Adaptation - Knowledge

1676:. The ability to acclimatize is an adaptation, but the acclimatization itself is not. The reproductive rate declines, but deaths from some tropical diseases also go down. Over a longer period of time, some people are better able to reproduce at high altitudes than others. They contribute more heavily to later generations, and gradually by natural selection the whole population becomes adapted to the new conditions. This has demonstrably occurred, as the observed performance of long-term communities at higher altitude is significantly better than the performance of new arrivals, even when the new arrivals have had time to acclimatize. 1849:. The co-option requires new mutations and through natural selection, the population then adapts genetically to its present circumstances. Genetic changes may result in entirely new or gradual change to visible structures, or they may adjust physiological activity in a way that suits the habitat. The varying shapes of the beaks of Darwin's finches, for example, are driven by adaptive mutations in the ALX1 gene. The coat color of different wild mouse species matches their environments, whether black lava or light sand, owing to adaptive mutations in the 1273: 67: 1751: 8369: 1841:, there would be no genetic changes and no subsequent adaptation through evolution by natural selection. Genetic change occurs in a population when mutation increases or decreases in its initial frequency followed by random genetic drift, migration, recombination or natural selection act on this genetic variation. One example is that the first pathways of enzyme-based metabolism at the very origin of life on Earth may have been co-opted components of the already-existing 2344: 10692: 10337: 9032: 622: 10716: 10347: 9020: 2191: 10756: 609: 1942: 10728: 9052: 1600: 1984: 10704: 9042: 2470:. Many organisms have vestigial organs, which are the remnants of fully functional structures in their ancestors. As a result of changes in lifestyle the organs became redundant, and are either not functional or reduced in functionality. Since any structure represents some kind of cost to the general economy of the body, an advantage may accrue from their elimination once they are not functional. Examples: 2541:, and the availability of resources. The three primary adaptive capacities may have been: (1) replication with moderate fidelity, giving rise to heritability while allowing variation of type, (2) resistance to decay, and (3) acquisition of resources. These adaptive capacities would have been determined by the folded configurations of the RNA replicators resulting from their nucleotide sequences. 2550: 1813:

extinction. In fact, all three things may occur in sequence. Of these three effects only genetic change brings about adaptation. When a habitat changes, the resident population typically moves to more suitable places; this is the typical response of flying insects or oceanic organisms, which have wide (though not unlimited) opportunity for movement. This common response is called

2599:'s thinking, which Aristotle rejected. Modern biologists continue to face the same difficulty. On the one hand, adaptation is purposeful: natural selection chooses what works and eliminates what does not. On the other hand, biologists by and large reject conscious purpose in evolution. The dilemma gave rise to a famous joke by the evolutionary biologist 1957:, where the existence of one species is tightly bound up with the life of another species, new or 'improved' adaptations which occur in one species are often followed by the appearance and spread of corresponding features in the other species. In other words, each species triggers reciprocal natural selection in the other. These 2424:

organic matter. Humans have constructed extensive civilizations with cities in environments as varied as the Arctic and hot deserts. In all three cases, the construction and maintenance of ecological niches helps drive the continued selection of the genes of these animals, in an environment that the animals have modified.

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On the other hand, it may happen that changes in the environment occur suddenly, and then the species becomes less and less well adapted. The only way for it to climb back up that fitness peak is via the introduction of new genetic variation for natural selection to act upon. Seen like this, adaptation is a genetic

1881:, which goes on all the time to some extent, but especially when the population cannot or does not move to another, less hostile area. Given enough genetic change, as well as specific demographic conditions, an adaptation may be enough to bring a population back from the brink of extinction in a process called 2233:) and the size needed for an adult brain (about 1400 cm), means the brain of a newborn child is quite immature. The most vital things in human life (locomotion, speech) just have to wait while the brain grows and matures. That is the result of the birth compromise. Much of the problem comes from our upright 2423:

and humans use some of their adaptations to modify their surroundings, so as to maximize their chances of surviving and reproducing. Beavers create dams and lodges, changing the ecosystems of the valleys around them. Earthworms, as Darwin noted, improve the topsoil in which they live by incorporating

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Habitats and biota do frequently change over time and space. Therefore, it follows that the process of adaptation is never fully complete. Over time, it may happen that the environment changes little, and the species comes to fit its surroundings better and better, resulting in stabilizing selection.

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to behave in a specialized or exploratory manner is inherited—it is an adaptation. Rather different is developmental flexibility: "An animal or plant is developmentally flexible if when it is raised in or transferred to new conditions, it changes in structure so that it is better fitted to survive in

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when RNA chains began to self-replicate, initiating the three mechanisms of Darwinian selection: heritability, variation of type, and competition for resources. The fitness of an RNA replicator (its per capita rate of increase) would likely have been a function of its intrinsic adaptive capacities,

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If a population cannot move or change sufficiently to preserve its long-term viability, then it will become extinct, at least in that locale. The species may or may not survive in other locales. Species extinction occurs when the death rate over the entire species exceeds the birth rate for a long

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brings benefits but at a cost. The neck of a giraffe can be up to 2 m (6 ft 7 in) in length. The benefits are that it can be used for inter-species competition or for foraging on tall trees where shorter herbivores cannot reach. The cost is that a long neck is heavy and adds to the

1419:) can illustrate the distinction: such a parasite may have a very simple bodily structure, but nevertheless the organism is highly adapted to its specific environment. From this we see that adaptation is not just a matter of visible traits: in such parasites critical adaptations take place in the 1812:

of species from other areas. The relative numbers of species in a given habitat are always changing. Change is the rule, though much depends on the speed and degree of the change. When the habitat changes, three main things may happen to a resident population: habitat tracking, genetic change or

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concerning how biologists speak of function and purpose, as this carries implications of evolutionary history – that a feature evolved by natural selection for a specific reason – and potentially of supernatural intervention – that features and organisms exist because of a deity's conscious

2078:; the only flying penguins do is under water. Adaptations serving different functions may be mutually destructive. Compromise and makeshift occur widely, not perfection. Selection pressures pull in different directions, and the adaptation that results is some kind of compromise. 1869:, resulting in target site insensitivity. These same adaptive mutations and similar changes at the same amino acid sites were found to evolve in a parallel manner in distantly related insects that feed on the same plants, and even in a bird that feeds on monarchs through 1634:, or to move to a different habitat. The degree of flexibility is inherited, and varies between individuals. A highly specialized animal or plant lives only in a well-defined habitat, eats a specific type of food, and cannot survive if its needs are not met. Many 2210:'s ornamental train (grown anew in time for each mating season) is a famous adaptation. It must reduce his maneuverability and flight, and is hugely conspicuous; also, its growth costs food resources. Darwin's explanation of its advantage was in terms of 5565: 1671:

If humans move to a higher altitude, respiration and physical exertion become a problem, but after spending time in high altitude conditions they acclimatize to the reduced partial pressure of oxygen, such as by producing more

2214:: "This depends on the advantage which certain individuals have over other individuals of the same sex and species, in exclusive relation to reproduction." The kind of sexual selection represented by the peacock is called ' 1769:

on a fitness landscape. To evolve to another, higher peak, a population would first have to pass through a valley of maladaptive intermediate stages, and might be "trapped" on a peak that is not optimally adapted.

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this is a mutually beneficial co-evolution as each of a group of strongly defended species (such as wasps able to sting) come to advertise their defenses in the same way. Features evolved for one purpose may be

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thought that even in a stable environment, because of antagonistic species interactions and limited resources, a species must constantly had to adapt to maintain its relative standing. This became known as the

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Adaptation is not always a simple matter where the ideal phenotype evolves for a given environment. An organism must be viable at all stages of its development and at all stages of its evolution. This places

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Another possibility is that a trait may have been adaptive at some point in an organism's evolutionary history, but a change in habitats caused what used to be an adaptation to become unnecessary or even

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and phenotypic change during evolution should be relatively small, because developmental systems are so complex and interlinked. However, it is not clear what "relatively small" should mean, for example

6027:(1992). "Evolution of the Auditory System in Synapsida ("Mammal-Like Reptiles" and Primitive Mammals) as Seen in the Fossil Record". In Webster, Douglas B.; Fay, Richard R.; Popper, Arthur N. (eds.). 1722:

1. Relative fitness. The average contribution to the next generation by a genotype or a class of genotypes, relative to the contributions of other genotypes in the population. This is also known as

2458:, features brought about by neighbouring adaptations, on the analogy with the often highly decorated triangular areas between pairs of arches in architecture, which began as functionless features. 5438:

Dimond, C. C.; Cabin, R. J.; Brooks, J. S. (2011). "Feathers, Dinosaurs, and Behavioral Cues: Defining the Visual Display Hypothesis for the Adaptive Function of Feathers in Non-Avian Theropods".

1611:, and learning, all of which are changes during life which are not inherited. Flexibility deals with the relative capacity of an organism to maintain itself in different habitats: its degree of 1698:. Differences in fitness between genotypes predict the rate of evolution by natural selection. Natural selection changes the relative frequencies of alternative phenotypes, insofar as they are 2313:, with their huge populations, also carry a great deal of genetic variability. The first experimental evidence of the pre-adaptive nature of genetic variants in microorganisms was provided by 1431:

which result from the process. Many aspects of an animal or plant can be correctly called adaptations, though there are always some features whose function remains in doubt. By using the term

4881: 5580: 1235:). Some biologists try to avoid terms which imply purpose in adaptation, not least because it suggests a deity's intentions, but others note that adaptation is necessarily purposeful. 10660: 2607:

commented that Haldane's mistress "has become a lawfully wedded wife. Biologists no longer feel obligated to apologize for their use of teleological language; they flaunt it."

5413: 1365:, for putting forward a mechanism whose significance had only been glimpsed previously. A century later, experimental field studies and breeding experiments by people such as 2179:

from being washed out by current. However, elongated body increases risk of desiccation and decreases dispersal ability of the salamanders; it also negatively affects their

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Just as there is co-adaptation, there is also coextinction, the loss of a species due to the extinction of another with which it is coadapted, as with the extinction of a

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enough period for the species to disappear. It was an observation of Van Valen that groups of species tend to have a characteristic and fairly regular rate of extinction.

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Pre-adaptation occurs when a population has characteristics which by chance are suited for a set of conditions not previously experienced. For example, the polyploid

3195: 1758:, a population can evolve by following the arrows to the adaptive peak at point B, and the points A and C are local optima where a population could become trapped. 10650: 10069: 1656:. A generalist, on the other hand, eats a range of food, and can survive in many different conditions. Examples are humans, rats, crabs and many carnivores. The 1470:

on the evolution of development, behaviour, and structure of organisms. The main constraint, over which there has been much debate, is the requirement that each

338: 10655: 2912:, p. 483: "Adaptation... could no longer be considered a static condition, a product of a creative past, and became instead a continuing dynamic process." 10640: 2815:, pp. 86–95: "Whatever the true nature of Lamarck's theory, it was his mechanism of adaptation that caught the attention of later naturalists." (p. 90) 10645: 6212: 3099: 1357:, accepted adaptation, and some also accepted evolution, without voicing their opinions as to the mechanism. This illustrates the real merit of Darwin and 1718:

commented that adaptation was a retrospective concept since it implied something about the history of a trait, whereas fitness predicts a trait's future.

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result rather than an a priori goal-seeking", meaning that the question of whether something is an adaptation can only be determined after the event.

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Some traits do not appear to be adaptive as they have a neutral or deleterious effect on fitness in the current environment. Because genes often have

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and the entire concept of natural selection depends on the presence of genetic variation, regardless of the population size of a species in question.

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Since the phenotype as a whole is the target of selection, it is impossible to improve simultaneously all aspects of the phenotype to the same degree.

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proposed a tendency for organisms to become more complex, moving up a ladder of progress, plus "the influence of circumstances", usually expressed as

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Features that now appear as adaptations sometimes arose by co-option of existing traits, evolved for some other purpose. The classic example is the

5539:. Princeton University Press. 2014. Chapter 1: The Intellectual Challenge of Morphological Evolution: A Case for Variational Structuralism. Page 7 3682: 4351:, pp. 481–483: This sequence tells how Darwin's ideas on adaptation developed as he came to appreciate it as "a continuing dynamic process." 3151:. The niche is the central concept in evolutionary ecology; see especially part II: "The niche: an abstractly inhabited hypervolume." (pp. 26–78) 1615:. Acclimatization describes automatic physiological adjustments during life; learning means alteration in behavioural performance during life. 1590:

is an aspect of the developmental pattern of the organism which enables or enhances the probability of that organism surviving and reproducing.

653: 4841:"Trade-off between camouflage and sexual dimorphism revealed by UV digital imaging: the case of Australian Mallee dragons (Ctenophorus fordi)" 2187:, less perfectly adapted to the mountain brook habitats, is in general more successful, have a higher fecundity and broader geographic range. 1961:

relationships are intrinsically dynamic, and may continue on a trajectory for millions of years, as has occurred in the relationship between

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Adaptation is an observable fact of life accepted by philosophers and natural historians from ancient times, independently of their views on

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Altwegg, Robert E.; Simmons, Res (September 2010). "Necks-for-sex or competing browsers? A critique of ideas on the evolution of giraffe".

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deficiency than other breeds; on a plentiful diet this makes no difference, but on a restricted diet this preadaptation could be decisive.

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presumably depended on the relative gain and loss of reproductive capacity in the population of elks during that time. As another example,

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Michod, R. E. 1999. Darwinian Dynamics: Evolutionary Transitions in Fitness and Individuality. Princeton University Press, Princeton, NJ.

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It is a profound truth that Nature does not know best; that genetical evolution... is a story of waste, makeshift, compromise and blunder.

