2711:
usually reduced form of a noun, which is used when the noun is possessed by another noun (Semitic) or is modified by an adjective or relative clause (Cushitic). Edward Lipiński refers to
Semitic nouns as having four states: absolute (free/indeterminate), construct, determinate, and predicate. Coptic and Egyptian grammar also refers to nouns having a "free" (absolute) state, a "construct state", and a "pronominal state". The construct state is used when a noun becomes unstressed as the first element of a compound, whereas the pronominal state is used when the noun has a suffixed possessive pronoun. Berber instead contrasts between the "free state" and the "annexed state", the latter of which is used for a variety of purposes, including for subjects placed after a verb and after certain prepositions.
1253:
argue that Chadic and
Egyptian are closely related, and scholars who rely on percentage of shared lexicon often group Chadic with Berber. Three scholars who agree on an early split between Omotic and the other subbranches, but little else, are Harold Fleming (1983), Christopher Ehret (1995), and Lionel Bender (1997). In contrast, scholars relying on shared lexicon often produce a Cushitic-Omotic group. Additionally, the minority of scholars who favor an Asian origin of Afroasiatic tend to place Semitic as the first branch to split off. Disagreement on which features are innovative and which are inherited from Proto-Afroasiatic produces radically different trees, as can be seen by comparing the trees produced by Ehret and
1946:: phonemic tonality is found in Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, but absent in Berber and Semitic. There is no information on whether Egyptian had tones. In contemporary Omotic, Chadic, and Cushitic languages, tone is primarily a grammatical feature: it encodes various grammatical functions, only differentiating lexical roots in a few cases. In some Chadic and some Omotic languages every syllable has to have a tone, whereas in most Cushitic languages this is not the case. Some scholars postulate that Proto-Afroasiatic may have had tone, while others believe it arose later from a
1367:. On one hand, the "Hamitic" classification was justified partially based on linguistic features: for example, Meinhof split the presently-understood Chadic family into "Hamito-Chadic", and an unrelated non-Hamitic "Chadic" based on which languages possessed grammatical gender. On the other hand, the classification also relied on non-linguistic anthropological and culturally contingent features, such as skin color, hair type, and lifestyle. Ultimately, Meinhof's classification of Hamitic proved to include languages from every presently-recognized language family within Africa.
806:(often called "Ancient Egyptian"), which was historically spoken in the lower Nile Valley. Egyptian is first attested in writing around 3000 BCE and finally went extinct around 1300 CE, making it the language with the longest written history in the world. Egyptian is usually divided into two major periods, Earlier Egyptian (c. 3000–1300 BCE), which is further subdivided into Old Egyptian and Middle Egyptian, and Later Egyptian (1300 BCE-1300 CE), which is further subdivided into Late Egyptian, Demotic, and Coptic. Coptic is the only stage written
1261:
currently lacking certain features did not have them in the past; this also means that the presence of morphological features cannot be taken as defining a subgroup. Peust notes that other factors that can obscure genetic relationships between languages include the poor state of present documentation and understanding of particular language families (historically with
Egyptian, presently with Omotic). Gene Gragg likewise argues that more needs to be known about Omotic still, and that Afroasiatic linguists have still not found convincing
1477:
Afroasiatic languages spoken in Africa are not more closely related to each other than they are to
Semitic, as one would expect if only Semitic had remained in a West Asian homeland while all other branches had spread from there. Likewise, all Semitic languages are fairly similar to each other, whereas the African branches of Afroasiatic are very diverse; this suggests the rapid spread of Semitic out of Africa. Proponents of an origin of Afroasiatic within Africa assume the proto-language to have been spoken by pre-Neolithic
3726:'; the prefixes appear with various related meanings in the individual daughter languages and branches. Christopher Ehret has proposed that Proto-Afroasiatic originally had as many as thirty-seven separate verbal extensions, many of which then became fossilized as third consonants. This theory has been criticized by some, such as Andrzej Zaborski and Alan Kaye, as being too many extensions to be realistic, though Zygmont Frajzyngier and Erin Shay note that some Chadic languages have as many as twelve extensions.
625:
179:
1336:
3556:, place nouns, and instrument nouns. In some branches, it can also derive abstract nouns and participles. Omotic, meanwhile, shows evidence for a non-productive prefix mV- associated with the feminine gender. Christopher Ehret has argued that this prefix is a later development that was not present in Proto-Afro-Asiatic, but rather derived from a PAA indefinite pronoun *m-. Such an etymology is rejected by A. Zaborski and Gábor Takács, the latter of whom argues for a PAA
814:, which only represent consonants. In the Coptic period, there is evidence for six major dialects, which presumably existed previously but are obscured by pre-Coptic writing; additionally, Middle Egyptian appears to be based on a different dialect than Old Egyptian, which in turn shows dialectal similarities to Late Egyptian. Egyptian was replaced by Arabic as the spoken language of Egypt, but Coptic continues to be the liturgical language of the
5014:
reconstructions as "controversial", and Ehret's as "not acceptable to many scholars". Tom Güldemann argues that much comparative work in
Afroasiatic suffers from not attempting first to reconstruct smaller units within the individual branches, but instead comparing words in the individual languages. Nevertheless, both dictionaries agree on some items and some proposed cognates are uncontroversial. Such cognates tend to rely on relatively simple
3350:); the obvious correspondence between the endings in the two branches has been argued to show that Egyptian and Semitic are closely related. While some scholars posit an AA origin for this form, it is possible that the Berber and Cushitic forms are independent developments, as they show significant differences from the Egyptian and Semitic forms. The Cushitic forms in particular may be derived from morphology found in subordinate clauses.
729:. Hausa is the largest Chadic language by native speakers, and is spoken by a large number of people as a lingua franca in Northern Nigeria. It may have as many as 80 to 100 million first and second language speakers. Eight other Chadic languages have around 100,000 speakers; other Chadic languages often have few speakers and may be in danger of going extinct. Only about 40 Chadic languages have been fully described by linguists.
2255:) between high vowels (e.g. i, u) and a low vowel (a) in verbal forms is usually described as one of the main characteristics of AA languages: this change codes a variety of different functions. It is unclear whether this system is a common AA trait; the Chadic examples, for instance, show signs of originally deriving from affixes, which could explain the origins of the alterations in other languages as well.
2313:
Additionally, even when nouns are not cognates, they tend to have the same gender throughout
Afroasiatic ("gender stability"). In Egyptian, Semitic, and Berber, a feminine suffix -t is attested to mark feminine nouns; in some Cushitic and Chadic languages, a feminine -t suffix or prefix (lexicalized from a demonstrative) is used to mark definiteness. In addition to these uses, -t also functions as a
3826:" is a suffix used to derive adjectives from nouns and, in Egyptian, also from prepositions. It is found in Egyptian, Semitic, and possibly, in some relic forms, Berber. The suffix has the same basic form in Egyptian and Semitic, taking the form -i(y) in Semitic and being written -j in Egyptian. The Semitic and Cushitic genitive case in -i/-ii may be related to "nisba" adjective derivation.
781:
4382:, deriving the numbers 6–9 from the numbers 1–5 in some way. Some families show more than one word for a numeral: Chadic, Semitic, and Berber each have two words for two, and Semitic has four words for one. Andrzej Zaborski further notes that the numbers "one", "two", and "five" are particularly susceptible to replacement by new words, with "five" often based on a word meaning "hand".
1886:. He showed that, generally, any consonant from one of these groups could combine with consonants from any other group, but could not be used together with consonants from the same group. Additionally, he showed that Proto-Semitic restricted a sequence of two identical consonants in the first and second position of the triliteral root. These rules also have a number of exceptions:
3925:
A common characteristic of AA languages is the existence of a special set of "independent" pronouns, which are distinct from subject pronouns. They can occur together with subject pronouns but cannot fulfill an object function. Also common are dependent/affix pronouns (used for direct objects and to mark possession). For most branches, the first person pronouns contain a
1578:
2099:
where, along with Chadic, it is less productive; it is absent in Omotic. For
Egyptian, evidence for the root-and-template structure exists from Coptic. In Semitic, Egyptian, Berber, verbs have no inherent vowels at all; the vowels found in a given stem are dependent on the vocalic template. In Chadic, verb stems can include an inherent vowel as well.
3933:(s, sh). Other commonalities are masculine and feminine forms used in both the second and third persons, except in Cushitic and Omotic. These pronouns tend to show a masculine "u" and a feminine "i". The Omotic forms of the personal pronouns differ from the others, with only the plural forms in North Omotic appearing potentially to be cognate.
1580:
3036:) for the first person singular and y- for the third person masculine can also be reconstructed. As there is no evidence for the "prefix conjugation" in Omotic, Chadic, or Egyptian, it is unclear whether this was a Proto-Afroasiatic feature that has been lost in those branches or is a shared innovation among Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic.
2069:
Afroasiatic languages have long been in contact with other language families and with each other, leading to the possibility of widespread borrowing both within
Afroasiatic and from unrelated languages. There are nevertheless a number of commonly observed features in Afroasiatic morphology and derivation, including the use of
5009:
Afroasiatic languages share a vocabulary of Proto-Afroasiatic origin to varying extents. Writing in 2004, John
Huehnergard notes the great difficulty in establishing cognate sets across the family. Identifying cognates is difficult because the languages in question are often separated by thousands of
3924:
The forms of the pronouns are very stable throughout
Afroasiatic (excluding Omotic), and they have been used as one of the chief tools for determining whether a language belongs to the family. However, there is no consensus on what the reconstructed set of Afroasiatic pronouns might have looked like.
2068:
At present, there is no generally accepted reconstruction of Proto-Afroasiatic grammar, syntax, or morphology, nor one for any of the sub-branches besides Egyptian. This means that it is difficult to know which features in Afroasiatic languages are retentions, and which are innovations. Moreover, all
1280:
to create a family tree. Fleming (2006) was a more recent attempt by Fleming, with a different result from Militarev and Starostin. Hezekiah Bacovcin and David Wilson argue that this methodology is invalid for discerning linguistic sub-relationship. They note the method's inability to detect various
870:
Most authorities divide Semitic into two branches: East Semitic, which includes the extinct Akkadian language, and West Semitic, which includes Arabic, Aramaic, the Canaanite languages (including Hebrew), as well as the Ethiopian Semitic languages such as Ge'ez and Amharic. The classification within
866:
There are between 40 and 80 languages in the Semitic family. Today, Semitic languages are spoken across North Africa, West Asia, and the Horn of Africa, as well as on the island of Malta, making them the sole Afroasiatic branch with members originating outside Africa. Arabic, spoken in both Asia and
3018:
verbal aspects, which can be found in Cushitic, Berber, Semitic, most Chadic languages, and some Omotic languages. The Egyptian verbal system diverges greatly from that found in the other branches. Additionally, it is common in Afroasiatic languages for the present/imperfective form to be a derived
2834:
In those languages that have adjectives, they can take gender and number markings, which, in some cases, agree with the gender and number of the noun they are modifying. However, in Omotic, adjectives do not agree with nouns: sometimes, they only take gender and number marking when they are used as
1921:
There is a large variety of vocalic systems in AA, and attempts to reconstruct the vocalic system of Proto-Afroasiatic vary considerably. All branches of Afroasiatic have a limited number of underlying vowels (between two and seven), but the number of phonetic vowels can be much larger. The quality
851:
A majority of specialists consider Omotic to constitute a sixth branch of Afroasiatic. Omotic was formerly considered part of the Cushitic branch; some scholars continue to consider it part of Cushitic. Other scholars have questioned whether it is Afroasiatic at all, due its lack of several typical
686:
The Berber (or Libyco-Berber) languages are spoken today by perhaps 16 million people. They are often considered to constitute a single language with multiple dialects. Other scholars, however, argue that they are a group of around twelve languages, about as different from each other as the Romance
3345:
Some AA branches have what is called a "suffix conjugation", formed by adding pronominal suffixes to indicate person, gender, and number to a verbal adjective. In Akkadian, Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic this forms a "stative conjugation", used to express the state or result of an action; the same
3031:
Conjugation of verbs using prefixes that mark person, number, and gender can be found in Semitic, Berber, and in Cushitic, where it is only found on a small set of frequent verbs. These prefixes are clearly cognate across the branches, although their use within the verbal systems of the individual
1608:
argues that this constraint goes back to Proto-Afroasiatic. Some Chadic languages allow a syllable to begin with a vowel, however in many Chadic languages verbs must begin with a consonant. In Cushitic and Chadic languages, a glottal stop or glottal fricative may be inserted to prevent a word from
363:
have not yet been established to explain the relationships between the various branches of Afroasiatic, the languages share a number of common features. One of the most important for establishing membership in the branch is a common set of pronouns. Other widely shared features include a prefix m-
4373:
language families, numerals in AA languages cannot be traced to a proto-system. The Cushitic and Chadic numeral systems appear to have originally been base 5. The system in Berber, Egyptian, and Semitic, however, has independent words for the numbers 6–9. Thus, it is possible that the numerals in
2710:
A second category, which partially overlaps with case, is the AA linguistic category of "state". Linguists use the term "state" to refer to different things in different languages. In Cushitic and Semitic, nouns exist in the "free state" or the "construct state". The construct state is a special,
2098:
A widely attested feature in AA languages is a consonantal structure into which various vocalic "templates" are placed. This structure is particularly visible in the verbs, and is particularly noticeable in Semitic. Besides for Semitic, vocalic templates are well attested for Cushitic and Berber,
1485:
also argue that archaeology does not support a spread of migrating farmers into Africa, but rather a gradual incorporation of animal husbandry into indigenous foraging cultures. Ehret, in a separate publication, argued that the two principles in linguistic approaches for determining the origin of
1476:
An origin somewhere on the African continent has broad scholarly support, and is seen as being well-supported by the linguistic data. Most scholars more narrowly place the homeland near the geographic center of its present distribution, "in the southeastern Sahara or adjacent Horn of Africa." The
1435:
BCE. An estimate at the youngest end of this range still makes Afroasiatic the oldest proven language family. Contrasting proposals of an early emergence, Tom Güldemann has argued that less time may have been required for the divergence than is usually assumed, as it is possible for a language to
1379:
in the 1940s, based on racial and anthropological data. Instead, Greenberg proposed an Afroasiatic family consisting of five branches: Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, Egyptian, and Semitic. Reluctance among some scholars to recognize Chadic as a branch of Afroasiatic persisted as late as the 1980s. In
1252:
Common trends in proposals as of 2019 include using common or lacking grammatical features to argue that Omotic was the first language to branch off, often followed by Chadic. In contrast to scholars who argue for an early split of Chadic from Afroasiatic, scholars of the Russian school tend to
2312:
The assignment of nouns and pronouns to either masculine or feminine gender is present in all branches – but not all languages – of the Afroasiatic family. This sex-based gender system is widely agreed to derive from Proto-Afroasiatic. In most branches, gender is an inherent property of nouns.
1396:
of demonstrating regular sound correspondences to establish the family. An alternative classification, based on the pronominal and conjugation systems, was proposed by A.N. Tucker in 1967. As of 2023, widely accepted sound correspondences between the different branches have not yet been firmly
1260:
Responding to the above, Tom Güldemann criticizes attempts at finding subgroupings based on common or lacking morphology by arguing that the presence or absence of morphological features is not a useful way of discerning subgroupings in Afroasiatic, because it can not be excluded that families
743:
There are about 30 Cushitic languages, more if Omotic is included, spoken around the Horn of Africa and in Sudan and Tanzania. The Cushitic family is traditionally split into four branches: the single language of Beja (c. 3 million speakers), the Agaw languages, Eastern Cushitic, and Southern
1309:
first described the relationship between Semitic and the Egyptian language and connected both to the Berber and the Cushitic languages (which he called "Ethiopic"). In the same year T.N. Newman suggested a relationship between Semitic and the Hausa language, an idea that was taken up by early
5013:
There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova, both from 1995. Both works provide highly divergent reconstructions and have been heavily criticized by other scholars. Andrzej Zaborski refers to Orel and Stolbova's
2838:
A widespread pattern of gender and number marking in Afroasiatic, found on demonstratives, articles, adjectives, and relative markers, is a consonant N for masculine, T for feminine, and N for plural. This can be found in Semitic, Egyptian, Beja, Berber, and Chadic. A system K (masculine), T
2375:
Afroasiatic languages have a variety of ways of marking plurals; in some branches, nouns change gender from singular to plural (gender polarity), while in others, plural forms are ungendered. In addition to marking plurals via a number of affixes (with the suffixes -*uu/-*w and -*n(a) widely
1355:. This theory connected the "Hamites", the originators of Hamitic languages, with (supposedly culturally superior) "Caucasians", who were assumed to have migrated into Africa and intermixed with indigenous "Negroid" Africans in ancient times. The "Hamitic theory" would serve as the basis for
1448:
Likewise, no consensus exists as to where proto-Afroasiatic originated. Scholars have proposed locations for the Afroasiatic homeland across Africa and West Asia. Roger Blench writes that the debate possesses "a strong ideological flavor", with associations between an Asian origin and "high
4389:. Only some Berber languages maintain the native Berber numeral system, with many using Arabic loans for higher numbers and some from any numeral beyond two. In some Berber languages, the roots for one and two are also borrowed from Arabic. Some South Cushitic numerals are borrowed from
3902:
Due to its presence in the oldest attested and best-known AA branches, nisba derivation is often thought of as a "quintessentially Afroasiatic feature". Christopher Ehret argues for its presence in Proto-Afroasiatic and for its attestation in some form in all branches, with a shape
1384:
proposed that a group of languages classified by Greenberg as Cushitic were in fact their own independent "Omotic" branch—a proposal that has been widely, if not universally, accepted. These six branches now constitute an academic consensus on the genetic structure of the family.
720:
Chadic languages number between 150 and 190, making Chadic the largest family in Afroasiatic by number of extant languages. The Chadic languages are typically divided into three major branches, East Chadic, Central Chadic, and West Chadic. Most Chadic languages are located in the
2295:(which often overlap in meaning) to derive nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs throughout the AA language family. Gemination in particular is one of the typical features of AA. Full or partial reduplication of the verb is often used to derive forms showing repeated action (
1612:
With the exception of some Chadic languages, all Afroasiatic languages allow both closed and open syllables; many Chadic languages do not allow a syllable to end in a consonant. Most words end in a vowel in Omotic and Cushitic, making syllable-final consonant clusters rare.
10471:
at the Linguist List MultiTree Project: Genealogical trees attributed to Delafosse 1914, Greenberg 1950–1955, Greenberg 1963, Fleming 1976, Hodge 1976, Orel & Stolbova 1995, Diakonoff 1996–1998, Ehret 1995–2000, Hayward 2000, Militarev 2005, Blench 2006, and Fleming
1427:, after which Egyptian and the Semitic languages are firmly attested. However, in all likelihood these languages began to diverge well before this hard boundary. The estimations offered by scholars as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary widely, ranging from 18,000
348:, was originally spoken. However, most agree that the Afroasiatic homeland was located somewhere in northeastern Africa, with specific proposals including the Horn of Africa, Egypt, and the eastern Sahara. A significant minority of scholars argues for an origin in the
2106:(have three consonants), whereas most Chadic, Omotic, and Cushitic verbs are biliteral (having two consonants). The degree to which the Proto-AA verbal root was triliteral is debated. It may have originally been mostly biconsonantal, to which various affixes (such as
5872:
Traditionally, the Hausa subject pronouns have been compared to the prefix conjugation. However, since the 1970s and '80s, comparisons of other Chadic subject pronouns with the Hausa ones have convinced most scholars that the similarity to the prefix conjugation is
867:
Africa, is by far the most widely spoken Afroasiatic language today, with around 300 million native speakers, while the Ethiopian Amharic language has around 25 million; collectively, Semitic is the largest branch of Afroasiatic by number of current speakers.
1318:
first described them as a "Hamito-Semitic" language family. Müller assumed that there existed a distinct "Hamitic" branch of the family that consisted of Egyptian, Berber, and Cushitic. He did not include the Chadic languages, though contemporary Egyptologist
556:, and that "Hamito-Semitic" overstates the centrality of the Semitic languages within the family. By contrast, Victor Porkhomovsky suggests that the label is simply an inherited convention, and doesn't imply a duality of Semitic and "Hamitic" any more than
1818:
Restrictions against the co-occurrence of certain, usually similar, consonants in verbal roots can be found in all Afroasiatic branches, though they are only weakly attested in Chadic and Omotic. The most widespread constraint is against two different
2514:, a feature which may date back to Proto-Afroasiatic. Zygmont Frajzyngier states that a general characteristic of case marking in AA languages is that it tends to mark roles such as genitive, dative, locative, etc. rather than the subject and object.
9573:
Ehret, Christopher; Vyas, Deven N.; Assefa, Shiferaw; Gaston, J. Lafayette; Gleason, Tiffany; Kitchen, Andrew (2023). "Ancient Egyptian's Place in the Afroasiatic Language Family". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
1374:
in 1924, with skepticism also expressed by A. Klingenheben and Dietrich Westermann during the 1920s and '30s. However, Meinhof's "Hamitic" classification remained prevalent throughout the early 20th century until it was definitively disproven by
352:. The reconstructed timelines of when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken vary extensively, with dates ranging from 18,000 BC to 8,000 BC. Even the latest plausible dating makes Afroasiatic the oldest language family accepted by contemporary linguists.
1323:
argued for the relation of Hausa to the Berber languages. Some scholars would continue to regard Hausa as related to the other Afroasiatic languages, but the idea was controversial: many scholars refused to admit that the largely unwritten,
520:
in 1855 to refer to languages that appeared similar to the Semitic languages, but were not themselves provably a part of the family. The belief in a connection between Africans and the Biblical Ham, which had existed at least as far back as
1579:
2497:
are found in the Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic branches. They are not found in Chadic languages, and there is no evidence for cases in Egyptian. A common pattern in AA languages with case is for the nominative to be marked by
1513:(such as Indo-European, Bantu, and Austro-Asiatic) can be associated with the development of agriculture; they argue that there is clear archaeological support for farming spreading from the Levant into Africa via the Nile valley.
10500:, by Alexander Militarev in "Papers on Semitic and Afroasiatic Linguistics in Honor of Gene B. Gragg." Ed. by Cynthia L. Miller. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 60. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2007, p. 139–145.
3032:
languages varies. There is a general pattern in which n- is used for the first person plural, whereas t- is used for all forms of the second person regardless of plurality or gender, as well as feminine singular. Prefixes of ʔ- (
871:
West Semitic remains contested. The only group with an African origin is Ethiopian Semitic. The oldest written attestations of Semitic languages come from Mesopotamia, Northern Syria, and Egypt and date as early as c. 3000 BCE.
687:
or Germanic languages. In the past, Berber languages were spoken throughout North Africa except in Egypt; since the 7th century CE, however, they have been heavily affected by Arabic and have been replaced by it in many places.
368:. Other features found in multiple branches include a specialized verb conjugation using suffixes (Egyptian, Semitic, Berber), a specialized verb conjugation using prefixes (Semitic, Berber, Cushitic), verbal prefixes deriving
9108:
Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (2023). "Comparative Afroasiatic Linguistics and the Place of Ancient Egyptian Within the Phylum". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
364:
which creates nouns from verbs, evidence for alternations between the vowel "a" and a high vowel in the forms of the verb, similar methods of marking gender and plurality, and some details of phonology such as the presence of
1838:, and do not affect prefixes or suffixes added to the root. Roots that may have contained sequences that were possible in Proto-Afroasiatic but are disallowed in the daughter languages are assumed to have undergone consonant
5010:
years of development and many languages within the family have long been in contact with each other, raising the possibility of loanwords. Work is also hampered because of the poor state of documentation of many languages.
1522:
1849:
A set of constraints, developed originally by Joseph Greenberg on the basis of Arabic, has been claimed to be typical for Afroasiatic languages. Greenberg divided Semitic consonants into four types: "back consonants"
1559:
1541:
2110:) were then added and lexicalized. Although any root could theoretically be used to create a noun or a verb, there is evidence for the existence of distinct noun and verb roots, which behave in different ways.
656:
to constitute a sixth branch. Due to the presumed distance of relationship between the various branches, many scholars prefer to refer to Afroasiatic as a "linguistic phylum" rather than a "language family".
5840:
As Egyptian is spelled without vowels, it is difficult to know whether it had internal change plurals. There is some evidence from Coptic, but this may be unrelated to AA. There is also some evidence from
2839:(feminine), and H (plural) can be found in Cushitic, Chadic, with masculine K also appearing in Omotic. The feminine marker T is one of the most consistent aspects across the different branches of AA.
2388:
are securely attested in Semitic, Berber, Cushitic, and Chadic, although it is unclear if the Chadic examples are an independent development. Another common method of forming plurals is reduplication.
1524:
484:. This genealogy does not reflect the actual origins of these peoples' languages: for example, the Canaanites are descendants of Ham according to the Table, even though Hebrew is now classified as a
464:(Genesis 5:32). Within the Table of Nations, each of Noah's sons is presented as the common progenitor of various people groups deemed to be closely related: among others Shem was the father of the
1561:
1543:
355:
Comparative study of Afroasiatic is hindered by the massive disparities in textual attestation between its branches: while the Semitic and Egyptian branches are attested in writing as early as the
887:
is a separate branch of Afroasiatic; however, this is only one of several competing theories. About half of current scholarly hypotheses on Ongota's origins align it with Afroasiatic in some way.
3346:
endings as in Akkadian and Egyptian are also present in the West Semitic perfective verb form. In Akkadian and Egyptian, the suffixes appear to be reduced forms of the independent pronouns (see
9356:
Bubenik, Vit (2023). "Reconstructing the Proto-Semitic Nominal and Verbal Systems in the Context of Afroasiatic Languages". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
577:, in 1914. The name refers to the fact that it is the only major language family with large populations in both Africa and Asia. Due to concerns that "Afroasiatic" could imply the inclusion of
1489:
A significant minority of scholars supports an Asian origin of Afroasiatic, most of whom are specialists in Semitic or Egyptian studies. The main proponent of an Asian origin is the linguist
9337:
1913:
has demonstrated that slightly different rules apply to Egyptian: for instance, Egyptian allows two identical consonants in some roots, and disallows velars from occurring with pharyngeals.
