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1297:, which pronounced the aether to be "superfluous". In a later interview, Einstein said of the MichelsonâMorley experiment, "I was not conscious it had influenced me directly ... I guess I just took it for granted that it was true." Regardless of Einstein's specific knowledge, the experiment is today considered the canonical experiment in regards to showing the lack of a detectable aether.
1124:. The experimental setup was as follows: Light generated from a source is directed towards a rotating mirror through a slit on a fixed plate; the rotating mirror reflects the incoming light and at a certain angle, towards the direction where another fixed flat mirror is placed whose surface is perpendicular to the incoming ray of light; the rotating mirror should have rotated by an angle
3134:
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light can be modeled by a random sample from a distribution with unknown expectation and finite variance; thus, the speed of light is represented by the expectation of the model distribution and the ultimate goal is to estimate the expectation of the model distribution on the acquired dataset. The law of large numbers suggests to estimate the expectation by the sample mean.
1651:
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1453:"Albert Abraham Michelson was born in this city on December 19, 1852. He was a professor at the University of Chicago, a Nobel laureate, who, with his famous experiments on the speed of light, started a new era in the development of physics. This plaque was placed to celebrate the foundation of great physics." A commemorative plaque in
1326:
949:, with his more adequately funded project, obtained a value of 299,860 ± 30 km/s, just at the extreme edge of consistency with Michelson's. Michelson continued to "refine" his method and in 1883 published a measurement of 299,853 ± 60 km/s, rather closer to that of his mentor.
771:, at the age of 78. The University of Chicago Residence Halls remembered Michelson and his achievements by dedicating 'Michelson House' in his honor. Case Western Reserve has dedicated a Michelson House to him, and Michelson Hall (an academic building of science classrooms, laboratories and offices) at the
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appears to reference the experiment on first glanceâ"together with the unsuccessful attempts to discover any motion of the earth relatively to the 'light medium', suggest that the phenomena of electrodynamics as well as of mechanics possess no properties corresponding to the idea of absolute rest"âit
1498:
was in the store of his father, first on Main Street, Murphys, CA across from the Sperry & Perry Hotel and after the 1859 fire, in a store next to the hotel. His aunt Bertha Meyers owned a house on Main Street toward the east end of town and
Michelson probably visited her family there frequently.
1215:
and apply subsequent corrections. For instance, he adopted a steel measuring tape with a said length of 100 feet and he intended to measure tens of times across the distance; still, he measured its length against a copy of the official standard yard to find out it as 100.006 feet, thus eliminating a
1092:
and Fred
Pearson to perform a measurement in a 1.6 km tube 3 feet in diameter at the Irvine Ranch near Santa Ana, California. In multiple reflections the light path was increased to 5 miles. For the first time in history the speed of light was measured in an almost perfect vacuum of 0.5 mm
779:
in
Ridgecrest, California, is named for him. There is a display in the publicly accessible area of the Lab which includes facsimiles of Michelson's Nobel Prize medal, the prize document, and examples of his diffraction gratings. In 2017, a newly renovated physics research center at the University of
1919:
Michelson's biographers stress, that our hero was not conspicuous by religiousness. His father was a free-thinker and
Michelson grew up in non-religious family and have no opportunity to acknowledge the belief of his forebears. He was agnostic through his whole life and only for the short period he
1219:
Aside from the efforts to reduce as much as possible the systematic errors, repeated measurements were performed at multiple levels to obtain more accurate results. As R.J. MacKay and R.W. Oldford remarked in their article, 'It is clear that
Michelson appreciated the power of averaging to
1239:
for repeated measurements with the assumption of independence or identical distributions is unrealistic. In the case of light speed study, each measurement is approached as the sum of quantity of interest and measurement error. In the absence of systematic error, the measurement error of speed of
1408:
are detected using a
Michelson interferometer with a laser light source. In 2020 there were three Michelson interferometer gravitational wave detectors operational, and a fourth under construction. These Michelson interferometers have arms 4 kilometers in length, set at 90 degree angles to each
1502:
New Beast
Theater Works in collaboration with High Concept Laboratories produced a 'semi-opera' about Michelson, his obsessive working style and its effect on his family life. The production ran from February 11 to February 26, 2011, in Chicago at The Building Stage. Michelson was portrayed by
1409:
other, with the light passing through 1 m diameter vacuum tubes running their entire length. A passing gravitational wave will slightly stretch one arm as it shortens the other. This is precisely the motion to which these
Michelson interferometers are most sensitive. As of 2020 fifteen
1363:
Beginning in the 1970s, astronomical interferometry was revived, with the configurations using two (or more) separate apertures (with diameters small compared to their separation) being often referred to as "Michelson
Stellar Interferometry". This was to distinguish it from
783:
Numerous awards, lectures, and honors have been created in Albert A. Michelson's name. Some of the current awards and lectures named for
Michelson include the following: the Bomem-Michelson Award and Lecture annually presented until 2017 by the Coblentz Society; the
1851:
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, DC, 1938, Vol. XIX) quotes (on p. 128) Michelson's sister, the novelist Miriam Michelson, as having written of her parents in a letter to Millikan that "both Albert Michelson's father and mother were born of Jewish
938:
Michelson's formal experiments took place in June and July 1879. He constructed a frame building along the north sea wall of the Naval Academy to house the machinery. Michelson published his result of 299,910 ± 50 km/s in 1879 before joining
1376:
interferometer configuration of which the interferometer used in the MichelsonâMorley experiment was an instance. Michelson's concept of interfering light from two relatively small apertures separated by a substantial distance (but with that distance, or
1278:. Surprised, Michelson repeated the experiment with greater and greater precision over the next years, but continued to find no ability to measure the aether. The MichelsonâMorley results were immensely influential in the physics community, leading
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930:
for measuring the speed of light, using improved optics and a longer baseline. He conducted some preliminary measurements using largely improvised equipment in 1878, about the same time that his work came to the attention of
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of 299,781 ± 10 km/s. Though this result has subsequently been shown to be severely biased by the poor electrical standards in use at the time, it seems to have set a fashion for rather lower measured values.
1014:
Famous as the measurement is, it was beset by problems, not least of which was the haze created by the smoke from forest fires which blurred the mirror image. It is also probable that the intensively detailed work of the
530:(modern-day Strzelno, Poland), to Jewish parents, the son of Samuel Michelson and his wife, Rozalia PrzyĆubska. He moved to the US with his parents in 1855, at the age of two. He grew up in the mining towns of
1957:
Morley was deeply religious. His original training had been in theology and he only turned to chemistry, a self-taught hobby, when he was unable to enter the ministry. Michelson, by contrast, was a religious
1360:, producing interference fringes observed through the eyepiece. The measurement of stellar diameters and the separations of binary stars took up an increasing amount of Michelson's life after this.
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of mercury. Michelson died with only 36 of the 233 measurement series completed and the experiment was subsequently beset by geological instability and condensation problems before the result of
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reduce variability in measurement', it is clear that Michelson had in mind the property that averages vary less which should be formally described as: the standard deviation of the average of
1333:
implements Michelson's stellar interferometer (1920). Mirrors on that stage (not visible in picture) redirect starlight from two smaller apertures up to 20 feet (6m) apart into the telescope.
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Michelson sought another measurement, but this time in an evacuated tube to avoid difficulties in interpreting the image owing to atmospheric effects. In 1929, he began a collaboration with
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tapes. With the baseline length established in 1924, measurements were carried out over the next two years to obtain the published value of 299,796 ± 4 km/s.
1491:, where Michelson lived with his parents prior to leaving for the Naval Academy. In a voice-over at the end of the episode, Greene mentions Michelson's 1907 Nobel Prize.
2530:. "In 1877, he married Margaret Hemingway, daughter of a wealthy New York stockbroker and lawyer. This marriage lasted twenty years and produced two sons and a daughter."
3334:(contains notes on the lectures of Albert A. Michelson, including courses taught by Michelson: Mechanics and Wave Motion, Electricity and Magnetism, and Physical Optics)
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by the time the ray of light travels back and is reflected again towards the fixed plate (the distance between the fixed mirror and the rotating one is recorded as
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1525:(ed. O. Alan Weltzien, 2008), it is an appreciation of Michelson from Maclean's vantage point as a graduate student regularly watching him play billiards.
