684:
190:
governments to carry out punitive policies in
Germany, such as transferring territories to Poland. The main arguments against total occupation were that it would create an untold burden on Allied economies and prolong the suffering of the German population, possibly driving new revanchist ideologies. However, his final conclusion was that a total occupation would be most beneficial, at least during the initial phase. In August 1944, the US government established the United States Group to the Control Council for Germany, which served as a liaison group within the EAC for planning the future occupation of entire Germany. The chairman of this group was Brig. Gen.
866:
427:, the council enacted Law no. 10 (20 December 1945), which authorised every occupying power to have its own legal system to try war criminals and to conduct such trials independently of the International Military Tribunal then sitting at Nuremberg. Law no. 10 resulted from disagreements arising among the Allied governments regarding a common policy on war criminals and marked the beginning of the decline in inter-Allied cooperation to that effect. Following the conclusion of the Nuremberg Trial of Major War Criminals in October 1946, inter-Allied cooperation on war crimes totally collapsed.
904:, the Berlin Air Safety Center (BASC), remained in the building from 1945 until December 31, 1990. As a symbol of the BASC's continued presence, the four national flags of the occupying powers still flew over the large front doors every day. The only other signs of occupancy were the few, sparse office lights that emanated from a small corner room of the buildingâthe BASC Operations Roomâin the evenings. Of the 550 rooms in the building, the BASC office complex and guards' quarters occupied fewer than forty.
381:, but also with such comparatively pedestrian matters as telephone tariffs and the combat of venereal diseases. On many issues the council was unable to impose its resolutions, as real power lay in the hands of the separate Allied governments and their military governors and the council issued recommendations that did not have the force of law. On 20 September 1945, the council issued Directive no. 10, which divided the various official acts of the Control Council into five categories:
339:
874:
20:
805:
253:. The Allies understandably did not want to give any future hostile German regime any kind of legal argument to resurrect an old quarrel. Eventually, determined not to accord any recognition to the Flensburg administration, they agreed to sign a four-power declaration of the terms of the German surrender instead. On 5 June 1945, in Berlin, the supreme commanders of the four occupying powers signed a common
300:
superseded by any general instrument of surrender imposed by, or on behalf of the United
Nations and applicable to GERMANY and the German armed forces as a whole." In reality, of course, German authority had ceased to exist since all remaining German armed forces surrendered before. These parts of the Berlin declaration, therefore, merely formalised the
791:(Sovereignty Declaration) agreed in the council, the Federal Republic was allowed to assume legal control of Berlin at the moment of German reunification (although the withdrawal of the Allied military presence had to wait until 1994, in accordance with the timeframe provided by the Treaty on the Final Settlement with Respect to Germany).
284:
273:, hereby assume supreme authority with respect to Germany, including all the powers possessed by the German Government, the High Command and any state, municipal, or local government or authority. The assumption, for the purposes stated above, of the said authority and powers does not effect the annexation of Germany.