532:
has largely fallen out of favor among linguists writing in English, but is still frequently used in the scholarship of various other languages, such as German. Several issues with the label
3019:(marked) form of the verb, whereas in most other languages and language families the present tense is the default form of the verb. Another common trait across the family is the use of a
904:
has been proposed to represent a branch of Afroasiatic. Although an Afroasiatic connection is sometimes viewed as refuted, it continues to be defended by scholars such as Edward Lipiński.
772:. The oldest text in a Cushitic language probably dates from around 1770; written orthographies were only developed for a select number of Cushitic languages in the early 20th century.
10281:
Souag, Lameen (2023). "Restructured or Archaic? The Hunt for Shared Morphological Innovation Involving Egyptian". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
4374:
Egyptian, Berber, and Semitic are more closely related, whereas the Cushitic and Chadic numerals are more closely related to each other. Modern Chadic numeral systems are sometimes
1453:) – this makes associating archaeological evidence with the spread of Afroasiatic particularly difficult. Nevertheless, there is a long-accepted link between the speakers of Proto-
13743:
10478:, presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" at the conference on the 70th anniversary of
1604:
Egyptian, Cushitic, Berber, Omotic, and most languages in the Semitic branch all require a syllable to begin with a consonant (with the exception of some grammatical prefixes).
1501:, arguing that the reconstructed lexicon of flora and fauna, as well as farming and pastoralist vocabulary indicates that Proto-AA must have been spoken in this area. Scholar
1486:
languages which are the principles of fewest moves and greatest diversity had put “beyond reasonable doubt” that the language family “had originated in the Horn of Africa”.
1609:
beginning with a vowel. Typically, syllables only begin with a single consonant. Diakonoff argues that proto-Afroasiatic did not have consonant clusters within a syllable.
560:
implies a duality of Indic and "European". Because of its use by several important scholars and in the titles of significant works of scholarship, the total replacement of
1523:
1560:
1542:
1627:
Several Afroasiatic languages have large consonant inventories, and it is likely that this is inherited from proto-Afroasiatic. All Afroasiatic languages contain
1314:
named these languages, related to Semitic but not Semitic, "Hamitic," in 1860 Carl Lottner proposed that they belonged to a single language family, and in 1876
1289:
A relationship between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic and the Berber languages was perceived as early as the 9th century CE by the Hebrew grammarian and physician
628:
A diagram of the six widely recognized branches of the Afroasiatic family, including some of the larger or more culturally significant languages in each branch.
10206:
Sanker, Chelsea (2023). "Data Limitations and Supplementary Methods in Placing Egyptian". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
2827:
except for Chadic; some Chadic languages do have adjectives, however. In Berber languages, adjectives are rare and are mostly replaced by nouns of quality and
2085:
as a morphological change, as well as the use of tone changes to indicate morphology. Further commonalities and differences are explored in more detail below.
1397:
established. Nevertheless, morphological traits attributable to the proto-language and the establishment of cognates throughout the family have confirmed its
10416:
Winand, Jean (2023). "Afroasiatic Lexical Comparison: An Egyptologist's Point of View". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
280:, if counted as a single language, is by far the most widely spoken within the family, with around 300 million native speakers concentrated primarily in the
840:; it is unclear whether the Dizoid group of Omotic languages belongs to the Northern or Southern group. The two Omotic languages with the most speakers are
10494:, by Alexander Militarev in "Proceedings of the Barcelona Symposium on comparative Semitic", 19-20/11/2004. Aula Orientalis 23/1-2, 2005, pp. 83–129.
1930:). Various Semitic, Cushitic, Berber, and Chadic languages, including Arabic, Amharic, Berber, Somali, and East Dangla, also exhibit various types of
1827:) occurring together in a root, a constraint which can be found in all branches but Omotic. Another widespread constraint is against two non-identical
316:, though most languages within the family are much smaller in size. There are many well-attested Afroasiatic languages from antiquity that have since
1352:
1249:(1947) claimed he saw no evidence for internal subgroupings, numerous other scholars have made proposals, with Carsten Peust counting 27 as of 2012.
764:. Many Cushitic languages have relatively few speakers. Cushitic does not appear to be related to the written ancient languages known from its area,
9328:
2831:. In different languages, adjectives (and other modifiers) must either precede or follow the noun. In most AA languages, numerals precede the noun.
1481:, arguing that there is no evidence of words in Proto-Afroasiatic related to agriculture or animal husbandry. Christopher Ehret, S.O. Y. Keita, and
706:
and went extinct in the 17th century CE. The first longer written examples of modern Berber varieties only date from the 16th or 17th centuries CE.
10550:
10319:
Starostin, George (2017). "Macrofamilies and Agricultural Lexicon: Problems and Perspectives". In Robbeets, Martine; Savelyev, Alexander (eds.).
1268:
One way of avoiding the problem of determining which features are original and which are inherited is to use a computational methodology such as
10300:
Stauder, Andréas (2023). "Egyptian Morphology in Afroasiatic Perspective". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
12941:
1905:
and a sibilant are uncommon. In all attested cases of a dental and a sibilant, the sibilant occurs in first position and the dental in second.
1682:) usually exists as a phoneme, and there tends to be no phonemic contrast between and or and . In Cushitic, the Ethiopian Semitic language
2823:
There is no strict distinction between adjectives, nouns, and adverbs in Afroasiatic. All branches of Afroasiatic have a lexical category of
1420:
There is no consensus as to when Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken. The absolute latest date for when Proto-Afroasiatic could have been extant is
13076:
13793:
11043:
10483:
10475:
1343:
An important development in the history of Afroasiatic scholarship – and the history of African linguistics – was the creation of the "
911:
is usually considered part of the Chadic languages; however, Roger Blench has proposed that it may be a separate branch of Afroasiatic.
10142:
Peust, Carsten (2012). "On the Subgrouping of Afro-Asiatic, or: How to use an unrooted phylogenetic tree in historical linguistics".
13733:
1701:" consonants. The emphatic consonants are typically formed deeper in the throat than the others; they can be realized variously as
836:, spoken in Sudan. Omotic is typically split into North Omotic (or Aroid) and South Omotic, with the latter more influenced by the
1834:, which can be found in Egyptian, Chadic, Semitic, and probably Cushitic. Such rules do not always apply for nouns, numerals, or
234:. Over 500 million people are native speakers of an Afroasiatic language, constituting the fourth-largest language family after
2835:
nouns, in other cases, they take gender and number marking only when they follow the noun (the noun then receives no marking).
2510:. However, the number and types of cases varies across AA and also within the individual branches. Some languages in AA have a
2272:
2268:
832:
The c. 30 Omotic languages are still mostly undescribed by linguists. They are all spoken in southwest Ethiopia except for the
632:
Scholars generally consider Afroasiatic to have between five and eight branches. The five that are universally agreed upon are
10364:
10345:
10242:
10045:
10017:
9969:
9950:
9893:
Huehnergard, John (2023). "Proto-Semitic and Egyptian". In Almansa-Villatoro, M. Victoria; Štubňová Nigrelli, Silvia (eds.).
9813:
Güldemann, Tom (2018). "Historical linguistics and genealogical language classification in Africa". In Güldemann, Tom (ed.).
9701:
9666:
9639:
9620:
9317:
9156:
9137:
7417:
3706:
Many AA languages use prefixes or suffixes (verbal extensions) to encode various pieces of information about the verb. Three
10508:
12456:
12037:
10406:
12566:
9649:
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt (2012). "Typological outline of the Afroasiatic phylum". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
10543:
9166:
Bacovcin, Hezekiah Akiva; Wilson, David (2018). "A New Method for Computational Cladistics: An Afro-Asiatic Case Study".
525:
in the 6th century AD, led scholars in the early 19th century to speak vaguely of "Hamian" or "Hamitish" languages.
10027:
Meyer, Ronny; Wolff, H. Ekkehard (2019). "Afroasiatic Linguistic Features and Typologies". In Wolff, H. Ekkehard (ed.).
9187:
Bender, M. Lionel (1978). "Consonant Co-Occurrence Restrictions in Afroasiatic Verb Roots". In Fronzaroli, Pelio (ed.).
11538:
1909:
Similar exceptions can be demonstrated for the other AA branches that have these restrictions to their root formation.
1398:
897:
is not part of Cushitic, but a separate branch. The prevailing opinion, however, is that Beja is a branch of Cushitic.
12723:
10425:
10309:
10290:
10215:
10175:
10132:
10064:
9996:
9902:
9830:
9728:
9583:
9518:
9365:
9262:
9235:
9118:
9090:
9063:
9036:
660:
M. Victoria Almansa-Villatoro and Silvia Štubňová Nigrelli write that there are about 400 languages in Afroasiatic;
567:
While Greenberg ultimately popularized the name "Afroasiatic" in 1960, it appears to have been coined originally by
359:, Berber, Cushitic, and Omotic languages were often not recorded until the 19th or 20th centuries. While systematic
13963:
13953:
13816:
13069:
12699:
11938:
10820:
5934:
380:(m-) verb forms (Semitic, Berber, Egyptian, Cushitic), and a suffix used to derive adjectives (Egyptian, Semitic).
10503:
10252:
Solleveld, Floris (2020). "Lepsius as a linguist: fieldwork, philology, phonetics, and 'the Hamitic hypothesis'".
1497:
and subsequently spread to Africa. Militarev associates the speakers of Proto-Afroasiatic with the Levantine Post-
1449:
civilization". An additional complicating factor is the lack of agreement on the subgroupings of Afroasiatic (see
1245:
There is no agreement on the relationships between and subgrouping of the different Afroasiatic branches. Whereas
11857:
11793:
11036:
10825:
664:
lists 375 languages. Many scholars estimate fewer languages; exact numbers vary depending on the definitions of "
13658:
13646:
3548:
A prefix in m- is the most widely attested affix in AA that is used to derive nouns, and is one of the features
1301:
noted similarities also to Ge'ez and Amharic in 1701. This family was formally described and named "Semitic" by
13958:
13938:
12470:
11712:
10852:
10536:
10435:
Zaborski, Andrzej (1987). "Basic Numerals in Cushitic". In Jungraithmayr, Herrmann; Mueller, Walter W. (eds.).
3823:
2276:
1651:
12221:
10123:
Nichols, Johanna (2003). "Diversity and Stability in Language". In Joseph, Brian D; Janda, Richard D. (eds.).
1315:
427:
13873:
13863:
13858:
13723:
13551:
13335:
13330:
12936:
12583:
11718:
11543:
11329:
11323:
11247:
9593:
Fleming, Harold C. (1983). "Chadic External Relations". In Wolff, H. Ekkehard; Meyer-Bahlburg, Hilke (eds.).
5752:
1740:
is attested in Berber, Chadic, Cushitic, and Semitic: it usually affects features such as pharyngealization,
536:
have led many scholars to abandon the term and criticize its continued use. One common objection is that the
444:
is mostly used in older Russian sources. The elements of the name were derived from the names of two sons of
24:
1302:
505:
13943:
13878:
13848:
13703:
12946:
12931:
12630:
11931:
11918:
11689:
11650:
10698:
9245:
Blažek, Václav (2013). "Levant and North Africa: Afroasiatic linguistic history". In Ness, Immanuel (ed.).
1619:
plays an important role in AA, especially in Chadic; it can affect the form of affixes attached to a word.
1926:. In the different languages, central vowels are often inserted to break up consonant clusters (a form of
1679:
13826:
13728:
13167:
13062:
12926:
12920:
12705:
11978:
11896:
11869:
11573:
11563:
10951:
10840:
2511:
1655:
1465:
speakers with economic transformations in the Sahara dating c. 8,500 ago, as well as the speakers of the
1454:
9711:
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (2020). "Contact and Afroasiatic Languages". In Hickey, Raymond (ed.).
13948:
13495:
12492:
12153:
11950:
11748:
11608:
11578:
11568:
11558:
11264:
11029:
10693:
10574:
10468:
10155:
Porkhomovsky, Victor (2020). "Afro-Asiatic Overview". In Vossen, Rainer; Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (eds.).
1843:
1741:
1733:
1458:
345:
99:
13893:
13888:
13883:
13751:
13673:
13668:
13324:
13310:
13085:
12904:
12711:
12687:
12662:
12635:
12618:
11628:
11583:
11553:
11526:
11097:
11052:
10946:
10779:
10668:
10632:
10612:
9611:
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (2012). "Introduction". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
5930:
793:
509:
243:
9912:
Kaye, Alan S.; Daniels, Peter T. (1992). "Comparative Afroasiatic and General Genetic Linguistics".
9437:
Dimmendaal, Gerrit J. (2008). "Language Ecology and Linguistic Diversity on the African Continent".
9189:
Atti del secondo Congresso internazionale di linguistica camito-semitica: Firenze, 16-19 aprile 1974
1509:
have taken up Militarev's arguments as part of their general argument that the spread of linguistic
13718:
13663:
13434:
13264:
13153:
12951:
12758:
12395:
12383:
12215:
11277:
11270:
11086:
10871:
10646:
10607:
10110:
Militarev, Alexander (2009). "Proto-Afrasian Lexicon Confirming West Asian Homeland: Pastoralism".
3707:
845:
10522:
2275:. Proto-Chadic is reconstructed as having verb-initial word order, but most Chadic languages have
300:
with 15 million. Other Afroasiatic languages with millions of native speakers include the Semitic
13532:
13427:
13377:
13356:
13347:
13229:
13146:
13106:
11956:
11881:
11284:
11234:
10958:
10864:
1922:
of the underlying vowels varies considerably by language; the most common vowel throughout AA is
235:
9630:
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (2012a). "Chadic". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
1674:, with additional places of articulation found in some branches or languages. Additionally, the
13688:
13683:
13448:
13420:
13411:
13370:
12970:
12818:
12613:
12389:
12342:
11972:
11889:
11548:
11532:
11340:
11241:
11104:
11080:
10941:
10935:
10904:
10835:
10830:
10713:
10703:
10588:
4370:
1482:
815:
748:, has more than 25 million speakers; other languages with more than a million speakers include
695:
341:
239:
12608:
10234:
879:
There are also other proposed branches, but none has so far convinced a majority of scholars:
698:, found throughout North Africa and dating from the 2nd century BCE onward. The second is the
13840:
13713:
13693:
13441:
13174:
13016:
12914:
12603:
12406:
12196:
12185:
12147:
11754:
11728:
11633:
11623:
11306:
10678:
10673:
10627:
10581:
10444:
Zaborski, Andrzej (2011). "Afro-Asiatic Languages". In Edzard, Lutz; Jong, Rudolf de (eds.).
10007:
9746:
Gragg, Gene (2019). "Semitic and Afro-Asiatic". In Huehnergard, John; Pat-El, Na‘ama (eds.).
9487:
Edzard, Lutz E. (1992). "The Obligatory Contour Principle and Dissimilation in Afroasiatic".
12717:
12442:
10993:? (unclassified; possibly East Chadic (B.1.3), Cushitic, transitional or a language isolate)
10514:
9693:
6031:
6029:
13821:
13811:
13801:
13651:
13505:
13318:
13202:
12991:
12748:
12556:
12529:
12512:
12480:
12378:
12092:
12017:
11944:
11723:
11700:
11672:
11603:
11514:
11295:
9511:
Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary
9393:
9384:
Diamond, J; Bellwood, P (April 2003). "Farmers and Their Languages: The First Expansions".
5015:
1855:
1644:
1548:
1410:
1320:
365:
356:
12876:
8:
13868:
13641:
13626:
13561:
13363:
13285:
13195:
13188:
13139:
13097:
12768:
12672:
12572:
12561:
12523:
12502:
12400:
12359:
12134:
12116:
12110:
12085:
12078:
12071:
11984:
11967:
11706:
11372:
11359:
11253:
11203:
11060:
10479:
10453:
9147:
Appleyard, David (2012). "Semitic-Cushitic/Omotic Relations". In Weninger, Stefan (ed.).
6026:
5772:
5762:
3010:(TAMs) Proto-Afroasiatic might have had. Most grammars of AA posit a distinction between
1863:
1702:
1490:
1273:
453:
344:
as to precisely where or when the common ancestor of all Afroasiatic languages, known as
329:
10990:
10036:
Mous, Maarten (2012). "Cushitic languages". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
9397:
4385:
Another factor making comparisons of AA numeral systems difficult is the possibility of
1954:
Examples of tones marking lexical and morphological changes in some AA languages, after
1272:, with one of the earliest attempts being Fleming 1983. This is also the method used by
13602:
13556:
13471:
13466:
13461:
12682:
12677:
12667:
12650:
12645:
12640:
12624:
12593:
12588:
12541:
12535:
12486:
12431:
12354:
12238:
12202:
12163:
12105:
11912:
11907:
11618:
11377:
11346:
11312:
11300:
11259:
11134:
10802:
10269:
10092:"Once more about glottochronology and the comparative method: the Omotic-Afrasian case"
9836:
9801:
9772:
9734:
9672:
9561:
9545:
9425:
9096:
5914:
3930:
1875:
1698:
1570:
1440:, with the evolution of Chadic (and likely also Omotic) serving as pertinent examples.
1393:
1339:
Distribution of ethnic groups in Africa (Afroasiatic/Hamito-Semitic-speaking in yellow)
738:
690:
There are two extinct languages potentially related to modern Berber. The first is the
641:
522:
485:
360:
255:
121:
12779:
12742:
9191:. Istituto di linguistica e di lingue orientale, Università di Firenze. pp. 9–19.
169:
13806:
13783:
13778:
13756:
13698:
13476:
13399:
13292:
12693:
12598:
12578:
12517:
12497:
12208:
12169:
12140:
12128:
12065:
12011:
11989:
11962:
11902:
11875:
11694:
11655:
11645:
11613:
11486:
11412:
11394:
11388:
11290:
11208:
11122:
10977:
10926:
10859:
10421:
10374:
Vernet, Eulàlia (2011). "Semitic Root Incompatibilities and Historical Linguistics".
10360:
10341:
10305:
10286:
10273:
10238:
10211:
10198:
10171:
10128:
10060:
10041:
10013:
9992:
9965:
9946:
9898:
9840:
9826:
9805:
9738:
9724:
9697:
9676:
9662:
9635:
9616:
9579:
9553:
9528:
Ehret, Christopher; Keita, O. Y.; Newman, Paul (2004). "The Origins of Afroasiatic".
9514:
9454:
9450:
9417:
9409:
9361:
9313:
9258:
9231:
9152:
9133:
9114:
9100:
9086:
9059:
9032:
7413:
5863:
Some languages have an additional feminine plural form in -t that is not listed here.
5767:
4394:
4390:
3007:
2299:), though it is unclear if this is an inherited feature or has been widely borrowed.
1910:
1851:
1828:
1737:
1706:
1683:
1671:
1640:
1589:
1381:
1290:
901:
861:
841:
837:
803:
765:
691:
649:
645:
568:
501:
461:
321:
313:
301:
263:
259:
131:
126:
12784:
12773:
12753:
11091:
9866:
Hodge, Carleton T. (1971). "Afroasiatic: An Overview". In Hodge, Carleton T. (ed.).
9755:
Greenberg, Joseph (1960). "An Afro-Asiatic Pattern of Gender and Number Agreement".
9429:
9254:
5900:
Many of these roots have other proposed cognates that are not included on the table.
5882:
The Egyptian passive suffix is solely morphological and does not form a unique stem.
13768:
13761:
13708:
13636:
13631:
13588:
13581:
13511:
13455:
13393:
13299:
13271:
13257:
13243:
13160:
13132:
13120:
13113:
13001:
12861:
12851:
12846:
12800:
12794:
12763:
12656:
12551:
12475:
12413:
12365:
12300:
12293:
12286:
12279:
12272:
12261:
12245:
12180:
12175:
12158:
12099:
11993:
11925:
11836:
11803:
11771:
11667:
11639:
11588:
11509:
11493:
11479:
11461:
11454:
11440:
11400:
11382:
11366:
11352:
11174:
11157:
10894:
10881:
10845:
10815:
10656:
10641:
10622:
10599:
10449:
10391:
10383:
10324:
10261:
10230:
10194:
9984:
9938:
9925:
9921:
9818:
9817:. The World of Linguistics, Volume 11. Berlin: De Mouton Gruyter. pp. 58–444.
9797:
9793:
9764:
9716:
9689:
9654:
9565:
9541:
9537:
9446:
9401:
9294:
9250:
9223:
9175:
9078:
9051:
9024:
5757:
3549:
2494:
1883:
1879:
1871:
1859:
1820:
1585:
1533:
1498:
1478:
1466:
1437:
1376:
1348:
1297:
had also pointed out similarities between Hebrew, Arabic, and Aramaic in 1538, and
1294:
1277:
1269:
908:
827:
761:
757:
715:
699:
681:
653:
637:
633:
582:
545:
493:
333:
317:
309:
293:
267:
251:
247:
136:
116:
111:
12841:
12789:
11781:
10265:
6325:
6323:
13595:
13546:
13500:
13383:
13278:
13250:
13209:
13126:
12996:
12871:
12856:
12825:
12546:
12507:
12372:
12318:
12190:
12052:
11818:
11813:
11678:
11593:
11474:
11467:
11447:
11429:
11334:
11317:
11116:
10996:
10983:
10914:
10909:
10889:
10756:
10683:
10617:
10165:
10076:"The Prehistory of a Dispersal: The Proto-Afrasian (Afroasiatic) Farming Lexicon"
9848:
Hayward, Richard J. (2000). "Afroasiatic". In Heine, Bernd; Nurse, Derek (eds.).
9307:
7407:
6016:
6014:
6012:
6010:
3926:
2296:
2082:
1867:
1616:
1566:
1529:
1389:
1293:, who is regarded as a forerunner of Afroasiatic studies. The French orientalist
884:
807:
797:
749:
481:
469:
449:
325:
297:
211:
89:
83:
9960:
Kossmann, Maarten (2012). "Berber". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
7438:
1752:
harmony", meaning that all sibilants (s, sh, z, ts, etc.) in a word must match.
1725:
had a contrast between voiceless and voiced forms in Proto-Afroasiatic, whereas
1493:, who argues that Proto-Afroasiatic was spoken by early agriculturalists in the
19:"Afro-Asiatic" and "Afrasian" redirect here. For the ethnic classification, see
13773:
13541:
13054:
13006:
12866:
12835:
12806:
12437:
12323:
12306:
12256:
12251:
12122:
12059:
11829:
11823:
11743:
11738:
11684:
11661:
11406:
11228:
11185:
11168:
11162:
11140:
11128:
11012:
10810:
10774:
10750:
10745:
10740:
10725:
10688:
10225:
Shay, Erin (2014). "Afroasiatic". In Lieber, Rochelle; Štekauer, Pavol (eds.).
9720:
9658:
6320:
5810:
3719:
1943:
1835:
1628:
1605:
1506:
1462:
1329:
1306:
1254:
890:
833:
745:
726:
703:
624:
590:
289:
285:
223:
58:
10497:
9942:
9822:
6007:
270:. The vast majority of Afroasiatic languages are considered indigenous to the
13932:
12890:
12830:
12812:
12328:
12312:
12266:
12023:
11843:
11808:
11798:
11776:
11733:
11598:
11179:
11111:
10899:
10784:
10708:
10491:
10091:
10075:
9458:
9413:
9298:
9028:
5831:
Some scholars reconstruct "emphatic" consonants for Egyptian and some do not.
4366:
3723:
2828:
2385:
2288:
1931:
1839:
1745:
1710:
1502:
894:
785:
753:
477:
377:
305:
11021:
9405:
9179:
1596:
Afroasiatic languages share a number of phonetic and phonological features.
1335:
13678:
13486:
13220:
11787:
10999:? (unclassified; possibly Nilo-Saharan, transitional or a language isolate)
10518:
9857:
Hetzron, Robert (2009). "Afroasiatic Languages". In Comrie, Bernard (ed.).
9557:
9502:
The Historical Reconstruction of Southern Cushitic Phonology and Vocabulary
9421:
5926:
3715:
3033:
3015:
2103:
2078:
1947:
1721:
consonants in the different branches. It is generally agreed that only the
1675:
1371:
1359:'s highly influential classification of African languages in his 1912 book
1356:
1246:
541:
517:
404:. Other proposed names that have yet to find widespread acceptance include
369:
219:
178:
50:
10338:
Etymological Dictionary of Egyptian. Volume 1: A Phonological Introduction
9988:
9784:
Greenberg, Joseph (1950a). "The Patterning of Root Morphemes in Semitic".
9227:
9082:
9055:
5988:
5950:'to rend, tear', a root he reconstructs from the two words listed here in
5792:
In this display, the universally recognized primary branches of AA are in
788:(c. 2690 BCE), containing the first complete sentence in Ancient Egyptian.
155:
10387:
9128:
Amha, Azeb (2012). "Omotic". In Frajzyngier, Zygmunt; Shay, Erin (eds.).
5974:
2843:
Masculine, Feminine, Plural agreement patterns in N T N, using data from
2322:
1552:
1510:
1311:
1298:
284:
and North Africa. Other major Afroasiatic languages include the Cushitic
281:
20:
10528:
10504:
A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions
10328:
2267:
Proto-Afroasiatic had. Berber, Egyptian, and most Semitic languages are
13853:
13572:
13522:
13388:
11434:
10396:
9933:
Kossmann, Maarten (2007). "Berber Morphology". In Kaye, Alan S. (ed.).
9549:
5918:
5891:
The Egyptian prefix has a middle voice/intransitive/or passive meaning.
3553:
3020:
3011:
2381:
2318:
2314:
2292:
2264:
1927:
1726:
1370:
The first scholar to question the existence of "Hamitic languages" was
811:
769:
722:
661:
612:—referring to the core area around which the languages are spoken, the
10057:
Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary: Materials for a Reconstruction
9776:
9466:
Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D., eds. (2021).
7387:
5822:
Fleming excludes South Cushitic, Yaaku, and Beja from Cushitic proper.
593:
in 1980. At present it predominantly sees use among Russian scholars.
9875:
Huehnergard, John (2004). "Afro-Asiatic". In Woodard, In R.D. (ed.).
5842:
3711:
2824:
1831:
1722:
1718:
1690:
1686:, and some Chadic languages, there is no underlying phoneme at all.
1647:
1636:
1632:
373:
215:
163:
149:
145:
54:
7365:
7363:
810:
to show vowels, whereas Egyptian was previously written in Egyptian
9768:
9536:(5702). American Association for the Advancement of Science: 1680.