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1356:. A periscope arrangement was used to direct light from two subpupils, separated by up to 20 feet (6m), into the main pupil of the 100 inch (2.5m)
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1211:, which seems simple; yet based on the limitation of the measurement technology at that time, great efforts were made by Michelson to reduce
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and Lecture, along with the Michelson Lecture Series, and the Michelson Postdoctoral Prize Lectureship, all of which are given annually by
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717:"for his optical precision instruments and the spectroscopic and metrological investigations carried out with their aid". He also won the
628:, as part of a class demonstration in 1877. His Annapolis experiment was refined, and in 1879, he measured the speed of light in air to be
271:
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542:. He spent his high school years in San Francisco in the home of his aunt, Henriette Levy (née Michelson), who was the mother of author
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498:, becoming the first American to win the Nobel Prize in a science. He was the founder and the first head of the physics departments of
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1976:
On the religious question, Michelson disagreed with both these men. He had renounced any belief that moral issues were at stake in ...
1046:, using similar optical instrumentation. These instruments and related collaborations included the participation of fellow physicists
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in Washington DC to assist with his measurements there. Thus began a long professional collaboration and friendship between the two.
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In 1877 Michelson married Margaret Hemingway, daughter of a wealthy New York stockbroker and lawyer and the niece of his commander
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Michelson was fascinated by light all his life. Once asked why he studied light, he reputedly said, "because it's so much fun".
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593:. In the following year he obtained leave of absence to continue his studies in Europe. He visited the Universities of
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1475:) helps the 16-year-old Michelson (portrayed by 25-year-old Douglas Lambert (1936â1986)) obtain an appointment to the
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independent random variables is less than that of a single random variable by a factor of the square root of
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Bulletin de la SociĂ©tĂ© des sciences et des lettres de ĆĂłdĆș: SĂ©rie, Recherches sur les dĂ©formations, Volumes 39â42
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800:; and the Michelson Memorial Lecture Series presented annually by the Division of Mathematics and Science at the
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In the 1890s Michelson built a mechanical device called the harmonic analyzer, for computing coefficients of
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The precision of their equipment allowed Michelson and Morley to be the first to get precise values for the
1020:
702:, and in 1892 was appointed professor and the first head of the department of physics at the newly organized
121:
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1228:. To realize that, he also strived to have each measurement not influencing each other, thus being mutually
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482:(surname pronunciation anglicized as "Michael-son"; December 19, 1852 â May 9, 1931) was a German-American
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In November 1929, at the French Academy of Sciences, Michelson's death was erroneously announced, see
538:, where his father was a merchant. His family was non-religious, and Michelson himself was a lifelong
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During June and early July 1879, Michelson refined experimental arrangements from those developed by
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AA. Michelson and E. W. Morley, Amer. J. Sci.34, 427 (1887); Phil Mag. 24, 463 (1887).
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The Ethereal Aether: A History of the MichelsonâMorleyâMiller Aether-Drift Experiments, 1880â1930
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James, I. (2009). Driven to Innovate: A Century of Jewish Mathematicians and Physicists p. 101.
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made the first measurement of the diameter of a star other than the Sun. Michelson had invented
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came to the attention of Michelson, possibly giving him considerable motivation. See the book
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The period after 1927 marked the advent of new measurements of the speed of light using novel
935:, director of the Nautical Almanac Office who was already advanced in planning his own study.
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Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light Made at the U.S. Naval Academy, Annapolis
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The Book of Nothing: Vacuums, Voids, and the Latest Ideas About the Origins of the Universe
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until 1879. In 1879, he was posted to the Nautical Almanac Office, Washington (part of the
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1889:"APS Physics | FIP | Albert Abraham Michelson: "A Pole - well up in Arithmetic""
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in the measurement of stellar diameters and in measuring the separations of binary stars.
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began two years of painstaking measurement of the baseline using the recently available
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has been shown that Einstein was referring to a different category of experiments here.
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William Polk Jesse student notebooks, 1919â1921, Niels Bohr Library & Archives
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The U.S. Naval Academy Observatory Programs and Times Gone By: A Tale of Two Domes
3267:"Billiards Is a Good Game": Gamesmanship and America's First Nobel Prize Scientist
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2243:. Department of Statistics and Actuarial Science, University of Waterloo (Canada).
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Application of basic statistical principles in Michelson's study of speed of light
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Détermination expérimentale de la valeur du mÚtre en longueurs d'ondes lumineuses
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A Modern Introduction to Probability and Statistics: Understanding Why and How
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Michelson was fascinated with the sciences, and the problem of measuring the
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was aware of the MichelsonâMorley results when he developed his theory of
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in the reserve in May 1919 and was recalled briefly to active duty in the
713:
In 1907, Michelson had the honor of being the first American to receive a
6958:
6863:
6783:
6543:
6498:
6409:
6385:
6319:
6152:
6069:
6027:
5902:
5666:
5329:
5213:
5129:
5041:
4997:
4957:
4736:
4732:
4652:
4565:
4537:
4337:
4305:
4107:
3865:
3749:
3557:
3501:
3493:
3469:
3223:
1390:
1275:
963:. He rejoined the U.S. Navy in World War I, when this portrait was taken.
741:
570:
3256:
1325:
1140:
while the number of revolutions per second of the mirror is recorded as
988:
From 1920, Michelson started planning a definitive measurement from the
6918:
6708:
6588:
6488:
6391:
6003:
5771:
5759:
5594:
5189:
5105:
5085:
4928:
4876:
4489:
4425:
4381:
4218:
4134:
4024:
3992:
3677:
3605:
1541:
marks the path of Michelson's experiments measuring the speed of light.
1353:
926:, Michelson started planning a repeat of the rotating-mirror method of
864: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.
659:
in 1881. In 1883 he accepted a position as professor of physics at the
562:
3138:. Paris : Gauthier-Villars et fils, 1894. (French translation of
2849:
Dekking, F. M.; Kraaikamp, C.; LopuhaÀ, H. P.; Meester, L. E. (2005).
1479:, despite the opposition of the bigoted town schoolteacher (played by
1195:
While at plain sight, four measured quantities are involved: distance
6768:
4577:
4549:
4385:
3321:
2296:"UChicago names building after pioneering physicist Albert Michelson"
1350:
960:
664:
639:
kilometres per second, and estimated the speed of light in vacuum as
617:
582:
483:
3186:
Three Glimpses of Albert Abraham Michelson at the Peak of His Career
839:
6668:
4325:
2914:
1454:
539:
519:
78:
5545:
1917:. SociĂ©tĂ© des sciences et des lettres de ĆĂłdĆș. 2003. p. 162.
3197:
Michelson's Life and Works from the American Institute of Physics
1471:("Look to the Stars", broadcast March 18, 1962), Ben Cartwright (
1467:
1023:
of June 29, 1925, which was an estimated magnitude of 6.3 on the
578:
304:
3214:
From USNA to Nobel: Albert A. Michelson's Life and Contributions
5726:
819:
In 1899, he married Edna Stanton. They raised three daughters.
566:
86:
7100:
Recipients of the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
6475:
2848:
1085:
devices, all substantially lower than Michelson's 1926 value.
2284:
http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?4KY28.118/183/100/598/5/588
1267:
1243:
1008:
655:. After two years of studies in Europe, he resigned from the
2280:
http://cnum.cnam.fr/CGI/fpage.cgi?4KY28.118/97/100/598/5/588
2156:
In 1879 a letter from James Clerk Maxwell to the astronomer
3816:
3327:
USNA Guide to the Albert A. Michelson Collection, 1803â1989
734:
2751:"Measurement of the velocity of light in a partial vacuum"
1381:, now often as long as hundreds of meters) is employed at
7120:
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
3322:
University of Chicago Special Collections Research Center
1413:
had been observed using these Michelson interferometers.
764:
before being released from service on 30 September 1921.
740:
He returned to military service in the closing months of
2094:"Nineteenth century astronomy at the U.S. Naval Academy"
2014:"Nineteenth century astronomy at the U.S. Naval Academy"
1521:
wrote an essay "Billiards is a Good Game"; published in
1289:
There has been some historical controversy over whether
679:
which failed to detect evidence of the existence of the
3074:
The Master of Light: A Biography of Albert A. Michelson
2905:, "Einstein, Michelson, and the 'Crucial' Experiment",
2434:"Awards & Scholarships: AA Michelson Award Winners"
2410:. Case Western Reserve University. 2017. Archived from
2241:"Michelson's 1879 determinations of the speed of light"
1972:
The Master of Light: A Biography of Albert A. Michelson
1423:
Ball-and-disk integrator § Invention and early use
792:; the A.A. Michelson Award presented every year by the
3299:
Nineteenth Century Astronomy at the U.S. Naval Academy
2955:
2549:(online ed.). New York: Oxford University Press.
2543:
den Boer, Marten (1999). "Michelson, Albert Abraham".
2748:
922:
As early as 1869, while serving as an officer in the
2992:. The University of Chicago Magazine. Archived from
2749:
Michelson, A. A.; Pease, F. G.; Pearson, F. (1935).
1646:
1286:
equations as a means of explaining the null result.