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Bernstein, H., Byerly, H.C., Hopf, F.A., Michod, R.E., and Vemulapalli, G.K. (1983) The Darwinian dynamic. Q. Rev. Biol. 58(2), 185–207.

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Lamichhaney, Sangeed; Berglund, Jonas (19 February 2015). "Evolution of Darwin's finches and their beaks revealed by genome sequencing".

3366: 3234: 1873:, a hallmark of adaptation. Convergence at the gene-level across distantly related species can arise because of evolutionary constraint. 5259: 10732: 572: 10786: 7585: 6530: 2059: 1108: 5366: 2969:

Any change in the structure or functioning of successive generations of a population that makes it better suited to its environment.

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is better adapted than either of its parent species to their own habitat of saline marsh and mud-flats. Among domestic animals, the

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Existing genetic variation and mutation were the traditional sources of material on which natural selection could act. In addition,

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Before Darwin, adaptation was seen as a fixed relationship between an organism and its habitat. It was not appreciated that as the

380: 6309:(1968). "On Some Fundamental Concepts of Darwinian Biology". In Dobzhansky, Theodosius; Hecht, Max K.; Steere, William C. (eds.). 4485:

de la Cruz, Fernando; Davies, Julian (1 March 2000). "Horizontal gene transfer and the origin of species: lessons from bacteria".

4685: 3879: 1347: 1285: 5135: 2019:. This is the mimicry by a palatable species of an unpalatable or noxious species (the model), gaining a selective advantage as 9128: 4928: 2627: 2603:: "Teleology is like a mistress to a biologist: he cannot live without her but he's unwilling to be seen with her in public.'" 1742:

3. Adaptedness. The extent to which a phenotype fits its local ecological niche. Researchers can sometimes test this through a

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2. Absolute fitness. The absolute contribution to the next generation by a genotype or a class of genotypes. Also known as the

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store in their bodies to protect themselves from predators are driven by adaptive mutations in the target of the poison, the

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Adaptation is one of the two main processes that explain the observed diversity of species, such as the different species of

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Reichstein, T.; von Euw, J.; Parsons, J. A.; Rothschild, Miriam (30 August 1968). "Heart Poisons in the Monarch Butterfly".

10413: 10383: 9442: 8795: 6238: 3318:"Extinction or Survival? Behavioral Flexibility in Response to Environmental Change in the African Striped Mouse Rhabdomys" 514: 4327: 3046:"Out of Tanganyika: Genesis, explosive speciation, key-innovations and phylogeography of the haplochromine cichlid fishes" 10168: 9088: 8377: 3694: 3441: 2325:, a method to show the random fluctuation of pre-existing genetic changes that conferred resistance to bacteriophages in 1583:

is the state of being adapted: the degree to which an organism is able to live and reproduce in a given set of habitats.

9830: 9490: 7965: 6942: 855: 738: 646: 375: 206: 7990: 7355: 1612: 10492: 9897: 4172:"Community-wide convergent evolution in insect adaptation to toxic cardenolides by substitutions in the Na,K-ATPase" 3623: 9902: 9500: 7466: 6906: 6682: 6240:

The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life

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Kornfield, Irv; Smith, Peter F. (November 2000). "African Cichlid Fishes: Model Systems for Evolutionary Biology".

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Hoekstra, Hopi E.; Hirschmann, Rachel J.; Bundey, Richard A.; Insel, Paul A.; Crossland, Janet P. (7 July 2006).

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All adaptations have a downside: horse legs are great for running on grass, but they cannot scratch their backs;

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broke with the tradition by emphasising the flaws and limitations which occurred in the animal and plant worlds.

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Brower, Lincoln P.; Glazier, Susan C. (4 April 1975). "Localization of Heart Poisons in the Monarch Butterfly".

1702:. However, a phenotype with high adaptedness may not have high fitness. Dobzhansky mentioned the example of the 10275: 10142: 9922: 9666: 9464: 9368: 9257: 7462: 6994: 6218: 6114: 1022: 587: 370: 4882:"Interdependences between Populational, Developmental and Morphological Features of the Caucasian salamander, 4792:(June 1974). "The Origin and Function of 'Bizarre' Structures: Antler Size and Skull Size in the 'Irish Elk,' 3439:

Price, Trevor D. (June 2006). "Phenotypic plasticity, sexual selection and the evolution of colour patterns".

1280:'s two factors (the first being a complexifying force) was an adaptive force that causes animals with a given 1266: 10776: 10340: 9927: 9671: 9410: 9055: 7975: 3490: 1377:

was not only the 'engine' behind adaptation, but was a much stronger force than had previously been thought.

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Hartwell, Leland; Goldberg, Michael; Fischer, Janice; Hood, Lee; Aquardo, Charles; Bejcek, Bruce (2015).

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Pre-adaptation may arise because a natural population carries a huge quantity of genetic variability. In

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have very slender, long bodies, perfectly adapted to life at the banks of fast small rivers and mountain

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is displayed at mating time. Here the risk to life is counterbalanced by the necessity for reproduction.

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for the bodily part or function (the product), one may distinguish the two different senses of the word.

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The significance of an adaptation can only be understood in relation to the total biology of the species.

1313: 742: 613: 31: 4231:"Convergent evolution of cardiac-glycoside resistance in predators and parasites of milkweed herbivores" 10746: 10609: 10046: 9220: 8441: 6553: 6500: 6182: 5609:; Sodhi, Navjot S.; et al. (September 2004). "Species Coextinctions and the Biodiversity Crisis". 3965: 1458:. An example widely used today to study the interplay of adaptation and speciation is the evolution of 1374: 718: 113: 2595:

to describe the adaptedness of organisms, but without accepting the supernatural intention built into

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n at birth, (which cannot be larger than about 400 cm, else it will not get through the mother's

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Historically, adaptation has been described from the time of the ancient Greek philosophers such as

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animal's body mass, requiring additional energy to build the neck and to carry its weight around.

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insect following the loss of its host, or when a flowering plant loses its pollinator, or when a

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Charles Darwin's Notebooks, 1836–1844: Geology, Transmutation of Species, Metaphysical Enquiries

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believed that organisms were perfectly adapted to the lives they led, an argument that shadowed

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Adaptation is primarily a process rather than a physical form or part of a body. An internal

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in humans; the loss of pigment and functional eyes in cave fauna; the loss of structure in

2306: 2164: 1897: 1870: 1703: 1662: 1526: 1232: 444: 216: 101: 58: 9857: 9727: 7497:(1932). "The Roles of Mutation, Inbreeding, Crossbreeding and Selection in Evolution". In 6430:

Time Frames: The Rethinking of Darwinian Evolution and the Theory of Punctuated Equilibria

5765:(1986). "The functions of stotting in Thomson's gazelles: Some tests of the predictions". 4462: 4445: 3007:, p. 5: "Evolutionary adaptation is a phenomenon of pervasive importance in biology." 2055: 1208: 1145:. Secondly, it is a state reached by the population during that process. Thirdly, it is a 8: 10696: 10553: 10369: 10285: 10243: 10193: 10112: 9960: 9952: 9882: 9862: 9808: 9652: 9405: 9348: 9210: 9193: 9171: 8998: 8988: 8825: 8695: 8406: 8396: 8317: 8259: 7351: 7161: 6433: 3571:

de Villemereuil, P.; Gaggiotti, O. E.; Mouterde, M.; Till-Bottraud, I (21 October 2015).

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as they develop adaptations that interlock with those of the other species, such as with

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Moore, Lorna G.; Regensteiner, Judith G. (October 1983). "Adaptation to High Altitude".

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The first stage in the evolution of life on earth is often hypothesized to be the

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adaptations are inherited systems of behaviour, whether inherited in detail as

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Dominance to alleles that fully manifest their phenotype when present in the

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The Ant and the Peacock: Altruism and Sexual Selection from Darwin to Today

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relationship to body size). Antlers serve positively for defence against

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in plants is a reasonably common large genetic change. The origin of

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This article is about the evolutionary process. For other uses, see

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The following definitions are given by the evolutionary biologist

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avoid the model and therefore also the mimic. Mimicry is thus an