7916:
4386:
2377:
2376:
attested), several AA languages make use of internal vowel change (
2252:
1894:
1749:
1714:
1663:
1659:
1262:
665:
489:
473:
337:
9330:
Links between Cushitic, Omotic, Chadic and the position of Kujarge
9107:
7444:
6329:
6020:
2063:
1761:
Examples of root consonant incompatibilities from Egyptian, after
13089:
9336:. 5th International Conference of Cushitic and Omotic languages.
7670:
7668:
7666:
7664:
7360:
4379:
4375:
3560:
that unites all or some of the meanings in the modern languages.
1650:
consonants, with Egyptian, Semitic, Berber, and Cushitic sharing
1470:
1344:
1325:
669:
613:
553:
388:
In current scholarship, the most common names for the family are
13530:
8876:
7311:
7309:
7307:
7006:
7004:
13181:
13030:
Families with question marks (?) are disputed or controversial.
13011:
12909:
10437:
Proceedings of the Fourth International Hamito-Semitic Congress
8864:
8774:
8521:
8405:
8354:
8270:
7940:
7857:
7543:
7474:
7099:
7097:
6352:
6350:
6280:
6278:
6276:
6217:
6133:
6131:
6129:
6127:
6114:
6112:
2518:
Subject-Object case marking in some AA branches, using data in
2070:
1694:
1494:
1281:
strong commonalities even between well-studied branches of AA.
349:
277:
271:
227:
10408:
A Concatenative Analysis of Diachronic Afro-Asiatic Morphology
9467:
8830:
8828:
8554:
8552:
8550:
8548:
8248:
8246:
8233:
8231:
8229:
8185:
8117:
8115:
8023:
8021:
7791:
7661:
7587:
7585:
7503:
7501:
7145:
7143:
7141:
7139:
6335:
6236:
6234:
6232:
6183:
6181:
6179:
6177:
6175:
1461:(5,000 years ago), and archaeological evidence associates the
581:
languages spoken across Africa and Asia, the name "Afrasian" (
8984:
8786:
8383:
8381:
8148:
8146:
8144:
8142:
8102:
8100:
8098:
8096:
8094:
8054:
8052:
8050:
8048:
7882:
7880:
7878:
7876:
7874:
7872:
7745:
7743:
7608:
7606:
7604:
7602:
7600:
7533:
7531:
7350:
7348:
7304:
7067:
7001:
6800:
6798:
6705:
6703:
6374:
6263:
6261:
5922:
5910:
5796:. Individual languages designated as primary branches are in
2074:
1923:
1689:
Most, if not all branches of Afroasiatic distinguish between
1667:
1469:
variety of the Berber languages with an expansion across the
231:
214:(or "phylum") of about 400 languages spoken predominantly in
66:
62:
8972:
8936:
8840:
8511:
8509:
8465:
8069:
8067:
7333:
7155:
7094:
7043:
6970:
6835:
6833:
6831:
6829:
6827:
6825:
6734:
6732:
6730:
6676:
6630:
6628:
6626:
6624:
6622:
6620:
6552:
6550:
6548:
6546:
6544:
6529:
6473:
6471:
6469:
6347:
6295:
6293:
6273:
6124:
6109:
4378:, having separate names for the numbers 1–10, and sometimes
3830:"Nisba" derivation in Semitic and Egyptian, using data from
1635:; some branches have additional types of consonants such as
780:
9877:
The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages
8888:
8825:
8815:
8813:
8738:
8651:
8545:
8441:
8306:
8294:
8243:
8226:
8173:
8127:
8112:
8079:
8018:
7982:
7904:
7845:
7680:
7649:
7618:
7582:
7555:
7518:
7516:
7498:
7294:
7292:
7290:
7215:
7136:
6444:
6442:
6229:
6172:
6067:
6065:
694:, represented by over a thousand short inscriptions in the
465:
457:
445:
274:, including all those not belonging to the Semitic branch.
8960:
8924:
8716:
8714:
8429:
8393:
8378:
8366:
8258:
8139:
8091:
8045:
7892:
7869:
7767:
7755:
7740:
7639:
7637:
7635:
7633:
7597:
7528:
7486:
7345:
7263:
6900:
6898:
6896:
6795:
6700:
6571:
6569:
6567:
6565:
6258:
5022:
Some widely recognized cognates in Afroasiatic, following
3710:
prefixes can be reconstructed for Proto-Afroasiatic: *s- '
2271:, whereas Cushitic, Omotic and some Semitic subgroups are
1890:
velar consonants can occur with pharyngeals or laryngeals;
1347:" or "Hamitic hypothesis" by Lepsius, fellow Egyptologist
10492:
Root Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian
8996:
8687:
8605:
8603:
8533:
8506:
8453:
8417:
8282:
8064:
7716:
7572:
7570:
7375:
7321:
7084:
7082:
6857:
6822:
6749:
6747:
6727:
6688:
6617:
6541:
6466:
6410:
6310:
6308:
6290:
6205:
6193:
3730:
Common verbal extensions in Afroasiatic, using data from
2392:
Some examples of internal plurals in AA, using data from
10418:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
10302:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
10283:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
10208:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
9895:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
9576:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
9358:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
9312:. Oxford, UK: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
9111:
Ancient Egyptian and Afroasiatic: Rethinking the Origins
8948:
8912:
8900:
8852:
8810:
8576:
8318:
8216:
8214:
8212:
8163:
8161:
7833:
7823:
7821:
7692:
7513:
7287:
7275:
7227:
7191:
7114:
7112:
7016:
6991:
6989:
6987:
6985:
6910:
6845:
6810:
6783:
6759:
6664:
6439:
6386:
6246:
6082:
6080:
6062:
5854:
Forms that do not follow the pattern are in parentheses.
1897:; However, there are no Proto-Semitic verbal roots with
544:"Hamitic" branch exists alongside Semitic. In addition,
9715:(2 ed.). John Wiley & Sons. pp. 571–591.
8711:
8675:
8588:
8484:
8482:
8480:
8197:
7972:
7970:
7957:
7955:
7808:
7806:
7704:
7630:
7179:
7167:
7124:
7033:
7031:
6960:
6958:
6893:
6562:
6150:
6148:
6146:
5995:
3564:
Examples of m-prefix noun derivations, using data from
10185:
Sands, Bonny (2009). "Africa's Linguistic Diversity".
9684:
Frajzyngier, Zygmunt (2018). "Afroasiatic Languages".
8750:
8663:
8600:
8342:
7994:
7567:
7462:
7450:
7426:
7079:
6933:
6931:
6929:
6927:
6925:
6744:
6593:
6581:
6517:
6507:
6505:
6503:
6490:
6488:
6486:
6454:
6429:
6427:
6425:
6398:
6362:
6305:
6160:
6052:
6050:
6048:
6046:
6044:
4401:
Numerals from throughout Afroasiatic, using data from
2715:
Noun states in different AA branches, using data from
1332:" ancient civilizations of the Egyptians and Semites.
246:. Most linguists divide the family into six branches:
8726:
8209:
8158:
7818:
7728:
7109:
6982:
6943:
6099:
6097:
6095:
6077:
5921:^ over a vowel indicates falling tone. V indicates a
9465:
8798:
8762:
8699:
8639:
8627:
8615:
8564:
8494:
8477:
8330:
8033:
8006:
7967:
7952:
7928:
7803:
7779:
7251:
7028:
6955:
6869:
6640:
6143:
6035:
3552:
used to diagnose membership in the family. It forms
3001:
2114:
Examples of verbal templates in AA languages, after
10083:
Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis
10009:
Semitic Languages: Outline of a Comparative Grammar
7239:
7203:
7055:
6922:
6771:
6715:
6500:
6483:
6422:
6041:
3354:The "suffix conjugation" in Afroasiatic, following
3040:The "prefix conjugation" in Afroasiatic, following
1328:" Chadic languages were in the same family as the "
883:Linguist H. Fleming proposed that the near-extinct
802:The Egyptian branch consists of a single language,
9196:Bender, M. Lionel (1997). "Upside-Down Afrasian".
6881:
6652:
6605:
6092:
5706:'to rend, to tear (of an animal tearing its prey)'
4393:, other Cushitic numerals have been borrowed from
10357:Etymological Dictionary of Egyptian. Volume 3: m-
10099:Orientalia et Classica VI: Aspekty Komparatistiki
10085:. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
9604:Ongota: A Decisive Language in African Prehistory
9021:The Ancient Egyptian Language: A Historical Study
3340:
3026:
13930:
13084:
10167:A Guide to the World's Languages: Classification
10081:. In Bellwood, Peter S.; Renfrew, Colin (eds.).
10040:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 342–422.
9653:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 505–624.
9634:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 236–341.
9629:
9527:
9149:The Semitic Languages: An International Handbook
9132:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 423–504.
8882:
7393:
7369:
4414:
2307:
10446:Encyclopedia of Arabic Language and Linguistics
10031:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 246–325.
9964:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 18–101.
9879:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 138–159.
9710:
9610:
9383:
8471:
7922:
7674:
7480:
7315:
7103:
6682:
6356:
6284:
6137:
5946:Ehret's dictionary lists "Proto-South-Cushitic
5364:Hausa halshe(háɽ.ʃè) 'tongue'; lashe 'to lick'
3817:
2282:
2064:Similarities in grammar, syntax, and morphology
1516:
320:, including Egyptian and the Semitic languages
10227:The Oxford Handbook of Derivational Morphology
9211:Comparative Morphology of the Omotic Languages
9165:
7445:Almansa-Villatoro & Štubňová Nigrelli 2023
7073:
7010:
6330:Almansa-Villatoro & Štubňová Nigrelli 2023
6021:Almansa-Villatoro & Štubňová Nigrelli 2023
3937:Pronouns in the Afroasiatic family, following
3538:
2093:
13070:
11051:
11037:
10544:
10229:. Oxford University Press. pp. 573–590.
10055:Orel, Vladimir E.; Stolbova, Olga V. (1995).
10029:The Cambridge Handbook of African Linguistics
9852:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 74–98.
9615:. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1–17.
9595:Studies in Chadic and Afroasiatic linguistics
5809:Old East Africa Cushitic =South Cushitic and
2251:As part of these templates, the alternation (
16:Large language family of Africa and West Asia
13914:Families with more than 30 languages are in
13040:Families with more than 30 languages are in
10159:. Oxford University Press. pp. 269–274.
10154:
10054:
9981:The Akkadian Verb and Its Semitic Background
9572:
9285:Blažek, Václav (2018). "Cushitic Numerals".
8978:
7339:
7221:
7149:
6240:
6223:
6187:
5069:
3929:(n, m), whereas the third person displays a
2329:Use of T on feminine nouns, using data from
1755:
1361:
619:
572:
496:being totally unrelated to Hebrew. The term
435:
10476:Afro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees
10448:(Managing Editors Online ed.). Brill.
9911:
9892:
9883:
9874:
9686:Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics
9683:
9648:
9309:Archaeology, Language, and the African Past
9048:Coptic: A Grammar of its Six Major Dialects
8894:
8870:
8834:
8780:
8744:
8657:
8558:
8527:
8447:
8411:
8360:
8312:
8300:
8276:
8252:
8237:
8179:
8133:
8121:
8085:
8027:
7988:
7946:
7910:
7898:
7863:
7851:
7686:
7655:
7624:
7591:
7561:
7549:
7507:
7409:Ancient Africa: A Global History, to 300 CE
7354:
7269:
6904:
6804:
6709:
6341:
6267:
5031:
3543:
2523:
2287:Afroasiatic Languages use the processes of
1955:
13077:
13063:
11044:
11030:
10551:
10537:
10484:short annotations of the talks given there
10026:
9978:
9861:(2 ed.). Routledge. pp. 545–550.
9783:
9436:
9272:Blažek, Václav (2017). "Omotic Numerals".
9247:The Encyclopedia of Global Human Migration
9204:. Kölner Institut für Afrikanistik: 19–34.
8966:
8930:
8459:
8435:
8399:
8387:
8372:
8264:
8191:
8152:
8106:
8058:
7886:
7797:
7749:
7612:
7537:
7492:
7412:. Princeton University Press. p. 88.
6863:
6839:
6738:
6694:
6634:
6556:
6477:
6416:
6380:
6299:
6211:
6071:
3565:
2818:
2397:
874:
10558:
10395:
10318:
10251:
10109:
10089:
10073:
9812:
9754:
9374:
9146:
9002:
8990:
8792:
8515:
8423:
8288:
8073:
7522:
7468:
7456:
7381:
7298:
7281:
7197:
7173:
7161:
7049:
7022:
6976:
6851:
6816:
6789:
6670:
6575:
6535:
6448:
6392:
6252:
6118:
2844:
1658:. In all AA languages, consonants can be
1450:
1284:
946:
941:
183:Distribution of the Afroasiatic languages
10443:
10434:
10157:The Oxford Handbook of African Languages
10005:
9959:
9932:
9757:Journal of the American Oriental Society
9750:(2 ed.). Routledge. pp. 22–48.
9168:Transactions of the Philological Society
8954:
8942:
8918:
8906:
8858:
8846:
8819:
8582:
8324:
7088:
6753:
6599:
6523:
6460:
6404:
6199:
6154:
5104:(possibly) Hausa bùgaː 'to hit, strike
4410:
3914:
3739:
2728:
2720:
2489:
2357:yārinyà-r̃ 'the girl' (r̃ < final -t)
1576:
1557:
1539:
1520:
1334:
848:, with about 1.2 million speakers each.
779:
623:
288:with 45 million native speakers, Chadic
40:Hamito-Semitic, Semito-Hamitic, Afrasian
10299:
10235:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199641642.013.0032
10122:
9856:
9847:
9815:The Languages and Linguistics of Africa
9601:
9592:
9489:Journal of Afroasiatic Languages (IAAL)
9355:
9217:
8720:
8693:
8669:
8348:
8000:
7643:
7576:
7233:
7118:
6777:
6765:
6314:
6166:
6086:
5023:
3835:
3735:
3569:
1265:on which to base genetic distinctions.
926:
921:Some proposed Afroasiatic subdivisions
915:
540:component inaccurately suggests that a
456:passage: "Semitic" from the first-born
13931:
10415:
10404:
10373:
10354:
10335:
10205:
10163:
10125:The Handbook of Historical Linguistics
9486:
9326:
9305:
9284:
9271:
9244:
9208:
9195:
9186:
9072:
8756:
8732:
8645:
8609:
7839:
7827:
7812:
7785:
7773:
7761:
7710:
7432:
7327:
7257:
7185:
7130:
7061:
6995:
6964:
6949:
6887:
4406:
4402:
3831:
3731:
3573:
2527:
2107:
1762:
1388:Greenberg relied on his own method of
936:
744:Cushitic. Only one Cushitic language,
13058:
11025:
10532:
10411:(Thesis). University of Pennsylvania.
10280:
10184:
10141:
9865:
9745:
9694:10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.15
9508:
9499:
9151:. de Gruyter Mouton. pp. 38–53.
9045:
9018:
8804:
8768:
8705:
8681:
8633:
8594:
8570:
8539:
8488:
8336:
8220:
8203:
8167:
8039:
7976:
7961:
7734:
7722:
7405:
7245:
7209:
7037:
6937:
6916:
6875:
6721:
6658:
6646:
6611:
6587:
6511:
6494:
6433:
6368:
6103:
6056:
6001:
5951:
5064:
5027:
3938:
3769:i-p-paris (> *i-n-paris) 'be cut'
3766:mi-t-gurum 'agree (with one another)'
3355:
3041:
2716:
2519:
2506:, and the accusative to be marked by
2393:
2330:
2115:
1599:
931:
508:, following an earlier suggestion by
460:, and "Hamitic" from the second-born
10454:10.1163/1570-6699_eall_EALL_COM_0008
10323:. John Benjamins. pp. 215–233.
10224:
10035:
9468:"Ethnologue: Languages of the World"
9127:
8621:
8500:
8012:
7934:
7698:
5728:'to snatch violently from, tear out'
3701:
2724:
1893:dental consonants can co-occur with
1622:
1392:of vocabulary items rather than the
10439:. John Benjamins. pp. 317–347.
9343:from the original on 9 October 2022
7406:Ehret, Christopher (20 June 2023).
5975:"Statistical Summaries; Ethnologue"
2088:
852:aspects of Afroasiatic morphology.
702:, which was formerly spoken on the
504:had already been coined in 1781 by
13:
9850:African Languages: An Introduction
9513:. University of California Press.
9474:. Dallas, Texas: SIL International
6036:Eberhard, Simons & Fennig 2021
5981:
5967:
5925:of unknown quality. ʔ indicates a
3006:There is no agreement about which
1732:A form of long-distance consonant
1310:scholars of Afroasiatic. In 1855,
476:, while Ham was the father of the
296:with 25 million, and the Cushitic
292:with over 34 million, the Semitic
14:
13975:
10498:Akkadian-Egyptian lexical matches
10462:
10321:Language Dispersal Beyond Farming
10285:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 303–318.
9937:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 429–446.
9897:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 139–160.
9578:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 255–277.
9360:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 223–254.
5845:transcriptions of Egyptian words.
3002:Tenses, aspects, and moods (TAMs)
1942:The majority of AA languages are
1748:. Several Omotic languages have "
784:Seal impression from the tomb of
604:("tongue") and the Egyptian word
10304:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 53–136.
10199:10.1111/j.1749-818x.2008.00124.x
10187:Language and Linguistics Compass
10112:Journal of Language Relationship
9713:The Handbook of Language Contact
9451:10.1111/j.1749-818X.2008.00085.x
9439:Language and Linguistics Compass
7399:
5940:
5913:ˇ over a vowel indicates rising
5903:
5894:
5885:
5876:
5866:
5857:
5848:
5834:
5825:
5604:'sour'; Hausa (t)sʼáː.mí 'sour'
3023:imperative for verbs of motion.
2386:"internal-a" or "broken" plurals
1916:
652:. Most specialists consider the
600:—based on the Afroasiastic root
437:Grundriss der Sprachwissenschaft
177:
10420:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 35–50.
10210:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 19–34.
10127:. Blackwell. pp. 283–310.
9935:Morphologies of Asia and Africa
9597:. Helmut Baske. pp. 17–31.
9255:10.1002/9781444351071.wbeghm815
5935:comparison of related languages
5816:
5803:
5786:
1901:and a sibilant, and roots with
636:(also called "Libyco-Berber"),
9926:10.1080/00437956.1992.12098319
9798:10.1080/00437956.1950.11659378
9542:10.1126/science.306.5702.1680c
9198:Afrikanistische Arbeitspapiere
9113:. Eisenbrauns. pp. 3–18.
9077:. Cambridge University Press.
9023:. Cambridge University Press.
9011:
7394:Ehret, Keita & Newman 2004
7370:Ehret, Keita & Newman 2004
2277:subject-verb-object word order
434:to describe the family in his
340:. There is no consensus among
1:
10266:10.1080/17597536.2020.1760066
10170:. Stanford University Press.
10090:Militarev, Alexander (2005).
10074:Militarev, Alexander (2002).
9979:Kouwenberg, N. J. C. (2010).
6038:, Summary by language family.
5753:Afroasiatic phonetic notation
4439:West Central Oromo (Cushitic)
3797:m-dabaal 'gather each other'
3780:i-ttə-ska 'it has been built'
3347:
2996:
2653:Accusative/absolutive/unbound
2308:Grammatical gender and number
2258:
1547:Speech sample in the Semitic
1421:
492:are ascribed to Shem despite
25:Afro-Asiatic (disambiguation)
8883:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012a
5961:
5741:PEC='Proto-Eastern Cushtic'.
4415:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012a
2283:Reduplication and gemination
1643:. AA languages tend to have
1517:Phonological characteristics
7:
9859:The World's Major Languages
9602:Fleming, Harold C. (2006).
9509:Ehret, Christopher (1995).
9500:Ehret, Christopher (1980).
9375:Diakonoff, Igor M. (1988).
9249:. Blackwell. pp. 1–8.
8472:Frajzyngier & Shay 2020
7923:Frajzyngier & Shay 2020
7675:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
7481:Diamond & Bellwood 2003
7316:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
7104:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
6683:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
6357:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
6285:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
6138:Frajzyngier & Shay 2012
5745:
5004:
4360:
3919:
3539:Common derivational affixes
2868:Old South Arabian (Semitic)
2512:marked nominative alignment
2235:əkənnəf (neg. imperfective)
2094:Consonantal root structures
1455:Southern Cushitic languages
1443:
1436:rapidly restructure due to
1415:
775:
732:
88:One of the world's primary
10:
13980:
13734:Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric
10376:Journal of Semitic Studies
9888:(3 ed.). Eisenbrauns.
9884:Huehnergard, John (2011).
9721:10.1002/9781119485094.ch29
9659:10.1002/9781119485094.ch29
9209:Bender, M. Lionel (2000).
9075:Ancient Egyptian Phonology
7074:Bacovcin & Wilson 2018
7011:Bacovcin & Wilson 2018
5989:"Afro-Asiatic; Ethnologue"
2325:marker in some languages.
1551:language, a descendant of
1459:Savanna Pastoral Neolithic
1408:
1303:August Ludwig von Schlözer
859:
855:
825:
791:
736:
713:
679:
616:—have also been proposed.
506:August Ludwig von Schlözer
18:
13902:
13839:
13792:
13742:
13622:
13615:
13570:
13521:
13485:
13410:
13346:
13309:
13219:
13096:
13025:
12984:
12961:
12900:
12889:
12733:
12466:
12455:
12423:
12350:
12341:
12230:
12047:
12036:
12003:
11865:
11856:
11764:
11522:
11508:
11422:
11217:
11199:
11150:
11068:
11059:
11053:Primary language families
11006:
10969:
10925:
10880:
10801:
10767:
10733:
10724:
10664:
10655:
10598:
10566:
10509:"Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?"
10038:The Afroasiatic Languages
10006:Lipiński, Edward (2001).
9962:The Afroasiatic Languages
9943:10.1515/9781575065663-022
9823:10.1515/9783110421668-002
9651:The Afroasiatic Languages
9632:The Afroasiatic Languages
9613:The Afroasiatic Languages
9130:The Afroasiatic Languages
9073:Allen, James P. (2020a).
5719:'to cut into long strips'
5058:
5055:
5052:
5049:
5046:
5043:
5040:
5037:
4977:
4974:
4971:
4968:
4947:
4922:
4919:
4916:
4913:
4892:
4867:
4864:
4861:
4858:
4837:
4812:
4809:
4806:
4803:
4782:
4757:
4754:
4751:
4748:
4727:
4702:
4699:
4696:
4693:
4672:
4647:
4644:
4641:
4638:
4617:
4592:
4589:
4586:
4583:
4562:
4537:
4534:
4531:
4528:
4507:
4482:
4479:
4476:
4473:
4452:
4420:
4331:
4311:
4308:
4305:
4244:
4145:
4143:'you' (masc. sing., dep.)
4093:
4087:
3869:
3783:mmu-bḍa 'divide oneself'
3523:
3520:
3511:
3498:
3495:
3486:
3478:
3469:
3466:
3447:
3432:
3419:
3416:
3413:
3404:
3387:
3384:
3316:
3313:
3310:
3292:
3273:
3270:
3267:
3255:
3249:
3223:
3220:
3192:
3168:
3134:
3131:
3119:
3093:
3090:
3062:
3059:
3056:
3053:
3050:
3047:
3008:tenses, aspects, or moods
2545:
2542:
2539:
2536:
2533:
2224:
2176:
2052:
2037:
2028:
2019:
2001:
1969:
1964:
1756:Consonant incompatibility
1404:
821:
794:Ancient Egyptian language
709:
675:
620:Distribution and branches
510:Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
176:
162:
144:
105:
95:
84:Linguistic classification
82:
72:
44:
39:
34:
11870:Arnhem/Macro-Gunwinyguan
10164:Ruhlen, Merritt (1991).
9299:10.24425/for.2018.124678
9046:Allen, James P. (2020).
9029:10.1017/CBO9781139506090
9019:Allen, James P. (2013).
5779:
5252:'age group, generation';
5070:Orel & Stolbova 1995
4175:'you' (fem. sing., dep.)
4085:'you' (masc. sing. ind.)
3951:Beja Cushitic (Baniamer)
3544:M-prefix noun derivation
2302:
2263:It remains unclear what
1937:
971:Old East Africa Cushitic
725:, with the exception of
13964:Ethnic groups in Europe
13954:Ethnic groups in Africa
13911:have no living members.
13794:East and Southeast Asia
13037:have no living members.
9406:10.1126/science.1078208
9218:Beylage, Peter (2018).
9180:10.1111/1467-968X.12128
8895:Kaye & Daniels 1992
8871:Kaye & Daniels 1992
8835:Kaye & Daniels 1992
5617:'to begin to turn sour'
5275:'grandfather, ancestor'
4430:Akkadian (East Semitic)
4117:'you' (fem. sing. ind.)
3966:East Semitic (Akkadian)
2819:Modifiers and agreement
2238:-e:-dbil- (present pl)
2230:da:n-bi:l (present sg)
2227:əknəf (neg. perfective)
2102:Most Semitic verbs are
1870:), "front consonants" (
1796:h, ḥ, ẖ, q, k, g, ṯ, ḏ
1473:in the 5th century CE.
1363:Die Sprache der Hamiten
1208:African North Afrasian
875:Other proposed branches
383:
13017:Unclassified languages
12971:list of sign languages
11939:Northeastern Tasmanian
10760:(possibly independent)
10405:Wilson, David (2020).
10355:Takács, Gábor (2008).
10336:Takács, Gábor (1999).
10012:. Peeters Publishers.
9327:Blench, Roger (2008).
9306:Blench, Roger (2006).
8967:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8931:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8436:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8400:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8388:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8373:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8265:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8192:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8153:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8107:Meyer & Wolff 2019
8059:Meyer & Wolff 2019
7887:Meyer & Wolff 2019
7613:Meyer & Wolff 2019
7538:Meyer & Wolff 2019
7493:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6864:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6840:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6739:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6695:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6635:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6557:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6478:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6417:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6381:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6212:Meyer & Wolff 2019
6072:Meyer & Wolff 2019
4445:Gidar (Central Chadic)
3954:East Cushitic (Somali)
3566:Meyer & Wolff 2019
2398:Meyer & Wolff 2019
2269:verb-initial languages
2217:əkǎnnǎf (imperfective)
1593:
1574:
1555:
1537:
1362:
1340:
1285:Classification history
816:Coptic Orthodox Church
789:
696:Libyco-Berber alphabet
629:
586:
573:
436:
23:. For other uses, see
13959:Ethnic groups in Asia
13939:Afroasiatic languages
12992:Constructed languages
10560:Afroasiatic languages
9989:10.1515/9781575066240
9886:A Grammar of Akkadian
9868:Afroasiatic: A Survey
9748:The Semitic Languages
9228:10.1515/9781646022021
9083:10.1017/9781108751827
9056:10.1515/9781646020867
7396:, pp. 1680–1681.