967:
3172:
Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light
3140:
Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light
2660:"A Geodetic Measurement of Unusually High Accuracy"
1793:"Guide to the Albert A. Michelson Papers 1891â1969"
1626:
American Association for the Advancement of Science
1329:The horizontal structure mounted at the top of the
909:
Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light
898:
Experimental Determination of the Velocity of Light
780:Chicago was renamed in honor of Michelson as well.
667:, Ohio, and concentrated on developing an improved
3071:
2669:. Coast and Geodetic Survey: 68â74. Archived from
2324:. Nimitz Library, US Naval Academy. Archived from
2091:
2011:
1823:"Michelson, Albert A. (Albert Abraham), 1852-1931"
1266:. Their experiment for the expected motion of the
3367:
3311:Guide to the Albert A. Michelson Papers 1891â1969
2934:
1431:and drawing graphs of their partial sums. He and
1034:also influenced the affirmation attempts of peer
7130:Honorary members of the USSR Academy of Sciences
7006:
3192:National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoir
3188:This video includes audio of Michelson speaking.
1494:The home in which Michelson lived as a child in
1465:In Season 3 Episode 26 of the television series
1308:gave a theoretical explanation, introducing the
1076:
3232:including the Nobel Lecture, December 12, 1907
2755:Contributions from the Mount Wilson Observatory
2658:Garner, C. L., Captain (retired) (April 1949).
2001:Nimitz Library's Virtual Exhibits â LibExhibits
1865:. American Institute of Physics. Archived from
1444:
1304:in the atomic spectral lines for which in 1916
1207:and rotating mirror revolution per second
972:In 1906, a novel electrical method was used by
557:awarded Michelson a special appointment to the
5327:
3018:. National Academy of Sciences. Archived from
1931:
1349:which was used to measure the diameter of the
1315:
7160:Members of the American Philosophical Society
6461:
5712:
5531:
5313:
3802:
3353:
2909:, Vol. 60, No. 2 (Summer, 1969), pp. 133â197
2808:Oldford, R. W.; MacKay, R. J. (August 2000).
2807:
2744:
2742:
2161:
2092:Shankland, Paul D.; Orchiston, Wayne (2002).
2012:Shankland, Paul D.; Orchiston, Wayne (2002).
1920:was a member of the 21st lodge in Washington.
796:; the Albert A. Michelson Award given by the
775:also bears his name. Michelson Laboratory at
706:. In 1902, he was elected as a member of the
3219:Michelson House at the University of Chicago
2694:: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (
2101:Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage
2021:Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage
1974:. University of Chicago Press. p. 106.
1605:Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
1435:published a paper about this machine in the
1108:values, was published posthumously in 1935.
727:Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society
7165:Presidents of the American Physical Society
5728:Presidents of the American Physical Society
2221:(4). Optical Society of America: 14. 1978.
1258:of Western Reserve University, now part of
7140:Hall of Fame for Great Americans inductees
6468:
6454:
5719:
5705:
5538:
5524:
5320:
5306:
3809:
3795:
3360:
3346:
3227:
3069:
2739:
2408:"Michelson Postdoctoral Prize Lectureship"
1244:MichelsonâMorley interferometry experiment
49:
7135:Lowell High School (San Francisco) alumni
2825:
2555:10.1093/anb/9780198606697.article.1301131
2348:"The ABB Sponsored Bomem-Michelson Award"
1709:
1707:
996:, a prominent bump on the south ridge of
959:Albert A. Michelson while serving in the
880:Learn how and when to remove this message
7105:American people of German-Jewish descent
2627:
2625:
2542:
1620:, the National Academy of Sciences, the
1532:
1448:
1324:
1178:; speed of light can be derived as
1060:
951:
902:
891:
690:In 1889 Michelson became a professor at
7060:Case Western Reserve University faculty
3304:
2987:
2889:On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies
1981:
1254:In 1887 he collaborated with colleague
1005:United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
7007:
3008:
2886:Note that while Einstein's 1905 paper
2667:U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Journal
2657:
2639:from the original on December 22, 2021
2538:
2536:
1969:
1704:
1368:, but should not be confused with the
1000:("Old Baldy"), some 22 miles distant.
565:at the Academy, Michelson excelled in
6449:
5700:
5519:
5301:
3790:
3341:
3248:Works by or about Albert A. Michelson
2622:
1941:. Random House Digital, Inc. p.
1670:List of Naval Academy Nobel Laureates
1400:
914:
7125:Foreign members of the Royal Society
7050:Humboldt University of Berlin alumni
3092:
2965:Albert Michelson's Harmonic Analyzer
2633:"Albert A. Michelson â Biographical"
1863:"Albert Abraham Michelson 1852â1931"
1727:
1725:
1723:
1528:
1416:
1345:and built such an instrument at the
862:adding citations to reliable sources
833:
816:. They had two sons and a daughter.
777:Naval Air Weapons Station China Lake
561:in 1869. During his four years as a
486:known for his work on measuring the
19:Not to be confused with the athlete
2939:(1898). "A New Harmonic Analyzer".
2533:
2494:"Michelson Memorial Lecture Series"
13:
7085:United States Naval Academy alumni
3129:. Chicago: University Press. 1907.
2988:Maclean, Norman F. (Summer 1975).
2211:"Optics at the U.S. Naval Academy"
1743:from the original on July 25, 2021
1717:, University of Texas Press, 2013.
1594:, the French astronomical society.
14:
7181:
7155:Recipients of the Matteucci Medal
7045:People from the Province of Posen
3269:; reprinted in Lapham's Quarterly
3179:
2877:, University of Texas Press, 1972
2121:10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2002.02.07
2041:10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2002.02.07
1720:
1104:, consistent with the prevailing
968:Mount Wilson and Lookout Mountain
829:
822:He is a great uncle of physicist
155:MichelsonâGaleâPearson experiment
7145:20th-century American physicists
7065:American experimental physicists
6477:Hall of Fame for Great Americans
3163:
3148:
2468:Navy League of the United States
1691:Michelson and the Speed of Light
1649:
1383:modern operational observatories
1216:systematic error, albeit small.
838:
798:Navy League of the United States
460:
386:
193:
165:Michelson stellar interferometer
3234:Recent Advances in Spectroscopy
3209:U.S. Naval Academy and The Navy
3078:. University of Chicago Press.
3034:
2981:
2949:
2928:
2919:
2896:
2880:
2867:
2842:
2801:
2709:"Michelson's Last Experiment".
2702:
2651:
2609:
2579:
2565:
2516:
2486:
2456:
2426:
2400:
2382:Case Western Reserve University
2370:
2340:
2314:
2288:
2272:
2247:
2233:
2203:
2177:
2150:
2085:
2055:
2005:
1994:
1970:Livingston, Dorothy Michelson.
1963:
1925:
1260:Case Western Reserve University
907:Concluding page of Michelson's
849:needs additional citations for
790:Case Western Reserve University
587:United States Naval Observatory
504:Case Western Reserve University
318:Case Western Reserve University
210:
189:
7080:Recipients of the Copley Medal
5434:Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran
2169:. Scientific American Library.
1907:
1881:
1855:
1845:
1815:
1785:
1763:"Albert A. Michelson, Physics"
1755:
1665:List of Jewish Nobel laureates
1616:Michelson was a member of the
1597:1922 â Honorary Member of the
1592:Société astronomique de France
708:American Philosophical Society
661:Case School of Applied Science
546:. His sister was the novelist
500:Case School of Applied Science
16:American physicist (1852â1931)
1:
7095:University of Chicago faculty
3566:Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer
3063:
2775:10.1126/science.81.2091.100-a
2719:(1899): 10â14. May 22, 1931.
1077:Michelson, Pease, and Pearson
7170:Recipients of Franklin Medal
5548:National Academy of Sciences
3239:Works by Albert A. Michelson
2063:"USNO â Our Command History"
1680:
1582:National Academy of Sciences
1445:Michelson in popular culture
1230:independent random variables
978:National Bureau of Standards
685:astronomical interferometers
349:Other academic advisors
7:
7090:United States Navy officers
7070:American optical physicists
5986:Charles Christian Lauritsen
3654:Charles Thomson Rees Wilson
3042:"Albert Michelson | Optica"
2963:; Carpenter, Bruce (2014).
2942:American Journal of Science
2546:American National Biography
2464:"Albert A. Michelson Award"
1642:
1590:, the highest award of the
1539:United States Naval Academy
1507:. The play was directed by
1457:, Poland, installed by the
1438:American Journal of Science
1343:astronomical interferometry
1316:Astronomical interferometry
1264:MichelsonâMorley experiment
1250:MichelsonâMorley experiment
1032:MichelsonâMorley experiment
773:United States Naval Academy
683:. He later moved on to use
677:MichelsonâMorley experiment
494:. In 1907, he received the
492:MichelsonâMorley experiment
441:United States Naval Academy
150:MichelsonâMorley experiment
118:United States Naval Academy
10:
7186:
7115:Jewish American physicists
7025:Nobel laureates in Physics
6759:Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
5855:William Francis Gray Swann
3316:September 7, 2019, at the
3156:Light waves and their uses
3126:Light waves and their uses
3102:. Berkeley: Heyday Books.