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Elongated body protects their 1930: 1361:, and secondary figures such as 621: 620: 607: 65: 10148:Extended evolutionary synthesis 9337:Gene-centered view of evolution 6750:Evolution: The Modern Synthesis 6007:Journal of the History of Ideas 5542: 5499: 5466: 5298: 5286: 5274: 5177: 5127: 5087: 5075: 5046: 5034: 5023: 4984: 4957: 4946: 4933: 4918: 4873: 4845:Journal of Experimental Biology 4782: 4770: 4759: 4703: 4659:Journal of Evolutionary Biology 4639: 4628: 4617: 4606: 4595: 4570: 4538: 4522:Genetics: From Genes to Genomes 4513: 4478: 4450:Molecular Biology and Evolution 4437: 4378: 4366: 4354: 4342: 4295: 4222: 4163: 4106: 4041: 3990: 3953: 3894: 3827: 3760: 3709: 3664: 3652: 3640: 3628: 3613: 3564: 3552: 3481: 3469: 3432: 3381: 3342: 3261: 3249: 3210: 3169: 3142: 3131: 3119: 3021: 3010: 2998: 2986: 2974: 2926: 2915: 2903: 2891: 2611:stated that "adaptedness... is 2265:Evolution: The Modern Synthesis 1399:Evolution: The Modern Synthesis 1375:evidence that natural selection 1314:the best of all possible worlds 1245:History of evolutionary thought 1220:of dinosaurs were co-opted for 1023:Ordinary differential equations 614:Evolutionary biology portal 10391: 10276:Hologenome theory of evolution 10143:History of molecular evolution 9369:Evolutionarily stable strategy 9258:Last universal common ancestor 7103:. Cambridge University Press. 6115:University of California Press 3184:. Taylor Francis. p. 69. 2829: 2805: 2774: 2759: 2747: 2732: 2720: 2690: 2466:. Such adaptations are termed 894:Partial differential equations 573:Creation–evolution controversy 327:History of evolutionary theory 13: 1: 10070:Renaissance and Enlightenment 7410:Mimicry in Plants and Animals 7376:; Griffiths, Paul E. (1999). 6881:"Cause and Effect in Biology" 6773:; Fester, René, eds. (1991). 6497:Natural Selection in the Wild 6401:. Columbia University Press. 6243:(6th ed.). John Murray. 5779:10.1016/S0003-3472(86)80052-5 4499:10.1016/s0966-842x(00)01703-0 4361:Sterelny & Griffiths 1999 3491:Annual Review of Anthropology 2684: 2512:Origin of adaptive capacities 2244:As another example, the long 2065: 1837:, the ultimate source of all 1626:(genetic type) to change its 1553:balance and other aspects of 1284:to adapt to circumstances by 10281:Missing heritability problem 9908:Gamete differentiation/sexes 7259:; Speed, Michael P. (2004). 7221:Provine, William B. (1986). 7072:Moon, Harold Philip (1976). 6844:Animal Species and Evolution 6041:10.1007/978-1-4612-2784-7_37 5510:. University of St Andrews. 5150:(4): 307–316. Archived from 4075:10.1016/0014-5793(92)81530-y 4019:10.1126/science.161.3844.861 3675:. In Monosson, Emily (ed.). 2122:Consider the antlers of the 1843:purine nucleotide metabolism 1486:is a more dramatic example. 1328:also argued against design. 558:Evolution as fact and theory 7: 10721:Evolutionary biology Portal 7552: 7507:Genetics Society of America 7435:. Animal (Reaktion Books). 6884:. In Lerner, Daniel (ed.). 6679:Martinus Nijhoff Publishers 6323:10.1007/978-1-4684-8094-8_1 6281:University of Chicago Press 4651:"The speciation revolution" 4548:; M. Slatkin, eds. (1983). 3923:10.1126/science.188.4183.19 2620: 2482:Extinction and coextinction 2117: 2054:believed that Batesian and 1168:. In 18th and 19th century 743:Particle swarm optimization 32:Adaptation (disambiguation) 10: 10803: 9913:Life cycles/nuclear phases 9465:Trivers–Willard hypothesis 6501:Princeton University Press 6015: 4972:(Supplement S15): 89–124. 4579:The Coevolutionary Process 3966:Princeton University Press 3138:Margulis & Fester 1991 2781:Bowler, Peter J. (1989) . 2571: 2485: 2431: 2360: 1976: 1972: 1934: 1683: 1288:, creating a diversity of 1242: 1238: 890:Reaction–diffusion systems 719:Self-organized criticality 593:Nature-nurture controversy 36: 29: 10686: 10633: 10582: 10525: 10473: 10427: 10399: 10331: 10231: 10156: 10060: 9987: 9943: 9798: 9702: 9519: 9478: 9411:Parent–offspring conflict 9347: 9216:Earliest known life forms 9137: 9104: 9012: 8981: 8541: 8511: 8477:Polymerase chain reaction 8437:Green fluorescent protein 8387: 8376: 8365: 8273: 8205: 8137: 8077: 8014:Earliest known life forms 7999: 7946: 7863: 7770: 7610: 7601: 7560: 7173:. Yale University Press. 7099:Panchen, Alec L. (1992). 7045:(1st American ed.). 7039:Le hasard et la nécessité 6691:10.1007/978-94-010-9940-0 6357:Columbia University Press 5900:The Journal of Philosophy 5860:The Journal of Philosophy 5336:10.1017/S0094837300004310 5238:10.1093/genetics/28.6.491 4899:: 315–325. Archived from 4602:Carpenter & Ford 1933 4373:Freeman & Herron 2007 4255:10.1016/j.cub.2021.10.025 4131:10.1038/s41586-019-1610-8 3223:. Springer. p. 515. 2589:In his biology, Aristotle 2007:Bates' work on Amazonian 1987:Images A and B show real 1310:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz 1183:Adaptation is related to 831:Artificial neural network 480:Evolutionary neuroscience 455:Evolutionary epistemology 435:Evolutionary anthropology 415:Applications of evolution 10564:Nonecological speciation 10264:Cultural group selection 10128:The eclipse of Darwinism 10100:On the Origin of Species 10075:Transmutation of species 7431:Williams, Edgar (2010). 7352:Stebbins, G. Ledyard Jr. 7186:Price, Peter W. (1980). 6459:Eldredge, Niles (1995). 6077:Cornell University Press 5566:"A New Evolutionary Law" 5187:A Dictionary of Genetics 4939:The case was treated by 4577:Thompson, J. N. (1994). 3273:Drosophila pseudoobscura 3051:BMC Evolutionary Biology 2648:Anti-predator adaptation 2395:of early fish. The word 2025:anti-predator adaptation 1945:Pollinating insects are 1909:horizontal gene transfer 1773: 1082:Evolutionary game theory 972:Second-order cybernetics 836:Evolutionary computation 752:Collective consciousness 470:Evolutionary linguistics 465:Evolutionary game theory 440:Evolutionary computation 37:Not to be confused with 10269:Dual inheritance theory 10108:History of paleontology 8529:species discovery curve 7657:Response to environment 7320:Sober, Elliott (1993). 7265:Oxford University Press 7167:Simpson, George Gaylord 6811:The Theory of Evolution 6315:Appleton-Century-Crofts 5631:10.1126/science.1101101 5281:Allin & Hopson 1992 4991:Friedlander, Nancy J.; 4978:10.1002/ajpa.1330350605 4556:. pp. whole book. 4189:10.1073/pnas.1202111109 3860:10.1126/science.1126121 3794:10.1073/pnas.0431157100 3349:Gross, Richard (2012). 2939:Oxford University Press 2935:A Dictionary of Science 2856:Nature Reviews Genetics 2729:, pp. 31–32, fn 18 2566:signalling to predators 2369:ear ossicles of mammals 2241:had a similar problem. 2169:Gold-striped salamander 1851:melanocortin 1 receptor 1680:Adaptedness and fitness 1618:Flexibility stems from 1450:. The other process is 860:Artificial intelligence 774:Social network analysis 739:Ant colony optimization 711:Collective intelligence 583:Objections to evolution 490:Evolutionary psychology 485:Evolutionary physiology 430:Evolutionary aesthetics 409:Fields and applications 391:History of paleontology 10669:Punctuated equilibrium 10625:Character displacement 10445:Reproductive isolation 10414:Laboratory experiments 9957:Punctuated equilibrium 9278:Non-adaptive radiation 9226:Evolutionary arms race 9004:Plant morphology terms 8606:Biological engineering 8288:Biological interaction 7171:Behavior and Evolution 6564:(124) (4th ed.). 6558:Advancement of Science 6397:; et al. (eds.). 6383:Dobzhansky, Theodosius 6349:Dobzhansky, Theodosius 6307:Dobzhansky, Theodosius 6065:Mote Marine Laboratory 5579:: 1–30. Archived from 4884:Mertensiella caucasica 4737:10.1126/science.860134 4487:Trends in Microbiology 4413:10.1126/sciadv.1501548 3408:10.1098/rspb.2003.2372 3269:Dobzhansky, Theodosius 3065:10.1186/1471-2148-5-17 2569: 2532:. By this hypothesis, 2358: 2269: 2201: 2115: 2096: 2004: 1950: 1949:with flowering plants. 1823:punctuated equilibrium 1793: 1759: 1663:evolutionary biologist 1604: 1595:What adaptation is not 1547:temperature regulation 1543:growth and development 1456:reproductive isolation 1427:: those features of a 1404: 1297: 1073:Rational choice theory 898:Dissipative structures 515:Speciation experiments 495:Experimental evolution 450:Evolutionary economics 272:Recent human evolution 130:Processes and outcomes 10550:Ecological speciation 10465:Evidence of evolution 10249:Evolutionary medicine 10123:Mendelian inheritance 9831:Biological complexity 9819:Programmed cell death 9511:Phenotypic plasticity 9231:Evolutionary pressure 9221:Evidence of evolution 9119:Timeline of evolution 8691:Developmental biology 8666:Computational biology 8646:Cellular microbiology 7986:Mendelian inheritance 7898:Energy transformation 7322:Philosophy of Biology 7157:Pittendrigh, Colin S. 6729:Yale University Press 6717:Hutchinson, G. Evelyn 6675:Philosophy of Science 6605:Pearson Prentice Hall 6601:Evolutionary Analysis 6554:"Ecological Genetics" 6527:Fisher, Ronald Aylmer 6467:John Wiley & Sons 4794:Megaloceros giganteus 3974:10.1515/9781400884766 3962:Monarchs and Milkweed 3678:Encyclopedia of Earth 3277:Drosophila persimilis 3258:, pp. 4–6, 79–82 2673:Intragenomic conflict 2663:Evolutionary pressure 2552: 2405:feathers of dinosaurs 2371:, which we know from 2346: 2256: 2193: 2097: 2080: 1986: 1944: 1777: 1753: 1744:reciprocal transplant 1729:selection coefficient 1710:species in danger of 1620:phenotypic plasticity 1602: 1562:Theodosius Dobzhansky 1499:internal organization 1435:for the evolutionary 1384: 1371:Theodosius Dobzhansky 1359:Alfred Russel Wallace 1336:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1278:Jean-Baptiste Lamarck 1275: 1229:philosophy of biology 1178:Alfred Russel Wallace 1001:Theory of computation 864:Evolutionary robotics 731:Agent-based modelling 475:Evolutionary medicine 420:Biosocial criminology 386:History of speciation 299:Evolutionary taxonomy 262:Timeline of evolution 10777:Biological evolution 10761:Evolutionary biology 10223:Teleology in biology 10118:Blending inheritance 9496:Genetic assimilation 9359:Artificial selection 9098:Evolutionary biology 8911:Reproductive biology 8796:Mathematical biology 8721:Evolutionary biology 8671:Conservation biology 8482:Two-hybrid screening 8452:Protein purification 8283:Biogeochemical cycle 8245:Internal environment 7893:Cellular respiration 6905:Mayr, Ernst (1982). 6683:Springer Netherlands 6636:Evolutionary Biology 6552:Ford, E. B. (1975). 6434:Simon & Schuster 6387:Lewontin, Richard C. 6311:Evolutionary Biology 6141:Carpenter, G.D. 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Leonard 4729:1977Sci...196.1161J 4723:(4295): 1161–1166. 4405:2016SciA....2E1548R 4247:2021CBio...31R1465G 4241:(22): R1465–R1466. 4182:(32): 13040–13045. 