5111:'kill (with a sword)'
5076:to strike, to squeeze
5016:sound correspondences
4448:Bench (North Omotic)
4436:Beja (North Cushitic)
4433:Arabic (West Semitic)
3969:West Semitic (Arabic)
3915:Vocabulary comparison
3808:pr-tj 'is sent forth'
3794:t-dabil 'be gathered'
3791:s-dabil 'make gather'
2490:Noun cases and states
2363:t-ʔo:r 'the daughter'
2361:ʔo:(r)-t 'a daughter'
2024:(passive imperative)
1583:
1564:
1546:
1527:
1457:and the East African
1338:
1153:North-South Afrasian
783:
627:
366:pharyngeal fricatives
192:Afroasiatic languages
11539:Binanderean–Goilalan
10515:Afro-Asiatic webpage
10511:by Rolf Theil (2006)
10254:Language and History
9606:. Otto Harrassowitz.
4204:'you' (plural, dep.)
3972:Berber (Tashelhiyt)
3948:North Omotic (Yemsa)
3895:upper, which is upon
3763:u-š-apris 'make cut'
3752:Reflexive/middle *t-
3341:"Suffix conjugation"
3027:"Prefix conjugation"
2380:) and/or insertion (
2273:verb-final languages
2245:-dabi:l- (negative)
2206:mwaát (imperfective)
1451:Further subdivisions
1411:Afroasiatic homeland
1321:Karl Richard Lepsius
1090:Central Afroasiatic
916:Further subdivisions
440:(1876). The variant
430:introduced the name
357:fourth millennium BC
342:historical linguists
318:died or gone extinct
13944:Afroasiatic peoples
13552:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
13336:Northwest Caucasian
13331:Northeast Caucasian
12821:(Maku-Auari/Jukude)
12724:Tequiraca–Canichana
12567:Harákmbut–Katukinan
11330:Northwest Caucasian
11324:Northeast Caucasian
11248:Chukotko-Kamchatkan
10480:V.M. Illich-Svitych
10329:10.1075/z.215.09sta
9398:2003Sci...300..597D
8873:, pp. 440–441.
8849:, pp. 317–318.
8783:, pp. 523–524.
8542:, pp. 238–239.
8414:, pp. 539–540.
8363:, pp. 533–534.
8279:, pp. 535–536.
8194:, pp. 266–267.
7949:, pp. 529–530.
7866:, pp. 517–519.
7800:, pp. 167–168.
7776:, pp. 323–332.
7701:, pp. 439–440.
7330:, pp. 148–150.
7052:, pp. 398–399.
6979:, pp. 312–313.
6538:, pp. 342–343.
6226:, pp. 269–270.
6004:, pp. 559–580.
5931:reconstructed forms
5773:Nostratic languages
5763:Languages of Africa
5406:'to die, to be ill'
5125:'to strike, pound'
5102:'to strike, beat';
5034:
4417:
3957:West Chadic (Hausa)
3941:
3838:
3742:
3576:
3358:
3044:
2847:
2738:Free/absolute state
2731:
2530:
2432:Teshelhiyt (Berber)
2400:
2384:). These so-called
2333:
2118:
2017:(active imperative)
1958:
1876:alveolar consonants
1765:
1491:Alexander Militarev
1274:Alexander Militarev
1132:East–West Afrasian
922:
554:racial connotations
448:as attested in the
226:, and parts of the
13817:Austronesian–Ongan
13616:Proposed groupings
12443:Tarascan/Purépecha
11932:Northern Tasmanian
11690:South Bougainville
11651:North Bougainville
10388:10.1093/jss/fgq056
9504:. Dietrich Reimer.
9377:Afrasian Languages
9213:. Lincoln Europea.
8993:, p. 317-318.
8945:, p. 280-281.
8795:, p. 314-315.
8530:, p. 140-141.
7925:, p. 572-573.
7764:, p. 153-154.
7725:, p. 77, 488.
7552:, p. 511-512.
7164:, p. 204-205.
6919:, p. 225-227.
6383:, p. 252-253.
6344:, p. 138-139.
6121:, p. 315-316.
5118:'to squeeze, tear'
5021:
4442:Lele (East Chadic)
4400:
3960:East Chadic (Mubi)
3936:
3931:sibilant consonant
3848:Derived adjective
3829:
3818:"Nisba" derivation
3760:Akkadian (Semitic)
3729:
3563:
3371:Akkadian (Semitic)
3353:
3057:Akkadian (Semitic)
3039:
2946:relative verb form
2842:
2761:Emphatic: malkətā
2714:
2546:Wolaitta (Omotic)
2543:Akkadian (Semitic)
2517:
2391:
2328:
2209:kêt (qualitative)
2203:-i:-dbil- (aorist)
2200:əknǎf (perfective)
2197:iparras- (present)
2180:iprus- (preterite)
2137:Coptic (Egyptian)
2134:Ron/Daffo (Chadic)
2125:Akkadian (Semitic)
2113:
1953:
1772:cannot occur with
1760:
1641:lateral consonants
1600:Syllable structure
1594:
1575:
1556:
1538:
1505:and archaeologist
1394:comparative method
1341:
1305:in 1781. In 1844,
920:
790:
739:Cushitic languages
630:
589:) was proposed by
523:Isidore of Seville
516:was first used by
486:Canaanite language
13949:Language families
13926:
13925:
13835:
13834:
13827:Sino-Austronesian
13611:
13610:
13086:Language families
13052:
13051:
13002:Language isolates
12980:
12979:
12885:
12884:
12451:
12450:
12337:
12336:
12032:
12031:
11979:Western Tasmanian
11897:Eastern Tasmanian
11852:
11851:
11574:East Geelvink Bay
11504:
11503:
11195:
11194:
11019:
11018:
11013:extinct languages
10797:
10796:
10793:
10792:
10575:Proto-Afroasiatic
10366:978-90-47-42379-9
10347:978-90-04-11538-5
10244:978-0-19-964164-2
10059:. Leiden: Brill.
10047:978-0-521-86533-3
10019:978-90-429-0815-4
9971:978-0-521-86533-3
9952:978-1-57506-566-3
9703:978-0-19-938465-5
9668:978-0-521-86533-3
9641:978-0-521-86533-3
9622:978-0-521-86533-3
9392:(5619): 597–603.
9319:978-0-7591-0466-2
9158:978-3-11-018613-0
9139:978-0-521-86533-3
8979:Porkhomovsky 2020
8696:, pp. 88–90.
8684:, pp. 27–34.
8206:, pp. 40–41.
7419:978-0-691-24410-5
7340:Ehret et al. 2023
7236:, pp. 86–87.
7222:Porkhomovsky 2020
7188:, pp. 82–83.
7150:Porkhomovsky 2020
7133:, pp. 87–88.
6768:, pp. 78–80.
6590:, pp. 25–26.
6371:, pp. 23–24.
6241:Porkhomovsky 2020
6224:Porkhomovsky 2020
6202:, pp. 21–22.
6188:Porkhomovsky 2020
5768:Languages of Asia
5735:
5734:
5196:*kamaʔ- / *kamay-
5041:Proto-Afroasiatic
5002:
5001:
4395:Ethiopian Semitic
4391:Nilotic languages
4358:
4357:
3900:
3899:
3815:
3814:
3805:s-ꜥnḫ 'make live'
3777:ssu-fəɣ 'let out'
3702:Verbal extensions
3699:
3698:
3536:
3535:
3338:
3337:
2994:
2993:
2816:
2815:
2812:Annexed: wə-ryaz
2766:Coptic (Egyptian)
2749:Aramaic (Semitic)
2744:Additional state
2708:
2707:
2487:
2486:
2373:
2372:
2369:bin-t 'daughter'
2349:Arabic (Semitic)
2249:
2248:
2220:i:-dbil- (modal)
2214:iptaras (perfect)
2108:verbal extensions
2079:vowel lengthening
2061:
2060:
1984:, nominative case
1977:, absolutive case
1970:Somali (Cushitic)
1884:labial consonants
1880:liquid consonants
1821:labial consonants
1816:
1815:
1812:ꜥ, z, q, g, d, ḏ
1738:consonant harmony
1623:Consonant systems
1584:Speech sample in
1581:
1565:Speech sample in
1562:
1544:
1528:Speech sample in
1525:
1291:Judah ibn Quraysh
1243:
1242:
902:Meroitic language
862:Semitic languages
838:Nilotic languages
692:Numidian language
569:Maurice Delafosse
502:Semitic languages
346:Proto-Afroasiatic
314:Wolaitta language
312:, and the Omotic
272:African continent
202:), also known as
188:
187:
100:Proto-Afroasiatic
90:language families
13971:
13894:Proto-Euphratean
13620:
13619:
13528:
13527:
13496:Great Andamanese
13079:
13072:
13065:
13056:
13055:
12898:
12897:
12852:Huaorani/Waorani
12736:(extant in 2000)
12700:Esmeralda–Yaruro
12471:Andoque–Urequena
12464:
12463:
12348:
12347:
12154:Plateau Penutian
12045:
12044:
12020:(Northern Daly?)
11863:
11862:
11749:Northwest Papuan
11713:Trans–New Guinea
11579:East New Britain
11554:Central Solomons
11520:
11519:
11265:Great Andamanese
11215:
11214:
11066:
11065:
11046:
11039:
11032:
11023:
11022:
10846:Somali languages
10731:
10730:
10662:
10661:
10553:
10546:
10539:
10530:
10529:
10488:
10482:, Moscow, 2004;
10457:
10440:
10431:
10412:
10401:
10399:
10370:
10351:
10332:
10315:
10296:
10277:
10248:
10221:
10202:
10181:
10160:
10151:
10138:
10119:
10106:
10096:
10086:
10080:
10070:
10051:
10032:
10023:
10002:
9975:
9956:
9929:
9908:
9889:
9880:
9871:
9862:
9853:
9844:
9809:
9780:
9751:
9742:
9707:
9680:
9645:
9626:
9607:
9598:
9589:
9569:
9524:
9505:
9496:
9483:
9481:
9479:
9462:
9433:
9380:
9371:
9352:
9350:
9348:
9342:
9335:
9323:
9302:
9287:Folia Orientalia
9281:
9274:Folia Orientalia
9268:
9241:
9214:
9205:
9192:
9183:
9162:
9143:
9124:
9104:
9069:
9042:
9006:
9000:
8994:
8988:
8982:
8976:
8970:
8964:
8958:
8952:
8946:
8940:
8934:
8928:
8922:
8916:
8910:
8904:
8898:
8892:
8886:
8880:
8874:
8868:
8862:
8856:
8850:
8844:
8838:
8832:
8823:
8817:
8808:
8802:
8796:
8790:
8784:
8781:Frajzyngier 2012
8778:
8772:
8766:
8760:
8754:
8748:
8745:Huehnergard 2004
8742:
8736:
8730:
8724:
8718:
8709:
8703:
8697:
8691:
8685:
8679:
8673:
8667:
8661:
8658:Frajzyngier 2012
8655:
8649:
8643:
8637:
8631:
8625:
8619:
8613:
8607:
8598:
8597:, p. 33-24.
8592:
8586:
8580:
8574:
8568:
8562:
8559:Huehnergard 2004
8556:
8543:
8537:
8531:
8528:Huehnergard 2004
8525:
8519:
8513:
8504:
8498:
8492:
8486:
8475:
8469:
8463:
8457:
8451:
8448:Frajzyngier 2012
8445:
8439:
8433:
8427:
8421:
8415:
8412:Frajzyngier 2012
8409:
8403:
8397:
8391:
8385:
8376:
8370:
8364:
8361:Frajzyngier 2012
8358:
8352:
8346:
8340:
8334:
8328:
8322:
8316:
8313:Frajzyngier 2012
8310:
8304:
8301:Frajzyngier 2012
8298:
8292:
8286:
8280:
8277:Frajzyngier 2012
8274:
8268:
8262:
8256:
8253:Frajzyngier 2012
8250:
8241:
8238:Frajzyngier 2012
8235:
8224:
8218:
8207:
8201:
8195:
8189:
8183:
8180:Frajzyngier 2012
8177:
8171:
8165:
8156:
8150:
8137:
8134:Frajzyngier 2012
8131:
8125:
8122:Frajzyngier 2012
8119:
8110:
8104:
8089:
8086:Frajzyngier 2012
8083:
8077:
8071:
8062:
8056:
8043:
8037:
8031:
8028:Frajzyngier 2012
8025:
8016:
8010:
8004:
7998:
7992:
7989:Frajzyngier 2012
7986:
7980:
7974:
7965:
7959:
7950:
7947:Frajzyngier 2012
7944:
7938:
7932:
7926:
7920:
7914:
7911:Frajzyngier 2012
7908:
7902:
7899:Frajzyngier 2012
7896:
7890:
7884:
7867:
7864:Frajzyngier 2012
7861:
7855:
7852:Frajzyngier 2012
7849:
7843:
7842:, p. 90-92.
7837:
7831:
7825:
7816:
7810:
7801:
7795:
7789:
7783:
7777:
7771:
7765:
7759:
7753:
7747:
7738:
7732:
7726:
7720:
7714:
7708:
7702:
7696:
7690:
7687:Frajzyngier 2012
7684:
7678:
7672:
7659:
7656:Huehnergard 2023
7653:
7647:
7641:
7628:
7625:Frajzyngier 2012
7622:
7616:
7610:
7595:
7592:Frajzyngier 2012
7589:
7580:
7574:
7565:
7562:Frajzyngier 2012
7559:
7553:
7550:Frajzyngier 2012
7547:
7541:
7535:
7526:
7520:
7511:
7508:Frajzyngier 2012
7505:
7496:
7490:
7484:
7478:
7472:
7466:
7460:
7454:
7448:
7442:
7436:
7430:
7424:
7423:
7403:
7397:
7391:
7385:
7379:
7373:
7367:
7358:
7355:Frajzyngier 2012
7352:
7343:
7337:
7331:
7325:
7319:
7313:
7302:
7296:
7285:
7279:
7273:
7270:Huehnergard 2023
7267:
7261:
7255:
7249:
7243:
7237:
7231:
7225:
7219:
7213:
7207:
7201:
7195:
7189:
7183:
7177:
7171:
7165:
7159:
7153:
7147:
7134:
7128:
7122:
7116:
7107:
7101:
7092:
7086:
7077:
7071:
7065:
7059:
7053:
7047:
7041:
7035:
7026:
7020:
7014:
7008:
6999:
6993:
6980:
6974:
6968:
6962:
6953:
6947:
6941:
6935:
6920:
6914:
6908:
6905:Frajzyngier 2018
6902:
6891:
6885:
6879:
6873:
6867:
6861:
6855:
6849:
6843:
6837:
6820:
6814:
6808:
6805:Huehnergard 2004
6802:
6793:
6787:
6781:
6775:
6769:
6763:
6757:
6751:
6742:
6736:
6725:
6719:
6713:
6710:Huehnergard 2004
6707:
6698:
6692:
6686:
6680:
6674:
6668:
6662:
6656:
6650:
6644:
6638:
6632:
6615:
6609:
6603:
6597:
6591:
6585:
6579:
6573:
6560:
6554:
6539:
6533:
6527:
6521:
6515:
6509:
6498:
6492:
6481:
6475:
6464:
6458:
6452:
6446:
6437:
6431:
6420:
6414:
6408:
6402:
6396:
6390:
6384:
6378:
6372:
6366:
6360:
6354:
6345:
6342:Huehnergard 2004
6339:
6333:
6327:
6318:
6312:
6303:
6297:
6288:
6282:
6271:
6268:Huehnergard 2004
6265:
6256:
6250:
6244:
6238:
6227:
6221:
6215:
6209:
6203:
6197:
6191:
6185:
6170:
6164:
6158:
6152:
6141:
6135:
6122:
6116:
6107:
6101:
6090:
6084:
6075:
6069:
6060:
6054:
6039:
6033:
6024:
6018:
6005:
5999:
5993:
5992:
5985:
5979:
5978:
5971:
5955:
5944:
5938:
5907:
5901:
5898:
5892:
5889:
5883:
5880:
5874:
5870:
5864:
5861:
5855:
5852:
5846:
5838:
5832:
5829:
5823:
5820:
5814:
5807:
5801:
5790:
5758:Borean languages
5699:'to rend, split'
5336:*lis'- 'to lick'
5236:to be old, elder
5035:
5032:Huehnergard 2004
5020:
4418:
4399:
3942:
3935:
3907:in addition to -
3853:Hebrew (Semitic)
3845:Noun/preposition
3839:
3828:
3743:
3728:
3614:Arabic (Semitic)
3586:Agent/Instrument
3577:
3562:
3550:Joseph Greenberg
3380:Afar (Cushitic)
3359:
3352:
3063:Beja (Cushitic)
3045:
3038:
2848:
2841:
2800:Riffian (Berber)
2783:Iraqw (Cushitic)
2778:Pronominal: jô-
2732:
2713:
2577:Nominative/bound
2537:Oromo (Cushitic)
2531:
2524:Huehnergard 2011
2516:
2401:
2390:
2354:wəl-t 'daughter'
2334:
2327:
2192:kôt (infintive)
2189:mot (perfective)
2119:
2112:
2089:General features
1991:, genitive case
1959:
1956:Frajzyngier 2012
1952:
1868:velar consonants
1766:
1759:
1729:were voiceless.
1681:
1586:Classical Arabic
1582:
1563:
1545:
1526:
1499:Natufian Culture
1479:hunter-gatherers
1434:
1430:
1426:
1423:
1399:genetic validity
1377:Joseph Greenberg
1365:
1349:Christian Bunsen
1316:Friedrich Müller
1295:Guillaume Postel
1278:Sergei Starostin
1270:lexicostatistics
1148:(Berbero-Libyan)
1036:North Erythrean
923:
919:
909:Kujarge language
828:Omotic languages
716:Chadic languages
700:Guanche language
682:Berber languages
654:Omotic languages
576:
548:has argued that
546:Joseph Greenberg
454:Table of Nations
439:
428:Friedrich Müller
294:Amharic language
181:
172:
158:
32:
31:
13979:
13978:
13974:
13973:
13972:
13970:
13969:
13968:
13929:
13928:
13927:
13922:
13921:
13898:
13889:Paleo-Laplandic
13884:Pre-Finno-Ugric
13831:
13788:
13752:Greater Siangic
13738:
13724:Uralic–Yukaghir
13674:Ibero-Caucasian
13669:Elamo-Dravidian
13607:
13566:
13517:
13481:
13406:
13342:
13325:North Caucasian
13305:
13215:
13154:Paleo-Sardinian
13092:
13083:
13053:
13048:
13047:
13021:
13007:Mixed languages
12976:
12957:
12892:
12881:
12735:
12729:
12584:Katembri–Taruma
12458:
12447:
12419:
12333:
12226:
12039:
12028:
11999:
11848:
11760:
11719:Turama–Kikorian
11629:Lower Mamberamo
11584:East Strickland
11512:
11500:
11418:
11206:
11201:
11191:
11146:
11055:
11050:
11020:
11015:
11002:
10965:
10921:
10876:
10789:
10763:
10720:
10651:
10594:
10562:
10557:
10486:
10465:
10460:
10428:
10367:
10348:
10312:
10293:
10245:
10218:
10178:
10144:Lingua Aegyptia
10135:
10094:
10078:
10067:
10048:
10020:
9999:
9983:. Eisenbrauns.
9972:
9953:
9905:
9833:
9731:
9704:
9669:
9642:
9623:
9586:
9521:
9477:
9475:
9368:
9346:
9344:
9340:
9333:
9320:
9265:
9238:
9222:. Eisenbrauns.
9220:Middle Egyptian
9159:
9140:
9121:
9093:
9066:
9050:. Eisenbrauns.
9039:
9014:
9009:
9001:
8997:
8989:
8985:
8977:
8973:
8965:
8961:
8953:
8949:
8941:
8937:
8929:
8925:
8917:
8913:
8905:
8901:
8893:
8889:
8881:
8877:
8869:
8865:
8857:
8853:
8845:
8841:
8833:
8826:
8818:
8811:
8803:
8799:
8791:
8787:
8779:
8775:
8767:
8763:
8755:
8751:
8743:
8739:
8731:
8727:
8719:
8712:
8704:
8700:
8692:
8688:
8680:
8676:
8668:
8664:
8656:
8652:
8644:
8640:
8632:
8628:
8620:
8616:
8608:
8601:
8593:
8589:
8581:
8577:
8569:
8565:
8557:
8546:
8538:
8534:
8526:
8522:
8514:
8507:
8499:
8495:
8487:
8478:
8470:
8466:
8460:Kouwenberg 2010
8458:
8454:
8446:
8442:
8434:
8430:
8422:
8418:
8410:
8406:
8398:
8394:
8386:
8379:
8371:
8367:
8359:
8355:
8347:
8343:
8335:
8331:
8323:
8319:
8311:
8307:
8299:
8295:
8287:
8283:
8275:
8271:
8263:
8259:
8251:
8244:
8236:
8227:
8219:
8210:
8202:
8198:
8190:
8186:
8178:
8174:
8166:
8159:
8151:
8140:
8132:
8128:
8120:
8113:
8105:
8092:
8084:
8080:
8072:
8065:
8057:
8046:
8038:
8034:
8026:
8019:
8011:
8007:
7999:
7995:
7987:
7983:
7975:
7968:
7960:
7953:
7945:
7941:
7933:
7929:
7921:
7917:
7909:
7905:
7897:
7893:
7885:
7870:
7862:
7858:
7850:
7846:
7838:
7834:
7826:
7819:
7811:
7804:
7798:Greenberg 1950a
7796:
7792:
7784:
7780:
7772:
7768:
7760:
7756:
7750:Greenberg 1950a
7748:
7741:
7733:
7729:
7721:
7717:
7713:, p. 9-10.
7709:
7705:
7697:
7693:
7685:
7681:
7673:
7662:
7654:
7650:
7642:
7631:
7623:
7619:
7611:
7598:
7590:
7583:
7575:
7568:
7560:
7556:
7548:
7544:
7536:
7529:
7521:
7514:
7506:
7499:
7491:
7487:
7479:
7475:
7467:
7463:
7455:
7451:
7443:
7439:
7431:
7427:
7420:
7404:
7400:
7392:
7388:
7380:
7376:
7372:, p. 1680.
7368:
7361:
7353:
7346:
7338:
7334:
7326:
7322:
7314:
7305:
7297:
7288:
7280:
7276:
7268:
7264:
7256:
7252:
7244:
7240:
7232:
7228:
7220:
7216:
7208:
7204:
7196:
7192:
7184:
7180:
7172:
7168:
7160:
7156:
7148:
7137:
7129:
7125:
7117:
7110:
7102:
7095:
7087:
7080:
7072:
7068:
7060:
7056:
7048:
7044:
7036:
7029:
7021:
7017:
7009:
7002:
6994:
6983:
6975:
6971:
6963:
6956:
6948:
6944:
6936:
6923:
6915:
6911:
6903:
6894:
6886:
6882:
6874:
6870:
6862:
6858:
6850:
6846:
6838:
6823:
6815:
6811:
6803:
6796:
6788:
6784:
6776:
6772:
6764:
6760:
6752:
6745:
6737:
6728:
6720:
6716:
6708:
6701:
6693:
6689:
6681:
6677:
6669:
6665:
6657:
6653:
6649:, pp. 4–5.
6645:
6641:
6633:
6618:
6610:
6606:
6598:
6594:
6586:
6582:
6574:
6563:
6555:
6542:
6534:
6530:
6522:
6518:
6510:
6501:
6493:
6484:
6476:
6467:
6459:
6455:
6447:
6440:
6432:
6423:
6415:
6411:
6403:
6399:
6391:
6387:
6379:
6375:
6367:
6363:
6355:
6348:
6340:
6336:
6328:
6321:
6313:
6306:
6300:Dimmendaal 2008
6298:
6291:
6283:
6274:
6266:
6259:
6251:
6247:
6239:
6230:
6222:
6218:
6210:
6206:
6198:
6194:
6186:
6173:
6165:
6161:
6153:
6144:
6136:
6125:
6117:
6110:
6102:
6093:
6085:
6078:
6070:
6063:
6055:
6042:
6034:
6027:
6019:
6008:
6000:
5996:
5987:
5986:
5982:
5973:
5972:
5968:
5964:
5959:
5958:
5945:
5941:
5908:
5904:
5899:
5895:
5890:
5886:
5881:
5877:
5871:
5867:
5862:
5858:
5853:
5849:
5839:
5835:
5830:
5826:
5821:
5817:
5808:
5804:
5791:
5787:
5782:
5777:
5748:
5707:
5673:
5648:
5642:
5555:
5549:
5512:
5504:'to soar, rise'
5500:
5493:'bird's flight'
5484:
5464:
5450:to fly, to soar
5433:
5414:
5357:
5297:
5253:
5214:
5146:
5134:
5007:
4427:Tuareg (Berber)
4363:
4347:
4322:
4236:
4231:
4226:
4067:
4059:
4040:
4035:
4030:
4013:
4009:'me, my' (dep.)
3927:nasal consonant
3922:
3917:
3911:in some cases.