3070:Livingston, D. M. (1973).
2990:"Billiards is a good game"
2725:10.1126/science.73.1899.10
2438:Computer Measurement Group
1633:Computer Measurement Group
1599:Optical Society of America
1420:
1320:
1247:
980:to obtain a value for the
794:Computer Measurement Group
410:United States Navy Reserve
18:
6699:Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.
6694:Oliver Wendell Holmes Sr.
6484:
6422:Sylvester James Gates Jr.
6294:
6139:
5978:
5835:
5766:Edward Leamington Nichols
5734:
5554:
5443:
5424:
5405:
5380:
5356:
5337:
4938:
4595:
4284:
4062:
3828:
3590:Charles Scott Sherrington
3582:Frederick Gowland Hopkins
3376:
2853:. Springer. p. 248.
1622:American Physical Society
1523:The Norman Maclean Reader
1411:gravitational wave events
1282:to devise his now-famous
807:
620:, he conducted his first
459:
454:
450:
446:
436:
426:
418:
397:
381:
376:
362:
348:
336:
310:
300:
293:
228:
220:
173:
127:
113:
94:
60:
48:
30:
7035:Clark University faculty
7030:American Nobel laureates
6884:William Tecumseh Sherman
6574:George Washington Carver
6159:Norman Foster Ramsey Jr.
5992:John Hasbrouck Van Vleck
5820:Thomas Corwin Mendenhall
5415:Albert Abraham Michelson
3598:Charles Algernon Parsons
3117:
2795:Astrophysics Data System
1697:
1496:Murphys Camp, California
1433:S. W. Stratton
1370:Michelson interferometer
1347:Mount Wilson Observatory
1021:Santa Barbara earthquake
990:Mount Wilson Observatory
896:Page one of Michelson's
616:in particular. While at
471:Albert Abraham Michelson
160:Michelson interferometer
65:Albert Abraham Michelson
6964:John Greenleaf Whittier
6579:William Ellery Channing
6177:Arthur Leonard Schawlow
5933:Arthur Jeffrey Dempster
5921:Percy Williams Bridgman
5796:Robert Andrews Millikan
2561:(subscription required)
2302:. University of Chicago
1511:with music composed by
1459:Polish Physical Society
1310:fine-structure constant
675:carried out the famous
513:
490:and especially for the
284:Duddell Medal and Prize
7075:History of Los Angeles
6949:James McNeill Whistler
6879:Augustus Saint-Gaudens
6794:Matthew Fontaine Maury
6076:John Archibald Wheeler
5963:Francis Wheeler Loomis
5897:John Torrence Tate Sr.
5784:Benjamin Osgood Peirce
5742:Henry Augustus Rowland
5449:Nobel Prize recipients
5426:Physiology or Medicine
5417:(United States/Poland)
5390:Ernesto Teodoro Moneta
3822:Nobel Prize in Physics
3726:Geoffrey Ingram Taylor
3510:Pierre Paul Ămile Roux
3257:IMDB: Bonanza episode
3202:July 16, 2012, at the
3170:French translation of
2935:Michelson, Albert A.;
2873:Swenson, Loyd S. Jr.,
2615:Michelson, Albert A. "
2500:. 2017. Archived from
2470:. 2016. Archived from
2440:. 2017. Archived from
2384:. 2017. Archived from
2354:. 2017. Archived from
2322:"Michelson Remembered"
2067:U.S. Naval Observatory
1713:Loyd S. Swenson, Jr.,
1566:Nobel Prize in Physics
1542:
1519:Norman Fitzroy Maclean
1487:was set in and around
1462:
1366:speckle interferometry
1337:In 1920 Michelson and
1334:
1256:Edward Williams Morley
1073:
992:, using a baseline to
964:
911:
900:
786:MichelsonâMorley Award
715:Nobel Prize in Physics
518:Michelson was born in
496:Nobel Prize in Physics
248:Nobel Prize in Physics
6899:Harriet Beecher Stowe
6869:Franklin D. Roosevelt
6599:James Fenimore Cooper
6559:William Cullen Bryant
6534:Alexander Graham Bell
6279:Jerome Isaac Friedman
5957:J. Robert Oppenheimer
5778:William Francis Magie
5754:Arthur Gordon Webster
3534:Horace Tabberer Brown
3438:Alfred Russel Wallace
3286:on September 22, 2008
2827:10.1214/ss/1009212817
2587:"The Master of Light"
2227:10.1364/ON.4.4.000014
2185:"raman-scattering.eu"
1895:on September 21, 2019
1693:, Doubleday. New York
1637:A. A. Michelson Award
1572:Elliott Cresson Medal
1536:
1489:Virginia City, Nevada
1452:
1328:
1064:
955:
906:
895:
756:. He was promoted to
704:University of Chicago
536:Virginia City, Nevada
508:University of Chicago
353:Georg Hermann Quincke
343:Hermann von Helmholtz
328:University of Chicago
254:Elliott Cresson Medal
7040:People from Strzelno
6929:Booker T. Washington
6839:Alice Freeman Palmer
6819:William T. G. Morton
6764:James Russell Lowell
6243:Donald N. Langenberg
6231:Nicolaas Bloembergen
6100:Edward Mills Purcell
6010:Raymond Thayer Birge
5808:Joseph Sweetman Ames
3742:Edgar Douglas Adrian
3382:Josiah Willard Gibbs
3305:Archival collections
3099:920 O'Farrell Street
3016:"Henry Draper Medal"
2378:"Michelson Lectures"
2259:search.amphilsoc.org
2255:"APS Member History"
1989:920 O'Farrell Street
1803:on September 7, 2019
1797:www.lib.uchicago.edu
1767:www.lib.uchicago.edu
1737:www.history.navy.mil
1393:and the U.S. Navy's
1372:which is one common
858:improve this article
769:Pasadena, California
746:Lieutenant Commander
737:is named after him.
422:1873â1881; 1918â1921
192: 1877;
122:University of Berlin
106:Pasadena, California
6944:George Westinghouse
6914:Henry David Thoreau
6824:John Lothrop Motley
6799:Albert A. Michelson
6679:Nathaniel Hawthorne
6629:Ralph Waldo Emerson
6614:James Buchanan Eads
6416:Philip H. Bucksbaum
6308:William F. Brinkman
6195:Mildred Dresselhaus
6118:Joseph Edward Mayer
6094:Luis Walter Alvarez
6058:John Harry Williams
5885:Harrison M. Randall
5843:Karl Taylor Compton
5748:Albert A. Michelson
5613:Albert A. Michelson
3614:William Henry Bragg
3446:George William Hill
3430:Albert A. Michelson
3224:Albert A. Michelson
3022:on January 26, 2013
2937:Stratton, Samuel W.
2814:Statistical Science
2767:1935Sci....81..100M
2597:on February 2, 2020
2504:on October 22, 2017
2474:on October 19, 2018
2444:on October 22, 2017
2358:on October 23, 2017
2328:on October 22, 2017
2113:2002JAHH....5..165S
2033:2002JAHH....5..165S
1869:on February 3, 2016
1773:on October 21, 2017
1715:The Ethereal Aether
1406:Gravitational waves
1284:Lorentz contraction
607:Ăcole Polytechnique
140:Hyperfine structure
32:Albert A. Michelson
7055:American agnostics
6874:Theodore Roosevelt
6814:Samuel F. B. Morse
6674:Alexander Hamilton
6619:Thomas Alva Edison
6529:Henry Ward Beecher
6514:John James Audubon
6380:Malcolm R. Beasley
6344:Arthur Bienenstock
6219:James A. Krumhansl
6165:Lewis M. Branscomb
6052:William V. Houston
6022:Henry DeWolf Smyth
5951:Lee Alvin DuBridge
5891:Lyman James Briggs
5879:Floyd K. Richtmyer
5546:Presidents of the
3686:Thomas Hunt Morgan
3670:Henry Hallett Dale
3646:John Scott Haldane
3630:George Ellery Hale
3226:on Nobelprize.org
3094:Levy, Harriet Lane
2996:on August 17, 2018
2498:U.S. Naval Academy
1588:Prix Jules Janssen
1578:Henry Draper Medal
1543:
1477:U.S. Naval Academy
1463:
1401:Gravitational wave
1335:
1295:special relativity
1074:
1044:special relativity
1040:general relativity
965:
924:United States Navy
915:Early measurements
912:
901:
814:William T. Sampson
802:U.S. Naval Academy
767:Michelson died in
762:9th Naval District
754:Bureau of Ordnance
723:Henry Draper Medal
681:luminiferous ether
559:U.S. Naval Academy
534:, California, and
528:Kingdom of Prussia
419:Service years
405:United States Navy
357:Marie Alfred Cornu
260:Henry Draper Medal
179:Margaret Hemingway
83:Kingdom of Prussia
7002:
7001:
6934:George Washington
6889:John Philip Sousa
6724:Thomas J. Jackson
6714:Washington Irving
6659:William C. Gorgas
6644:Benjamin Franklin
6609:Charlotte Cushman
6494:John Quincy Adams
6443:
6442:
6374:Michael S. Turner
6213:Val Logsdon Fitch
6183:Maurice Goldhaber
6147:William A. Fowler
6082:Charles H. Townes
5969:Isidor Isaac Rabi
5802:Henry A. Bumstead
5694:
5693:
5679:Ralph J. Cicerone
5589:Alexander Agassiz
5513:
5512:
5295:
5294:
3784:
3783:
3550:Ernest Rutherford
3369:Copley Medallists
3280:"NAWS China Lake"
3259:Look to the Stars
3243:Project Gutenberg
3109:978-0-930588-91-5
3085:978-0-226-48711-3
2676:on March 25, 2009
2528:978-1-906165-22-2
2191:on March 24, 2012
2167:Einstein's Legacy
2138:on August 8, 2017
1952:978-0-375-72609-5
1852:parents ..."