4066:1992FEBSL.314..477H 4011:1968Sci...161..861R 3915:1975Sci...188...19B 3852:2006Sci...313..101H 3785:2003PNAS..100.5268N 3738:10.1038/nature14181 3730:2015Natur.518..371L 3589:10.1038/hdy.2015.93 3402:(1523): 1433–1440. 2698:Leroi, Armand Marie 2539:nucleotide sequence 2428:Non-adaptive traits 2303:sexual reproduction 2281:Spartina townsendii 2146:last glacial period 2132:antler size has an 2050:Bates, Wallace and 1883:evolutionary rescue 1863:monarch butterflies 1704:Californian redwood 1696:population genetics 1517:. Examples include 1201:pollinating insects 1077:Bounded rationality 1035:Population dynamics 944:Conversation theory 844:Genetic programming 769:Scale-free networks 701:Collective behavior 547:Social implications 535:Universal Darwinism 525:Island biogeography 460:Evolutionary ethics 425:Ecological genetics 371:Molecular evolution 309:Transitional fossil 137:Population genetics 53:Part of a series on 10634:Speciation in taxa 10569:Assortative mating 10259:Cultural evolution 9374:Fisher's principle 9303:Handicap principle 9293:Parallel evolution 9157:Adaptive radiation 9025:Biology portal 8921:Structural biology 8906:Relational biology 8731:Generative biology 8726:Freshwater biology 8524:mark and recapture 8472:Restriction enzyme 8265:Respiratory system 8220:Circulatory system 8147:Epidermis (botany) 7263:. Oxford Biology. 6641:Sinauer Associates 6566:Chapman & Hall 6179:John Maynard Smith 5675:Trifolium pratense 5479:American Zoologist 5310:Vrba, Elizabeth S. 5306:Gould, Stephen Jay 5283:, pp. 587–614 5113:10.1007/BF01487665 5056:Journal of Zoology 5009:10.1007/BF02435519 4943:, pp. 134–139 4858:10.1242/jeb.094045 4790:Gould, Stephen Jay 4554:Sinauer Associates 3476:Maynard Smith 1993 3030:, pp. 562–566 2582:Adaptation raises 2570: 2537:determined by its 2434:Spandrel (biology) 2415:Animals including 2411:Niche construction 2359: 2321:who developed the 2253:Shifts in function 2202: 2033:warning coloration 2005: 1991:; the others show 1951: 1900:, as seen in host- 1859:cardiac glycosides 1796:Changes in habitat 1760: 1732:, and other terms. 1666:John Maynard Smith 1605: 1519:searching for food 1511:neuropsychological 1407:What adaptation is 1381:General principles 1363:Henry Walter Bates 1298: 1267:species were fixed 1189:allele frequencies 1185:biological fitness 1068:Prisoner's dilemma 1013:Nonlinear dynamics 968:Operationalization 964:Information theory 840:Genetic algorithms 578:Theistic evolution 510:Selective breeding 222:Parallel evolution 187:Adaptive radiation 10742: 10741: 10620:Secondary contact 10592:Hybrid speciation 10540:Natural selection 10527:Isolating factors 10359: 10358: 9975:Uniformitarianism 9928:Sex-determination 9433:Sexual dimorphism 9428:Natural selection 9332:Unit of selection 9298:Signalling theory 9064: 9063: 8926:Synthetic biology 8806:Molecular biology 8661:Cognitive biology 8537: 8536: 8363: 8362: 8054:Natural selection 7835:Organic compounds 7732:Scientific method 7722:Emergent property 7663:Hierarchy of life 7633:Energy processing 7478:978-0-691-02615-2 7446:978-1-86189-764-0 7404:Wickler, Wolfgang 7387:978-0-226-77304-9 7335:978-0-8133-0785-5 7304:978-0-262-19232-3 7274:978-0-19-852859-3 7253:Ruxton, Graeme D. 7236:978-0-226-68474-1 7197:978-0-691-08257-8 7140:978-0-8014-8594-7 7110:978-0-521-31578-4 7083:978-0-904671-19-3 7056:978-0-394-46615-6 7043:Austryn Wainhouse 7037:. Translation of 7012:978-1-59385-408-9 6981:, 1959. Methuen. 6975:The Future of Man 6954:978-0-674-89665-9 6922:978-0-674-36445-5 6859:978-0-674-03750-2 6821:978-0-521-45128-4 6788:978-0-262-13269-5 6755:Allen & Unwin 6700:978-90-247-2518-2 6671:Fløistad, Guttorm 6650:978-0-87893-188-0 6614:978-0-13-227584-2 6575:978-0-470-26576-5 6510:978-0-691-08387-2 6476:978-0-471-30301-5 6443:978-0-671-49555-8 6408:978-0-231-05132-3 6366:978-0-231-02837-0 6332:978-1-4684-8096-2 6317:. pp. 1–34. 6290:978-0-226-14346-0 6192:978-0-521-32937-8 6124:978-0-520-23693-6 6086:978-0-521-09975-2 6050:978-0-387-97588-7 6023:Allin, Edgar F.; 5735:978-0-691-02699-2 5533:Wagner, Günter P. 5380:(7646): 501–506. 5197:978-0-19-530761-0 4851:(22): 4290–4298. 4649:(November 2001). 4588:978-0-226-79759-5 4563:978-0-87893-228-3 4531:978-0-07-352531-0 4456:(12): 2226–2238. 4315:978-0-525-53413-6 4125:(7778): 409–412. 4005:(3844): 861–866. 3983:978-1-4008-8476-6 3846:(5783): 101–104. 3724:(7539): 371–375. 3455:10.1242/jeb.02183 3449:(12): 2368–2376. 3362:978-1-4441-6436-7 3335:10.3390/su5010163 3230:978-81-322-2265-1 3191:978-1-4665-7223-2 2948:978-0-19-956146-9 2798:978-0-520-06386-0 2739:Voltaire (1759). 2713:978-1-4088-3622-4 2638:Adaptive mutation 2448:Stephen Jay Gould 2307:genetic dominance 2246:neck of a giraffe 2092:The Future of Man 2056:Müllerian mimicry 1839:genetic variation 1756:fitness landscape 1724:Darwinian fitness 1690:Fitness landscape 1686:Fitness (biology) 1491:ecological niches 1135:natural selection 1119: 1118: 906:Cellular automata 880:Pattern formation 811:Adaptive networks 715:Collective action 684:Self-organization 664: 663: 355:Origin of Species 157:Natural selection 16:(Redirected from 10794: 10759: 10758: 10750: 10730: 10729: 10718: 10706: 10705: 10694: 10693: 10545:Sexual selection 10474:Geographic modes 10386: 10379: 10372: 10363: 10362: 10349: 10339: 10338: 10138:Modern synthesis 9898:Multicellularity 9893:Mosaic evolution 9778:auditory ossicle 9460:Social selection 9443:Flowering plants 9438:Sexual selection 9091: 9084: 9077: 9068: 9067: 9054: 9053: 9044: 9043: 9034: 9033: 9027: 9023: 9022: 8999:Ecological terms 8651:Chemical biology 8512:Field techniques 8385: 8384: 8371: 8230:Digestive system 8225:Endocrine system 7798:Chemical element 7757:Biology journals 7653:Self-replication 7608: 7607: 7547: 7540: 7533: 7524: 7523: 7518: 7499:Jones, Donald F. 7490: 7458: 7427: 7413: 7399: 7369: 7347: 7316: 7286: 7248: 7228: 7217: 7182: 7165:. In Roe, Anne; 7164: 7152: 7127:Patterson, Colin 7122: 7095: 7068: 7024: 6995:Miller, Geoffrey 6990: 6966: 6934: 6901: 6886:Cause and Effect 6883: 6871: 6847: 6833: 6800: 6766: 6740: 6726: 6712: 6662: 6639:(2nd ed.). 6626: 6603:(4th ed.). 6595: 6548: 6522: 6488: 6455: 6420: 6378: 6344: 6302: 6278: 6264: 6262: 6260: 6230: 6204: 6164: 6136: 6112: 6103:Bowler, Peter J. 6098: 6062: 6025:Hopson, James A. 6010: 6000: 5994: 5989: 5983: 5978: 5972: 5966: 5960: 5954: 5948: 5947:, pp. 33–50 5942: 5936: 5934:Pittendrigh 1958 5931: 5925: 5923: 5892: 5886: 5884: 5851: 5845: 5839: 5833: 5832:, pp. 85–86 5827: 5821: 5820: 5818: 5816: 5797: 5791: 5790: 5767:Animal Behaviour 5759: 5753: 5727: 5718: 5692: 5683: 5682:, mice and cats. 5657: 5651: 5650: 5602: 5596: 5595: 5593: 5591: 5585: 5570: 5562:Van Valen, Leigh 5558: 5552: 5546: 5540: 5530: 5524: 5523: 5521: 5519: 5503: 5497: 5496: 5494: 5470: 5464: 5463: 5435: 5429: 5428: 5426: 5424: 5418: 5371: 5362: 5356: 5355: 5302: 5296: 5290: 5284: 5278: 5272: 5271: 5269: 5267: 5249: 5215: 5209: 5208: 5181: 5175: 5170: 5164: 5163: 5161: 5159: 5131: 5125: 5124: 5091: 5085: 5079: 5073: 5072: 5050: 5044: 5038: 5032: 5027: 5021: 5020: 4993:Jordan, David K. 4988: 4982: 4981: 4961: 4955: 4950: 4944: 4937: 4931: 4922: 4916: 4915: 4913: 4911: 4905: 4890: 4877: 4871: 4870: 4860: 4836: 4830: 4829: 4786: 4780: 4774: 4768: 4763: 4757: 4756: 4707: 4701: 4700: 4698: 4696: 4690: 4675: 4655: 4643: 4637: 4632: 4626: 4621: 4615: 4610: 4604: 4599: 4593: 4592: 4574: 4568: 4567: 4542: 4536: 4535: 4517: 4511: 4510: 4482: 4476: 4475: 4465: 4441: 4435: 4434: 4424: 4392:Science Advances 4382: 4376: 4370: 4364: 4358: 4352: 4346: 4340: 4339: 4337: 4335: 4299: 4293: 4292: 4274: 4226: 4220: 4219: 4209: 4191: 4167: 4161: 4160: 4150: 4110: 4104: 4103: 4077: 4045: 4039: 4038: 3994: 3988: 3987: 3957: 3951: 3950: 3898: 3892: 3891: 3889: 3887: 3831: 3825: 3824: 3814: 3796: 3779:(9): 5268–5273. 3764: 3758: 3757: 3713: 3707: 3706: 3704: 3702: 3668: 3662: 3656: 3650: 3644: 3638: 3632: 3626: 3617: 3611: 3610: 3600: 3568: 3562: 3556: 3550: 3544: 3538: 3532: 3526: 3517: 3508: 3507: 3485: 3479: 3473: 3467: 3466: 3436: 3430: 3429: 3419: 3385: 3379: 3378: 3376: 3374: 3346: 3340: 3339: 3337: 3313: 3307: 3306: 3265: 3259: 3253: 3247: 3246: 3244: 3242: 3214: 3208: 3207: 3205: 3203: 3176:Wang, G (2014). 3173: 3167: 3161: 3152: 3146: 3140: 3135: 3129: 3123: 3117: 3116: 3094: 3088: 3087: 3077: 3067: 3037: 3031: 3025: 3019: 3014: 3008: 3002: 2996: 2990: 2984: 2978: 2972: 2971: 2930: 2924: 2919: 2913: 2907: 2901: 2895: 2889: 2888: 2847: 2838: 2833: 2827: 2822: 2816: 2809: 2803: 2802: 2778: 2772: 2763: 2757: 2751: 2745: 2744: 2736: 2730: 2724: 2718: 2717: 2694: 2452:Richard Lewontin 2347:The feathers of 2328:Escherichia coli 2323:Fluctuation Test 2267: 2212:sexual selection 2159:Stream-dwelling 2113: 2094: 2017:Batesian mimicry 1963:flowering plants 1879:tracking process 1815:habitat tracking 1791: 1642:which depend on 1448:Darwin's finches 1402: 1302:natural theology 1197:flowering plants 1170:natural theology 1147:phenotypic trait 1111: 1104: 1097: 988:Systems thinking 914:Self-replication 852:Machine learning 806:Dynamic networks 727:Phase transition 666: 665: 656: 649: 642: 629: 624: 623: 616: 612: 611: 588:Level of support 381:Current research 366:Modern synthesis 361:Before synthesis 314:Extinction event 72:Darwin's finches 69: 50: 49: 21: 10802: 10801: 10797: 10796: 10795: 10793: 10792: 10791: 10767: 10766: 10765: 10753: 10745: 10743: 10738: 10682: 10665:Paleopolyploidy 10629: 10584:Hybrid concepts 10578: 10521: 10469: 10439:Species complex 10423: 10395: 10390: 10360: 10355: 10327: 10254:Group selection 10227: 10152: 10056: 9983: 9945:Tempo and modes 9939: 9794: 9698: 9515: 9474: 9350: 9343: 9320:Species complex 9133: 9124:History of life 9100: 9095: 9065: 9060: 9017: 9016: 9008: 8994:Botanical terms 8977: 8976: 8975: 8936:Systems biology 8901:Quantum biology 8533: 8507: 8389: 8379: 8372: 8359: 8269: 8250:Muscular system 8207: 8201: 8192:Vascular tissue 8139: 8133: 8073: 8034:History of life 7995: 7976:Gene regulation 7971:Gene expression 7942: 7859: 7766: 7597: 7556: 7551: 7521: 7505:. Vol. 1. 7479: 7447: 7388: 7336: 7305: 7275: 7237: 7198: 7141: 7111: 7084: 7057: 7013: 6955: 6923: 6860: 6822: 6789: 6701: 6651: 6615: 6576: 6511: 6493:Endler, John A. 6477: 6444: 6426:Eldredge, Niles 6409: 6367: 6333: 6313:. Vol. 2. 6291: 6269:Desmond, Adrian 6258: 6256: 6235:Darwin, Charles 6209:Darwin, Charles 6193: 6125: 6087: 6051: 6033:Springer-Verlag 6018: 6013: 6001: 5997: 5990: 5986: 5979: 5975: 5967: 5963: 5955: 5951: 5943: 5939: 5932: 5928: 5912:10.2307/2025746 5893: 5889: 5873:10.2307/2025745 5852: 5848: 5844:, pp. 8–10 5840: 5836: 5828: 5824: 5814: 5812: 5807:. 18 May 2003. 