3822:The so-called "
3820:
3788:Beja (Cushitic)
3774:Figuig (Berber)
3704:
3680:Tuareg (Berber)
3660:Beja (Cushitic)
3589:Place/Abstract
3546:
3541:
3343:
3029:
3004:
2999:
2972:possessive base
2943:Tuareg (Berber)
2917:Beja (Cushitic)
2821:
2741:Construct State
2492:
2446:Afar (Cushitic)
2418:Ge'ez (Semitic)
2366:zꜣ-t 'daughter'
2362:
2358:
2343:Beja (Cushitic)
2337:Kabyle (Berber)
2310:
2305:
2297:pluractionality
2285:
2261:
2131:Beja (Cushitic)
2096:
2091:
2066:
1944:tonal languages
1940:
1919:
1836:denominal verbs
1758:
1625:
1617:Syllable weight
1602:
1577:
1558:
1540:
1521:
1519:
1446:
1432:
1428:
1425: 4000 BCE
1424:
1418:
1413:
1407:
1390:mass comparison
1353:Christian Bleek
1351:, and linguist
1287:
1239:
1200:North Afrasian
1177:
1124:
1072:
1015:
918:
885:Ongota language
877:
864:
858:
846:Gamo-Gofa-Dawro
830:
824:
800:
798:Coptic language
792:Main articles:
778:
741:
735:
718:
712:
684:
678:
622:
608:("person")—and
450:Book of Genesis
386:
326:Biblical Hebrew
308:, the Cushitic
298:Somali language
212:language family
184:
168:
154:
75:
74:Native speakers
46:
28:
17:
12:
11:
5:
13977:
13967:
13966:
13961:
13956:
13951:
13946:
13941:
13924:
13923:
13920:
13919:
13912:
13904:
13903:
13900:
13899:
13897:
13896:
13891:
13886:
13881:
13876:
13871:
13866:
13861:
13856:
13851:
13845:
13843:
13837:
13836:
13833:
13832:
13830:
13829:
13824:
13819:
13814:
13809:
13804:
13798:
13796:
13790:
13789:
13787:
13786:
13781:
13776:
13771:
13766:
13765:
13764:
13759:
13748:
13746:
13740:
13739:
13737:
13736:
13731:
13726:
13721:
13719:Uralo-Siberian
13716:
13711:
13706:
13704:Serbi–Mongolic
13701:
13696:
13691:
13686:
13681:
13676:
13671:
13666:
13664:Dravido-Korean
13661:
13659:Dené–Yeniseian
13656:
13655:
13654:
13649:
13647:Dené–Caucasian
13644:
13634:
13629:
13623:
13617:
13613:
13612:
13609:
13608:
13606:
13605:
13600:
13592:
13585:
13577:
13575:
13568:
13567:
13565:
13564:
13559:
13554:
13549:
13544:
13538:
13536:
13525:
13519:
13518:
13516:
13515:
13508:
13503:
13498:
13492:
13490:
13483:
13482:
13480:
13479:
13474:
13469:
13464:
13459:
13452:
13445:
13438:
13431:
13424:
13416:
13414:
13408:
13407:
13405:
13404:
13396:
13391:
13386:
13381:
13374:
13367:
13360:
13352:
13350:
13344:
13343:
13341:
13340:
13339:
13338:
13333:
13321:
13315:
13313:
13307:
13306:
13304:
13303:
13296:
13289:
13282:
13275:
13268:
13265:Hurro-Urartian
13261:
13254:
13247:
13240:
13233:
13225:
13223:
13217:
13216:
13214:
13213:
13206:
13199:
13192:
13185:
13178:
13171:
13164:
13157:
13150:
13147:Paleo-Corsican
13143:
13136:
13129:
13124:
13117:
13110:
13102:
13100:
13094:
13093:
13082:
13081:
13074:
13067:
13059:
13050:
13049:
13046:
13045:
13038:
13031:
13027:
13026:
13023:
13022:
13020:
13019:
13014:
13009:
13004:
12999:
12994:
12988:
12986:
12982:
12981:
12978:
12977:
12975:
12974:
12965:
12963:
12959:
12958:
12956:
12955:
12949:
12944:
12939:
12934:
12932:Indo-Pakistani
12929:
12924:
12917:
12912:
12907:
12901:
12895:
12887:
12886:
12883:
12882:
12880:
12879:
12874:
12869:
12864:
12859:
12854:
12849:
12844:
12839:
12833:
12828:
12823:
12815:
12810:
12803:
12798:
12792:
12787:
12782:
12777:
12771:
12766:
12761:
12756:
12751:
12746:
12739:
12737:
12731:
12730:
12728:
12727:
12721:
12715:
12709:
12703:
12697:
12691:
12685:
12680:
12675:
12670:
12665:
12660:
12653:
12648:
12643:
12638:
12633:
12631:Piaroa–Saliban
12628:
12621:
12616:
12611:
12606:
12601:
12596:
12591:
12586:
12581:
12576:
12569:
12564:
12559:
12554:
12549:
12544:
12539:
12532:
12527:
12520:
12515:
12510:
12505:
12500:
12495:
12490:
12483:
12478:
12473:
12467:
12461:
12453:
12452:
12449:
12448:
12446:
12445:
12440:
12435:
12427:
12425:
12421:
12420:
12418:
12417:
12410:
12403:
12398:
12396:Tequistlatecan
12393:
12386:
12381:
12376:
12369:
12362:
12357:
12351:
12345:
12339:
12338:
12335:
12334:
12332:
12331:
12326:
12321:
12316:
12309:
12304:
12297:
12290:
12283:
12276:
12269:
12264:
12259:
12254:
12249:
12242:
12234:
12232:
12228:
12227:
12225:
12224:
12219:
12212:
12205:
12200:
12193:
12188:
12183:
12178:
12173:
12166:
12161:
12156:
12151:
12144:
12137:
12132:
12125:
12120:
12113:
12108:
12103:
12096:
12089:
12082:
12075:
12068:
12063:
12056:
12048:
12042:
12034:
12033:
12030:
12029:
12027:
12026:
12021:
12015:
12007:
12005:
12001:
12000:
11998:
11997:
11987:
11982:
11975:
11970:
11965:
11960:
11954:
11947:
11942:
11935:
11928:
11923:
11919:Marrku–Wurrugu
11915:
11910:
11905:
11900:
11893:
11886:
11878:
11873:
11866:
11860:
11854:
11853:
11850:
11849:
11847:
11846:
11841:
11833:
11827:
11821:
11816:
11811:
11806:
11801:
11796:
11791:
11785:
11779:
11774:
11768:
11766:
11762:
11761:
11759:
11758:
11752:
11746:
11741:
11736:
11731:
11726:
11721:
11716:
11709:
11704:
11697:
11692:
11687:
11682:
11675:
11670:
11665:
11658:
11653:
11648:
11643:
11636:
11631:
11626:
11621:
11616:
11611:
11606:
11601:
11596:
11591:
11586:
11581:
11576:
11571:
11566:
11561:
11556:
11551:
11546:
11541:
11536:
11529:
11523:
11517:
11506:
11505:
11502:
11501:
11499:
11498:
11490:
11483:
11477:
11472:
11464:
11459:
11451:
11444:
11437:
11432:
11426:
11424:
11420:
11419:
11417:
11416:
11410:
11404:
11398:
11392:
11386:
11380:
11375:
11370:
11363:
11356:
11349:
11344:
11337:
11332:
11327:
11320:
11315:
11310:
11303:
11298:
11293:
11288:
11281:
11278:Hurro-Urartian
11274:
11267:
11262:
11257:
11250:
11245:
11238:
11231:
11226:
11218:
11212:
11197:
11196:
11193:
11192:
11190:
11189:
11183:
11177:
11172:
11165:
11160:
11154:
11152:
11148:
11147:
11145:
11144:
11138:
11132:
11126:
11120:
11114:
11109:
11101:
11094:
11089:
11084:
11077:
11069:
11063:
11057:
11056:
11049:
11048:
11041:
11034:
11026:
11017:
11016:
11007:
11004:
11003:
11001:
11000:
10994:
10988:
10987:
10986:
10973:
10971:
10967:
10966:
10964:
10963:
10962:
10961:
10956:
10955:
10954:
10939:
10931:
10929:
10923:
10922:
10920:
10919:
10918:
10917:
10912:
10902:
10897:
10892:
10886:
10884:
10878:
10877:
10875:
10874:
10869:
10868:
10867:
10862:
10857:
10856:
10855:
10850:
10849:
10848:
10843:
10823:
10818:
10813:
10807:
10805:
10799:
10798:
10795:
10794:
10791:
10790:
10788:
10787:
10782:
10777:
10771:
10769:
10765:
10764:
10762:
10761:
10753:
10748:
10743:
10737:
10735:
10728:
10722:
10721:
10719:
10718:
10717:
10716:
10711:
10706:
10701:
10699:Hausa–Gwandara
10696:
10691:
10686:
10676:
10671:
10665:
10659:
10653:
10652:
10650:
10649:
10644:
10639:
10638:
10637:
10636:
10635:
10630:
10620:
10610:
10604:
10602:
10596:
10595:
10593:
10592:
10585:
10578:
10570:
10568:
10564:
10563:
10556:
10555:
10548:
10541:
10533:
10527:
10526:
10512:
10506:
10501:
10495:
10489:
10473:
10464:
10463:External links
10461:
10459:
10458:
10441:
10432:
10426:
10413:
10402:
10371:
10365:
10352:
10346:
10333:
10316:
10310:
10297:
10291:
10278:
10260:(3): 193–213.
10249:
10243:
10222:
10216:
10203:
10193:(2): 559–580.
10182:
10176:
10161:
10152:
10139:
10133:
10120:
10107:
10087:
10071:
10065:
10052:
10046:
10033:
10024:
10018:
10003:
9997:
9976:
9970:
9957:
9951:
9930:
9920:(3): 429–458.
9909:
9903:
9890:
9881:
9872:
9863:
9854:
9845:
9831:
9810:
9792:(2): 162–181.
9781:
9769:10.2307/595879
9763:(4): 317–321.
9752:
9743:
9729:
9708:
9702:
9681:
9667:
9646:
9640:
9627:
9621:
9608:
9599:
9590:
9584:
9570:
9525:
9519:
9506:
9497:
9484:
9463:
9445:(5): 840–858.
9434:
9381:
9372:
9366:
9353:
9324:
9318:
9303:
9282:
9269:
9263:
9242:
9236:
9215:
9206:
9193:
9184:
9174:(3): 410–434.
9163:
9157:
9144:
9138:
9125:
9119:
9105:
9091:
9070:
9064:
9043:
9037:
9015:
9013:
9010:
9008:
9007:
9005:, p. 318.
9003:Güldemann 2018
8995:
8991:Güldemann 2018
8983:
8981:, p. 273.
8971:
8969:, p. 248.
8959:
8957:, p. 325.
8947:
8935:
8933:, p. 295.
8923:
8921:, p. 281.
8911:
8909:, p. 284.
8899:
8897:, p. 440.
8887:
8885:, p. 273.
8875:
8863:
8861:, p. 280.
8851:
8839:
8837:, p. 439.
8824:
8822:, p. 317.
8809:
8797:
8793:Güldemann 2018
8785:
8773:
8761:
8759:, p. 168.
8749:
8747:, p. 148.
8737:
8725:
8723:, p. 115.
8710:
8698:
8686:
8674:
8662:
8660:, p. 525.
8650:
8638:
8626:
8624:, p. 577.
8614:
8612:, p. 123.
8599:
8587:
8585:, p. 360.
8575:
8563:
8561:, p. 141.
8544:
8532:
8520:
8518:, p. 315.
8516:Güldemann 2018
8505:
8503:, p. 391.
8493:
8476:
8464:
8452:
8450:, p. 592.
8440:
8438:, p. 267.
8428:
8426:, p. 316.
8424:Güldemann 2018
8416:
8404:
8402:, p. 298.
8392:
8390:, p. 279.
8377:
8375:, p. 312.
8365:
8353:
8341:
8329:
8327:, p. 265.
8317:
8315:, p. 533.
8305:
8303:, p. 535.
8293:
8291:, p. 317.
8289:Güldemann 2018
8281:
8269:
8267:, p. 319.
8257:
8255:, p. 534.
8242:
8240:, p. 538.
8225:
8223:, p. 243.
8208:
8196:
8184:
8182:, p. 253.
8172:
8170:, p. 308.
8157:
8155:, p. 266.
8138:
8136:, p. 523.
8126:
8124:, p. 522.
8111:
8109:, p. 268.
8090:
8088:, p. 531.
8078:
8076:, p. 319.
8074:Güldemann 2018
8063:
8061:, p. 269.
8044:
8032:
8030:, p. 593.
8017:
8015:, p. 576.
8005:
7993:
7991:, p. 622.
7981:
7966:
7951:
7939:
7937:, p. 574.
7927:
7915:
7913:, p. 513.
7903:
7891:
7889:, p. 265.
7868:
7856:
7854:, p. 621.
7844:
7832:
7817:
7802:
7790:
7778:
7766:
7754:
7752:, p. 178.
7739:
7737:, p. 395.
7727:
7715:
7703:
7691:
7689:, p. 517.
7679:
7660:
7658:, p. 142.
7648:
7646:, p. 548.
7629:
7627:, p. 509.
7617:
7615:, p. 264.
7596:
7594:, p. 508.
7581:
7566:
7564:, p. 512.
7554:
7542:
7540:, p. 304.
7527:
7523:Diakonoff 1988
7512:
7510:, p. 511.
7497:
7495:, p. 263.
7485:
7483:, p. 601.
7473:
7469:Militarev 2009
7461:
7457:Militarev 2002
7449:
7437:
7435:, p. 150.
7425:
7418:
7398:
7386:
7384:, p. 226.
7382:Starostin 2017
7374:
7359:
7344:
7342:, p. 270.
7332:
7320:
7303:
7301:, p. 311.
7299:Güldemann 2018
7286:
7284:, p. 347.
7282:Güldemann 2018
7274:
7272:, p. 140.
7262:
7250:
7238:
7226:
7224:, p. 272.
7214:
7202:
7200:, p. 309.
7198:Güldemann 2018
7190:
7178:
7174:Güldemann 2018
7166:
7162:Solleveld 2020
7154:
7152:, p. 271.
7135:
7123:
7108:
7093:
7078:
7076:, p. 427.
7066:
7054:
7050:Militarev 2005
7042:
7040:, p. 227.
7027:
7025:, p. 310.
7023:Güldemann 2018
7015:
7013:, p. 422.
7000:
6998:, p. 144.
6981:
6977:Güldemann 2018
6969:
6954:
6952:, p. 145.
6942:
6921:
6909:
6892:
6880:
6878:, p. 231.
6868:
6866:, p. 258.
6856:
6854:, p. 282.
6852:Güldemann 2018
6844:
6842:, p. 251.
6821:
6819:, p. 327.
6817:Güldemann 2018
6809:
6807:, p. 140.
6794:
6792:, p. 342.
6790:Güldemann 2018
6782:
6770:
6758:
6743:
6741:, p. 262.
6726:
6714:
6712:, p. 139.
6699:
6697:, p. 261.
6687:
6675:
6673:, p. 322.
6671:Güldemann 2018
6663:
6651:
6639:
6637:, p. 252.
6616:
6604:
6592:
6580:
6576:Appleyard 2012
6561:
6559:, p. 259.
6540:
6536:Güldemann 2018
6528:
6516:
6499:
6482:
6480:, p. 254.
6465:
6453:
6451:, p. 325.
6449:Güldemann 2018
6438:
6421:
6419:, p. 253.
6409:
6397:
6395:, p. 324.
6393:Güldemann 2018
6385:
6373:
6361:
6346:
6334:
6319:
6317:, p. 545.
6304:
6302:, p. 840.
6289:
6272:
6270:, p. 138.
6257:
6255:, p. 204.
6253:Solleveld 2020
6245:
6243:, p. 269.
6228:
6216:
6214:, p. 250.
6204:
6192:
6190:, p. 270.
6171:
6169:, p. 454.
6159:
6142:
6123:
6119:Güldemann 2018
6108:
6091:
6089:, p. 300.
6076:
6074:, p. 249.
6061:
6059:, p. 565.
6040:
6025:
6006:
5994:
5980:
5965:
5963:
5960:
5957:
5956:
5939:
5929:. * indicates
5902:
5893:
5884:
5875:
5865:
5856:
5847:
5833:
5824:
5815:
5802:
5784:
5783:
5781:
5778:
5776:
5775:
5770:
5765:
5760:
5755:
5749:
5747:
5744:
5743:
5742:
5739:Abbreviations:
5733:
5732:
5729:
5722:
5720:
5713:
5700:
5693:
5690:
5687:
5683:
5682:
5679:
5666:
5660:
5658:u:fa 'to spit'
5654:
5635:
5632:
5629:
5626:
5622:
5621:
5618:
5611:
5605:
5599:
5592:
5591:'to be bitter'
5585:
5582:
5579:
5575:
5574:
5571:
5564:
5561:
5542:
5539:
5536:
5533:
5530:
5526:
5525:
5518:
5505:
5494:
5477:
5470:
5457:
5454:
5451:
5447:
5446:
5439:
5426:
5420:
5407:
5400:
5397:
5394:
5391:
5387:
5386:
5379:
5372:
5366:
5350:
5347:
5340:
5339:*les- 'tongue'
5337:
5334:
5330:
5329:
5326:
5319:
5318:'to call, say'
5313:
5306:
5303:
5290:
5287:
5284:
5280:
5279:
5276:
5269:
5266:
5259:
5246:
5243:
5240:
5237:
5233:
5232:
5229:
5226:
5220:
5207:
5200:
5197:
5194:
5191:
5187:
5186:
5179:
5172:
5165:
5159:
5152:
5139:
5136:
5131:
5127:
5126:
5119:
5112:
5106:
5096:
5090:
5083:
5080:
5077:
5073:
5072:
5067:
5061:
5060:
5057:
5054:
5051:
5048:
5045:
5042:
5039:
5006:
5003:
5000:
4999:
4996:
4993:
4990:
4987:
4984:
4980:
4979:
4976:
4973:
4970:
4967:
4964:
4961:
4958:
4955:
4952:
4949:
4945:
4944:
4941:
4938:
4935:
4932:
4929:
4925:
4924:
4921:
4918:
4915:
4912:
4909:
4906:
4903:
4900:
4897:
4894:
4890:
4889:
4886:
4883:
4880:
4877:
4874:
4870:
4869:
4866:
4863:
4860:
4857:
4854:
4851:
4848:
4845:
4842:
4839:
4835:
4834:
4831:
4828:
4825:
4822:
4819:
4815:
4814:
4811:
4808:
4805:
4802:
4799:
4796:
4793:
4790:
4787:
4784:
4780:
4779:
4776:
4773:
4770:
4767:
4764:
4760:
4759:
4756:
4753:
4750:
4747:
4744:
4741:
4738:
4735:
4732:
4729:
4725:
4724:
4721:
4718:
4715:
4712:
4709:
4705:
4704:
4701:
4698:
4695:
4692:
4689:
4686:
4683:
4680:
4677:
4674:
4670:
4669:
4666:
4663:
4660:
4657:
4654:
4650:
4649:
4646:
4643:
4640:
4637:
4634:
4631:
4628:
4625:
4622:
4619:
4615:
4614:
4611:
4608:
4605:
4602:
4599:
4595:
4594:
4591:
4588:
4585:
4582:
4579:
4576:
4573:
4570:
4567:
4564:
4560:
4559:
4556:
4553:
4550:
4547:
4544:
4540:
4539:
4536:
4533:
4530:
4527:
4524:
4521:
4518:
4515:
4512:
4509:
4505:
4504:
4501:
4498:
4495:
4492:
4489:
4485:
4484:
4481:
4478:
4475:
4472:
4469:
4466:
4463:
4462:yiwən, yan, iğ
4460:
4457:
4454:
4450:
4449:
4446:
4443:
4440:
4437:
4434:
4431:
4428:
4425:
4422:
4365:Unlike in the
4362:
4359:
4356:
4355:
4352:
4349:
4344:
4341:
4338:
4334:
4333:
4330:
4327:
4324:
4319:
4316:
4313:
4310:
4307:
4304:
4300:
4299:
4296:
4293:
4290:
4287:
4284:
4281:
4278:
4275:
4271:
4270:
4267:
4264:
4261:
4258:
4255:
4252:
4249:
4246:
4243:
4239:
4238:
4233:
4228:
4223:
4220:
4217:
4214:
4211:
4208:
4205:
4201:
4200:
4197:
4194:
4191:
4188:
4185:
4182:
4179:
4176:
4172:
4171:
4168:
4165:
4162:
4159:
4156:
4153:
4150:
4147:
4144:
4140:
4139:
4136:
4133:
4130:
4127:
4124:
4121:
4118:
4114:
4113:
4110:
4107:
4104:
4101:
4098:
4095:
4092:
4089:
4086:
4082:
4081:
4078:
4075:
4072:
4069:
4064:
4061:
4056:
4053:
4050:
4046:
4045:
4042:
4037:
4032:
4027:
4024:
4021:
4018:
4015:
4010:
4006:
4005:
4002:
3999:
3996:
3993:
3990:
3987:
3984:
3981:
3978:
3974:
3973:
3970:
3967:
3964:
3961:
3958:
3955:
3952:
3949:
3946:
3921:
3918:
3916:
3913:
3898:
3897:
3891:
3884:
3883:
3877:
3871:
3867:
3866:
3860:
3854:
3850:
3849:
3846:
3843:
3819:
3816:
3813:
3812:
3811:n-hp 'escape'
3809:
3806:
3803:
3799:
3798:
3795:
3792:
3789:
3785:
3784:
3781:
3778:
3775:
3771:
3770:
3767:
3764:
3761:
3757:
3756:
3753:
3750:
3747:
3703:
3700:
3697:
3696:
3693:
3687:
3681:
3677:
3676:
3670:
3667:
3661:
3657:
3656:
3650:
3644:
3638:
3637:Hausa (Chadic)
3634:
3633:
3627:
3621:
3615:
3611:
3610:
3607:
3601:
3595:
3591:
3590:
3587:
3584:
3581:
3545:
3542:
3540:
3537:
3534:
3533:
3530:
3526:
3525:
3522:
3519:
3516:
3513:
3509:
3508:
3505:
3501:
3500:
3497:
3494:
3491:
3488:
3484:
3483:
3480:
3477:
3474:
3471:
3468:
3464:
3463:
3460:
3457:
3454:
3450:
3449:
3446:
3443:
3440:
3437:
3434:
3430:
3429:
3426:
3422:
3421:
3418:
3415:
3412:
3409:
3406:
3402:
3401:
3398:
3395:
3392:
3389:
3386:
3382:
3381:
3378:
3375:
3372:
3369:
3366:
3363:
3342:
3339:
3336:
3335:
3332:
3329:
3326:
3323:
3319:
3318:
3315:
3312:
3309:
3306:
3303:
3300:
3297:
3294:
3290:
3289:
3288:t-əkănnăf-măt
3286:
3283:
3280:
3276:
3275:
3272:
3269:
3266:
3263:
3260:
3257:
3254:
3251:
3247:
3246:
3243:
3240:
3237:
3234:
3231:
3228:
3225:
3222:
3218:
3217:
3214:
3211:
3208:
3205:
3202:
3199:
3195:
3194:
3191:
3188:
3185:
3182:
3179:
3176:
3173:
3170:
3166:
3165:
3162:
3159:
3156:
3153:
3150:
3146:
3145:
3142:
3139:
3136:
3133:
3130:
3127:
3124:
3121:
3117:
3116:
3113:
3110:
3107:
3104:
3101:
3098:
3095:
3092:
3088:
3087:
3086:"New Present"
3084:
3081:
3078:
3075:
3072:
3069:
3065:
3064:
3061:
3058:
3055:
3052:
3049:
3028:
3025:
3003:
3000:
2998:
2995:
2992:
2991:
2985:
2979:
2973:
2970:
2969:Hausa (Chadic)
2966:
2965:
2959:
2953:
2947:
2944:
2940:
2939:
2933:
2927:
2921:
2918:
2914:
2913:
2907:
2901:
2898:
2895:
2891:
2890:
2884:
2878:
2872:
2869:
2865:
2864:
2861:
2858:
2855:
2852:
2845:Greenberg 1960
2820:
2817:
2814:
2813:
2810:
2807:
2801:
2797:
2796:
2793:
2790:
2784:
2780:
2779:
2776:
2773:
2767:
2763:
2762:
2759:
2756:
2750:
2746:
2745:
2742:
2739:
2736:
2706:
2705:
2699:
2693:
2686:
2679:
2672:
2666:
2660:
2654:
2650:
2649:
2640:
2631:
2621:
2611:
2605:
2596:
2587:
2578:
2574:
2573:
2570:
2567:
2564:
2561:
2558:
2555:
2552:
2548:
2547:
2544:
2541:
2538:
2535:
2491:
2488:
2485:
2484:
2481:
2478:
2475:
2471:
2470:
2467:
2464:
2461:
2460:Hausa (Chadic)
2457:
2456:
2453:
2450:
2447:
2443:
2442:
2439:
2436:
2433:
2429:
2428:
2425:
2422:
2419:
2415:
2414:
2411:
2408:
2405:
2371:
2370:
2367:
2364:
2359:
2355:
2351:
2350:
2347:
2344:
2341:
2340:Hausa (Chadic)
2338:
2309:
2306:
2304:
2301:
2284:
2281:
2260:
2257:
2247:
2246:
2243:
2240:
2239:
2236:
2232:
2231:
2228:
2225:
2222:
2221:
2218:
2215:
2211:
2210:
2207:
2204:
2201:
2198:
2194:
2193:
2190:
2187:
2184:
2183:ǎknəf (aorist)
2181:
2178:
2174:
2173:
2167:
2161:
2155:
2149:
2143:
2139:
2138:
2135:
2132:
2129:
2126:
2123:
2095:
2092:
2090:
2087:
2065:
2062:
2059:
2058:
2051:
2043:
2042:
2036:
2030:
2029:Hausa (Chadic)
2026:
2025:
2018:
2011:
2010:Bench (Omotic)
2007:
2006:
2000:
1993:
1992:
1985:
1978:
1971:
1967:
1966:
1963:
1939:
1936:
1918:
1915:
1911:James P. Allen
1907:
1906:
1891:
1814:
1813:
1810:
1806:
1805:
1802:
1798:
1797:
1794:
1790:
1789:
1786:
1782:
1781:
1778:
1774:
1773:
1770:
1757:
1754:
1742:palatalization
1707:pharyngealized
1624:
1621:
1606:Igor Diakonoff
1601:
1598:
1518:
1515:
1507:Peter Bellwood
1463:Proto-Cushitic
1445:
1442:
1417:
1414:
1409:Main article:
1406:
1403:
1382:Harold Fleming
1345:Hamitic theory
1307:Theodor Benfey
1286:
1283:
1255:Igor Diakonoff
1241:
1240:
1238:
1237:
1236:
1235:
1234:
1233:
1232:
1231:
1230:
1229:
1224:
1216:
1206:
1198:
1197:
1196:
1191:
1180:
1178:
1176:
1175:
1174:
1173:
1172:
1171:
1166:
1161:
1151:
1150:
1149:
1143:
1138:
1127:
1125:
1123:
1122:
1121:
1120:
1119:
1118:
1117:
1116:
1111:
1106:
1100:Macro-Cushtic
1098:
1088:
1083:
1075:
1073:
1071:
1070:
1069:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1065:
1064:
1063:
1062:
1057:
1052:
1042:
1034:
1026:
1018:
1016:
1014:
1013:
1012:
1011:
1010:
1009:
1008:
1007:
1006:
1005:
1000:
994:Berber-Chadic
992:
985:
980:
972:
969:
961:
953:
950:
949:
947:Militarev 2005
944:
942:Diakonoff 1988
939:
934:
929:
917:
914:
913:
912:
905:
898:
893:proposed that
891:Robert Hetzron
888:
876:
873:
860:Main article:
857:
854:
834:Ganza language
826:Main article:
823:
820:
808:alphabetically
777:
774:
737:Main article:
734:
731:
714:Main article:
711:
708:
704:Canary Islands
680:Main article:
677:
674:
621:
618:
591:Igor Diakonoff
564:is difficult.