1833:on March 22, 2019
1529:Honors and awards
1481:William Schallert
1417:Harmonic analyzer
1306:Arnold Sommerfeld
1237:statistical model
1213:systematic errors
998:Mount San Antonio
890:
889:
882:
752:, serving in the
671:. In 1887 he and
603:CollĂšge de France
575:technical drawing
544:Harriet Lane Levy
468:
467:
363:Doctoral students
295:Scientific career
272:Gold Medal of RAS
75:December 19, 1852
55:Michelson in 1907
7177:
7110:Jewish agnostics
6774:Edward MacDowell
6729:Thomas Jefferson
6664:Ulysses S. Grant
6624:Jonathan Edwards
6594:Grover Cleveland
6509:Susan B. Anthony
6470:
6463:
6456:
6447:
6446:
6350:Cherry A. Murray
6267:D. Allan Bromley
6237:Ernest M. Henley
6225:Eugen Merzbacher
6201:Robert R. Wilson
6040:Victor Weisskopf
6034:George Uhlenbeck
5909:George B. Pegram
5721:
5714:
5707:
5698:
5697:
5625:William Campbell
5601:William H. Welch
5540:
5533:
5526:
5517:
5516:
5451:
5322:
5315:
5308:
5299:
5298:
5288:
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5208:
5192:
5176:
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5120:
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5092:
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5024:
5008:
4992:
4976:
4960:
4931:
4915:
4903:
4887:
4871:
4855:
4843:
4831:
4819:
4811:
4803:
4787:
4771:
4755:
4743:
4727:
4719:
4707:
4695:
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4659:
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4627:
4611:
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4492:
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4213:
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4110:
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4094:
4086:
4074:
4055:
4043:
4035:
4027:
4019:
4011:
4003:
3995:
3987:
3979:
3978:
3972:
3960:
3952:
3950:Kamerlingh Onnes
3944:
3936:
3928:
3920:
3908:
3900:
3892:
3884:
3876:
3868:
3852:
3840:
3811:
3804:
3797:
3788:
3787:
3777:
3769:
3766:George de Hevesy
3761:
3753:
3745:
3737:
3729:
3721:
3713:
3705:
3697:
3689:
3681:
3673:
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3513:
3505:
3497:
3489:
3481:
3473:
3465:
3457:
3449:
3441:
3433:
3425:
3422:Ălie Metchnikoff
3417:
3414:Dmitri Mendeleev
3409:
3401:
3393:
3385:
3362:
3355:
3348:
3339:
3338:
3295:
3293:
3291:
3282:. Archived from
3265:Norman Maclean:
3252:Internet Archive
3231:
3167:
3152:
3130:
3113:
3089:
3077:
3057:
3056:
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2655:
2649:
2648:
2646:
2644:
2629:
2620:
2613:
2607:
2606:
2604:
2602:
2593:. Archived from
2583:
2577:
2576:
2569:
2563:
2562:
2558:
2540:
2531:
2520:
2514:
2513:
2511:
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2398:
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2352:Coblentz Society
2344:
2338:
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2318:
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2309:
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2292:
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2251:
2245:
2244:
2237:
2231:
2230:
2207:
2201:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2187:. Archived from
2181:
2175:
2170:
2154:
2148:
2147:
2145:
2143:
2137:
2131:. Archived from
2098:
2089:
2083:
2082:
2080:
2078:
2069:. Archived from
2059:
2053:
2052:
2018:
2009:
2003:
1998:
1992:
1985:
1979:
1978:
1967:
1961:
1960:
1929:
1923:
1922:
1911:
1905:
1904:
1902:
1900:
1891:. Archived from
1885:
1879:
1878:
1876:
1874:
1859:
1853:
1849:
1843:
1842:
1840:
1838:
1829:. Archived from
1819:
1813:
1812:
1810:
1808:
1799:. Archived from
1789:
1783:
1782:
1780:
1778:
1769:. Archived from
1759:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1748:
1729:
1718:
1711:
1659:
1657:Biography portal
1654:
1653:
1652:
1635:gives an annual
1358:Hooker Telescope
1339:Francis G. Pease
1331:Hooker Telescope
1270:relative to the
1191:
1177:
1172:
1158:
1118:Hippolyte Fizeau
1103:
1101:
1098:
1090:Francis G. Pease
1056:Robert Shankland
994:Lookout Mountain
885:
878:
874:
871:
865:
842:
834:
725:in 1916 and the
692:Clark University
654:
652:
646:
644:
638:
636:
633:
589:), to work with
555:Ulysses S. Grant
548:Miriam Michelson
481:
464:
392:
390:
389:
338:Doctoral advisor
323:Clark University
214:
212:
197:
195:
191:
101:
74:
72:
53:
43:
28:
27:
21:Albert Michelsen
7185:
7184:
7180:
7179:
7178:
7176:
7175:
7174:
7005:
7004:
7003:
6998:
6974:Frances Willard
6909:Sylvanus Thayer
6859:Edgar Allan Poe
6844:Francis Parkman
6754:Abraham Lincoln
6734:John Paul Jones
6654:Josiah W. Gibbs
6569:Andrew Carnegie
6554:Phillips Brooks
6519:George Bancroft
6480:
6474:
6444:
6439:
6428:Frances Hellman
6326:Marvin L. Cohen
6314:Myriam Sarachik
6302:George Trilling
6290:
6285:James S. Langer
6261:J.R. Schrieffer
6171:Herman Feshbach
6135:
6130:Chien-Shiung Wu
6112:Philip M. Morse
6046:Frederick Seitz
5974:
5939:Harvey Fletcher
5831:
5730:
5725:
5695:
5690:
5655:Frederick Seitz
5643:Alfred Richards
5637:Frank B. Jewett
5607:Charles Walcott
5559:Alexander Bache
5550:
5544:
5514:
5509:
5447:
5439:
5420:
5401:
5376:
5373:(Great Britain)
5371:Rudyard Kipling
5352:
5333:
5326:
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5291:
5275:
5259:
5243:
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5211:
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5027:
5011:
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4979:
4963:
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4940:
4934:
4918:
4906:
4890:
4881:Cohen-Tannoudji
4874:
4858:
4846:
4834:
4822:
4814:
4806:
4790:
4774:
4758:
4746:
4730:
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3835:
3824:
3815:
3785:
3780:
3772:
3764:
3756:
3748:
3740:
3732:
3724:
3718:Joseph Barcroft
3716:
3710:Robert Robinson
3708:
3700:
3692:
3684:
3676:
3668:
3660:
3652:
3644:
3636:
3628:
3622:Arthur Schuster
3620:
3612:
3604:
3596:
3588:
3580:
3574:Albert Einstein
3572:
3564:
3556:
3548:
3540:
3532:
3526:William Bayliss
3524:
3518:Hendrik Lorentz
3516:
3508:
3500:
3492:
3484:
3476:
3468:
3460:
3452:
3444:
3436:
3428:
3420:
3412:
3406:William Crookes
3404:
3396:
3388:
3380:
3372:
3366:
3318:Wayback Machine
3307:
3289:
3287:
3278:
3204:Wayback Machine
3182:
3175:
3168:
3159:
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3123:
3120:
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2901:
2897:
2885:
2881:
2872:
2868:
2861:
2847:
2843:
2806:
2802:
2761:(2091): 100â1.
