularize relations and work while forming communally shared knowledge and values in both educational and workplace settings.
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Bedny, G. Z. & Karwowski, W. (2006) A Systemic-Structural Theory of Activity: Applications to Human Performance and Work Design. Boca Raton, CRC Press/Taylor & Francis.
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Chen, R., Sharman, R., Rao, H. R., & Upadhyaya, S. J. (2013). Data Model Development for Fire Related Extreme Events: An Activity Theory Approach. MIS Quarterly, in press.
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Foot, K. (2001). Cultural-Historical Activity Theory as Practical Theory: Illuminating the Development of a Conflict Monitoring Network. Communication Theory, 11(1), 56–83.
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This section presents a short introduction to activity theory, and some brief comments on human creativity in activity theory and the implications of activity theory for
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restricts the interaction to be from the perspective of that particular tool or instrument; other potential features of an object remain invisible to the subject...".
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through six related elements (Bryant et al. as defined by Leonti'ev 1981 and redefined in Engeström 1987) of a conceptual system expanded by more nuanced theories:
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three interacting entities—the individual, the object and the community—instead of the two components—the individual and the object—in Leont'ev's original scheme."
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Etengoff, C. & Daiute, C., (2013). Sunni-Muslim American Religious Development during Emerging Adulthood, Journal of Adolescent Research, 28(6), 690–714.
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Bedny, G. Z. & Meister, D. (1997). The Russian Theory of Activity: Current Applications to Design and Learning, Mahwah, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
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Karanasios, S., & Allen, D. K. (2013). ICT and Development in the Context of Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Closure. Information Systems Journal, 23(2).
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259:. It is known as Scandinavian activity theory. Work in the systems-structural theory of activity is also being carried on by researchers in the US and UK.
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Korpela, M., Mursu, A., & Soriyan, H. A. (2002). Information Systems Development as an Activity. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 11, 111–128.
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Ditsa, G. (2003). Activity theory as a theoretical foundation for information systems research Information management (pp. 192–231): IGI Publishing.
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labour refers to the explicit and implicit organisation of the community as related to the transformation process of the object into the outcome."
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D. Russell & C. Bazerman (Eds.) (1997). The Activity of Writing; The Writing of Activity. Special issue of Mind, Culture, and Activity, 4(4).
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multiple motives such as increasing his or her annual bonus, obtaining relevant career experience and contributing to organisational objectives.
177:, more directly concerned with the neurophysiological basis of activity; its foundation is associated with the Soviet philosopher of psychology
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culture, and their use is a way for the accumulation and transmission of social knowledge. Tools influence both the agents and the structure.
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directed at specific conscious goals... Actions are realised through operations that are determined by the actual conditions of activity."
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Finally, in the Western world, discussions and use of AT are primarily framed within the Scandinavian activity theory strand, developed by
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for a line of eclectic social-sciences theories and research with its roots in the Soviet psychological activity theory pioneered by
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Wilson, T. D. (2008). Activity theory and information seeking. Annual Review of Information Science and Technology, 42, 119–161
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An activity is modelled as a three-level hierarchy. Kuutti schematises processes in activity theory as a three-level system.
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described by Engeström as the "key psychological mechanism" discovered by Vygotsky and is further discussed by Verenikina.
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The goal of activity theory is understanding the mental capabilities of a single individual. However, it rejects the
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activity, and notes the important shift brought about by computerisation in the balance towards creative activity.
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emerging adults' efforts to maintain a positive ethnic identity via online religious forums in post 9/11 contexts.
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C. Bazerman & D. Russell (Eds.) (2003). Writing selves, writing societies. WAC Clearinghouse & MCA.
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and his associates, including a focus on the application of this theory as well as other related theories.
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Subject or internalization – actors engaged in the activities; the traditional notion of mental processes
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After Vygotsky's early death, Leont'ev became the leader of the research group nowadays known as the
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Methodological reflections on Leontiev's Activity Theory: Activity Theory and "The Logic of History"
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The application of activity theory to information systems derives from the work of Bonnie Nardi and
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and extended Vygotsky's research framework in significantly new ways. Leont'ev first examined the
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Vygotsky Circle as a Personal Network of Scholars: Restoring Connections Between People and Ideas
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The second major line of development within activity theory involves Russian scientists, such as
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rules: these are both explicit and implicit and define how subjects must fit into the community;
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Becoming Wikipedian: Transformation of participation in a collaborative online encyclopedia
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division of labour: this describes how the object of the activity relates to the community.
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and socially situated phenomena and to go beyond paradigms of reflexology (the teaching of
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Russell, D. (1997). Rethinking genre in school and society: An activity theory analysis.
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Community or externalization – social context; all actors involved in the activity system
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The Knowledge-Creating Company: How Japanese Companies Create the Dynamics of Innovation
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Learning by expanding : an activity-theoretical approach to developmental research
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Learning by expanding : an activity-theoretical approach to developmental research
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The Scandinavian AT school of thought seeks to integrate and develop concepts from
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Learning by Expanding: An Activity-theoretical Approach to Developmental Research
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AT is particularly useful as a lens in qualitative research methodologies (e.g.,
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and Leont'ev's activity theory with Western intellectual developments such as
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Rules – conventions, guidelines and rules regulating activities in the system
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Allen, David K.; Brown, Andrew; Karanasios, Stan; Norman, Alistair (2013).