562:Hamito-Semitic
534:Hamito-Semitic
530:Hamito-Semitic
494:their language
442:Semito-Hamitic
432:Hamito-Semitic
402:Semito-Hamitic
398:Hamito-Semitic
385:
382:
290:Hausa language
286:Oromo language
224:Horn of Africa
208:Semito-Hamitic
204:Hamito-Semitic
186:
185:
182:
174:
173:
166:
160:
159:
152:
142:
141:
140:
139:
134:
129:
124:
119:
114:
107:
103:
102:
97:
96:Proto-language
93:
92:
86:
80:
79:
76:
73:
70:
69:
59:Horn of Africa
48:
42:
41:
37:
36:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
13976:
13965:
13962:
13960:
13957:
13955:
13952:
13950:
13947:
13945:
13942:
13940:
13937:
13936:
13934:
13917:
13913:
13910:
13906:
13905:
13901:
13895:
13892:
13890:
13887:
13885:
13882:
13880:
13877:
13875:
13872:
13870:
13867:
13865:
13862:
13860:
13857:
13855:
13852:
13850:
13847:
13846:
13844:
13842:
13838:
13828:
13825:
13823:
13820:
13818:
13815:
13813:
13810:
13808:
13805:
13803:
13800:
13799:
13797:
13795:
13791:
13785:
13782:
13780:
13777:
13775:
13772:
13770:
13767:
13763:
13760:
13758:
13755:
13754:
13753:
13750:
13749:
13747:
13745:
13741:
13735:
13732:
13730:
13729:Eskimo–Uralic
13727:
13725:
13722:
13720:
13717:
13715:
13712:
13710:
13707:
13705:
13702:
13700:
13697:
13695:
13692:
13690:
13687:
13685:
13682:
13680:
13677:
13675:
13672:
13670:
13667:
13665:
13662:
13660:
13657:
13653:
13650:
13648:
13645:
13643:
13640:
13639:
13638:
13635:
13633:
13630:
13628:
13625:
13624:
13621:
13618:
13614:
13604:
13601:
13598:
13597:
13593:
13591:
13590:
13586:
13584:
13583:
13579:
13578:
13576:
13574:
13569:
13563:
13560:
13558:
13555:
13553:
13550:
13548:
13545:
13543:
13540:
13539:
13537:
13534:
13533:Paleosiberian
13529:
13526:
13524:
13520:
13514:
13513:
13509:
13507:
13504:
13502:
13499:
13497:
13494:
13493:
13491:
13488:
13484:
13478:
13475:
13473:
13470:
13468:
13465:
13463:
13460:
13458:
13457:
13453:
13451:
13450:
13446:
13444:
13443:
13439:
13437:
13436:
13432:
13430:
13429:
13428:Austroasiatic
13425:
13423:
13422:
13418:
13417:
13415:
13413:
13409:
13402:
13401:
13397:
13395:
13392:
13390:
13387:
13385:
13382:
13380:
13379:
13378:Austroasiatic
13375:
13373:
13372:
13368:
13366:
13365:
13361:
13359:
13358:
13357:Indo-European
13354:
13353:
13351:
13349:
13345:
13337:
13334:
13332:
13329:
13328:
13327:
13326:
13322:
13320:
13317:
13316:
13314:
13312:
13308:
13302:
13301:
13297:
13295:
13294:
13290:
13288:
13287:
13283:
13281:
13280:
13276:
13274:
13273:
13269:
13267:
13266:
13262:
13260:
13259:
13255:
13253:
13252:
13248:
13246:
13245:
13241:
13239:
13238:
13234:
13232:
13231:
13230:Indo-European
13227:
13226:
13224:
13222:
13218:
13212:
13211:
13207:
13205:
13204:
13200:
13198:
13197:
13193:
13191:
13190:
13186:
13184:
13183:
13179:
13177:
13176:
13172:
13170:
13169:
13165:
13163:
13162:
13158:
13156:
13155:
13151:
13149:
13148:
13144:
13142:
13141:
13137:
13135:
13134:
13130:
13128:
13125:
13123:
13122:
13118:
13116:
13115:
13111:
13109:
13108:
13107:Indo-European
13104:
13103:
13101:
13099:
13095:
13091:
13087:
13080:
13075:
13073:
13068:
13066:
13061:
13060:
13057:
13043:
13039:
13036:
13032:
13029:
13028:
13024:
13018:
13015:
13013:
13010:
13008:
13005:
13003:
13000:
12998:
12995:
12993:
12990:
12989:
12987:
12983:
12973:
12972:
12967:
12966:
12964:
12960:
12953:
12950:
12948:
12945:
12943:
12942:Original Thai
12940:
12938:
12935:
12933:
12930:
12928:
12925:
12923:
12922:
12918:
12916:
12913:
12911:
12908:
12906:
12903:
12902:
12899:
12896:
12894:
12888:
12878:
12875:
12873:
12870:
12868:
12865:
12863:
12860:
12858:
12855:
12853:
12850:
12848:
12845:
12843:
12840:
12837:
12834:
12832:
12829:
12827:
12824:
12822:
12820:
12816:
12814:
12811:
12809:
12808:
12804:
12802:
12799:
12796:
12793:
12791:
12788:
12786:
12783:
12781:
12778:
12775:
12772:
12770:
12767:
12765:
12762:
12760:
12757:
12755:
12752:
12750:
12747:
12744:
12741:
12740:
12738:
12732:
12725:
12722:
12719:
12716:
12713:
12710:
12707:
12706:Hibito–Cholón
12704:
12701:
12698:
12695:
12692:
12689:
12686:
12684:
12681:
12679:
12676:
12674:
12671:
12669:
12666:
12664:
12661:
12659:
12658:
12654:
12652:
12649:
12647:
12644:
12642:
12639:
12637:
12634:
12632:
12629:
12627:
12626:
12622:
12620:
12617:
12615:
12612:
12610:
12607:
12605:
12602:
12600:
12597:
12595:
12592:
12590:
12587:
12585:
12582:
12580:
12577:
12575:
12574:
12570:
12568:
12565:
12563:
12560:
12558:
12555:
12553:
12550:
12548:
12545:
12543:
12540:
12538:
12537:
12533:
12531:
12528:
12526:
12525:
12521:
12519:
12516:
12514:
12511:
12509:
12506:
12504:
12501:
12499:
12496:
12494:
12491:
12489:
12488:
12484:
12482:
12479:
12477:
12474:
12472:
12469:
12468:
12465:
12462:
12460:
12454:
12444:
12441:
12439:
12436:
12434:
12433:
12429:
12428:
12426:
12422:
12416:
12415:
12411:
12409:
12408:
12404:
12402:
12399:
12397:
12394:
12392:
12391:
12387:
12385:
12382:
12380:
12377:
12375:
12374:
12370:
12368:
12367:
12363:
12361:
12358:
12356:
12353:
12352:
12349:
12346:
12344:
12340:
12330:
12327:
12325:
12322:
12320:
12317:
12315:
12314:
12310:
12308:
12305:
12303:
12302:
12298:
12296:
12295:
12291:
12289:
12288:
12284:
12282:
12281:
12277:
12275:
12274:
12270:
12268:
12265:
12263:
12260:
12258:
12255:
12253:
12250:
12248:
12247:
12243:
12241:
12240:
12236:
12235:
12233:
12229:
12223:
12222:Yuman–Cochimí
12220:
12218:
12217:
12213:
12211:
12210:
12206:
12204:
12201:
12199:
12198:
12194:
12192:
12189:
12187:
12184:
12182:
12179:
12177:
12174:
12172:
12171:
12167:
12165:
12162:
12160:
12157:
12155:
12152:
12150:
12149:
12145:
12143:
12142:
12138:
12136:
12133:
12131:
12130:
12126:
12124:
12121:
12119:
12118:
12114:
12112:
12109:
12107:
12104:
12102:
12101:
12097:
12095:
12094:
12090:
12088:
12087:
12083:
12081:
12080:
12076:
12074:
12073:
12069:
12067:
12064:
12062:
12061:
12057:
12055:
12054:
12050:
12049:
12046:
12043:
12041:
12035:
12025:
12022:
12019:
12016:
12014:
12013:
12009:
12008:
12006:
12002:
11995:
11991:
11988:
11986:
11983:
11981:
11980:
11976:
11974:
11971:
11969:
11966:
11964:
11961:
11958:
11957:Southern Daly
11955:
11953:
11952:
11948:
11946:
11943:
11941:
11940:
11936:
11934:
11933:
11929:
11927:
11924:
11921:
11920:
11916:
11914:
11911:
11909:
11906:
11904:
11901:
11899:
11898:
11894:
11892:
11891:
11887:
11884:
11883:
11882:Darwin Region
11879:
11877:
11874:
11871:
11868:
11867:
11864:
11861:
11859:
11855:
11845:
11842:
11840:
11838:
11834:
11831:
11828:
11825:
11822:
11820:
11817:
11815:
11812:
11810:
11807:
11805:
11802:
11800:
11797:
11795:
11792:
11789:
11786:
11783:
11780:
11778:
11775:
11773:
11770:
11769:
11767:
11763:
11756:
11753:
11750:
11747:
11745:
11742:
11740:
11737:
11735:
11732:
11730:
11727:
11725:
11722:
11720:
11717:
11715:
11714:
11710:
11708:
11705:
11703:
11702:
11698:
11696:
11693:
11691:
11688:
11686:
11683:
11681:
11680:
11676:
11674:
11671:
11669:
11666:
11664:
11663:
11659:
11657:
11654:
11652:
11649:
11647:
11644:
11642:
11641:
11637:
11635:
11632:
11630:
11627:
11625:
11622:
11620:
11617:
11615:
11612:
11610:
11607:
11605:
11602:
11600:
11597:
11595:
11592:
11590:
11587:
11585:
11582:
11580:
11577:
11575:
11572:
11570:
11567:
11565:
11564:Demta–Sentani
11562:
11560:
11557:
11555:
11552:
11550:
11547:
11545:
11542:
11540:
11537:
11535:
11534:
11530:
11528:
11525:
11524:
11521:
11518:
11516:
11511:
11507:
11497:
11495:
11491:
11489:
11488:
11484:
11481:
11478:
11476:
11473:
11471:
11469:
11465:
11463:
11460:
11458:
11456:
11452:
11450:
11449:
11445:
11443:
11442:
11438:
11436:
11433:
11431:
11428:
11427:
11425:
11421:
11414:
11411:
11408:
11405:
11402:
11399:
11396:
11393:
11390:
11387:
11384:
11381:
11379:
11376:
11374:
11371:
11369:
11368:
11364:
11362:
11361:
11357:
11355:
11354:
11350:
11348:
11345:
11343:
11342:
11338:
11336:
11333:
11331:
11328:
11326:
11325:
11321:
11319:
11316:
11314:
11311:
11309:
11308:
11304:
11302:
11299:
11297:
11294:
11292:
11289:
11287:
11286:
11285:Indo-European
11282:
11280:
11279:
11275:
11273:
11272:
11268:
11266:
11263:
11261:
11258:
11256:
11255:
11251:
11249:
11246:
11244:
11243:
11239:
11237:
11236:
11235:Austroasiatic
11232:
11230:
11227:
11225:
11224:
11220:
11219:
11216:
11213:
11210:
11205:
11198:
11187:
11184:
11181:
11178:
11176:
11173:
11171:
11170:
11166:
11164:
11161:
11159:
11156:
11155:
11153:
11149:
11142:
11139:
11136:
11133:
11130:
11127:
11124:
11121:
11118:
11115:
11113:
11110:
11107:
11106:
11102:
11100:
11099:
11095:
11093:
11090:
11088:
11085:
11083:
11082:
11078:
11076:
11075:
11071:
11070:
11067:
11064:
11062:
11058:
11054:
11047:
11042:
11040:
11035:
11033:
11028:
11027:
11024:
11014:
11010:
11005:
10998:
10995:
10992:
10989:
10985:
10982:
10981:
10980:
10979:
10975:
10974:
10972:
10968:
10960:
10957:
10953:
10950:
10949:
10948:
10945:
10944:
10943:
10940:
10938:
10937:
10933:
10932:
10930:
10928:
10924:
10916:
10913:
10911:
10908:
10907:
10906:
10903:
10901:
10898:
10896:
10893:
10891:
10888:
10887:
10885:
10883:
10879:
10873:
10870:
10866:
10863:
10861:
10858:
10854:
10851:
10847:
10844:
10842:
10841:Rendille–Boni
10839:
10838:
10837:
10834:
10833:
10832:
10829:
10828:
10827:
10824:
10822:
10821:Highland East
10819:
10817:
10814:
10812:
10809:
10808:
10806:
10804:
10800:
10786:
10783:
10781:
10778:
10776:
10773:
10772:
10770:
10766:
10759:
10758:
10754:
10752:
10749:
10747:
10744:
10742:
10739:
10738:
10736:
10732:
10729:
10727:
10723:
10715:
10712:
10710:
10707:
10705:
10702:
10700:
10697:
10695:
10692:
10690:
10687:
10685:
10682:
10681:
10680:
10677:
10675:
10672:
10670:
10667:
10666:
10663:
10660:
10658:
10654:
10648:
10645:
10643:
10640:
10634:
10631:
10629:
10626:
10625:
10624:
10621:
10619:
10616:
10615:
10614:
10611:
10609:
10606:
10605:
10603:
10601:
10597:
10591:
10590:
10589:Proto-Semitic
10586:
10584:
10583:
10579:
10577:
10576:
10572:
10571:
10569:
10567:Reconstructed
10565:
10561:
10554:
10549:
10547:
10542:
10540:
10535:
10534:
10531:
10524:
10520:
10516:
10513:
10510:
10507:
10505:
10502:
10499:
10496:
10493:
10490:
10485:
10481:
10477:
10474:
10470:
10467:
10466:
10455:
10451:
10447:
10442:
10438:
10433:
10429:
10427:9781646022120
10423:
10419:
10414:
10410:
10409:
10403:
10398:
10393:
10389:
10385:
10381:
10377:
10372:
10368:
10362:
10358:
10353:
10349:
10343:
10339:
10334:
10330:
10326:
10322:
10317:
10313:
10311:9781646022120
10307:
10303:
10298:
10294:
10292:9781646022120
10288:
10284:
10279:
10275:
10271:
10267:
10263:
10259:
10255:
10250:
10246:
10240:
10236:
10232:
10228:
10223:
10219:
10217:9781646022120
10213:
10209:
10204:
10200:
10196:
10192:
10188:
10183:
10179:
10177:9780804718943
10173:
10169:
10168:
10162:
10158:
10153:
10149:
10145:
10140:
10136:
10134:0-631-19571-8
10130:
10126:
10121:
10117:
10113:
10108:
10104:
10100:
10093:
10088:
10084:
10077:
10072:
10068:
10066:90-04-10051-2
10062:
10058:
10053:
10049:
10043:
10039:
10034:
10030:
10025:
10021:
10015:
10011:
10010:
10004:
10000:
9998:9781575066240
9994:
9990:
9986:
9982:
9977:
9973:
9967:
9963:
9958:
9954:
9948:
9944:
9940:
9936:
9931:
9927:
9923:
9919:
9915:
9910:
9906:
9904:9781646022120
9900:
9896:
9891:
9887:
9882:
9878:
9873:
9869:
9864:
9860:
9855:
9851:
9846:
9842:
9838:
9834:
9832:9783110421668
9828:
9824:
9820:
9816:
9811:
9807:
9803:
9799:
9795:
9791:
9787:
9782:
9778:
9774:
9770:
9766:
9762:
9758:
9753:
9749:
9744:
9740:
9736:
9732:
9730:9781119485094
9726:
9722:
9718:
9714:
9709:
9705:
9699:
9695:
9691:
9687:
9682:
9678:
9674:
9670:
9664:
9660:
9656:
9652:
9647:
9643:
9637:
9633:
9628:
9624:
9618:
9614:
9609:
9605:
9600:
9596:
9591:
9587:
9585:9781646022120
9581:
9577:
9571:
9567:
9563:
9559:
9555:
9551:
9547:
9543:
9539:
9535:
9531:
9526:
9522:
9520:0-520-09799-8
9516:
9512:
9507:
9503:
9498:
9494:
9490:
9485:
9473:
9469:
9464:
9460:
9456:
9452:
9448:
9444:
9440:
9435:
9431:
9427:
9423:
9419:
9415:
9411:
9407:
9403:
9399:
9395:
9391:
9387:
9382:
9378:
9373:
9369:
9367:9781646022120
9363:
9359:
9354:
9339:
9332:
9331:
9325:
9321:
9315:
9311:
9310:
9304:
9300:
9296:
9292:
9288:
9283:
9279:
9275:
9270:
9266:
9264:9781444334890
9260:
9256:
9252:
9248:
9243:
9239:
9237:9781646022021
9233:
9229:
9225:
9221:
9216:
9212:
9207:
9203:
9199:
9194:
9190:
9185:
9181:
9177:
9173:
9169:
9164:
9160:
9154:
9150:
9145:
9141:
9135:
9131:
9126:
9122:
9120:9781646022120
9116:
9112:
9106:
9102:
9098:
9094:
9092:9781108751827
9088:
9084:
9080:
9076:
9071:
9067:
9065:9781646020867
9061:
9057:
9053:
9049:
9044:
9040:
9038:9781139506090
9034:
9030:
9026:
9022:
9017:
9016:
9004:
8999:
8992:
8987:
8980:
8975:
8968:
8963:
8956:
8955:Zaborski 1987
8951:
8944:
8943:Lipiński 2001
8939:
8932:
8927:
8920:
8919:Lipiński 2001
8915:
8908:
8907:Lipiński 2001
8903:
8896:
8891:
8884:
8879:
8872:
8867:
8860:
8859:Lipiński 2001
8855:
8848:
8847:Zaborski 1987
8843:
8836:
8831:
8829:
8821:
8820:Zaborski 1987
8816:
8814:
8807:, p. 32.
8806:
8801:
8794:
8789:
8782:
8777:
8771:, p. 16.
8770:
8765:
8758:
8753:
8746:
8741:
8735:, p. 47.
8734:
8729:
8722:
8717:
8715:
8708:, p. 94.
8707:
8702:
8695:
8690:
8683:
8678:
8672:, p. 87.
8671:
8666:
8659:
8654:
8647:
8642:
8636:, p. 52.
8635:
8630:
8623:
8618:
8611:
8606:
8604:
8596:
8591:
8584:
8583:Lipiński 2001
8579:
8573:, p. 33.
8572:
8567:
8560:
8555:
8553:
8551:
8549:
8541:
8536:
8529:
8524:
8517:
8512:
8510:
8502:
8497:
8491:, p. 34.
8490:
8485:
8483:
8481:
8473:
8468:
8462:, p. 90.
8461:
8456:
8449:
8444:
8437:
8432:
8425:
8420:
8413:
8408:
8401:
8396:
8389:
8384:
8382:
8374:
8369:
8362:
8357:
8351:, p. 59.
8350:
8345:
8339:, p. 13.
8338:
8333:
8326:
8325:Lipiński 2001
8321:
8314:
8309:
8302:
8297:
8290:
8285:
8278:
8273:
8266:
8261:
8254:
8249:
8247:
8239:
8234:
8232:
8230:
8222:
8217:
8215:
8213:
8205:
8200:
8193:
8188:
8181:
8176:
8169:
8164:
8162:
8154:
8149:
8147:
8145:
8143:
8135:
8130:
8123:
8118:
8116:
8108:
8103:
8101:
8099:
8097:
8095:
8087:
8082:
8075:
8070:
8068:
8060:
8055:
8053:
8051:
8049:
8042:, p. 38.
8041:
8036:
8029:
8024:
8022:
8014:
8009:
8003:, p. 93.
8002:
7997:
7990:
7985:
7979:, p. 37.
7978:
7973:
7971:
7964:, p. 36.
7963:
7958:
7956:
7948:
7943:
7936:
7931:
7924:
7919:
7912:
7907:
7901:, p. 12.
7900:
7895:
7888:
7883:
7881:
7879:
7877:
7875:
7873:
7865:
7860:
7853:
7848:
7841:
7836:
7830:, p. 10.
7829:
7824:
7822:
7814:
7809:
7807:
7799:
7794:
7787:
7782:
7775:
7770:
7763:
7758:
7751:
7746:
7744:
7736:
7731:
7724:
7719:
7712:
7707:
7700:
7695:
7688:
7683:
7677:, p. 10.
7676:
7671:
7669:
7667:
7665:
7657:
7652:
7645:
7640:
7638:
7636:
7634:
7626:
7621:
7614:
7609:
7607:
7605:
7603:
7601:
7593:
7588:
7586:
7579:, p. 94.
7578:
7573:
7571:
7563:
7558:
7551:
7546:
7539:
7534:
7532:
7525:, p. 42.
7524:
7519:
7517:
7509:
7504:
7502:
7494:
7489:
7482:
7477:
7470:
7465:
7458:
7453:
7446:
7441:
7434:
7429:
7421:
7415:
7411:
7410:
7402:
7395:
7390:
7383:
7378:
7371:
7366:
7364:
7357:, p. 13.
7356:
7351:
7349:
7341:
7336:
7329:
7324:
7318:, p. 13.
7317:
7312:
7310:
7308:
7300:
7295:
7293:
7291:
7283:
7278:
7271:
7266:
7260:, p. 40.
7259:
7254:
7248:, p. 11.
7247:
7242:
7235:
7230:
7223:
7218:
7212:, p. 22.
7211:
7206:
7199:
7194:
7187:
7182:
7176:, p. 61.
7175:
7170:
7163:
7158:
7151:
7146:
7144:
7142:
7140:
7132:
7127:
7121:, p. 84.
7120:
7115:
7113:
7105:
7100:
7098:
7091:, p. 21.
7090:
7089:Lipiński 2001
7085:
7083:
7075:
7070:
7063:
7058:
7051:
7046:
7039:
7034:
7032:
7024:
7019:
7012:
7007:
7005:
6997:
6992:
6990:
6988:
6986:
6978:
6973:
6967:, p. 29.
6966:
6961:
6959:
6951:
6946:
6940:, p. 43.
6939:
6934:
6932:
6930:
6928:
6926:
6918:
6913:
6906:
6901:
6899:
6897:
6889:
6884:
6877:
6872:
6865:
6860:
6853:
6848:
6841:
6836:
6834:
6832:
6830:
6828:
6826:
6818:
6813:
6806:
6801:
6799:
6791:
6786:
6779:
6774:
6767:
6762:
6756:, p. 24.
6755:
6754:Lipiński 2001
6750:
6748:
6740:
6735:
6733:
6731:
6724:, p. 26.
6723:
6718:
6711:
6706:
6704:
6696:
6691:
6684:
6679:
6672:
6667:
6660:
6655:
6648:
6643:
6636:
6631:
6629:
6627:
6625:
6623:
6621:
6613:
6608:
6602:, p. 30.
6601:
6600:Lipiński 2001
6596:
6589:
6584:
6578:, p. 39.
6577:
6572:
6570:
6568:
6566:
6558:
6553:
6551:
6549:
6547:
6545:
6537:
6532:
6526:, p. 39.
6525:
6524:Lipiński 2001
6520:
6514:, p. 27.
6513:
6508:
6506:
6504:
6497:, p. 29.
6496:
6491:
6489:
6487:
6479:
6474:
6472:
6470:
6463:, p. 37.
6462:
6461:Lipiński 2001
6457:
6450:
6445:
6443:
6436:, p. 24.
6435:
6430:
6428:
6426:
6418:
6413:
6407:, p. 34.
6406:
6405:Lipiński 2001
6401:
6394:
6389:
6382:
6377:
6370:
6365:
6358:
6353:
6351:
6343:
6338:
6331:
6326:
6324:
6316:
6311:
6309:
6301:
6296:
6294:
6286:
6281:
6279:
6277:
6269:
6264:
6262:
6254:
6249:
6242:
6237:
6235:
6233:
6225:
6220:
6213:
6208:
6201:
6200:Lipiński 2001
6196:
6189:
6184:
6182:
6180:
6178:
6176:
6168:
6163:
6156:
6155:Zaborski 2011
6151:
6149:
6147:
6139:
6134:
6132:
6130:
6128:
6120:
6115:
6113:
6106:, p. 41.