2747:
2740:
2708:
2707:
2703:
2687:
2686:
2679:
2677:
2673:
2662:
2656:
2652:
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2477:
2475:
2462:
2461:
2457:
2447:
2445:
2432:
2431:
2427:
2417:
2415:
2414:on May 13, 2017
2406:
2405:
2401:
2391:
2389:
2388:on May 13, 2017
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2359:
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2178:
2158:David Peck Todd
2155:
2151:
2141:
2139:
2135:
2096:
2090:
2086:
2076:
2074:
2073:on June 6, 2011
2061:
2060:
2056:
2016:
2010:
2006:
1999:
1995:
1986:
1982:
1968:
1964:
1953:
1930:
1926:
1913:
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1886:
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1860:
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1846:
1836:
1834:
1827:history.aip.org
1821:
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1712:
1705:
1700:
1683:
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1650:
1648:
1645:
1554:Matteucci Medal
1531:
1447:
1425:
1419:
1403:
1323:
1318:
1291:Albert Einstein
1280:Hendrik Lorentz
1252:
1246:
1203:, displacement
1179:
1170:
1160:
1145:
1144:. In this way,
1114:
1099:
1096:
1094:
1079:
1052:Hendrik Lorentz
1036:Albert Einstein
1030:The now-famous
1017:geodetic survey
970:
917:
886:
875:
869:
866:
855:
843:
832:
824:Peter Michelson
810:
650:
648:
642:
640:
634:
631:
629:
516:
473:
414:
387:
385:
377:Military career
369:
367:Robert Millikan
355:
332:
289:
236:Matteucci Medal
216:
213: 1899)
208:
204:
200:
199:
196: 1898)
187:
183:
180:
169:
120:
114:Alma mater
109:
103:
99:
90:
85:(now Strzelno,
76:
70:
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66:
56:
44:
35:
33:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7183:
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7000:
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6996:
6991:
6989:Orville Wright
6986:
6984:Woodrow Wilson
6981:
6979:Roger Williams
6976:
6971:
6966:
6961:
6956:
6951:
6946:
6941:
6939:Daniel Webster
6936:
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6926:
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6911:
6906:
6904:Gilbert Stuart
6901:
6896:
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6886:
6881:
6876:
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6866:
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6856:
6851:
6849:George Peabody
6846:
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6826:
6821:
6816:
6811:
6806:
6804:Maria Mitchell
6801:
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6771:
6766:
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6756:
6751:
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6716:
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6706:
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6696:
6691:
6686:
6681:
6676:
6671:
6666:
6661:
6656:
6651:
6646:
6641:
6639:Stephen Foster
6636:
6634:David Farragut
6631:
6626:
6621:
6616:
6611:
6606:
6601:
6596:
6591:
6586:
6581:
6576:
6571:
6566:
6564:Luther Burbank
6561:
6556:
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6549:Louis Brandeis
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6407:
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6395:
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6383:
6377:
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6365:
6359:
6353:
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6341:
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6323:
6317:
6311:
6305:
6298:
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6289:
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6282:
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6273:Andrew Sessler
6270:
6264:
6258:
6255:C. Kumar Patel
6252:
6249:Burton Richter
6246:
6240:
6234:
6228:
6222:
6216:
6210:
6204:
6198:
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6189:Robert Marshak
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5927:Albert W. Hull
5924:
5918:
5915:George Stewart
5912:
5906:
5900:
5894:
5888:
5882:
5876:
5873:Robert W. Wood
5870:
5867:Arthur Compton
5864:
5858:
5852:
5846:
5839:
5837:
5833:
5832:
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5829:
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5817:
5814:Theodore Lyman
5811:
5805:
5799:
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5790:Ernest Merritt
5787:
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5757:
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5709:
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5688:
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5670:
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5661:Philip Handler
5658:
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5640:
5634:
5628:
5622:
5616:
5610:
5604:
5598:
5592:
5586:
5580:
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5571:William Rogers
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5347:Eduard Buchner
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4772:
4756:
4744:
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4708:
4696:
4688:
4672:
4660:
4644:
4628:
4617:P. W. Anderson
4612:
4599:
4597:
4593:
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1248:Main article:
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3391:
3390:Joseph Lister
3387:
3383:
3379:
3378:
3375:
3370:
3363:
3358:
3356:
3351:
3349:
3344:
3343:
3340:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3319:
3315:
3312:
3309:
3308:
3300:
3297:
3285:
3281:
3277:
3275:
3272:
3270:
3268:
3263:
3261:
3260:
3255:
3253:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3240:
3237:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3222:
3220:
3217:
3215:
3212:
3210:
3207:
3205:
3201:
3198:
3195:
3193:
3190:
3187:
3184:
3183:
3173:
3166:
3161:
3157:
3151:
3146:
3145:
3141:
3137:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3127:
3122:
3121:
3111:
3105:
3101:
3100:
3095:
3091:
3087:
3081:
3076:
3075:
3068:
3067:
3051:September 13,
3047:
3043:
3037:
3021:
3017:
3011:
2995:
2991:
2984:
2976:
2970:
2966:
2962:
2961:Krantz, Steve
2958:
2957:Hammack, Bill
2952:
2944:
2943:
2938:
2931:
2922:
2916:
2912:
2908:
2904:
2899:
2891:
2890:
2883:
2876:
2870:
2862:
2856:
2852:
2845:
2837:
2833:
2828:
2823:
2819:
2815:
2811:
2804:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2760:
2756:
2752:
2745:
2743:
2734:
2730:
2726:
2722:
2718:
2714:
2713:
2705:
2697:
2691:
2672:
2668:
2661:
2654:
2638:
2634:
2628:
2626:
2618:
2612:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2582:
2574:
2568:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2547:
2539:
2537:
2529:
2525:
2519:
2503:
2499:
2495:
2489:
2473:
2469:
2465:
2459:
2443:
2439:
2435:
2429:
2413:
2409:
2403:
2387:
2383:
2379:
2373:
2357:
2353:
2349:
2343:
2327:
2323:
2317:
2301:
2300:UChicago News
2297:
2291:
2285:
2281:
2275:
2260:
2256:
2250:
2242:
2236:
2228:
2224:
2220:
2216:
2212:
2206:
2190:
2186:
2180:
2173:
2168:
2164:
2163:Schwinger, J.