5799: 5798: 5794: 5760: 5756: 5728: 5721: 5693: 5686: 5672:), red clover ( 5658: 5654: 5607:Dunn, Robert R. 5605:Koh, Lian Pin; 5603: 5599: 5589: 5587: 5583: 5568: 5559: 5555: 5547: 5543: 5531: 5527: 5517: 5515: 5504: 5500: 5471: 5467: 5436: 5432: 5422: 5420: 5416: 5369: 5363: 5359: 5303: 5299: 5291: 5287: 5279: 5275: 5265: 5263: 5216: 5212: 5198: 5182: 5178: 5173:Dobzhansky 1981 5171: 5167: 5157: 5155: 5139: 5132: 5128: 5092: 5088: 5080: 5076: 5051: 5047: 5039: 5035: 5028: 5024: 4997:Human Evolution 4989: 4985: 4962: 4958: 4951: 4947: 4938: 4934: 4923: 4919: 4909: 4907: 4906:on 4 March 2016 4903: 4888: 4878: 4874: 4837: 4833: 4810:10.2307/2407322 4787: 4783: 4775: 4771: 4764: 4760: 4711:Jacob, François 4708: 4704: 4694: 4692: 4688: 4653: 4644: 4640: 4633: 4629: 4622: 4618: 4611: 4607: 4600: 4596: 4589: 4575: 4571: 4564: 4543: 4539: 4532: 4518: 4514: 4483: 4479: 4442: 4438: 4399:(3): e1501548. 4383: 4379: 4371: 4367: 4359: 4355: 4347: 4343: 4333: 4331: 4316: 4300: 4296: 4235:Current Biology 4227: 4223: 4168: 4164: 4111: 4107: 4046: 4042: 3995: 3991: 3984: 3958: 3954: 3909:(4183): 19–25. 3899: 3895: 3885: 3883: 3832: 3828: 3765: 3761: 3714: 3710: 3700: 3698: 3669: 3665: 3657: 3653: 3645: 3641: 3633: 3629: 3618: 3614: 3569: 3565: 3557: 3553: 3545: 3541: 3533: 3529: 3518: 3511: 3486: 3482: 3474: 3470: 3437: 3433: 3386: 3382: 3372: 3370: 3363: 3347: 3343: 3314: 3310: 3295:10.2307/2406099 3266: 3262: 3256:Dobzhansky 1970 3254: 3250: 3240: 3238: 3231: 3215: 3211: 3201: 3199: 3192: 3174: 3170: 3166:, pp. 1–34 3164:Dobzhansky 1968 3162: 3155: 3149:Hutchinson 1965 3147: 3143: 3136: 3132: 3124: 3120: 3095: 3091: 3038: 3034: 3026: 3022: 3015: 3011: 3003: 2999: 2991: 2987: 2979: 2975: 2949: 2931: 2927: 2920: 2916: 2908: 2904: 2896: 2892: 2869:10.1038/nrg1523 2848: 2841: 2834: 2830: 2823: 2819: 2810: 2806: 2799: 2779: 2775: 2764: 2760: 2752: 2748: 2743:. Cramer et al. 2737: 2733: 2725: 2721: 2714: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2682: 2658:Ecological trap 2653:Body reactivity 2643:Adaptive system 2633:Adaptive memory 2623: 2580: 2572:Main articles: 2547: 2514: 2494: 2486:Main articles: 2484: 2440: 2432:Main articles: 2430: 2413: 2373:paleontological 2365: 2350:Sinosauropteryx 2341: 2292: 2274: 2268: 2263:Julian Huxley, 2262: 2255: 2200:in full display 2199: 2185:fire salamander 2183:. As a result, 2120: 2114: 2103: 2095: 2086: 2068: 1993:Batesian mimics 1981: 1975: 1959:co-adaptational 1939: 1933: 1893:Leigh Van Valen 1831: 1798: 1792: 1783: 1776: 1692: 1684:Main articles: 1682: 1674:red blood cells 1609:acclimatization 1597: 1409: 1403: 1392: 1383: 1247: 1241: 1115: 1086: 1085: 1084: 1079: 1075: 1070: 1065: 1055: 1054: 1049: 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1020: 1015: 1005: 1004: 1003: 998: 994: 990: 986: 984:Systems science 982: 980:System dynamics 978: 974: 970: 966: 962: 958: 954: 950: 946: 941: 936: 922: 921: 916: 912: 910:Spatial ecology 908: 904: 900: 896: 892: 887: 882: 872: 871: 866: 862: 858: 854: 850: 848:Artificial life 846: 842: 838: 833: 828: 814: 813: 808: 804: 802:Systems biology 800: 796: 792: 788: 784: 780: 776: 771: 766: 756: 755: 754: 749: 747:Swarm behaviour 745: 741: 737: 735:Synchronization 733: 729: 725: 721: 717: 713: 708: 706:Social dynamics 703: 693: 692: 691: 686: 670:Complex systems 660: 619: 606: 605: 598: 597: 548: 540: 539: 410: 402: 401: 400: 328: 320: 319: 318: 267:Human evolution 257:History of life 241: 240:Natural history 233: 232: 231: 131: 123: 78: 46: 43:Acclimatization 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 10800: 10790: 10789: 10784: 10779: 10764: 10763: 10740: 10739: 10737: 10736: 10724: 10712: 10700: 10687: 10684: 10683: 10681: 10680: 10673:Macroevolution 10658: 10653: 10648: 10643: 10637: 10635: 10631: 10630: 10628: 10627: 10622: 10617: 10607: 10588: 10586: 10580: 10579: 10577: 10576: 10574:Haldane's rule 10571: 10566: 10561: 10547: 10542: 10537: 10531: 10529: 10523: 10522: 10520: 10519: 10514: 10500: 10497:Founder effect 10477: 10475: 10471: 10470: 10468: 10467: 10462: 10457: 10452: 10447: 10442: 10431: 10429: 10428:Basic concepts 10425: 10424: 10422: 10421: 10416: 10411: 10406: 10400: 10397: 10396: 10389: 10388: 10381: 10374: 10366: 10357: 10356: 10354: 10353: 10343: 10332: 10329: 10328: 10326: 10325: 10320: 10315: 10310: 10305: 10304: 10303: 10293: 10288: 10283: 10278: 10273: 10272: 10271: 10266: 10261: 10251: 10246: 10241: 10235: 10233: 10229: 10228: 10226: 10225: 10220: 10219: 10218: 10213: 10208: 10207: 10206: 10196: 10191: 10186: 10181: 10176: 10166: 10160: 10158: 10154: 10153: 10151: 10150: 10145: 10140: 10135: 10130: 10125: 10120: 10115: 10110: 10105: 10104: 10103: 10094:Charles Darwin 10091: 10090: 10089: 10077: 10072: 10066: 10064: 10058: 10057: 10055: 10054: 10049: 10044: 10039: 10034: 10032:Non-ecological 10029: 10024: 10019: 10014: 10009: 10004: 9999: 9993: 9991: 9985: 9984: 9982: 9981: 9972: 9963: 9949: 9947: 9941: 9940: 9938: 9937: 9932: 9931: 9930: 9925: 9920: 9915: 9910: 9900: 9895: 9890: 9885: 9880: 9875: 9870: 9865: 9860: 9855: 9850: 9849: 9848: 9838: 9833: 9828: 9823: 9822: 9821: 9816: 9805: 9803: 9796: 9795: 9793: 9792: 9791: 9790: 9785: 9783:nervous system 9780: 9775: 9770: 9762: 9761: 9760: 9755: 9750: 9745: 9740: 9735: 9725: 9720: 9715: 9709: 9707: 9700: 9699: 9697: 9696: 9691: 9686: 9681: 9676: 9675: 9674: 9664: 9663: 9662: 9657: 9656: 9655: 9650: 9640: 9635: 9630: 9625: 9620: 9619: 9618: 9613: 9603: 9593: 9588: 9587: 9586: 9576: 9571: 9566: 9561: 9560: 9559: 9549: 9544: 9543: 9542: 9532: 9526: 9524: 9517: 9516: 9514: 9513: 9508: 9503: 9498: 9493: 9488: 9482: 9480: 9476: 9475: 9473: 9472: 9467: 9462: 9457: 9456: 9455: 9450: 9445: 9435: 9430: 9425: 9420: 9415: 9414: 9413: 9408: 9398: 9393: 9388: 9387: 9386: 9376: 9371: 9366: 9361: 9355: 9353: 9345: 9344: 9342: 9341: 9340: 9339: 9329: 9324: 9323: 9322: 9317: 9307: 9306: 9305: 9295: 9290: 9285: 9283:Origin of life 9280: 9275: 9270: 9268:Microevolution 9265: 9263:Macroevolution 9260: 9255: 9250: 9249: 9248: 9238: 9233: 9228: 9223: 9218: 9213: 9208: 9203: 9201:Common descent 9198: 9197: 9196: 9186: 9181: 9179:Baldwin effect 9176: 9175: 9174: 9169: 9159: 9154: 9149: 9143: 9141: 9135: 9134: 9132: 9131: 9126: 9121: 9116: 9111: 9105: 9102: 9101: 9094: 9093: 9086: 9079: 9071: 9062: 9061: 9059: 9058: 9048: 9038: 9028: 9013: 9010: 9009: 9007: 9006: 9001: 8996: 8991: 8985: 8983: 8979: 8978: 8974: 8973: 8968: 8963: 8958: 8953: 8948: 8943: 8938: 8933: 8928: 8923: 8918: 8913: 8908: 8903: 8898: 8893: 8888: 8883: 8878: 8873: 8868: 8863: 8858: 8853: 8848: 8843: 8838: 8833: 8828: 8823: 8818: 8813: 8808: 8803: 8798: 8793: 8791:Marine biology 8788: 8783: 8778: 8773: 8768: 8763: 8758: 8753: 8748: 8743: 8738: 8733: 8728: 8723: 8718: 8713: 8708: 8703: 8698: 8693: 8688: 8683: 8678: 8673: 8668: 8663: 8658: 8653: 8648: 8643: 8638: 8633: 8628: 8623: 8618: 8613: 8608: 8603: 8601:Bioinformatics 8598: 8593: 8588: 8583: 8578: 8573: 8568: 8563: 8558: 8553: 8547: 8546: 8545: 8543: 8539: 8538: 8535: 8534: 8532: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8515: 8513: 8509: 8508: 8506: 8505: 8498: 8491: 8484: 8479: 8474: 8469: 8464: 8459: 8454: 8449: 8444: 8439: 8434: 8432:DNA microarray 8429: 8427:DNA sequencing 8424: 8419: 8417:Centrifugation 8414: 8412:Chromatography 8409: 8404: 8402:Transformation 8399: 8393: 8391: 8382: 8374: 8373: 8366: 8364: 8361: 8360: 8358: 8357: 8352: 8347: 8342: 8341: 8340: 8330: 8325: 8320: 8315: 8313:Climate change 8310: 8305: 8300: 8295: 8290: 8285: 8279: 8277: 8271: 8270: 8268: 8267: 8262: 8257: 8255:Nervous system 8252: 8247: 8242: 8237: 8232: 8227: 8222: 8217: 8211: 8209: 8203: 8202: 8200: 8199: 8194: 8189: 8187:Vascular plant 8184: 8179: 8174: 8169: 8164: 8159: 8154: 8149: 8143: 8141: 8135: 8134: 8132: 8131: 8126: 8125: 8124: 8119: 8114: 8109: 8104: 8094: 8089: 8083: 8081: 8075: 8074: 8072: 8071: 8066: 8061: 8056: 8051: 8046: 8044:Microevolution 8041: 8039:Macroevolution 8036: 8031: 8026: 8021: 8016: 8011: 8005: 8003: 7997: 7996: 7994: 7993: 7988: 7983: 7978: 7973: 7968: 7963: 7958: 7952: 7950: 7944: 7943: 7941: 7940: 7935: 7933:Photosynthesis 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7910: 7905: 7900: 7895: 7890: 7888:Cell signaling 7885: 7880: 7875: 7869: 7867: 7861: 7860: 7858: 7857: 7852: 7847: 7842: 7837: 7832: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7816: 7815: 7805: 7800: 7795: 7790: 7785: 7780: 7774: 7772: 7771:Chemical basis 7768: 7767: 7765: 7764: 7759: 7754: 7749: 7744: 7739: 7737:Taxonomic rank 7734: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7717:Reductionistic 7714: 7660: 7625: 7620: 7614: 7612: 7605: 7599: 7598: 7596: 7595: 7590: 7589: 7588: 7578: 7573: 7564:Introduction ( 7561: 7558: 7557: 7550: 7549: 7542: 7535: 7527: 7520: 7519: 7495:Wright, Sewall 7491: 7477: 7459: 7445: 7437:Reaktion Books 7428: 7400: 7386: 7370: 7348: 7334: 7326:Westview Press 7317: 7303: 7291:Sober, Elliott 7287: 7273: 7249: 7235: 7218: 7196: 7183: 7153: 7139: 7123: 7109: 7096: 7082: 7069: 7055: 7029:Monod, Jacques 7025: 7011: 7003:Guilford Press 6991: 6979:Reith Lectures 6971:Medawar, Peter 6967: 6953: 6935: 6921: 6902: 6872: 6858: 6834: 6820: 6802: 6787: 6771:Margulis, Lynn 6767: 6745:Huxley, Julian 6741: 6713: 6699: 6667:Hull, David L. 6663: 6649: 6627: 6613: 6596: 6574: 6549: 6523: 6509: 6489: 6475: 6456: 6442: 6422: 6407: 6391:Moore, John A. 6379: 6365: 6345: 6331: 6303: 6289: 6265: 6231: 6205: 6191: 6177:. Foreword by 6165: 6137: 6123: 6099: 6085: 6068: 6049: 6019: 6017: 6014: 6012: 6011: 6009:, 53, 117–135. 6003:Mayr, Ernst W. 5995: 5984: 5973: 5961: 5949: 5937: 5926: 5906:(5): 280–301. 5887: 5867:(5): 261–279. 5846: 5834: 5822: 5792: 5773:(3): 663–684. 5754: 5719: 5700:10.1086/413216 5684: 5669:Viola tricolor 5652: 5597: 5553: 5541: 5525: 5498: 5485:(4): 485–503. 5465: 5430: 5357: 5297: 5285: 5273: 5232:(6): 491–511. 5210: 5196: 5176: 5165: 5137: 5126: 5107:(6): 531–538. 5086: 5074: 5045: 5033: 5022: 5003:(4): 331–342. 4983: 4956: 4945: 4932: 4917: 4872: 4831: 4804:(2): 191–220. 4781: 4769: 4758: 4702: 4666:(6): 887–888. 4638: 4627: 4616: 4605: 4594: 4587: 4569: 4562: 4546:Futuyma, D. J. 4537: 4530: 4512: 4493:(3): 128–133. 4477: 4436: 4377: 4365: 4353: 4341: 4314: 4294: 4221: 4162: 4105: 4060:(3): 477–480. 4040: 3989: 3982: 3952: 3893: 3826: 3759: 3708: 3663: 3651: 3639: 3627: 3612: 3583:(3): 249–254. 3563: 3551: 3539: 3527: 3509: 3480: 3468: 3431: 3380: 3361: 3341: 3328:(1): 163–186. 3322:Sustainability 3308: 3260: 3248: 3229: 3209: 3190: 3168: 3153: 3141: 3130: 3128:, chs. 8 and 9 3118: 3089: 3032: 3020: 3009: 2997: 2993:Patterson 1999 2985: 2973: 2947: 2941:. p. 13. 2925: 2914: 2902: 2890: 2863:(2): 119–127. 2839: 2828: 2817: 2804: 2797: 2773: 2758: 2746: 2731: 2719: 2712: 2688: 2686: 2683: 2681: 2680: 2675: 2670: 2665: 2660: 2655: 2650: 2645: 2640: 2635: 2630: 2624: 2622: 2619: 2546: 2543: 2513: 2510: 2508:is disrupted. 2483: 2480: 2429: 2426: 2412: 2409: 2361:Main article: 2340: 2337: 2315:Salvador Luria 2311:Microorganisms 2290: 2273: 2272:Pre-adaptation 2270: 2260: 2254: 2251: 2196:Indian peacock 2119: 2116: 2101: 2084: 2067: 2064: 1977:Main article: 1974: 1971: 1935:Main article: 1932: 1929: 1925:bacteriophages 1913:gene cassettes 1904:interactions. 