6105:
6100:
6098:
6096:
6088:
6083:
6081:
6073:
6068:
6066:
6058:
6053:
6051:
6049:
6047:
6045:
6037:
6032:
6030:
6022:
6017:
6015:
6013:
6011:
6003:
5998:
5990:
5984:
5976:
5970:
5966:
5953:
5949:
5943:
5936:
5932:
5928:
5924:
5920:
5916:
5912:
5906:
5897:
5888:
5879:
5869:
5860:
5851:
5844:
5837:
5828:
5819:
5812:
5806:
5799:
5795:
5789:
5785:
5774:
5771:
5769:
5766:
5764:
5761:
5759:
5756:
5754:
5751:
5750:
5740:
5737:
5736:
5730:
5727:
5723:
5721:
5718:
5714:
5711:
5705:
5701:
5698:
5694:
5691:
5688:
5686:to rend, tear
5685:
5684:
5680:
5677:
5671:
5667:
5664:
5661:
5659:
5655:
5652:
5646:
5640:
5636:
5633:
5630:
5627:
5624:
5623:
5619:
5616:
5612:
5609:
5606:
5603:
5600:
5597:
5593:
5590:
5586:
5583:
5580:
5577:
5576:
5572:
5569:
5565:
5562:
5559:
5553:
5547:
5543:
5540:
5537:
5534:
5531:
5528:
5527:
5523:
5519:
5516:
5510:
5506:
5503:
5498:
5495:
5492:
5488:
5482:
5478:
5475:
5471:
5468:
5462:
5458:
5455:
5452:
5449:
5448:
5444:
5440:
5437:
5431:
5427:
5424:
5421:
5418:
5412:
5408:
5405:
5401:
5398:
5395:
5392:
5389:
5388:
5384:
5380:
5377:
5373:
5370:
5367:
5365:
5361:
5355:
5351:
5348:
5345:
5341:
5338:
5335:
5332:
5331:
5327:
5324:
5320:
5317:
5314:
5311:
5307:
5304:
5301:
5295:
5291:
5288:
5285:
5282:
5281:
5277:
5274:
5270:
5267:
5264:
5260:
5257:
5251:
5247:
5244:
5241:
5238:
5235:
5234:
5230:
5227:
5224:
5221:
5218:
5212:
5208:
5205:
5201:
5198:
5195:
5192:
5189:
5188:
5184:
5180:
5177:
5173:
5170:
5166:
5164:
5160:
5157:
5153:
5150:
5144:
5140:
5137:
5132:
5129:
5128:
5124:
5120:
5117:
5113:
5110:
5107:
5105:
5101:
5097:
5095:
5091:
5088:
5084:
5081:
5078:
5075:
5074:
5071:
5068:
5066:
5063:
5062:
5036:
5033:
5029:
5025:
5019:
5017:
5011:
4997:
4994:
4991:
4988:
4985:
4982:
4981:
4965:
4962:
4959:
4956:
4953:
4950:
4946:
4942:
4939:
4936:
4933:
4930:
4927:
4926:
4910:
4907:
4904:
4901:
4898:
4895:
4891:
4887:
4884:
4881:
4878:
4875:
4872:
4871:
4855:
4852:
4849:
4846:
4843:
4840:
4836:
4832:
4829:
4826:
4823:
4820:
4817:
4816:
4800:
4797:
4794:
4791:
4788:
4785:
4781:
4777:
4774:
4771:
4768:
4765:
4762:
4761:
4745:
4742:
4739:
4736:
4733:
4730:
4726:
4722:
4719:
4716:
4713:
4710:
4707:
4706:
4690:
4687:
4684:
4681:
4678:
4675:
4671:
4667:
4664:
4661:
4658:
4655:
4652:
4651:
4635:
4632:
4629:
4626:
4623:
4620:
4616:
4612:
4609:
4606:
4603:
4600:
4597:
4596:
4580:
4577:
4574:
4571:
4568:
4565:
4561:
4557:
4554:
4551:
4548:
4545:
4542:
4541:
4525:
4522:
4519:
4516:
4513:
4510:
4506:
4502:
4499:
4496:
4493:
4490:
4487:
4486:
4470:
4467:
4464:
4461:
4458:
4455:
4451:
4447:
4444:
4441:
4438:
4435:
4432:
4429:
4426:
4423:
4419:
4416:
4412:
4411:Lipiński 2001
4408:
4404:
4398:
4396:
4392:
4388:
4383:
4381:
4377:
4372:
4368:
4367:Indo-European
4353:
4350:
4345:
4342:
4339:
4336:
4335:
4328:
4325:
4320:
4317:
4314:
4302:
4301:
4297:
4294:
4291:
4288:
4285:
4282:
4279:
4276:
4273:
4272:
4268:
4265:
4262:
4259:
4256:
4253:
4250:
4247:
4241:
4240:
4234:
4229:
4224:
4221:
4218:
4215:
4212:
4209:
4206:
4203:
4202:
4198:
4195:
4192:
4189:
4186:
4183:
4180:
4177:
4174:
4173:
4169:
4166:
4163:
4160:
4157:
4154:
4151:
4148:
4142:
4141:
4137:
4134:
4131:
4128:
4125:
4122:
4119:
4116:
4115:
4111:
4108:
4105:
4102:
4099:
4096:
4090:
4084:
4083:
4079:
4076:
4073:
4070:
4065:
4062:
4057:
4054:
4051:
4048:
4047:
4043:
4038:
4033:
4028:
4025:
4022:
4019:
4016:
4011:
4008:
4007:
4003:
4000:
3997:
3994:
3991:
3988:
3985:
3982:
3979:
3976:
3975:
3971:
3968:
3965:
3962:
3959:
3956:
3953:
3950:
3947:
3944:
3943:
3940:
3934:
3932:
3928:
3912:
3910:
3906:
3896:
3892:
3890:
3886:
3885:
3882:
3878:
3876:
3872:
3868:
3865:
3861:
3859:
3855:
3852:
3851:
3847:
3844:
3841:
3840:
3837:
3833:
3827:
3825:
3810:
3807:
3804:
3801:
3800:
3796:
3793:
3790:
3787:
3786:
3782:
3779:
3776:
3773:
3772:
3768:
3765:
3762:
3759:
3758:
3754:
3751:
3749:Causative *s-
3748:
3745:
3744:
3741:
3740:Kossmann 2007
3737:
3733:
3727:
3725:
3721:
3717:
3713:
3709:
3694:
3692:
3688:
3686:
3682:
3679:
3678:
3675:
3671:
3668:
3666:
3665:to give birth
3662:
3659:
3658:
3655:
3651:
3649:
3645:
3643:
3642:to give birth
3639:
3636:
3635:
3632:
3628:
3626:
3622:
3620:
3616:
3613:
3612:
3608:
3606:
3605:drinking bowl
3602:
3600:
3596:
3593:
3592:
3588:
3585:
3582:
3579:
3578:
3575:
3571:
3567:
3561:
3559:
3555:
3551:
3531:
3528:
3527:
3517:
3514:
3510:
3506:
3503:
3502:
3499:miʕ-ito:nu-h
3492:
3489:
3485:
3481:
3475:
3472:
3465:
3461:
3458:
3455:
3452:
3451:
3444:
3441:
3438:
3435:
3431:
3427:
3424:
3423:
3410:
3407:
3403:
3399:
3396:
3393:
3390:
3383:
3379:
3376:
3373:
3370:
3367:
3364:
3361:
3360:
3357:
3351:
3349:
3333:
3330:
3327:
3324:
3321:
3320:
3317:ʔ-e:-dbíl-na
3307:
3304:
3301:
3298:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3284:
3281:
3278:
3277:
3274:t-e:-dbíl-na
3264:
3261:
3258:
3252:
3248:
3244:
3241:
3238:
3235:
3232:
3229:
3226:
3219:
3215:
3212:
3209:
3206:
3203:
3200:
3197:
3196:
3189:
3186:
3183:
3180:
3177:
3174:
3171:
3167:
3163:
3160:
3157:
3154:
3151:
3148:
3147:
3143:
3140:
3137:
3128:
3125:
3122:
3118:
3114:
3111:
3108:
3105:
3102:
3099:
3096:
3089:
3085:
3083:"Old Present"
3082:
3079:
3076:
3073:
3070:
3067:
3066:
3046:
3043:
3037:
3035:
3024:
3022:
3017:
3013:
3009:
2989:
2986:
2983:
2980:
2977:
2974:
2971:
2968:
2967:
2964:
2960:
2958:
2954:
2952:
2948:
2945:
2942:
2941:
2938:
2934:
2932:
2928:
2926:
2922:
2919:
2916:
2915:
2911:
2908:
2905:
2902:
2899:
2896:
2893:
2892:
2889:
2885:
2883:
2879:
2877:
2873:
2870:
2867:
2866:
2862:
2859:
2856:
2853:
2850:
2849:
2846:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2830:
2829:stative verbs
2826:
2811:
2808:
2806:
2802:
2799:
2798:
2794:
2791:
2789:
2785:
2782:
2781:
2777:
2774:
2772:
2768:
2765:
2764:
2760:
2757:
2755:
2751:
2748:
2747:
2743:
2740:
2737:
2734:
2733:
2730:
2729:Kossmann 2012
2726:
2722:
2721:Lipiński 2001
2718:
2712:
2704:
2700:
2698:
2694:
2691:
2687:
2684:
2680:
2677:
2673:
2670:
2667:
2665:
2661:
2659:
2655:
2652:
2651:
2648:
2645:
2641:
2639:
2636:
2632:
2630:
2626:
2622:
2620:
2616:
2612:
2610:
2606:
2604:
2600:
2597:
2595:
2592:
2588:
2586:
2583:
2579:
2576:
2575:
2571:
2568:
2565:
2562:
2559:
2556:
2553:
2550:
2549:
2532:
2529:
2525:
2521:
2515:
2513:
2509:
2505:
2501:
2496:
2482:
2479:
2476:
2474:Mubi (Chadic)
2473:
2472:
2468:
2465:
2462:
2459:
2458:
2454:
2451:
2448:
2445:
2444:
2440:
2437:
2434:
2431:
2430:
2426:
2423:
2420:
2417:
2416:
2412:
2409:
2406:
2403:
2402:
2399:
2395:
2389:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2368:
2365:
2360:
2356:
2353:
2352:
2348:
2345:
2342:
2339:
2336:
2335:
2332:
2326:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2300:
2298:
2294:
2290:
2289:reduplication
2280:
2278:
2274:
2270:
2266:
2256:
2254:
2244:
2242:
2241:
2237:
2234:
2233:
2229:
2226:
2223:
2219:
2216:
2213:
2212:
2208:
2205:
2202:
2199:
2196:
2195:
2191:
2188:
2186:-dbil- (past)
2185:
2182:
2179:
2175:
2172:
2168:
2166:
2162:
2160:
2156:
2154:
2150:
2148:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2136:
2133:
2130:
2127:
2124:
2121:
2120:
2117:
2111:
2109:
2105:
2100:
2086:
2084:
2080:
2076:
2072:
2057:(imperative)
2056:
2049:
2045:
2044:
2041:
2035:
2031:
2027:
2023:
2016:
2012:
2009:
2008:
2005:
1999:
1995:
1994:
1990:
1986:
1983:
1979:
1976:
1972:
1968:
1961:
1960:
1957:
1951:
1949:
1945:
1935:
1933:
1932:vowel harmony
1929:
1925:
1917:Vowel systems
1914:
1912:
1904:
1900:
1896:
1892:
1889:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1881:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1861:
1857:
1853:
1847:
1845:
1841:
1840:dissimilation
1837:
1833:
1830:
1826:
1822:
1811:
1808:
1807:
1803:
1800:
1799:
1795:
1792:
1791:
1787:
1784:
1783:
1779:
1776:
1775:
1771:
1768:
1767:
1764:
1753:
1751:
1747:
1746:labialization
1743:
1739:
1735:
1730:
1728:
1724:
1720:
1716:
1712:
1708:
1704:
1700:
1696:
1692:
1687:
1685:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1665:
1661:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1646:
1642:
1638:
1634:
1630:
1620:
1618:
1614:
1610:
1607:
1597:
1591:
1587:
1572:
1568:
1554:
1550:
1535:
1531:
1514:
1512:
1511:macrofamilies
1508:
1504:
1503:Jared Diamond
1500:
1496:
1492:
1487:
1484:
1480:
1474:
1472:
1468:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1441:
1439:
1438:areal contact
1412:
1402:
1400:
1395:
1391:
1386:
1383:
1378:
1373:
1368:
1366:
1364:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1337:
1333:
1331:
1327:
1322:
1317:
1313:
1308:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1292:
1282:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1266:
1264:
1258:
1256:
1250:
1248:
1228:
1225:
1223:
1220:
1219:
1218:Chado-Berber
1217:
1215:
1214:
1210:
1209:
1207:
1205:
1202:
1201:
1199:
1195:
1192:
1190:
1187:
1186:
1184:
1183:
1182:
1181:
1179:
1170:
1167:
1165:
1162:
1160:
1159:
1155:
1154:
1152:
1147:
1144:
1142:
1139:
1137:
1134:
1133:
1131:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1126:
1115:
1112:
1110:
1107:
1105:
1102:
1101:
1099:
1097:
1096:
1092:
1091:
1089:
1087:
1084:
1082:
1079:
1078:
1077:
1076:
1074:
1061:
1058:
1056:
1053:
1051:
1050:
1046:
1045:
1044:Boreafrasian
1043:
1041:
1038:
1037:
1035:
1033:
1030:
1029:
1027:
1025:
1022:
1021:
1020:
1019:
1017:
1004:
1001:
999:
996:
995:
993:
991:
990:
986:
984:
981:
979:
976:
975:
973:
970:
968:
965:
964:
962:
960:
957:
956:
955:
954:
952:
951:
948:
945:
943:
940:
938:
935:
933:
930:
928:
925:
924:
910:
906:
903:
899:
896:
892:
889:
886:
882:
881:
880:
872:
868:
863:
853:
849:
847:
843:
839:
835:
829:
819:
817:
813:
809:
805:
799:
795:
787:
786:Seth-Peribsen
782:
773:
771:
767:
763:
759:
755:
751:
747:
740:
730:
728:
724:
717:
707:
705:
701:
697:
693:
688:
683:
673:
671:
667:
663:
658:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
626:
617:
615:
611:
607:
603:
599:
594:
592:
588:
584:
580:
575:
574:afroasiatique
570:
565:
563:
559:
558:Indo-European
555:
551:
547:
543:
539:
535:
531:
526:
524:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
499:
495:
491:
487:
483:
479:
475:
471:
467:
463:
459:
455:
451:
447:
443:
438:
433:
429:
425:
423:
419:
415:
411:
407:
403:
399:
395:
391:
381:
379:
375:
371:
367:
362:
358:
353:
351:
347:
343:
339:
335:
331:
327:
323:
319:
315:
311:
307:
306:Modern Hebrew
303:
299:
295:
291:
287:
283:
279:
275:
273:
269:
265:
261:
257:
253:
249:
245:
241:
237:
236:Indo-European
233:
229:
225:
221:
217:
213:
209:
205:
201:
197:
193:
180:
175:
171:
167:
165:
161:
157:
153:
151:
147:
143:
138:
135:
133:
130:
128:
125:
123:
120:
118:
115:
113:
110:
109:
108:
104:
101:
98:
94:
91:
87:
85:
81:
77:
71:
68:
64:
60:
56:
52:
49:
43:
38:
33:
30:
26:
22:
13915:
13908:
13907:Families in
13864:Pre-Goidelic
13859:Pre-Germanic
13689:Indo-Semitic
13684:Indo-Pacific
13679:Indo-Hittite
13594:
13587:
13580:
13510:
13487:Indian Ocean
13454:
13449:Austronesian
13447:
13440:
13433:
13426:
13421:Sino-Tibetan
13419:
13398:
13376:
13371:Sino-Tibetan
13369:
13362:
13355:
13323:
13298:
13291:
13284:
13277:
13270:
13263:
13256:
13249:
13242:
13236:
13235:
13228:
13208:
13201:
13194:
13187:
13180:
13175:North Picene
13173:
13166:
13159:
13152:
13145:
13138:
13131:
13119:
13112:
13105:
13041:
13034:
13033:Families in
12968:
12919:
12817:
12805:
12655:
12623:
12614:Pano-Tacanan
12571:
12534:
12522:
12493:Arutani–Sape
12485:
12430:
12412:
12405:
12390:Oto-Manguean
12388:
12371:
12364:
12311:
12299:
12292:
12285:
12278:
12271:
12244:
12237:
12214:
12207:
12195:
12168:
12146:
12139:
12127:
12115:
12098:
12091:
12084:
12077:
12070:
12058:
12051:
12010:
11977:
11973:Western Daly
11951:Pama–Nyungan
11949:
11937:
11930:
11917:
11895:
11890:Eastern Daly
11888:
11880:
11835:
11711:
11699:
11677:
11660:
11638:
11609:Kaure–Kosare
11569:Doso–Turumsa
11559:Chimbu–Wahgi
11549:Bulaka River
11533:Austronesian
11531:
11492:
11485:
11466:
11453:
11446:
11439:
11365:
11358:
11351:
11341:Sino-Tibetan
11339:
11322:
11305:
11283:
11276:
11269:
11252:
11242:Austronesian
11240:
11233:
11222:
11221:
11167:
11105:Nilo-Saharan
11103:
11096:
11081:Austronesian
11079:
11073:
11072:
11008:
10976:
10934:
10836:Macro-Somali
10826:Lowland East
10755:
10714:South Bauchi
10704:North Bauchi
10694:Bole–Tangale
10587:
10582:Proto-Berber
10580:
10573:
10559:
10519:Roger Blench
10487:(in Russian)
10469:Afro-Asiatic
10445:
10436:
10417:
10407:
10379:
10375:
10356:
10337:
10320:
10301:
10282:
10257:
10253:
10226:
10207:
10190:
10186:
10166:
10156:
10147:
10143:
10124:
10115:
10111:
10102:
10098:
10082:
10056:
10037:
10028:
10008:
9980:
9961:
9934:
9917:
9913:
9894:
9885:
9876:
9867:
9858:
9849:
9814:
9789:
9785:
9760:
9756:
9747:
9712:
9685:
9650:
9631:
9612:
9603:
9594:
9575:
9533:
9529:
9510:
9501:
9492:
9488:
9476:. Retrieved
9471:
9442:
9438:
9389:
9385:
9376:
9357:
9345:. Retrieved
9329:
9308:
9290:
9286:
9277:
9273:
9246:
9219:
9210:
9201:
9197:
9188:
9171:
9167:
9148:
9129:
9110:
9074:
9047:
9020:
8998:
8986:
8974:
8962:
8950:
8938:
8926:
8914:
8902:
8890:
8878:
8866:
8854:
8842:
8800:
8788:
8776:
8764:
8752:
8740:
8728:
8721:Beylage 2018
8701:
8694:Stauder 2023
8689:
8677:
8670:Stauder 2023
8665:
8653:
8648:, p. 8.
8641:
8629:
8617:
8590:
8578:
8566:
8535:
8523:
8496:
8467:
8455:
8443:
8431:
8419:
8407:
8395:
8368:
8356:
8349:Beylage 2018
8344:
8332:
8320:
8308:
8296:
8284:
8272:
8260:
8199:
8187:
8175:
8129:
8081:
8035:
8008:
8001:Hayward 2000
7996:
7984:
7942:
7930:
7918:
7906:
7894:
7859:
7847:
7835:
7815:, p. 7.
7793:
7788:, p. 1.
7781:
7769:
7757:
7730:
7718:
7706:
7694:
7682:
7651:
7644:Hetzron 2009
7620:
7577:Hayward 2000
7557:
7545:
7488:
7476:
7464:
7452:
7447:, p. 5.
7440:
7428:
7408:
7401:
7389:
7377:
7335:
7323:
7277:
7265:
7253:
7241:
7234:Hayward 2000
7229:
7217:
7205:
7193:
7181:
7169:
7157:
7126:
7119:Hayward 2000
7106:, p. 4.
7069:
7064:, p. 1.
7057:
7045:
7018:
6972:
6945:
6912:
6883:
6871:
6859:
6847:
6812:
6785:
6778:Fleming 2006
6773:
6766:Hayward 2000
6761:
6717:
6690:
6685:, p. 6.
6678:
6666:
6661:, p. 4.
6654:
6642:
6614:, p. 2.
6607:
6595:
6583:
6531:
6519:
6456:
6412:
6400:
6388:
6376:
6364:
6359:, p. 1.
6337:
6332:, p. 4.
6315:Hetzron 2009
6287:, p. 5.
6248:
6219:
6207:
6195:
6167:Hetzron 2009
6162:
6140:, p. 3.
6087:Nichols 2003
6023:, p. 3.
5997:
5983:
5969:
5947:
5942:
5927:glottal stop
5905:
5896:
5887:
5878:
5868:
5859:
5850:
5836:
5827:
5818:
5805:
5797:
5793:
5788:
5738:
5725:
5716:
5709:
5703:
5696:
5675:
5669:
5662:
5657:
5650:
5644:
5638:
5614:
5607:
5601:
5595:
5588:
5567:
5557:
5551:
5545:
5532:*sǔm / *sǐm-
5521:
5514:
5508:
5501:
5496:
5490:
5486:
5480:
5473:
5466:
5460:
5442:
5435:
5429:
5422:
5416:
5410:
5403:
5382:
5375:
5368:
5363:
5359:
5353:
5343:
5322:
5321:(cf. Hebrew
5315:
5309:
5299:
5293:
5272:
5262:
5255:
5249:
5222:
5216:
5210:
5203:
5182:
5175:
5171:'red linen')
5168:
5162:
5155:
5148:
5142:
5122:
5115:
5108:
5103:
5099:
5093:
5086:
5024:Hayward 2000
5012:
5008:
4682:səmmus, afus
4384:
4371:Austronesian
4364:
4337:'she' (dep.)
4274:'she' (ind.)
3923:
3908:
3904:
3901:
3894:
3888:
3880:
3874:
3863:
3857:
3836:Beylage 2018
3821:
3755:Passive *n-
3736:Bubenik 2023
3722:', and *n- '
3716:middle voice
3708:derivational
3705:
3690:
3684:
3673:
3664:
3653:
3647:
3641:
3630:
3624:
3623:mu-katib-un
3618:
3604:
3598:
3570:Beylage 2018
3557:
3547:
3507:pars-a:tina
3344:
3334:əkănnăf-năt
3302:ta-parras-i:
3268:t-i:-dbíl-na
3265:t-əkănnăf-ăm
3135:t-əkănnăf-ət
3115:ʔ-a-danbí:l
3077:Imperfective
3034:glottal stop
3030:
3016:imperfective
3005:
2987:
2981:
2975:
2962:
2956:
2950:
2936:
2930:
2924:
2909:
2903:
2887:
2881:
2875:
2837:
2833:
2822:
2804:
2787:
2770:
2753:
2709:
2702:
2696:
2689:
2682:
2675:
2668:
2663:
2657:
2646:
2643:
2637:
2634:
2628:
2624:
2618:
2614:
2608:
2602:
2598:
2593:
2590:
2584:
2581:
2507:
2503:
2499:
2493:
2374:
2311:
2286:
2262:
2250:
2170:
2164:
2158:
2152:
2146:
2101:
2097:
2067:
2054:
2050:(infinitive)
2047:
2040:women, wives
2039:
2033:
2021:
2015:work! do it!
2014:
2003:
1997:
1988:
1981:
1974:
1948:pitch accent
1941:
1920:
1908:
1902:
1898:
1848:
1844:assimilation
1824:
1823:(other than
1817:
1734:assimilation
1731:
1688:
1676:glottal stop
1626:
1615:
1611:
1603:
1595:
1488:
1475:
1467:Proto-Zenati
1447:
1431:BCE to 8,000
1419:
1387:
1372:Marcel Cohen
1369:
1360:
1357:Carl Meinhof
1342:
1288:
1267:
1259:
1251:
1247:Marcel Cohen
1244:
1226:
1221:
1212:
1211:
1203:
1193:
1188:
1168:
1163:
1157:
1156:
1145:
1140:
1135:
1113:
1108:
1103:
1094:
1093:
1085:
1080:
1059:
1054:
1048:
1047:
1039:
1031:
1023:
1002:
997:
988:
987:
982:
977:
966:
963:Afroasiatic
958:
927:Fleming 1983
900:The extinct
878:
869:
865:
850:
831:
801:
742:
719:
689:
685:
659:
631:
609:
605:
601:
597:
595:
587:afrazijskije
578:
571:, as French
566:
561:
557:
549:
542:monophyletic
537:
533:
529:
527:
518:Ernest Renan
513:
497:
488:, while the
441:
431:
426:
421:
417:
413:
409:
405:
401:
397:
394:Afro-Asiatic
393:
389:
387:
354:
276:
240:Sino-Tibetan
220:North Africa
207:
203:
199:
198:, sometimes
196:Afro-Asiatic
195:
191:
189:
106:Subdivisions
51:North Africa
47:distribution
29:
13714:Ural-Altaic
13694:Indo-Uralic
13506:Sentinelese
13237:Afroasiatic
13203:Eteocypriot
12927:Germanosign
12831:Mura-Pirahã
12712:Lule–Vilela
12688:Bora-Witoto
12663:Uru–Chipaya
12636:Ticuna–Yuri
12619:Peba–Yaguan
12604:Nambikwaran
12407:Uto-Aztecan
12343:Mesoamerica
12197:Uto-Aztecan
12186:Tsimshianic
12148:Palaihnihan
12018:Malak-Malak
11755:Papuan Gulf
11729:West Papuan
11634:Lower Sepik
11624:Lakes Plain
11527:Arai–Samaia
11515:the Pacific
11223:Afroasiatic
11098:Niger–Congo
11074:Afroasiatic
10780:Ngeté-Herdé
10669:Biu–Mandara
10633:Mzab–Wargla
10628:East Zenati
10523:family tree
10397:2445/195869
10382:(1): 1–18.
9012:Works cited
8757:Wilson 2020
8733:Wilson 2020
8646:Takács 2008
8610:Wilson 2020
7840:Allen 2020a
7828:Bender 1978
7813:Vernet 2011
7786:Vernet 2011
7774:Takács 1999
7762:Edzard 1992
7711:Bender 1978
7433:Blench 2006
7328:Blench 2006
7258:Winand 2023
7186:Ruhlen 1991
7131:Ruhlen 1991
7062:Blažek 2013
6996:Blench 2006
6965:Sanker 2023
6950:Blench 2006
6888:Blench 2008
5873:incidental.
5459:(cf. Yemsa
5325:'to shout')
5154:(cf. Oromo
4604:ḵraṭt, šaṛṭ
4407:Blažek 2018
4403:Blažek 2017
4397:languages.
4303:'he' (dep.)
4242:'he' (ind.)
4049:'we' (ind.)