2159:
2153:
2134:
2130:
2126:
2122:
2118:
2114:
2110:
2106:
2102:
2095:
2088:
2072:
2068:
2064:
2058:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2030:
2026:
2022:
2015:
2008:
2002:
1997:
1990:
1984:
1977:
1973:
1966:
1959:
1954:
1948:
1944:
1940:
1939:
1934:
1928:
1921:
1916:
1910:
1899:September 21,
1894:
1890:
1884:
1868:
1864:
1858:
1848:
1832:
1828:
1824:
1818:
1802:
1798:
1794:
1788:
1772:
1768:
1764:
1758:
1742:
1738:
1734:
1728:
1726:
1724:
1716:
1710:
1708:
1703:
1692:
1688:
1685:
1684:
1676:
1675:List of Poles
1673:
1671:
1668:
1666:
1663:
1662:
1658:
1647:
1640:
1638:
1634:
1629:
1627:
1623:
1619:
1618:Royal Society
1612:
1608:
1606:
1602:
1600:
1596:
1593:
1589:
1585:
1583:
1579:
1575:
1573:
1569:
1567:
1563:
1561:
1557:
1555:
1551:
1549:
1548:Rumford Prize
1545:
1544:
1540:
1535:
1526:
1524:
1520:
1516:
1514:
1510:
1506:
1500:
1497:
1492:
1490:
1486:
1482:
1478:
1474:
1470:
1469:
1460:
1456:
1451:
1442:
1440:
1439:
1434:
1430:
1424:
1414:
1412:
1407:
1398:
1396:
1392:
1388:
1384:
1380:
1375:
1371:
1367:
1361:
1359:
1355:
1352:
1348:
1344:
1340:
1332:
1327:
1313:
1311:
1307:
1303:
1298:
1296:
1292:
1287:
1285:
1281:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1257:
1251:
1241:
1238:
1233:
1231:
1227:
1223:
1217:
1214:
1210:
1206:
1202:
1198:
1193:
1190:
1186:
1182:
1176:
1168:
1164:
1157:
1153:
1149:
1143:
1139:
1135:
1131:
1127:
1123:
1122:LĂ©on Foucault
1119:
1109:
1107:
1106:electro-optic
1091:
1086:
1084:
1083:electro-optic
1071:
1067:
1063:
1059:
1057:
1053:
1049:
1048:Dayton Miller
1045:
1041:
1038:'s theory of
1037:
1033:
1028:
1026:
1025:Richter scale
1022:
1018:
1012:
1010:
1006:
1003:In 1922, the
1001:
999:
995:
991:
986:
983:
979:
975:
962:
958:
954:
950:
948:
947:Simon Newcomb
944:
942:
936:
934:
933:Simon Newcomb
929:
928:LĂ©on Foucault
925:
920:
910:
905:
899:
894:
884:
881:
873:
863:
859:
853:
852:
847:This section
845:
841:
836:
835:
827:
825:
820:
817:
815:
805:
803:
799:
795:
791:
787:
781:
778:
774:
770:
765:
763:
759:
755:
751:
750:Naval Reserve
747:
743:
742:World War One
738:
736:
732:
728:
724:
721:in 1907, the
720:
716:
711:
709:
705:
701:
700:Massachusetts
697:
693:
688:
686:
682:
678:
674:
673:Edward Morley
670:
666:
662:
658:
627:
623:
619:
615:
610:
608:
604:
600:
596:
592:
591:Simon Newcomb
588:
584:
580:
576:
572:
568:
564:
560:
556:
551:
549:
545:
541:
537:
533:
532:Murphy's Camp
529:
525:
521:
511:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
480:
476:
472:
463:
458:
453:
449:
445:
442:
439:
435:
432:
429:
425:
421:
417:
411:
408:
406:
403:
402:
400:
396:
393:United States
384:
380:
375:
372:
368:
365:
361:
358:
354:
351:
347:
344:
341:
339:
335:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
315:
313:
309:
306:
303:
299:
296:
292:
285:
282:
279:
276:
273:
270:
267:
264:
261:
258:
255:
252:
249:
246:
243:
240:
237:
234:
233:
231:
227:
223:
219:
176:
172:
166:
163:
161:
158:
156:
153:
151:
148:
146:
143:
141:
138:
136:
133:
132:
130:
126:
123:
119:
116:
112:
107:
97:
93:
88:
84:
80:
63:
59:
52:
47:
42:
38:
29:
26:
22:
7150:Metrologists
6969:Emma Willard
6954:Walt Whitman
6924:Lillian Wald
6894:Joseph Story
6854:William Penn
6834:Thomas Paine
6809:James Monroe
6798:
6704:Mark Hopkins
6684:Joseph Henry
6604:Peter Cooper
6584:Rufus Choate
6539:Daniel Boone
6524:Clara Barton
6398:Laura Greene
6362:Barry Barish
6338:Leo Kadanoff
6207:Sidney Drell
6088:John Bardeen
5998:Enrico Fermi
5747:
5649:Detlev Bronk
5631:Frank Lillie
5612:
5565:Joseph Henry
5479:
5414:
4725:von Klitzing
4717:Van der Meer
3897:
3734:Oswald Avery
3702:Thomas Lewis
3662:Arthur Evans
3429:
3398:Eduard Suess
3290:September 3,
3288:. Retrieved
3284:the original
3266:
3258:
3233:
3171:
3155:
3139:
3133:
3125:
3098:
3073:
3049:. Retrieved
3045:
3036:
3026:February 19,
3024:. Retrieved
3020:the original
3010:
2998:. Retrieved
2994:the original
2983:
2964:
2951:
2940:
2930:
2921:
2906:
2898:
2887:
2882:
2874:
2869:
2850:
2844:
2817:
2813:
2803:
2793:– via
2758:
2754:
2716:
2710:
2704:
2690:cite journal
2678:. Retrieved
2671:the original
2666:
2653:
2641:. Retrieved
2611:
2599:. Retrieved
2595:the original
2590:
2581:
2567:
2544:
2518:
2506:. Retrieved
2502:the original
2488:
2478:December 25,
2476:. Retrieved
2472:the original
2458:
2446:. Retrieved
2442:the original
2428:
2416:. Retrieved
2412:the original
2402:
2390:. Retrieved
2386:the original
2372:
2360:. Retrieved
2356:the original
2342:
2330:. Retrieved
2326:the original
2316:
2304:. Retrieved
2299:
2290:
2274:
2262:. Retrieved
2258:
2249:
2235:
2218:
2214:
2205:
2193:. Retrieved
2189:the original
2179:
2166:
2152:
2142:November 26,
2140:. Retrieved
2133:the original
2104:
2100:
2087:
2075:. Retrieved
2071:the original
2057:
2024:
2020:
2007:
1996:
1988:
1983:
1975:
1971:
1965:
1956:
1937:
1927:
1918:
1914:
1909:
1897:. Retrieved
1893:the original
1883:
1871:. Retrieved
1867:the original
1857:
1847:
1835:. Retrieved
1831:the original
1826:
1817:
1805:. Retrieved
1801:the original
1796:
1787:
1775:. Retrieved
1771:the original
1766:
1757:
1745:. Retrieved
1736:
1714:
1690:
1630:
1615:
1560:Copley Medal
1522:
1517:
1513:Joshua Dumas
1505:Jon Stutzman
1501:
1493:
1484:
1473:Lorne Greene
1466:
1464:
1436:
1426:
1404:
1378:
1373:
1362:
1336:
1299:
1288:
1253:
1234:
1225:
1221:
1218:
1208:
1204:
1200:
1196:
1194:
1188:
1184:
1180:
1174:
1166:
1162:
1155:
1151:
1147:
1141:
1137:
1133:
1129:
1125:
1115:
1102:11 km/s
1087:
1080:
1070:Auguste LĂ©on
1068:portrait by
1029:
1013:
1002:
987:
971:
945:
937:
921:
918:
908:
897:
876:
867:
856:Please help
851:verification
848:
821:
818:
811:
782:
766:
739:
729:in 1923. A
719:Copley Medal
712:
689:
611:
552:
517:
470:
469:
311:Institutions
294:
266:Albert Medal
242:Copley Medal
203:Edna Stanton
100:(1931-05-09)
25:
7020:1931 deaths
7015:1852 births
6959:Eli Whitney
6864:Walter Reed
6784:Horace Mann
6544:Edwin Booth
6499:Jane Addams
6410:David Gross
6386:Sam Aronson
6320:Helen Quinn
6153:George Pake
6070:Felix Bloch
6028:Jesse Beams
5903:John Zeleny
5681:(2005â2016)
5675:(1993â2005)
5669:(1981â1993)
5667:Frank Press
5663:(1969â1981)
5657:(1962â1969)
5651:(1950â1962)
5645:(1947â1950)
5639:(1939â1947)
5633:(1935â1939)
5627:(1931â1935)
5621:(1927â1931)
5615:(1923â1927)
5609:(1917â1923)
5603:(1913â1917)
5597:(1907â1913)
5591:(1901â1907)
5585:(1895â1900)
5579:(1883â1895)
5573:(1879â1882)
5567:(1868â1878)
5561:(1863â1867)
5330:Nobel Prize
4769:Steinberger
4685:K. Siegbahn
4677:Bloembergen
4398:Chamberlain
4131:Schrödinger
4041:M. Siegbahn
3970:W. H. Bragg
3966:W. L. Bragg
3750:G. H. Hardy
3558:Horace Lamb
3502:James Dewar
3494:Ivan Pavlov
3470:Felix Klein
3371:(1901â1950)
2508:October 22,
2448:October 22,
2418:October 22,
2392:October 22,
2362:October 22,
2332:October 22,
2306:January 22,
2215:Optics News
2172:2012 e-book
1873:January 27,
1733:"Michelson"
1509:David Maral
1276:null result
622:experiments
571:climatology
98:May 9, 1931
7009:Categories
6919:Mark Twain
6739:James Kent
6709:Elias Howe
6589:Henry Clay
6489:John Adams
6392:Homer Neal
5849:Henry Gale
5772:Henry Crew
5760:Carl Barus
5595:Ira Remsen
5358:Literature
5286:L'Huillier
5250:Hasselmann
5206:Strickland
5174:Kosterlitz
5098:Perlmutter
4837:Brockhouse
4542:Schrieffer
4414:Hofstadter
4366:C. N. Yang
4123:Heisenberg
4100:De Broglie
3678:Niels Bohr
3606:Max Planck
3064:References
3000:August 16,
2680:August 13,
2601:January 7,
2027:(2): 165.
1747:August 17,
1374:laboratory
1354:Betelgeuse
1066:Autochrome
974:E. B. Rosa
653: mi/s
645: km/s
609:in Paris.