1830: 1829:Genetic change 1827: 1797: 1794: 1785:Niles Eldredge 1781: 1775: 1772: 1767:adaptive peaks 1748: 1747: 1740: 1733: 1681: 1678: 1652:which require 1613:specialization 1596: 1593: 1592: 1591: 1588:adaptive trait 1584: 1577: 1441:adaptive trait 1408: 1405: 1390: 1382: 1379: 1340:use and disuse 1330:Charles Darwin 1276:The second of 1243:Main article: 1240: 1237: 1174:Charles Darwin 1151:adaptive trait 1117: 1116: 1114: 1113: 1106: 1099: 1091: 1088: 1087: 1066: 1061: 1060: 1057: 1056: 1043:Multistability 1016: 1011: 1010: 1007: 1006: 976:Self-reference 937: 930:Systems theory 928: 927: 924: 923: 883: 878: 877: 874: 873: 829: 820: 819: 816: 815: 767: 762: 761: 758: 757: 723:Herd mentality 704: 699: 698: 695: 694: 687: 682: 681: 678: 677: 673: 672: 662: 661: 659: 658: 651: 644: 636: 633: 632: 631: 630: 617: 600: 599: 596: 595: 590: 585: 580: 575: 570: 568:Social effects 565: 560: 555: 549: 546: 545: 542: 541: 538: 537: 532: 527: 522: 517: 512: 507: 502: 497: 492: 487: 482: 477: 472: 467: 462: 457: 452: 447: 442: 437: 432: 427: 422: 417: 411: 408: 407: 404: 403: 399: 398: 388: 383: 378: 373: 368: 363: 358: 351: 346: 341: 336: 330: 329: 326: 325: 322: 321: 317: 316: 311: 306: 301: 296: 294:Classification 291: 286: 281: 276: 275: 274: 264: 259: 254: 252:Common descent 249: 247:Origin of life 243: 242: 239: 238: 235: 234: 230: 229: 224: 219: 214: 209: 204: 199: 194: 189: 184: 179: 174: 169: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 133: 132: 129: 128: 125: 124: 122: 121: 116: 111: 105: 104: 99: 94: 89: 83: 80: 79: 70: 62: 61: 55: 54: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 10799: 10788: 10785: 10783: 10780: 10778: 10775: 10774: 10772: 10762: 10757: 10752: 10751: 10748: 10735: 10734: 10725: 10723: 10722: 10717: 10713: 10711: 10710: 10701: 10699: 10698: 10689: 10688: 10685: 10678: 10677:Chronospecies 10674: 10670: 10666: 10662: 10659: 10657: 10654: 10652: 10649: 10647: 10644: 10642: 10639: 10638: 10636: 10632: 10626: 10623: 10621: 10618: 10615: 10611: 10610:Reinforcement 10608: 10605: 10604:Recombination 10601: 10597: 10593: 10590: 10589: 10587: 10585: 10581: 10575: 10572: 10570: 10567: 10565: 10562: 10559: 10555: 10551: 10548: 10546: 10543: 10541: 10538: 10536: 10533: 10532: 10530: 10528: 10524: 10518: 10515: 10512: 10508: 10504: 10501: 10498: 10494: 10490: 10486: 10482: 10479: 10478: 10476: 10472: 10466: 10463: 10461: 10458: 10456: 10453: 10451: 10448: 10446: 10443: 10440: 10436: 10433: 10432: 10430: 10426: 10420: 10417: 10415: 10412: 10410: 10407: 10405: 10402: 10401: 10398: 10394: 10387: 10382: 10380: 10375: 10373: 10368: 10367: 10364: 10352: 10348: 10344: 10342: 10334: 10333: 10330: 10324: 10321: 10319: 10316: 10314: 10311: 10309: 10306: 10302: 10299: 10298: 10297: 10296:Phylogenetics 10294: 10292: 10289: 10287: 10284: 10282: 10279: 10277: 10274: 10270: 10267: 10265: 10262: 10260: 10257: 10256: 10255: 10252: 10250: 10247: 10245: 10242: 10240: 10237: 10236: 10234: 10230: 10224: 10221: 10217: 10214: 10212: 10209: 10205: 10202: 10201: 10200: 10199:Structuralism 10197: 10195: 10192: 10190: 10187: 10185: 10182: 10180: 10177: 10175: 10174:Catastrophism 10172: 10171: 10170: 10167: 10165: 10162: 10161: 10159: 10155: 10149: 10146: 10144: 10141: 10139: 10136: 10134: 10133:Neo-Darwinism 10131: 10129: 10126: 10124: 10121: 10119: 10116: 10114: 10111: 10109: 10106: 10102: 10101: 10097: 10096: 10095: 10092: 10088: 10087: 10083: 10082: 10081: 10078: 10076: 10073: 10071: 10068: 10067: 10065: 10063: 10059: 10053: 10050: 10048: 10047:Reinforcement 10045: 10043: 10040: 10038: 10035: 10033: 10030: 10028: 10025: 10023: 10020: 10018: 10015: 10013: 10010: 10008: 10005: 10003: 10000: 9998: 9995: 9994: 9992: 9990: 9986: 9980: 9979:Catastrophism 9976: 9973: 9971: 9970:Macromutation 9967: 9966:Micromutation 9964: 9962: 9958: 9954: 9951: 9950: 9948: 9946: 9942: 9936: 9933: 9929: 9926: 9924: 9921: 9919: 9916: 9914: 9911: 9909: 9906: 9905: 9904: 9901: 9899: 9896: 9894: 9891: 9889: 9886: 9884: 9881: 9879: 9876: 9874: 9873:Immune system 9871: 9869: 9866: 9864: 9861: 9859: 9856: 9854: 9851: 9847: 9844: 9843: 9842: 9839: 9837: 9834: 9832: 9829: 9827: 9824: 9820: 9817: 9815: 9812: 9811: 9810: 9807: 9806: 9804: 9802: 9797: 9789: 9786: 9784: 9781: 9779: 9776: 9774: 9771: 9769: 9766: 9765: 9763: 9759: 9756: 9754: 9751: 9749: 9746: 9744: 9741: 9739: 9736: 9734: 9733:symbiogenesis 9731: 9730: 9729: 9726: 9724: 9721: 9719: 9716: 9714: 9711: 9710: 9708: 9706: 9701: 9695: 9692: 9690: 9687: 9685: 9682: 9680: 9677: 9673: 9670: 9669: 9668: 9665: 9661: 9658: 9654: 9651: 9649: 9646: 9645: 9644: 9641: 9639: 9636: 9634: 9631: 9629: 9626: 9624: 9621: 9617: 9614: 9612: 9609: 9608: 9607: 9604: 9602: 9599: 9598: 9597: 9594: 9592: 9589: 9585: 9582: 9581: 9580: 9577: 9575: 9572: 9570: 9567: 9565: 9562: 9558: 9555: 9554: 9553: 9550: 9548: 9545: 9541: 9538: 9537: 9536: 9533: 9531: 9528: 9527: 9525: 9523: 9518: 9512: 9509: 9507: 9504: 9502: 9499: 9497: 9494: 9492: 9489: 9487: 9484: 9483: 9481: 9477: 9471: 9468: 9466: 9463: 9461: 9458: 9454: 9451: 9449: 9446: 9444: 9441: 9440: 9439: 9436: 9434: 9431: 9429: 9426: 9424: 9421: 9419: 9416: 9412: 9409: 9407: 9404: 9403: 9402: 9401:Kin selection 9399: 9397: 9396:Genetic drift 9394: 9392: 9389: 9385: 9382: 9381: 9380: 9377: 9375: 9372: 9370: 9367: 9365: 9362: 9360: 9357: 9356: 9354: 9352: 9346: 9338: 9335: 9334: 9333: 9330: 9328: 9325: 9321: 9318: 9316: 9313: 9312: 9311: 9308: 9304: 9301: 9300: 9299: 9296: 9294: 9291: 9289: 9286: 9284: 9281: 9279: 9276: 9274: 9271: 9269: 9266: 9264: 9261: 9259: 9256: 9254: 9251: 9247: 9244: 9243: 9242: 9239: 9237: 9234: 9232: 9229: 9227: 9224: 9222: 9219: 9217: 9214: 9212: 9209: 9207: 9204: 9202: 9199: 9195: 9192: 9191: 9190: 9187: 9185: 9182: 9180: 9177: 9173: 9170: 9168: 9165: 9164: 9163: 9160: 9158: 9155: 9153: 9150: 9148: 9145: 9144: 9142: 9140: 9136: 9130: 9127: 9125: 9122: 9120: 9117: 9115: 9112: 9110: 9107: 9106: 9103: 9099: 9092: 9087: 9085: 9080: 9078: 9073: 9072: 9069: 9057: 9049: 9047: 9039: 9037: 9029: 9026: 9021: 9015: 9014: 9011: 9005: 9002: 9000: 8997: 8995: 8992: 8990: 8987: 8986: 8984: 8980: 8972: 8969: 8967: 8964: 8962: 8959: 8957: 8954: 8952: 8949: 8947: 8944: 8942: 8939: 8937: 8934: 8932: 8929: 8927: 8924: 8922: 8919: 8917: 8914: 8912: 8909: 8907: 8904: 8902: 8899: 8897: 8894: 8892: 8889: 8887: 8884: 8882: 8879: 8877: 8874: 8872: 8871:Phylogenetics 8869: 8867: 8864: 8862: 8859: 8857: 8854: 8852: 8849: 8847: 8844: 8842: 8839: 8837: 8834: 8832: 8829: 8827: 8824: 8822: 8819: 8817: 8814: 8812: 8809: 8807: 8804: 8802: 8799: 8797: 8794: 8792: 8789: 8787: 8784: 8782: 8779: 8777: 8774: 8772: 8769: 8767: 8766:Human biology 8764: 8762: 8759: 8757: 8754: 8752: 8749: 8747: 8744: 8742: 8739: 8737: 8734: 8732: 8729: 8727: 8724: 8722: 8719: 8717: 8714: 8712: 8709: 8707: 8704: 8702: 8699: 8697: 8694: 8692: 8689: 8687: 8684: 8682: 8679: 8677: 8674: 8672: 8669: 8667: 8664: 8662: 8659: 8657: 8656:Chronobiology 8654: 8652: 8649: 8647: 8644: 8642: 8639: 8637: 8634: 8632: 8631:Biotechnology 8629: 8627: 8626:Biostatistics 8624: 8622: 8619: 8617: 8614: 8612: 8609: 8607: 8604: 8602: 8599: 8597: 8594: 8592: 8589: 8587: 8584: 8582: 8579: 8577: 8574: 8572: 8569: 8567: 8564: 8562: 8559: 8557: 8554: 8552: 8549: 8548: 8544: 8540: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8519:Belt transect 8517: 8516: 8514: 8510: 8504: 8503: 8499: 8497: 8496: 8492: 8490: 8489: 8485: 8483: 8480: 8478: 8475: 8473: 8470: 8468: 8467:Southern blot 8465: 8463: 8462:Northern blot 8460: 8458: 8455: 8453: 8450: 8448: 8445: 8443: 8440: 8438: 8435: 8433: 8430: 8428: 8425: 8423: 8420: 8418: 8415: 8413: 8410: 8408: 8405: 8403: 8400: 8398: 8395: 8394: 8392: 8386: 8383: 8381: 8375: 8370: 8356: 8353: 8351: 8348: 8346: 8343: 8339: 8336: 8335: 8334: 8331: 8329: 8326: 8324: 8321: 8319: 8316: 8314: 8311: 8309: 8306: 8304: 8301: 8299: 8296: 8294: 8291: 8289: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8280: 8278: 8276: 8272: 8266: 8263: 8261: 8258: 8256: 8253: 8251: 8248: 8246: 8243: 8241: 8240:Immune system 8238: 8236: 8233: 8231: 8228: 8226: 8223: 8221: 8218: 8216: 8213: 8212: 8210: 8204: 8198: 8195: 8193: 8190: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8158: 8157:Ground tissue 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8144: 8142: 8136: 8130: 8127: 8123: 8120: 8118: 8115: 8113: 8110: 8108: 8105: 8103: 8100: 8099: 8098: 8095: 8093: 8090: 8088: 8085: 8084: 8082: 8080: 8076: 8070: 8067: 8065: 8062: 8060: 8059:Phylogenetics 8057: 8055: 8052: 8050: 8047: 8045: 8042: 8040: 8037: 8035: 8032: 8030: 8027: 8025: 8024:Genetic drift 8022: 8020: 8017: 8015: 8012: 8010: 8007: 8006: 8004: 8002: 7998: 7992: 7989: 7987: 7984: 7982: 7979: 7977: 7974: 7972: 7969: 7967: 7964: 7962: 7959: 7957: 7954: 7953: 7951: 7949: 7945: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7909: 7906: 7904: 7901: 7899: 7896: 7894: 7891: 7889: 7886: 7884: 7881: 7879: 7876: 7874: 7871: 7870: 7868: 7866: 7862: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7846: 7843: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7831: 7830:Nucleic acids 7828: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7814: 7811: 7810: 7809: 7806: 7804: 7801: 7799: 7796: 7794: 7793:Chemical bond 7791: 7789: 7788:Carbohydrates 7786: 7784: 7781: 7779: 7776: 7775: 7773: 7769: 7763: 7760: 7758: 7755: 7753: 7750: 7748: 7745: 7743: 7740: 7738: 7735: 7733: 7730: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7712: 7708: 7704: 7700: 7696: 7692: 7688: 7684: 7680: 7676: 7672: 7668: 7664: 7661: 7658: 7654: 7650: 7646: 7642: 7638: 7634: 7630: 7626: 7624: 7621: 7619: 7616: 7615: 7613: 7609: 7606: 7604: 7600: 7594: 7591: 7587: 7584: 7583: 7582: 7579: 7577: 7574: 7571: 7567: 7563: 7562: 7559: 7555: 7548: 7543: 7541: 7536: 7534: 7529: 7528: 7525: 7516: 7512: 7508: 7504: 7500: 7496: 7492: 7488: 7484: 7480: 7474: 7470: 7469: 7464: 7460: 7456: 7452: 7448: 7442: 7438: 7434: 7429: 7425: 7421: 7417: 7412: 7411: 7405: 7401: 7397: 7393: 7389: 7383: 7379: 7375: 7374:Sterelny, Kim 7371: 7367: 7363: 7359: 7358: 7353: 7349: 7345: 7341: 7337: 7331: 7327: 7323: 7318: 7314: 7310: 7306: 7300: 7297:. MIT Press. 