3832:Wilson 2020
3732:Wilson 2020
3652:má-háif-áa
3646:má-hàif-íi
3629:ma-ktab-un
3574:Wilson 2020
3554:agent nouns
3524:moʕ-o:nu-h
3493:pars-a:tunu
3285:t-ăknəf-măt
3271:t-i-dbíl-na
3158:t-i:-dbíl-i
3155:ta-parras-i
3138:t-i:-dbíl-a
2528:Bender 2000
2495:Nouns cases
2323:singulative
2034:woman, wife
1780:b, f, m, h
1763:Allen 2020a
1727:continuants
1703:glottalized
1553:Old Aramaic
1549:Neo-Aramaic
1483:Paul Newman
1312:Ernst Renan
1299:Hiob Ludolf
1185:Cushomotic
1028:Erythraean
937:Bender 1997
812:hieroglyphs
390:Afroasiatic
282:Middle East
244:Niger–Congo
78:630 million
35:Afroasiatic
21:Afro-Asians
13933:Categories
13854:Pre-Celtic
13822:East Asian
13812:Austro-Tai
13802:Andamanese
13652:Eurasiatic
13573:North Asia
13523:North Asia
13435:Hmong–Mien
13389:Burushaski
13348:South Asia
13319:Kartvelian
13286:Philistine
13196:Eteocretan
13140:Tartessian
12921:Francosign
12769:Chiquitano
12749:Alacalufan
12557:Guaicuruan
12530:Chapacuran
12513:Cahuapanan
12481:Araucanian
12384:Mixe–Zoque
12379:Misumalpan
12093:Comecrudan
11945:Nyulnyulan
11724:Upper Yuat
11701:Torricelli
11673:Senu River
11604:Foja Range
11510:New Guinea
11435:Burushaski
11296:Kartvelian
11271:Hmong–Mien
11087:Khoe–Kwadi
10150:: 221–251.
10105:: 339–408.
9495:: 151–171.
9472:Ethnologue
8805:Gragg 2019
8769:Ehret 1995
8706:Allen 2013
8682:Ehret 1995
8634:Ehret 1995
8595:Gragg 2019
8571:Gragg 2019
8540:Peust 2012
8489:Gragg 2019
8337:Allen 2020
8221:Peust 2012
8204:Gragg 2019
8168:Souag 2023
8040:Gragg 2019
7977:Gragg 2019
7962:Gragg 2019
7735:Ehret 1995
7723:Ehret 1995
7246:Hodge 1971
7210:Gragg 2019
7038:Peust 2012
6938:Gragg 2019
6917:Peust 2012
6876:Peust 2012
6722:Gragg 2019
6659:Allen 2013
6647:Allen 2013
6612:Allen 2013
6588:Gragg 2019
6512:Gragg 2019
6495:Gragg 2019
6434:Gragg 2019
6369:Gragg 2019
6104:Gragg 2019
6057:Sands 2009
6002:Sands 2009
5952:Ehret 1980
5919:circumflex
5672:'to spit';
5647:'to spit';
5641:'to spit';
5511:'to flee';
5483:'to soar';
5469:'to jump')
5463:'to jump';
5432:, 'to die'
5352:Mwaghavul
5239:*gâd-/gûd-
5151:'to blood'
5065:Ehret 1995
5028:Gragg 2019
4833:asarámaat
4572:ḵraḍ, šaṛḍ
4549:snat, sənt
4494:yiwət, išt
4237:-un-t (f)
4232:-kunna (f)
3977:'I' (ind.)
3939:Gragg 2019
3654:birthplace
3482:miʕ-ino-h
3462:măttit-ăt
3428:pars-a:ti
3420:miʕ-ito-h
3400:miʕ-iyo-h
3356:Gragg 2019
3308:əkănnăf-ăn
3262:t-ăknəf-ăm
3256:ta-prus-a:
3245:n-e:-dbíl
3164:danbí:l-i
3161:t-i-dbíl-i
3152:ta-prus-i:
3144:danbí:l-a
3141:t-i-dbíl-a
3132:t-ăknəf-ət
3106:əkănnăf-ăʕ
3080:"Old Past"
3042:Gragg 2019
3021:suppletive
3012:perfective
2997:Verb forms
2825:adjectives
2717:Allen 2020
2520:Gragg 2019
2438:ta-mazir-t
2394:Gragg 2019
2382:epenthesis
2331:Souag 2023
2319:pejorative
2315:diminutive
2293:gemination
2265:word order
2259:Word order
2116:Gragg 2019
2104:triliteral
2083:shortening
1928:epenthesis
1856:pharyngeal
1832:obstruents
1723:obstruents
1711:uvularized
1645:pharyngeal
1637:affricates
1633:fricatives
1263:isoglosses
974:Erythraic
932:Ehret 1995
770:Old Nubian
723:Chad Basin
662:Ethnologue
610:Erythraean
596:The names
552:possesses
410:Erythraean
376:(s-), and
361:sound laws
330:Phoenician
45:Geographic
13879:Pre-Vedic
13869:Pre-Greek
13841:Substrata
13744:Arunachal
13642:Nostratic
13627:Alarodian
13562:Yeniseian
13412:East Asia
13364:Dravidian
13221:West Asia
13189:Tyrsenian
12952:Tanzanian
12893:languages
12790:Hodï/Joti
12734:Isolates
12673:Yanomaman
12609:Otomákoan
12573:Jirajaran
12562:Guajiboan
12524:Catacaoan
12503:Barbacoan
12432:Cuitlatec
12401:Totonacan
12360:Jicaquean
12239:Chimariko
12135:Muskogean
12117:Kalapuyan
12111:Iroquoian
12086:Chumashan
12079:Chinookan
12072:Chimakuan
11990:Yangmanic
11985:Worrorran
11968:Wagaydyic
11858:Australia
11707:Trans-Fly
11373:Yeniseian
11360:Tyrsenian
11254:Dravidian
11011:indicate
10952:Northwest
10865:Saho–Afar
10359:. Brill.
10340:. Brill.
10274:219971042
10118:: 95–106.
9870:. Mouton.
9841:133888593
9806:147639111
9739:225371874
9677:225371874
9459:1749-818X
9414:0036-8075
9293:: 33–60.
9101:216256704
8622:Shay 2014
8501:Mous 2012
8013:Shay 2014
7935:Shay 2014
7699:Amha 2012
5962:Citations
5933:based on
5843:cuneiform
5712:'to bite'
5678:'to spit'
5665:'to spit'
5653:'to spit'
5566:Akkadian
5524:'to fly'
5517:'to flee'
5507:Ugaritic
5499:'to fly';
5445:'to die'
5413:'to die',
5402:Rendille
5385:'tongue'
5374:Akkadian
5296:'to say';
5258:'old man'
5211:ka:ma:ma:
5181:Ghadames
5174:Akkadian
4943:aššaḍígt
4888:asúmhayt
4801:asarámaab
4778:asagwitt
4555:ʔiṯnatāni
4387:borrowing
4269:ntta (m)
4227:-kina (f)
4225:-kunu (m)
4138:kmmi (f)
3720:reflexive
3712:causative
3496:sḏm-tjwnj
3479:măttit-it
3473:pars-a:nu
3417:măttit-ət
3411:pars-a:ta
3397:măttit-ăʕ
3391:pars-a:ku
3331:ăknəf-năt
3325:i-prus-a:
3311:ʔ-i:-dbíl
3299:i-prus-u:
3282:ta-parras
3239:n-i:-dbíl
3236:n-əkănnăf
3230:ni-parras
3216:t-i-dbíl
3213:t-i:-dbíl
3210:t-əkănnăf
3204:ta-parras
3187:ʔ-i:-dbíl
3184:y-əkănnăf
3129:ta-parras
3109:ʔ-i:-dbíl
3068:Preterite
2857:Masculine
2752:malkā(h)
2725:Mous 2012
2607:t-frux-t
2572:Feminine
2569:Masculine
2563:Masculine
2557:Masculine
2551:Masculine
2469:gulà:be:
2455:galo:b-a
2441:ti-mizar
2321:, and/or
2177:Templates
2159:to gather
2147:to divide
1965:Examples
1895:sibilants
1864:laryngeal
1769:consonant
1736:known as
1719:implosive
1717:, and/or
1691:voiceless
1648:fricative
1330:Caucasian
528:The term
512:in 1710.
478:Egyptians
470:Assyrians
422:Lamekhite
406:Erythraic
374:causative
216:West Asia
164:Glottolog
146:ISO 639-2
55:West Asia
13874:Vasconic
13849:Atlantic
13603:Eskaleut
13557:Yukaghir
13472:Koreanic
13467:Tungusic
13462:Mongolic
13400:Harappan
13311:Caucasus
13293:Sumerian
13168:Ligurian
12985:See also
12962:Isolates
12937:Japanese
12877:Yuracaré
12759:Candoshi
12718:Macro-Jê
12683:Zaparoan
12678:Zamucoan
12668:Witotoan
12651:Tucanoan
12646:Tiniguan
12641:Timotean
12625:Quechuan
12594:Matacoan
12589:Mascoian
12579:Jivaroan
12542:Chibchan
12536:Charruan
12487:Arawakan
12424:Isolates
12355:Chibchan
12231:Isolates
12203:Wakashan
12164:Salishan
12106:Eskaleut
12012:Giimbiyu
12004:Isolates
11913:Jarrakan
11908:Iwaidjan
11765:Isolates
11619:Kutubuan
11487:Sumerian
11423:Isolates
11378:Yukaghir
11347:Tungusic
11313:Mongolic
11301:Koreanic
11260:Eskaleut
11151:Isolates
11135:Ubangian
10978:Egyptian
10831:Omo–Tana
10803:Cushitic
10613:Northern
9558:15576591
9478:28 April
9430:13350469
9422:12714734
9379:. Nauka.
9347:28 April
9338:Archived
9280:: 63–86.
5917:, and a
5746:See also
5708:Kw'adza
5668:Aramaic
5610:'curds'
5598:'to rot'
5556:Ga'anda
5476:'to fly'
5438:'to die'
5425:'to die'
5419:'to die'
5378:'tongue'
5371:'tongue'
5362:'tongue
5346:'tongue'
5312:'to say'
5302:'to say'
5213:'snack';
5206:'to eat'
5185:'blood'
5183:dəmmm-ən
5145:'blood';
5098:Wandala
5089:'strike'
5053:Egyptian
5047:Cushitic
5005:Cognates
4865:dòdòpórò
4853:ṯamāniya
4795:sebet(t)
4630:erbet(t)
4517:sin, sən
4424:Egyptian
4361:Numerals
4230:-kum (m)
3963:Egyptian
3920:Pronouns
3870:Egyptian
3842:Language
3802:Egyptian
3746:Language
3714:', *t- '
3672:mi-frey
3619:to write
3599:to drink
3594:Egyptian
3580:Language
3532:pars-a:
3448:meʕ-e-h
3385:Singular
3374:Egyptian
3348:Pronouns
3328:i-parras
3314:ʔ-i-dbíl
3305:ăknəf-ăn
3259:a-parras
3242:n-i-dbíl
3193:danbí:l
3190:ʔ-i-dbíl
3178:i-parras
3112:ʔ-a-dbíl
3103:ăknəf-ăʕ
3100:a-parras
3091:Singular
2894:Egyptian
2860:Feminine
2851:Language
2735:Language
2688:šarr-at-
2623:šarr-at-
2589:intal-t-
2566:Feminine
2560:Feminine
2554:Feminine
2427:nägäs-t
2410:Singular
2404:Language
2378:apophony
2346:Egyptian
2253:apophony
2171:to build
2163:m-(w)-t
2153:to roast
2122:Language
2071:suffixes
2022:be done!
2020:k'àyts'
2013:k'áyts'
1962:Language
1750:sibilant
1715:ejective
1699:emphatic
1684:Tigrinya
1664:alveolar
1660:bilabial
1571:Cushitic
1444:Location
1416:Timeline
1213:Egyptian
1189:Cushitic
1158:Egyptian
1141:Cushitic
1109:Cushitic
1095:Egyptian
1049:Egyptian
1032:Cushitic
989:Egyptian
978:Cushitic
842:Wolaitta
804:Egyptian
776:Egyptian
766:Meroitic
733:Cushitic
666:language
646:Egyptian
642:Cushitic
598:Lisramic
500:for the
490:Elamites
482:Cushites
474:Arameans
418:Noahitic
414:Lisramic
338:Ugaritic
322:Akkadian
302:Tigrinya
260:Egyptian
256:Cushitic
210:, are a
200:Afrasian
170:afro1255
127:Egyptian
122:Cushitic
13909:italics
13807:Austric
13784:Kho-Bwa
13779:Hrusish
13757:Siangic
13699:Karasuk
13599: ?
13512:Kenaboi
13477:Japonic
13442:Kra–Dai
13403: ?
13394:Kusunda
13300:Elamite
13272:Kassite
13258:Kaskian
13161:Camunic
13133:Iberian
13090:Eurasia
13035:italics
13012:Pidgins
12997:Creoles
12947:Swedish
12915:Chinese
12862:Urarina
12847:Puinave
12801:Itonama
12795:Irantxe
12764:Chimane
12694:Chimuan
12599:Nadahup
12518:Cariban
12498:Aymaran
12459:America
12301:Waikuri
12294:Tonkawa
12287:Timucua
12280:Takelma
12273:Siuslaw
12262:Kutenai
12246:Esselen
12209:Wintuan
12170:Shastan
12141:Na-Dene
12129:Maiduan
12066:Caddoan
12040:America
11994:Wagiman
11992:(incl.
11963:Tangkic
11903:Garawan
11876:Bunuban
11837:Tambora
11804:Maybrat
11772:Abinomn
11695:Teberan
11656:Pauwasi
11646:Mairasi
11614:Kiwaian
11494:Tambora
11480:Shompen
11462:Kusunda
11455:Kenaboi
11441:Elamite
11413:Siangic
11395:Kho-Bwa
11389:Hrusish
11307:Kra–Dai
11291:Japonic
11200:Eurasia
11175:Sandawe
11158:Bangime
11123:Songhay
11009:Italics
10991:Kujargé
10947:Central
10927:Semitic
10860:Oromoid
10853:Western
10647:Western
10608:Eastern
9566:8057990
9550:3839746
9530:Science
9394:Bibcode
9386:Science
5798:italics
5724:Arabic
5715:Ngizim
5702:Dahalo
5674:Arabic
5656:Hausa t
5649:Somali
5645:təff y-
5643:Kemant
5625:to spit
5613:Arabic
5578:to sour
5554:'name';
5548:'name';
5520:Ahogar
5513:Arabic
5441:Kabyle
5428:Hebrew
5396:*mawut-
5381:Kabyle
5376:liša:nu
5358:Gisiga
5356:tongue,
5344:mi-laso
5271:Arabic
5261:Ngizim
5256:gad-uwa
5178:'blood'
5161:Bolewa
5121:Tuareg
5114:Arabic
5059:Berber
5056:Semitic
5038:Meaning
4998:támint
4911:aššaḍíg
4885:ṯamānin
4868:nyartn
4856:asúmhay
4850:samānat
4807:mátàlíŋ
4746:aságwir
4714:səmmust
4668:faḍígt
4656:(j)fd.t
4633:ʔarbaʕa
4624:(j)fd.w
4575:šalāšat
4558:máloot
4523:ʔiṯnāni
4421:Meaning
4376:decimal
4298:ntta-t
4235:-un (m)
4178:-ú:k(i)
4149:-ú:k(a)
4080:nkkwni
4060:inná-ga
4058:anná-ga
3945:Meaning
3862:yərēḥī
3856:yārēaḥ
3724:passive
3689:em-äks
3518:pars-u:
3476:sḏm-wjn
3456:pars-at
3233:n-ăknəf
3227:ni-prus
3207:t-ăknəf
3201:ta-prus
3181:y-ăknəf
3126:ta-prus
3071:Present
2955:təlkəm-
2863:Plural
2854:meaning
2803:a-ryaz
2678:-frux-t
2435:country
2413:Plural
2407:Meaning
2075:infixes
2048:to cook
2038:máatáa
2032:màatáa
1852:glottal
1829:lateral
1697:, and "
1672:glottal
1592:branch)
1590:Semitic
1573:branch)
1536:branch)
1471:Maghreb
1326:Negroid
1204:Semitic
1136:Semitic
1114:Semitic
1060:Semitic
967:Semitic
856:Semitic
762:Sidaama
758:Hadiyya
670:dialect
668:" and "
650:Semitic
614:Red Sea
583:Russian
550:Hamitic
538:Hamitic
514:Hamitic
498:Semitic
378:passive
334:Amorite
310:Sidaama
264:Semitic
132:Semitic
13769:Mijiic
13762:Digaro
13709:Pontic
13637:Borean
13632:Altaic
13596:Rouran
13589:Turkic
13582:Uralic
13571:Other
13456:Turkic
13384:Nihali
13279:Gutian
13251:Hattic
13244:Turkic
13210:Minoan
13182:Sicani
13127:Basque
13121:Turkic
13114:Uralic
13098:Europe
12910:BANZSL
12872:Yamana
12857:Trumai
12826:Movima
12780:Fulniô
12743:Aikanã
12657:Tupian
12552:Chonan
12476:Arauan
12414:Xincan
12366:Lencan
12319:Yokuts
12216:Yukian
12181:Tanoan
12176:Siouan
12159:Pomoan
12100:Coosan
11926:Mirndi
11819:Porome
11814:Pawaia
11668:Senagi
11640:Madang
11589:Eleman
11544:Border
11475:Nihali
11468:Minoan
11448:Hattic
11430:Basque
11401:Mijiic
11383:Digaro
11367:Uralic
11353:Turkic
11204:Europe
11061:Africa
10997:Ongota
10984:Coptic
10970:Others
10895:Dizoid
10882:Omotic
10816:Dullay
10757:Zumaya
10657:Chadic
10642:Tuareg
10623:Zenati
10600:Berber
10521:(with
10424:
10363:
10344:
10308:
10289:
10272:
10241:
10214:
10174:
10131:
10063:
10044:
10016:
9995:
9968:
9949:
9901:
9839:
9829:
9804:
9777:595879
9775:
9737:
9727:
9700:
9675:
9665:
9638:
9619:
9582:
9564:
9556:
9548:
9517:
9457:
9428:
9420:
9412:
9364:
9316:
9261:
9234:
9155:
9136:
9117:
9099:
9089:
9062:
9035:
7416:
5948:*daaʕ-
5689:*zaaʕ-
5587:Mocha
5581:*s'ăm-
5570:'name'
5560:'name'
5546:su:na:
5544:Hausa
5522:fərə-t
5479:Hausa
5434:Ge'ez
5409:Hausa
5393:*maaw-
5390:to die
5342:Kaffa
5333:tongue
5308:Hausa
5292:Sheko
5283:to say
5254:Burji
5248:Oromo
5225:'food'
5219:'mush'
5215:Tumak
5209:Hausa
5158:'red')
5141:Kaffa
5123:bakkat
5050:Chadic
5044:Omotic
5030:, and
4963:ʕašara
4960:ešeret
4923:irstn
4920:váyták
4882:samānē
4859:saddet
4772:šiš(š)
4740:šiššet
4685:ḫamšat
4665:ʔarbaʕ
4613:mháyt
4578:ṯalāṯa
4526:máloob
4500:wāḥida
4497:ištiāt
4413:, and
4380:base-5
4280:ijá-ga
4277:batú:s
4251:isá-ga
4248:barú:s
4210:-ú:kna
4207:-nitì-
4135:ʔan-ti
4120:batú:k
4109:ʔan-ta
4094:adí-ga
4091:barú:k
4074:ni:nu:
3998:ana:ku
3986:aní-ga
3881:divine
3879:nṯr.j
3738:, and
3718:' or '
3685:to eat
3648:father
3640:hayf-
3631:school
3625:writer
3617:k-t-b
3603:m-swr
3572:, and
3521:sḏm-wj
3467:Plural
3459:sḏm-tj
3445:măttit
3414:sḏm-tj
3394:sḏm-kw
3377:Berber
3368:Gender
3365:Person
3362:Number
3221:Plural
3175:i-prus
3097:a-prus
3074:Aorist
3060:Berber
3054:Gender
3051:Person
3048:Number
2961:ilkəm-
2949:ilkəm-
2788:mouths
2758:malkat
2727:, and
2701:macci-
2695:keett-
2662:intal-
2642:macci-
2633:keett-
2601:-frux
2540:Berber
2463:stream
2165:to die
2157:d-b-l
2151:k-n-f
2145:p-r-s
2128:Berber
2053:dàfáa
2046:dáfàa
1996:ínan,
1882:, and
1872:dental
1866:, and
1860:uvular
1744:, and
1695:voiced
1670:, and
1567:Somali
1534:Berber
1530:Shilha
1495:Levant
1433:
1429:
1405:Origin
1380:1969,
1227:Berber
1222:Chadic
1194:Omotic
1169:Omotic
1164:Chadic
1146:Berber
1104:Berber
1086:Chadic
1081:Omotic
1055:Berber
1040:Chadic
1024:Omotic
1003:Chadic
998:Berber
959:Omotic
822:Omotic
760:, and
750:Somali
710:Chadic
676:Berber
648:, and
638:Chadic
634:Berber
472:, and
420:, and
400:, and
372:(t-),
370:middle
350:Levant
336:, and
278:Arabic
268:Omotic
266:, and
252:Chadic
248:Berber
242:, and
228:Sahara
222:, the
137:Omotic
117:Chadic
112:Berber
65:, and
13547:Nivkh
13501:Ongan
12867:Warao
12836:Nukak
12807:Kunza
12785:Guató
12774:Cofán
12754:Camsá
12547:Choco
12508:Boran
12457:South
12438:Huave
12373:Mayan
12324:Yuchi
12307:Washo
12257:Karuk
12252:Haida
12191:Utian
12123:Keres
12060:Alsea
12053:Algic
12038:North
11830:Taiap
11824:Sulka
11679:Sepik
11594:Engan
11335:Ongan
11318:Nivkh
11186:Shabo
11169:Jalaa
11163:Hadza
11117:Mande
10959:South
10915:Ometo
10910:Gonga
10905:North
10890:Aroid
10872:South
10775:Mesme
10768:South
10751:Musey
10746:Massa
10741:Marba
10734:North
10684:Angas
10618:Atlas
10270:S2CID
10095:(PDF)
10079:(PDF)
9837:S2CID
9802:S2CID
9773:JSTOR
9735:S2CID
9673:S2CID
9562:S2CID
9546:JSTOR
9426:S2CID
9341:(PDF)
9334:(PDF)
9097:S2CID
5923:vowel
5911:caron
5811:Yaaku
5780:Notes
5726:zaʕy-
5717:dáar-
5704:ḏaaʕ-
5695:Gamo
5637:Beja
5631:*tuf-
5628:*tuf-
5615:sumūț
5602:*s'am
5596:*cam-
5589:č'àm-
5550:Sura
5535:*süm-
5485:Mafa
5481:fi:ra
5472:Beja
5465:Dime
5461:fill-
5456:*pir-
5453:*pîr-
5443:ammat
5436:mo:ta
5415:Mubi
5298:Aari
5289:*gay-
5286:*geh-
5273:gadd-
5265:'old'
5263:gad'e
5242:*gad-
5202:Afar
5167:(cf.
5156:di:ma
5149:zomʔi
5147:Aari
5138:*dam-
5135:*dâm-
5133:*dîm-
5130:blood
5092:Afar
5085:Gamo
5082:*bak-
4989:mrawt
4969:kuḍan
4966:támin
4931:psḏ.t
4914:sagal
4908:tisʕa
4905:tišīt
4899:psḏ.w
4876:ḫmn.t
4862:jurgù
4844:ḫmn.w
4838:Eight
4821:sfḫ.t
4813:napm
4810:bùhúl
4804:tolba
4798:sabʕa
4789:sfḫ.w
4783:Seven
4769:sḍist
4766:sjs.t
4758:sapm
4752:ménéŋ
4743:sitta
4734:sjs.w
4717:ḫamiš
4703:ut͡ʃ
4688:ḫamsa
4659:kkuẓt
4642:pórìn
4636:faḍíg
4610:ṯalāṯ
4607:šalāš
4601:ḫmt.t
4584:sadii
4569:ḫmt.w
4563:Three
4552:šittā
4546:sn.tj
4514:sn.wj
4503:gáat
4483:mat'
4474:tokko
4468:wāḥid
4465:ištēn
4354:-ha:
4219:ká(n)
4132:at-ti
4112:kiji
4106:at-ta
4077:naħnu
4055:hinín
4004:nkki
3893:ḥr.j
3864:lunar
3824:Nisba
3691:eater
3674:birth
3663:firi
3442:sḏm-w
3439:paris
2963:ən-in
2900:(p-n)
2792:afé-r
2786:afee
2754:queen
2681:šarr-
2671:-frux
2647:woman
2638:house
2629:queen
2613:šarr-
2483:aràn
2466:gulbi
2452:galab
2424:nɨgus
2303:Nouns
2055:cook!
2002:inán
1987:dibí
1980:dibi
1973:díbi
1938:Tones
1924:schwa
1804:ḥ, z
1788:ꜣ, b
1668:velar
1629:stops
746:Oromo
727:Hausa
602:*lis-
232:Sahel
67:Malta
63:Sahel
13916:bold
13774:Miju
13542:Ainu
13042:bold
12969:See
12905:Arab
12891:Sign
12842:Páez
12819:Maku
12813:Leco
12329:Zuni
12313:Yana
12267:Seri
12024:Tiwi
11844:Wiru
11809:Mpur
11799:Kuot
11782:Anêm
11777:Abun
11744:Yuat
11739:Yawa
11685:Skou
11662:Ramu
11513:and
11407:Miju
11229:Ainu
11209:Asia
11207:and
11180:Laal
11141:Kadu
11129:Ijaw
11092:Kx'a
10942:West
10936:East
10811:Agaw
10785:Peve
10726:Masa
10689:Bade
10679:West
10674:East
10472:2006
10422:ISBN
10361:ISBN
10342:ISBN
10306:ISBN
10287:ISBN
10239:ISBN
10212:ISBN
10172:ISBN
10129:ISBN
10061:ISBN
10042:ISBN
10014:ISBN
9993:ISBN
9966:ISBN
9947:ISBN
9914:WORD
9899:ISBN
9827:ISBN
9786:WORD
9725:ISBN
9698:ISBN
9663:ISBN
9636:ISBN
9617:ISBN
9580:ISBN
9554:PMID
9515:ISBN
9480:2021
9455:ISSN
9418:PMID
9410:ISSN
9362:ISBN
9349:2021
9314:ISBN
9259:ISBN
9232:ISBN
9153:ISBN
9134:ISBN
9115:ISBN
9087:ISBN
9060:ISBN
9033:ISBN
7414:ISBN
5915:tone
5794:bold
5710:daʔ-
5594:PEC
5568:šumu
5529:name
5491:perr
5487:parr
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