601:, and the
599:Heidelberg
563:midshipman
553:President
506:) and the
382:Allegiance
71:1852-12-19
6769:Mary Lyon
6479:inductees
6140:1976â2000
6016:E. Wigner
5979:1951â1975
5836:1926â1950
5735:1899â1925
5349:(Germany)
5339:Chemistry
5332:laureates
5270:Zeilinger
5090:Novoselov
5058:Kobayashi
4982:Abrikosov
4829:J. Taylor
4809:de Gennes
4801:R. Taylor
4693:K. Wilson
4641:R. Wilson
4625:Van Vleck
4596:1976â2000
4586:Rainwater
4582:Mottelson
4558:Josephson
4506:Gell-Mann
4470:Schwinger
4458:Prokhorov
4418:Mössbauer
4378:Cherenkov
4370:T. D. Lee
4294:Cockcroft
4285:1951â1975
4084:C. Wilson
4063:1926â1950
4009:Guillaume
3898:Michelson
3858:Becquerel
3829:1901â1925
3818:Laureates
2967:. Blurb.
2836:0883-4237
2591:The Attic
2129:110077408
2049:110077408
1958:agnostic.
1837:August 2,
1807:August 2,
1777:August 2,
1681:Biography
1580:from the
1441:in 1898.
1351:red giant
1262:, in the
1199:, radius
961:U.S. Navy
957:Lt. Cmdr.
758:Commander
696:Worcester
665:Cleveland
618:Annapolis
583:chemistry
484:physicist
455:Signature
431:Commander
6669:Asa Gray
6004:H. Bethe
5436:(France)
5398:(France)
5278:Agostini
5166:Thouless
5158:McDonald
5146:Nakamura
5114:Wineland
5046:GrĂŒnberg
5002:Politzer
4986:Ginzburg
4974:Giacconi
4954:Ketterle
4909:'t Hooft
4893:Laughlin
4885:Phillips
4865:Osheroff
4793:Friedman
4765:Schwartz
4761:Lederman
4681:Schawlow
4657:Weinberg
4466:Tomonaga
4358:Brattain
4350:Shockley
4259:Blackett
4251:Appleton
4243:Bridgman
4190:Lawrence
4170:Davisson
4150:Chadwick
4033:Millikan
4017:Einstein
3906:Lippmann
3874:Rayleigh
3866:M. Curie
3862:P. Curie
3314:Archived
3200:Archived
3096:(1996).
2791:28035563
2783:17816642
2733:17843974
2637:Archived
2165:(1986).
1935:(2002).
1741:Archived
1643:See also
1624:and the
1455:Strzelno
1385:such as
1379:baseline
976:and the
870:May 2017
569:, heat,
540:agnostic
221:Children
5687:(2016â)
5407:Physics
5392:(Italy)
5266:Clauser
5230:Penrose
5214:Peebles
5170:Haldane
5138:Akasaki
5126:Englert
5118:Haroche
5102:Schmidt
5062:Maskawa
5014:Glauber
5006:Wilczek
4990:Leggett
4970:Koshiba
4950:Cornell
4941:present
4925:Kroemer
4921:Alferov
4913:Veltman
4897:Störmer
4817:Charpak
4797:Kendall
4781:Dehmelt
4749:Bednorz
4649:Glashow
4637:Penzias
4633:Kapitsa
4605:Richter
4578:A. Bohr
4554:Giaever
4534:Bardeen
4498:Alvarez
4482:Kastler
4474:Feynman
4354:Bardeen
4318:Zernike
4310:Purcell
4080:Compton
4025:N. Bohr
3914:Marconi
3846:Lorentz
3838:Röntgen
3820:of the
3320:at the
3250:at the
2810:"Light"
2763:Bibcode
2712:Science
2643:July 9,
2573:"Links"
2264:May 19,
2195:June 2,
2109:Bibcode
2077:June 2,
2029:Bibcode
1689:(1960)
1609:1923 â
1603:1923 â
1586:1922 â
1576:1916 â
1570:1912 â
1564:1907 â
1558:1907 â
1552:1903 â
1546:1888 â
1485:Bonanza
1468:Bonanza
1321:Optical
941:Newcomb
748:in the
733:on the
624:on the
579:physics
520:Strelno
305:Physics
215:
207:
198:
186:
182:
174:Spouses
79:Strelno
6436:(2023)
6430:(2022)
6424:(2021)
6418:(2020)
6412:(2019)
6406:(2018)
6400:(2017)
6394:(2016)
6388:(2015)
6382:(2014)
6376:(2013)
6370:(2012)
6364:(2011)
6358:(2010)
6352:(2009)
6346:(2008)
6340:(2007)
6334:(2006)
6328:(2005)
6322:(2004)
6316:(2003)
6310:(2002)
6304:(2001)
6287:(2000)
6281:(1999)
6275:(1998)
6269:(1997)
6263:(1996)
6257:(1995)
6251:(1994)
6245:(1993)
6239:(1992)
6233:(1991)
6227:(1990)
6221:(1989)
6215:(1987)
6209:(1986)
6203:(1985)
6197:(1984)
6191:(1983)
6185:(1982)
6179:(1981)
6173:(1980)
6167:(1979)
6161:(1978)
6155:(1977)
6149:(1976)
6132:(1975)
6126:(1974)
6120:(1973)
6114:(1972)
6108:(1971)
6102:(1970)
6096:(1969)
6090:(1968)
6084:(1967)
6078:(1966)
6072:(1965)
6066:(1964)
6060:(1963)
6054:(1962)
6048:(1961)
6042:(1960)
6036:(1959)
6030:(1958)
6024:(1957)
6018:(1956)
6012:(1955)
6006:(1954)
6000:(1953)
5994:(1952)
5988:(1951)
5971:(1950)
5965:(1949)
5959:(1948)
5953:(1947)
5947:(1946)
5941:(1945)
5935:(1944)
5929:(1943)
5923:(1942)
5917:(1941)
5911:(1941)
5905:(1940)
5899:(1939)
5893:(1938)
5887:(1937)
5881:(1936)
5875:(1935)
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5857:(1931)
5851:(1929)
5845:(1927)
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5792:(1914)
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5768:(1907)
5762:(1905)
5756:(1903)
5750:(1901)
5744:(1899)
5282:Krausz
5276:2023:
5262:Aspect
5260:2022:
5254:Manabe
5246:Parisi
5244:2021:
5234:Genzel
5228:2020:
5222:Queloz
5212:2019:
5202:Mourou
5198:Ashkin
5196:2018:
5190:Thorne
5186:Barish
5180:2017:
5164:2016:
5154:Kajita
5152:2015:
5136:2014:
5124:2013:
5112:2012:
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4861:D. Lee
4859:1996:
4853:Reines
4847:1995:
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4815:1992:
4807:1991:
4791:1990:
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4759:1988:
4753:MĂŒller
4747:1987:
4741:Rohrer
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4731:1986:
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4711:1984:
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4699:1983:
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4663:1980:
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4426:Landau
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4078:1927:
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3999:1919:
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3991:1918:
3985:Barkla
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3964:1915:
3956:1914:
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3932:1911:
3924:1910:
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1072:, 1921
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567:optics
398:Branch
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280:(1923)
274:(1923)
268:(1920)
262:(1916)
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229:Awards
108:, U.S.
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3942:Dalén
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3118:Works
2787:S2CID
2674:(PDF)
2663:(PDF)
2136:(PDF)
2125:S2CID
2097:(PDF)
2045:S2CID
2017:(PDF)
1991:, 47.
1698:Notes
1391:CHARA
1268:Earth
1146:tan(2
1009:invar
744:as a
647:, or
524:Posen
502:(now
477:
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5500:1911
5495:1910
5490:1909
5485:1908
5475:1906
5470:1905
5465:1904
5460:1903
5455:1902
5362:1907
5238:Ghez
5086:Geim
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4566:Ryle
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4326:Born
4227:Rabi
4211:1942
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4197:1940
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4142:1934
4115:1931
3977:1916
3958:Laue
3934:Wien
3292:2010
3104:ISBN
3080:ISBN
3053:2024
3028:2011
3002:2018
2969:ISBN
2907:Isis
2855:ISBN
2832:ISSN
2779:PMID
2729:PMID
2696:link
2682:2009
2645:2022
2603:2020
2524:ISBN
2510:2017
2480:2018
2450:2017
2420:2017
2394:2017
2364:2017
2334:2017
2308:2021
2282:and
2266:2021
2197:2011
2144:2017
2079:2011
1947:ISBN
1901:2019
1875:2016
1839:2019
1809:2019
1779:2019
1749:2022
1631:The
1483:).
1395:NPOI
1387:VLTI
1150:) =
1120:and
1042:and
735:Moon
657:Navy
605:and
597:and
581:and
573:and
514:Life
479:FRAS
437:Unit
427:Rank
194:div.
95:Died
61:Born
41:FRAS
5070:Kao
4877:Chu
3241:at
2911:doi
2822:doi
2771:doi
2759:522
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2551:doi
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