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The Russian Theory of Activity: Current Applications To Design and Learning
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Karwowski, Waldemar (11 June 2019), Bedny, Gregory Z; Bedny, Inna (eds.),
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Context and Consciousness: Activity Theory and Human-Computer Interaction
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Activity theory has an interesting approach to the difficult problems of
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HCI models, theories, and frameworks: Toward a multidisciplinary science
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http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/aris.2008.1440420111/abstract
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HCI Models, Theories, and Framewors: Toward an Interdisciplinary Science
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The social lens : an invitation to social and sociological theory
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Spinuzzi, C. (2003). Tracing Genres through Organizations. MIT Press.
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90:. It became one of the major psychological approaches in the former
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Some changes were introduced, apparently by importing notions from
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Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes
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Engeström, Yrjö; Miettinen, Reijo; Punamäki, Raija-Leena (1999).
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Acting with Technology: Activity Theory and Interaction Design.
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http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/isj.12011/abstract
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and in particular the "troika" of young Russian researchers,
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Activity theory is most often used to describe actions in a
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in the 1930s. It was later advocated for and popularized by
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be a material thing, but it can also be less tangible."
1481:. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 56.
1528:. Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science,
1560:, Morgan Kaufmann, San Francisco. pp. 291–324.
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955:"Applied and Systemic-Structural Activity Theories"
215:Activity theory also influenced the development of
710:. Series in Applied Psychology. Psychology Press.
298:, analyzing the cultural and technical aspects of
849:Practice of Design, Volume 11 (1–2), pp. 153–180.
397:). 6.Users were mainly seen as objects of study.
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859:Morf, Martin E.; Weber, Wolfgang G. (May 2000).
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1450:Nonaka, Ikujiro; Takeuchi, Hirotaka (1995).
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30:For the psychosocial theory of aging, see
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374:Information and communications technology
1514:Activity, Consciousness, and Personality
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706:Bedny, Gregory; Meister, David (1997).
659:Social constructivism (learning theory)
345:mediate social action (Bryant et al.).
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1407:(Third ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA.
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270:theory. For instance, the notion of
1507:Problems of the development of mind
691:Vygotsky: An Intellectual Biography
679:Cultural-Historical Activity Theory
608:Cultural-historical activity theory
521:
421:systemic-structural activity theory
124:Cultural-Historical Activity Theory
24:
1546:
1365:. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit Oy.
1330:. Helsinki: Orienta-Konsultit Oy.
1004:Kerr, Stephen (22 November 1997).
795:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2001.tb00233.x
649:Post-rationalist cognitive therapy
337:Activity theory helps explain how
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1403:Allan, Kenneth (21 May 2013).
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742:. Cambridge University Press.
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241:Cultural-historical psychology
164:cultural-historical psychology
156:Moscow Institute of Psychology
27:Soviet psychological framework
13:
1:
1596:The Future of Activity Theory
1045:"Chapter 11: Activity Theory"
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1284:Verenikina, Irina M (2010).
1230:10.1080/1550428X.2014.964442
543:Learning and tacit knowledge
500:The internal plane of action
294:individuals as insufficient
217:organizational-activity game
202:Kharkov School of Psychology
160:Vygotsky, Leont'ev and Luria
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1456:. Oxford University Press.
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1600:Giorgos Kakarinos (2013):
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1050:. In Carroll, J.M. (ed.).
384:Human–computer interaction
268:human–computer interaction
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898:Debreczeny, Paul (1999).
810:Written Communication, 14
507:internal plane of actions
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1609:9 September 2019 at the
1591:What is Activity Theory?
1477:Vygotsky, L. S. (1978).
1359:Engeström, Yrjö (1987).
1324:Engeström, Yrjö (1987).
1303:. Orienta-Konsultit Oy.
1299:Engeström, Yrjö (1987).
1246:10.1177/0743558413477197
1060:10.4135/9781412957397.n3
1010:University of Washington
593:Activity-centered design
967:10.1201/9780429466311-1
403:dialectical materialism
286:Activity system diagram
74:and his followers) and
32:Activity theory (aging)
1631:Social constructionism
1626:Psychological theories
1524:Yasnitsky, A. (2011).
1393:Kaptelinin 1996, p. 51
1029:Kaptelinin 1996, p. 57
763:Nardi, Bonnie (1995).
689:Yasnitsky, A. (2018).
624:Educational psychology
619:Distributed leadership
307:socio-technical system
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76:classical conditioning
1641:Sociological theories
1520:Learning by expanding
644:Organization Workshop
614:Distributed cognition
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221:Georgy Shchedrovitsky
206:psychology of animals
96:professional training
1552:Bertelsen, O.W. and
1039:Bertelsen, Olav W.;
551:and, in particular,
531:, contrasting it to
257:Actor-Network Theory
865:Canadian Psychology
603:Critical psychology
349:Information systems
343:social organization
249:American Pragmatism
162:. Vygotsky founded
48:Теория деятельности
654:Situated cognition
634:Interaction design
558:knowledge creation
288:
72:Vladimir Bekhterev
1636:Social philosophy
1488:978-0-674-57628-5
1463:978-0-19-509269-1
1211:10.1111/isj.12011
1171:10.1002/asi.21441
1077:on 25 March 2018.
776:978-0-262-14058-4
749:978-0-521-43730-1
717:978-0-8058-1771-3
529:creative activity
328:Division of labor
245:Cognitive Science
179:Sergei Rubinstein
175:Nikolai Bernstein
104:social psychology
82:and his school),
78:(the teaching of
56:Sergei Rubinstein
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665:References
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443:Activities
143:case study
100:ergonomics
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1423:829099056
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