7296: 7292: 7288: 7284: 7280: 7276: 7270: 7266: 7262: 7258: 7254: 7250: 7246: 7242: 7238: 7232: 7227: 7226: 7219: 7215: 7211: 7207: 7203: 7199: 7193: 7189: 7184: 7180: 7176: 7172: 7168: 7163: 7158: 7154: 7150: 7146: 7142: 7136: 7132: 7128: 7124: 7120: 7116: 7112: 7106: 7102: 7097: 7093: 7089: 7085: 7079: 7075: 7070: 7066: 7062: 7058: 7052: 7048: 7044: 7040: 7036: 7035: 7030: 7026: 7022: 7018: 7014: 7008: 7004: 7000: 6996: 6992: 6988: 6984: 6980: 6976: 6972: 6968: 6964: 6960: 6956: 6950: 6946: 6945: 6940: 6936: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6918: 6914: 6913:Belknap Press 6910: 6909: 6903: 6899: 6895: 6891: 6887: 6882: 6877: 6873: 6869: 6865: 6861: 6855: 6851: 6846: 6845: 6839: 6835: 6831: 6827: 6823: 6817: 6813: 6812: 6807: 6803: 6798: 6794: 6790: 6784: 6780: 6776: 6772: 6768: 6764: 6760: 6756: 6752: 6751: 6746: 6742: 6738: 6734: 6730: 6725: 6724: 6718: 6714: 6710: 6706: 6702: 6696: 6692: 6688: 6684: 6680: 6676: 6672: 6668: 6664: 6660: 6656: 6652: 6646: 6642: 6638: 6637: 6632: 6628: 6624: 6620: 6616: 6610: 6606: 6602: 6597: 6593: 6589: 6585: 6581: 6577: 6571: 6567: 6563: 6559: 6555: 6550: 6546: 6542: 6538: 6534: 6533: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6506: 6502: 6498: 6494: 6490: 6486: 6482: 6478: 6472: 6468: 6464: 6463: 6457: 6453: 6449: 6445: 6439: 6435: 6431: 6427: 6423: 6418: 6414: 6410: 6404: 6400: 6396: 6392: 6388: 6384: 6380: 6376: 6372: 6368: 6362: 6358: 6354: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6328: 6324: 6320: 6316: 6312: 6308: 6304: 6300: 6296: 6292: 6286: 6282: 6277: 6276: 6270: 6266: 6254: 6250: 6246: 6242: 6241: 6236: 6232: 6228: 6224: 6220: 6216: 6215: 6210: 6206: 6202: 6198: 6194: 6188: 6184: 6180: 6176: 6175: 6170: 6169:Cronin, Helen 6166: 6162: 6158: 6154: 6150: 6146: 6142: 6138: 6134: 6130: 6126: 6120: 6116: 6111: 6110: 6104: 6100: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6082: 6078: 6074: 6069: 6066: 6060: 6056: 6052: 6046: 6042: 6038: 6034: 6030: 6026: 6021: 6020: 6008: 6004: 5999: 5993: 5988: 5982: 5977: 5970: 5969:Williams 1966 5965: 5958: 5953: 5946: 5941: 5935: 5930: 5921: 5917: 5913: 5909: 5905: 5901: 5897: 5896:Nagel, Ernest 5891: 5882: 5878: 5874: 5870: 5866: 5862: 5861: 5856: 5855:Nagel, Ernest 5850: 5843: 5842:Williams 1966 5838: 5831: 5826: 5810: 5806: 5802: 5796: 5788: 5784: 5780: 5776: 5772: 5768: 5764: 5758: 5752: 5748: 5744: 5740: 5736: 5732: 5726: 5724: 5717: 5713: 5709: 5705: 5701: 5697: 5691: 5689: 5681: 5677: 5676: 5671: 5670: 5665: 5661: 5656: 5648: 5644: 5640: 5636: 5632: 5628: 5624: 5620: 5616: 5612: 5608: 5601: 5582: 5578: 5574: 5567: 5564:(July 1973). 5563: 5557: 5550: 5545: 5538: 5534: 5529: 5513: 5509: 5502: 5493: 5488: 5484: 5480: 5476: 5469: 5461: 5457: 5453: 5449: 5445: 5441: 5434: 5415: 5411: 5407: 5403: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5383: 5379: 5375: 5368: 5361: 5353: 5349: 5345: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5317: 5316: 5311: 5307: 5301: 5294: 5289: 5282: 5277: 5261: 5257: 5253: 5248: 5243: 5239: 5235: 5231: 5227: 5226: 5221: 5214: 5207: 5205: 5199: 5193: 5189: 5188: 5180: 5174: 5169: 5153: 5149: 5145: 5141: 5130: 5122: 5118: 5114: 5110: 5106: 5102: 5101: 5096: 5090: 5084:, p. 417 5083: 5078: 5070: 5066: 5062: 5058: 5057: 5049: 5042: 5041:Williams 2010 5037: 5031: 5026: 5018: 5014: 5010: 5006: 5002: 4998: 4994: 4987: 4979: 4975: 4971: 4967: 4960: 4954: 4949: 4942: 4936: 4930: 4926: 4921: 4902: 4898: 4894: 4887: 4885: 4876: 4868: 4864: 4859: 4854: 4850: 4846: 4842: 4835: 4827: 4823: 4819: 4815: 4811: 4807: 4803: 4799: 4795: 4791: 4785: 4779:, p. 589 4778: 4773: 4767: 4762: 4754: 4750: 4746: 4742: 4738: 4734: 4730: 4726: 4722: 4718: 4717: 4712: 4706: 4687: 4683: 4679: 4674: 4669: 4665: 4661: 4660: 4652: 4648: 4647:Mallet, James 4642: 4636: 4631: 4625: 4620: 4614: 4609: 4603: 4598: 4590: 4584: 4580: 4573: 4565: 4559: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4541: 4533: 4527: 4523: 4516: 4508: 4504: 4500: 4496: 4492: 4488: 4481: 4473: 4469: 4464: 4459: 4455: 4451: 4447: 4440: 4432: 4428: 4423: 4418: 4414: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4393: 4388: 4381: 4375:, p. 364 4374: 4369: 4363:, p. 217 4362: 4357: 4350: 4345: 4329: 4325: 4321: 4317: 4311: 4307: 4306: 4298: 4290: 4286: 4282: 4278: 4273: 4268: 4264: 4260: 4256: 4252: 4248: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4225: 4217: 4213: 4208: 4203: 4199: 4195: 4190: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4173: 4166: 4158: 4154: 4149: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4120: 4116: 4109: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4085: 4081: 4076: 4071: 4067: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4044: 4036: 4032: 4028: 4024: 4020: 4016: 4012: 4008: 4004: 4000: 3993: 3985: 3979: 3975: 3971: 3967: 3963: 3956: 3948: 3944: 3940: 3936: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3908: 3904: 3897: 3881: 3877: 3873: 3869: 3865: 3861: 3857: 3853: 3849: 3845: 3841: 3837: 3830: 3822: 3818: 3813: 3808: 3804: 3800: 3795: 3790: 3786: 3782: 3778: 3774: 3770: 3763: 3755: 3751: 3747: 3743: 3739: 3735: 3731: 3727: 3723: 3719: 3712: 3696: 3692: 3688: 3684: 3680: 3679: 3674: 3667: 3660: 3659:Eldredge 1995 3655: 3648: 3647:Eldredge 1985 3643: 3636: 3635:Eldredge 1995 3631: 3625: 3621: 3616: 3608: 3604: 3599: 3594: 3590: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3574: 3567: 3560: 3555: 3549:, p. 552 3548: 3543: 3537:, p. 210 3536: 3531: 3525: 3521: 3516: 3514: 3505: 3501: 3497: 3493: 3492: 3484: 3477: 3472: 3464: 3460: 3456: 3452: 3448: 3444: 3443: 3435: 3427: 3423: 3418: 3413: 3409: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3396: 3391: 3384: 3368: 3364: 3358: 3354: 3353: 3345: 3336: 3331: 3327: 3323: 3319: 3312: 3304: 3300: 3296: 3292: 3288: 3284: 3283: 3278: 3274: 3270: 3264: 3257: 3252: 3236: 3232: 3226: 3222: 3221: 3213: 3197: 3193: 3187: 3183: 3179: 3172: 3165: 3160: 3158: 3150: 3145: 3139: 3134: 3127: 3126:Stebbins 1950 3122: 3114: 3110: 3106: 3102: 3101: 3093: 3085: 3081: 3076: 3071: 3066: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3052: 3047: 3043: 3036: 3029: 3024: 3018: 3013: 3006: 3005:Williams 1966 3001: 2994: 2989: 2982: 2977: 2970: 2966: 2962: 2958: 2954: 2950: 2944: 2940: 2936: 2929: 2923: 2918: 2911: 2906: 2900:, p. 449 2899: 2894: 2886: 2882: 2878: 2874: 2870: 2866: 2862: 2858: 2857: 2852: 2851:Orr, H. Allen 2846: 2844: 2837: 2832: 2826: 2821: 2814: 2808: 2800: 2794: 2790: 2786: 2785: 2777: 2771: 2767: 2762: 2755: 2750: 2742: 2735: 2728: 2723: 2715: 2709: 2705: 2704: 2699: 2693: 2689: 2679: 2676: 2674: 2671: 2669: 2666: 2664: 2661: 2659: 2656: 2654: 2651: 2649: 2646: 2644: 2641: 2639: 2636: 2634: 2631: 2629: 2626: 2625: 2618: 2616: 2615: 2610: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2585: 2579: 2575: 2574:Adaptationism 2567: 2563: 2559: 2556: 2551: 2542: 2540: 2535: 2531: 2527: 2523: 2519: 2509: 2507: 2503: 2498: 2493: 2489: 2479: 2477: 2476:endoparasites 2473: 2469: 2465: 2459: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2445: 2439: 2435: 2425: 2422: 2418: 2408: 2406: 2402: 2398: 2394: 2390: 2386: 2382: 2378: 2377:embryological 2374: 2370: 2364: 2356: 2352: 2351: 2345: 2336: 2334: 2330: 2329: 2324: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2308: 2304: 2300: 2295: 2293: 2286: 2285:White Leghorn 2282: 2279: 2266: 2259: 2250: 2247: 2242: 2240: 2236: 2232: 2228: 2226: 2219: 2217: 2213: 2209: 2208: 2197: 2192: 2188: 2186: 2182: 2178: 2174: 2170: 2166: 2162: 2157: 2155: 2151: 2147: 2143: 2139: 2135: 2131: 2127: 2126: 2112: 2111: 2106: 2100: 2093: 2089: 2088:Peter Medawar 2083: 2079: 2077: 2076:ectoparasites 2073: 2063: 2061: 2057: 2053: 2048: 2046: 2042: 2038: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2018: 2014: 2010: 2002: 1998: 1994: 1990: 1985: 1980: 1970: 1968: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1948: 1943: 1938: 1937:Co-adaptation 1931:Co-adaptation 1928: 1926: 1922: 1918: 1914: 1910: 1905: 1903: 1899: 1894: 1890: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1874: 1872: 1868: 1864: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1848: 1844: 1840: 1836: 1826: 1824: 1820: 1819:fossil record 1816: 1811: 1807: 1803: 1790: 1786: 1780: 1771: 1768: 1764: 1763:Sewall Wright 1757: 1752: 1745: 1741: 1738: 1734: 1731: 1730: 1725: 1721: 1720: 1719: 1717: 1716:Elliott Sober 1713: 1709: 1705: 1701: 1697: 1691: 1687: 1677: 1675: 1669: 1667: 1664: 1659: 1655: 1651: 1647: 1646: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1621: 1616: 1614: 1610: 1601: 1589: 1585: 1582: 1578: 1575: 1571: 1567: 1566: 1565: 1563: 1558: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1528: 1527:vocalizations 1524: 1520: 1516: 1513:capacity for 1512: 1508: 1504: 1500: 1496: 1495:physiological 1492: 1487: 1485: 1484:endosymbiosis 1482: 1478: 1473: 1469: 1463: 1461: 1457: 1453: 1449: 1444: 1442: 1438: 1434: 1430: 1426: 1422: 1418: 1414: 1401: 1400: 1395: 1394:Julian Huxley 1389: 1388: 1378: 1376: 1372: 1368: 1364: 1360: 1356: 1351: 1349: 1345: 1341: 1337: 1333: 1331: 1327: 1323: 1319: 1315: 1311: 1307: 1306:William Paley 1303: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1279: 1274: 1270: 1268: 1264: 1260: 1256: 1252: 1246: 1236: 1234: 1230: 1225: 1223: 1219: 1215: 1210: 1206: 1202: 1198: 1194: 1190: 1186: 1181: 1179: 1175: 1171: 1167: 1163: 1158: 1156: 1152: 1148: 1144: 1140: 1136: 1132: 1128: 1124: 1112: 1107: 1105: 1100: 1098: 1093: 1092: 1090: 1089: 1083: 1080: 1078: 1074: 1069: 1064: 1059: 1058: 1053: 1050: 1048: 1044: 1040: 1036: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1019: 1014: 1009: 1008: 1002: 999: 997: 993: 989: 985: 981: 977: 973: 969: 965: 961: 957: 956:Goal-oriented 953: 949: 945: 940: 935: 931: 926: 925: 920: 919:Geomorphology 917: 915: 911: 907: 903: 899: 895: 891: 886: 881: 876: 875: 870: 867: 865: 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 832: 827: 823: 818: 817: 812: 809: 807: 803: 799: 795: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 770: 765: 760: 759: 753: 750: 748: 744: 740: 736: 732: 728: 724: 720: 716: 712: 707: 702: 697: 696: 690: 685: 680: 679: 675: 674: 671: 668: 667: 657: 652: 650: 645: 643: 638: 637: 635: 634: 628: 618: 615: 610: 604: 603: 602: 601: 594: 591: 589: 586: 584: 581: 579: 576: 574: 571: 569: 566: 564: 561: 559: 556: 554: 551: 550: 544: 543: 536: 533: 531: 528: 526: 523: 521: 518: 516: 513: 511: 508: 506: 503: 501: 500:Phylogenetics 498: 496: 493: 491: 488: 486: 483: 481: 478: 476: 473: 471: 468: 466: 463: 461: 458: 456: 453: 451: 448: 446: 443: 441: 438: 436: 433: 431: 428: 426: 423: 421: 418: 416: 413: 412: 406: 405: 396: 392: 389: 387: 384: 382: 379: 377: 374: 372: 369: 367: 364: 362: 359: 357: 356: 352: 350: 347: 345: 344:Before Darwin 342: 340: 337: 335: 332: 331: 324: 323: 315: 312: 310: 307: 305: 302: 300: 297: 295: 292: 290: 287: 285: 282: 280: 277: 273: 270: 269: 268: 265: 263: 260: 258: 255: 253: 250: 248: 245: 244: 237: 236: 228: 225: 223: 220: 218: 215: 213: 210: 208: 205: 203: 200: 198: 195: 193: 190: 188: 185: 183: 180: 178: 175: 173: 172:Genetic drift 170: 168: 165: 163: 160: 158: 155: 153: 150: 148: 145: 143: 140: 138: 135: 134: 127: 126: 120: 117: 115: 112: 110: 107: 106: 103: 100: 98: 95: 93: 90: 88: 85: 84: 82: 81: 77: 73: 68: 64: 63: 60: 57: 56: 52: 51: 48: 44: 40: 33: 19: 10731: 10719: 10707: 10695: 10534: 10511:Ring species 10460:Cospeciation 10455:Cladogenesis 10404:Introduction 10308:Polymorphism 10291:Astrobiology 10239:Biogeography 10194:Saltationism 10184:Orthogenesis 10169:Alternatives 10098: 10084: 10017:Cospeciation 10012:Cladogenesis 9961:Saltationism 9918:Mating types 9841:Color vision 9826:Avian flight 9748:mitochondria 9486:Canalisation 9364:Biodiversity 9151: 9109:Introduction 8916:Sociobiology 8896:Protistology 8861:Photobiology 8856:Pharmacology 8846:Parasitology 8841:Paleontology 8821:Neuroscience 8801:Microbiology 8711:Epidemiology 8681:Cytogenetics 8641:Cell biology 8621:Biosemiotics 8611:Biomechanics 8591:Biogeography 8586:Biochemistry 8581:Bacteriology 8576:Astrobiology 8500: 8493: 8486: 8457:Western blot 8447:Enzyme assay 8422:Cell culture 8323:Conservation 8208:and function 8206:Animal form 8140:and function 8008: 7913:Fermentation 7691:Organ system 7649:Reproduction 7628: 7627:Properties ( 7502: 7467: 7432: 7409: 7377: 7356: 7321: 7294: 7260: 7224: 7187: 7170: 7130: 7100: 7073: 7038: 7033: 6998: 6974: 6943: 6907: 6885: 6843: 6810: 6774: 6749: 6722: 6674: 6635: 6600: 6561: 6557: 6531: 6496: 6461: 6429: 6398: 6352: 6310: 6274: 6257:. Retrieved 6239: 6213: 6173: 6148: 6108: 6072: 6028: 6006: 5998: 5987: 5976: 5964: 5952: 5940: 5929: 5903: 5899: 5890: 5864: 5858: 5849: 5837: 5825: 5813:. Retrieved 5804: 5795: 5770: 5766: 5757: 5673: 5667: 5655: 5614: 5610: 5600: 5588:. Retrieved 5581:the original 5576: 5572: 5556: 5544: 5536: 5528: 5516:. Retrieved 5501: 5482: 5478: 5468: 5446:(3): 58–63. 5443: 5439: 5433: 5421:. Retrieved 5377: 5373: 5360: 5319: 5315:Paleobiology 5313: 5300: 5293:Panchen 1992 5288: 5276: 5264:. Retrieved 5229: 5223: 5213: 5204:heterozygous 5201: 5186: 5179: 5168: 5156:. Retrieved 5152:the original 5147: 5143: 5140:in the fowl" 5129: 5104: 5098: 5089: 5077: 5060: 5054: 5048: 5043:, p. 29 5036: 5025: 5000: 4996: 4986: 4969: 4965: 4959: 4948: 4935: 4920: 4908:. Retrieved 4901:the original 4896: 4893:Mertensiella 4892: 4883: 4875: 4848: 4844: 4834: 4801: 4797: 4793: 4784: 4772: 4766:Medawar 1960 4761: 4720: 4714: 4705: 4693:. Retrieved 4663: 4657: 4641: 4630: 4619: 4613:Wickler 1968 4608: 4597: 4578: 4572: 4549: 4540: 4521: 4515: 4490: 4486: 4480: 4453: 4449: 4439: 4396: 4390: 4380: 4368: 4356: 4344: 4332:. Retrieved 4304: 4297: 4238: 4234: 4224: 4179: 4175: 4165: 4122: 4118: 4108: 4057: 4054:FEBS Letters 4053: 4043: 4002: 3998: 3992: 3961: 3955: 3906: 3902: 3896: 3884:. Retrieved 3843: 3839: 3829: 3776: 3772: 3762: 3721: 3717: 3711: 3699:. Retrieved 3676: 3666: 3661:, p. 64 3654: 3642: 3637:, p. 33 3630: 3615: 3580: 3576: 3566: 3561:, p. 25 3554: 3547:Futuyma 1986 3542: 3530: 3495: 3489: 3483: 3478:, p. 33 3471: 3446: 3440: 3434: 3399: 3393: 3383: 3371:. Retrieved 3351: 3344: 3325: 3321: 3311: 3289:(1): 82–92. 3286: 3280: 3276: 3272: 3263: 3251: 3239:. Retrieved 3219: 3212: 3200:. Retrieved 3181: 3171: 3144: 3133: 3121: 3104: 3098: 3092: 3055: 3049: 3035: 3023: 3012: 3000: 2988: 2983:, p. 10 2976: 2968: 2934: 2928: 2917: 2905: 2893: 2860: 2854: 2831: 2825:Provine 1986 2820: 2807: 2783: 2776: 2761: 2749: 2740: 2734: 2727:Desmond 1989 2722: 2702: 2692: 2668:Evolvability 2614:a posteriori 2612: 2587:intentions. 2581: 2534:life started 2515: 2499: 2495: 2492:Coextinction 2472:wisdom teeth 2460: 2441: 2438:Vestigiality 2414: 2396: 2366: 2348: 2333:teleological 2326: 2319:Max Delbrück 2296: 2280: 2275: 2264: 2257: 2245: 2243: 2239:Neanderthals 2222: 2220: 2206: 2203: 2160: 2158: 2123: 2121: 2108: 2098: 2091: 2081: 2069: 2052:Fritz Müller 2049: 2035:of aculeate 2006: 1952: 1906: 1891: 1878: 1875: 1832: 1814: 1799: 1788: 1778: 1766: 1761: 1727: 1723: 1693: 1670: 1657: 1650:giant pandas 1643: 1617: 1606: 1587: 1580: 1576:or habitats. 1569: 1559: 1539:phototropism 1533:, secreting 1488: 1467: 1464: 1445: 1440: 1436: 1432: 1424: 1410: 1397: 1386: 1385: 1352: 1339: 1334: 1322:Dr. Pangloss 1299: 1248: 1226: 1182: 1159: 1150: 1131:evolutionary 1126: 1120: 1071: 1021: 942: 888: 869:Evolvability 834: 825: 790:Graph theory 772: 709: 520:Sociobiology 505:Paleontology 353: 289:Biogeography 284:Biodiversity 202:Coextinction 192:Co-operation 167:Polymorphism 161: 92:Introduction 47: 10733:WikiProject 10493:Centrifugal 10318:Systematics 10189:Mutationism 10007:Catagenesis 9935:Snake venom 9868:Eusociality 9846:in primates 9836:Cooperation 9764:In animals 9584:butterflies 9557:Cephalopods 9547:Brachiopods 9479:Development 9453:Mate choice 9206:Convergence 9189:Coevolution 9147:Abiogenesis 9056:WikiProject 8966:Xenobiology 8961:Virophysics 8931:Systematics 8886:Primatology 8831:Ornithology 8771:Ichthyology 8756:Herpetology 8751:Gerontology 8716:Epigenetics 8676:Cryobiology 8566:Agrostology 8556:Aerobiology 8551:Abiogenesis 8388:Laboratory 8235:Homeostasis 8138:Plant form 7961:Epigenetics 7883:Cell theory 7783:Amino acids 7762:Common name 7752:Peer review 7727:Mechanistic 7416:McGraw-Hill 6939:Mayr, Ernst 6876:Mayr, Ernst 6838:Mayr, Ernst 6219:John Murray 6145:Ford, E. B. 5662:, pp. 5660:Darwin 1872 5423:11 February 5322:(1): 4–15. 5266:19 December 5082:Huxley 1942 5063:(1): 6–12. 5030:Miller 2007 4953:Cronin 1991 4941:Fisher 1930 4925:Darwin 1871 4695:28 December 4550:Coevolution 4334:18 December 4308:. Penguin. 3886:18 December 3622:, pp. 3620:Wright 1932 3559:Fisher 1930 3522:, pp. 3520:Endler 1986 3498:: 285–304. 3107:: 163–196. 3042:Meyer, Axel 2995:, p. 1 2981:Bowler 2003 2898:Huxley 1942 2813:Bowler 2003 2766:Darwin 1872 2591:introduced 2444:pleiotropic 2393:gill arches 2357:for flight. 2216:mate choice 2161:salamanders 2037:Hymenoptera 2009:butterflies 1967:pollinating 1955:coevolution 1921:transposons 1867:sodium pump 1581:Adaptedness 1555:homeostasis 1503:Behavioural 1468:constraints 1417:liver fluke 1415:(such as a 1259:final cause 1222:bird flight 1133:process of 1063:Game theory 1047:Bifurcation 1027:Phase space 992:Sensemaking 960:Homeostasis 939:Autopoiesis 934:cybernetics 902:Percolation 530:Systematics 339:Renaissance 217:Convergence 207:Contingency 197:Coevolution 10771:Categories 10596:Polyploidy 10558:Allochrony 10535:Adaptation 10503:Parapatric 10485:Peripatric 10481:Allopatric 10450:Anagenesis 10393:Speciation 10179:Lamarckism 10157:Philosophy 10080:David Hume 10042:Peripatric 10037:Parapatric 10022:Ecological 10002:Anagenesis 9997:Allopatric 9989:Speciation 9953:Gradualism 9878:Metabolism 9738:chromosome 9728:Eukaryotes 9506:Modularity 9423:Population 9349:Population 9310:Speciation 9288:Panspermia 9241:Extinction 9236:Exaptation 9211:Divergence 9184:Cladistics 9172:Reciprocal 9152:Adaptation 8982:Glossaries 8951:Toxicology 8946:Teratology 8891:Proteomics 8876:Physiology 8816:Neontology 8781:Lipidology 8776:Immunology 8746:Geobiology 8706:Embryology 8686:Dendrology 8616:Biophysics 8596:Biogeology 8390:techniques 8345:Microbiome 8172:Plant stem 8064:Speciation 8009:Adaptation 7938:Prokaryote 7918:Metabolism 7878:Cell cycle 7709:> 7705:> 7701:> 7699:Population 7697:> 7693:> 7689:> 7685:> 7681:> 7677:> 7673:> 7669:> 7645:Regulation 7629:Adaptation 6977:. The BBC 6890:Free Press 5981:Monod 1971 5830:Sober 1993 5680:bumblebees 5518:17 October 5206:... state. 4927:, p. 4324:1024108339 3673:"Mutation" 3535:Sober 1984 3058:(17): 17. 2957:2010287468 2922:Price 1980 2768:, p. 2754:Sober 1993 2685:References 2609:Ernst Mayr 2605:David Hull 2506:food chain 2488:Extinction 2464:maladapted 2417:earthworms 2397:exaptation 2385:hyoid bone 2363:Exaptation 2355:exaptation 2163:, such as 2154:coloration 2150:camouflage 2134:allometric 2105:Ernst Mayr 2066:Trade-offs 1997:hoverflies 1947:co-adapted 1853:and other 1712:extinction 1645:Eucalyptus 1636:herbivores 1570:Adaptation 1509:, or as a 1481:eukaryotic 1477:polyploidy 1452:speciation 1433:adaptation 1421:life cycle 1367:E. B. Ford 1344:Lamarckism 1326:David Hume 1320:'s satire 1255:Empedocles 1162:Empedocles 1137:that fits 1127:adaptation 1031:Attractors 826:adaptation 798:Robustness 782:Centrality 304:Cladistics 227:Extinction 212:Divergence 182:Speciation 162:Adaptation 76:John Gould 10517:Sympatric 10313:Protocell 10164:Darwinism 10052:Sympatric 9801:processes 9689:Tetrapods 9638:Kangaroos 9564:Dinosaurs 9501:Inversion 9470:Variation 9391:Gene flow 9384:Inclusive 9194:Mutualism 9139:Evolution 8866:Phycology 8851:Pathology 8836:Osteology 8826:Nutrition 8786:Mammalogy 8761:Histology 8502:in silico 8378:Research 8355:Resources 8328:Ecosystem 8318:Community 8303:Biosphere 8215:Breathing 8097:Eukaryote 8079:Diversity 8029:Gene flow 8001:Evolution 7908:Eukaryote 7820:Molecules 7711:Biosphere 7707:Ecosystem 7703:Community 7675:Organelle 7570:Evolution 7515:439596433 7455:587198932 7131:Evolution 6868:899044868 6779:MIT Press 6709:502399533 6545:493745635 6299:709606191 6259:17 August 6161:875481859 5992:Hull 1982 5957:Mayr 1988 5945:Mayr 1965 5590:22 August 5410:205254710 5158:20 August 4910:18 August 4798:Evolution 4777:Mayr 1982 4624:Moon 1976 4349:Mayr 1982 4289:244485686 4263:0960-9822 4198:0027-8424 4139:0028-0836 4084:0014-5793 4027:0036-8075 3931:0036-8075 3803:0027-8424 3701:18 August 3282:Evolution 3028:Mayr 1982 3017:Mayr 1963 2965:444383696 2910:Mayr 1982 2836:Ford 1975 2756:, chpt. 2 2593:teleology 2555:springbok 2518:RNA world 2502:parasitic 2468:vestigial 2456:spandrels 2387:of their 2289:vitamin B 2278:cordgrass 2181:fecundity 2138:predators 2125:Irish elk 2058:provided 2021:predators 1969:insects. 1887:ecosystem 1847:RNA world 1825:theory). 1810:invasions 1700:heritable 1628:phenotype 1507:instincts 1373:produced 1282:body plan 1263:Aristotle 1251:evolution 1233:teleology 1193:co-evolve 1166:Aristotle 1139:organisms 822:Evolution 689:Emergence 563:Dysgenics 279:Phylogeny 177:Gene flow 147:Diversity 142:Variation 10697:Category 10614:evidence 10419:Glossary 10341:Category 10216:Vitalism 10211:Theistic 10204:Spandrel 9888:Morality 9883:Monogamy 9758:plastids 9723:Flagella 9679:Reptiles 9660:sea cows 9643:primates 9552:Molluscs 9530:Bacteria 9418:Mutation 9351:genetics 9327:Taxonomy 9273:Mismatch 9253:Homology 9167:Cheating 9162:Altruism 9036:Category 8956:Virology 8941:Taxonomy 8881:Pomology 8811:Mycology 8741:Genomics 8736:Genetics 8561:Agronomy 8542:Branches 8495:in vitro 8092:Bacteria 8069:Taxonomy 8049:Mutation 8019:Function 7948:Genetics 7850:Proteins 7695:Organism 7671:Molecule 7655:), 7611:Overview 7586:Timeline 7566:Genetics 7487:35230452 7465:(1966). 7406:(1968). 7396:40193587 7354:(1950). 7344:26974492 7313:11114517 7293:(1984). 7283:56644492 7245:12808844 7169:(eds.). 7159:(1958). 7149:39724234 7129:(1999). 7119:24247430 7031:(1971). 7021:71005838 6973:(1960). 6963:17108004 6941:(1988). 6878:(1965). 6840:(1963). 6830:27676642 6808:(1993). 6797:22597587 6747:(1942). 6719:(1965). 6659:13822044 6633:(1986). 6623:73502978 6529:(1930). 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