784:
The council had held its final meeting on 2 October 1990, on the eve of the reunification of
Germany, when it promulgated the formal documentsâalready agreed in advanceâthat authorised the inclusion of the city of Berlin in the German reunification. This was necessary because, until then, West Berlin
533:
Law no. 5 (30 October 1945) created the German
External Property Commission, which was authorised to confiscate any German assets outside of Germany until the Control Council decided how to dispose of it in the interests of peace. The composition of that commission was decided in Directive no. 21 (20
446:
Directive no. 18 (12 November 1945) provided for the dissolution of all German Army units, all within a time limit to be decided upon. This directive reflects the policy taken by the western Allied governments of using German military units for their own logistical purposes, a move objected to by the
497:
as an administrative unit within
Germany, citing past militarism associated with that name as the cause for the change. Free state of Prussia and government of Prussia had already been abolished by Hitler in 1934. Part of the former territory of Prussia was no longer even populated by Germans, as it
349:
On 30 August 1945, the
Control Council constituted itself and issued its first proclamation, which informed the German people of the council's existence and asserted that the commands and directives issued by the commanders-in-chief in their respective zones were not affected by the establishment of
570:
and accordingly the French did not accept any obligation to abide by the
Potsdam Agreement in the proceedings of the Allied Control Council. In particular, they resisted all proposals to establish common policies and institutions across Germany as a whole and anything that they feared might lead to
442:
An order dated 10 September ordered the recall of all German government agents and diplomatic representatives from the countries to which they were assigned. Another order of the same day established a procedure for disseminating information to the press on the council's work, ordering that a press
325:
which were established by the Allies over every defeated Axis power, was to deal with the central administration of the country (an idea that hardly materialised in the case of
Germany, as that administration totally broke down with the end of the war) and to assure that the military administration
749:
In establishing the Allied
Control Council as the supreme authority for Germany and the sole legal repository of German national sovereignty, the Allied Powers of 1945 had envisaged that this sovereignty would eventually be passed on to a new German state, once a unified German government adequate
513:
One major issue dealt with by the
Control Council was the decision made at the Potsdam Conference regarding the forced removal of German minorities from Czechoslovakia, Hungary and Poland to Allied-occupied Germany. On 20 November 1945, the council approved a plan to that effect to be completed by
469:
in the city of Berlin in October of the same year. On 3 August 1946, the council approved a new provisional constitution for the Greater Berlin metropolitan area. Another reform relating to Berlin took place on 22 August 1946, as the council approved a reform plan for the police of Greater Berlin,
143:
asserting supreme power in Germany, the Allied Control Council was constituted the sole legal sovereign authority for Germany as a whole, replacing the civil government of Germany under the Nazi Party. In 1948, the Soviets withdrew from the ACC due to its conflict with the western Allies, who then
670:
When the Soviets learned about these plans, they claimed that they were in violation of the Potsdam Agreement, that obviously the Western powers were not interested in further regular four-power control of Germany and that under such circumstances the Control Council had no further purpose. On 20
907:
Because of the BASC's presence, the building remained closely guarded by United States military guards, with access granted only to select members of the four powers. This led to mysterious legends and ghost stories about the eerie, dark facility with its grand, granite statuary overlooking the
896:
The building itself had suffered some battle damage, losing a central tower, but had remained mostly usable. After the cessation of most council activity in 1948, all occupying powers quickly withdrew from the building to their respective sectors of the city, leaving the facility cold, empty and
482:
Directive no. 24 (12 January 1946) established a set of comprehensive criteria for the removal from public office those "who have been more than nominal participants in its (Nazi Party) activities" and provided for their removal from any civil service or work in civil organisation, labor unions,
299:
This imposition was in line with Article 4 of the Instrument of Surrender that had been included so that the EAC document, or something similar, could be imposed on the Germans after the military surrender. Article 4 stated that "This act of military surrender is without prejudice to and will be
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and was modeled on the one used a few days previously for the surrender of the German forces in Italy. It was not the document which had been drafted for the surrender of Germany by the "European Advisory Commission" (EAC). This created a legal problem for the Allies, because although the German
197:
As the German collapse approached, Strang became convinced that Germany was about to undergo a total collapse, in which case a total occupation and control would be inevitable. He even proposed a draft declaration to be issued by the Allied governments in case no political authority remained in
317:
based on the work of the EAC. Germany was divided into four zones of occupationâBritish, American, French and Sovietâeach being ruled by the commander-in-chief of the respective occupation forces. "Matters that affect Germany as a whole," however, would have to be decided jointly by all four
176:
It is recognised that, in view of the chaotic conditions to be anticipated in Germany, whether a capitulation occurs before invasion or after invasion and consequent establishment of military government, an initial period of military government in Germany is inevitable and should be provided
478:
Law no. 2 (10 October 1945) provided for the total and permanent dissolution of the National Socialist Party and its revival was totally prohibited. As part of the denazification policy, Directive no. 23 (17 December 1945) prohibited any athletic activities performed as part of military or
189:
when Allied rule was established over the Rhineland. Strang believed that a full occupation would limit the reliance on former Nazis to maintain order within Germany. He also believed that it would make the lessons of defeat more visible to the German population and would enable the Allied
483:
industry, education or the press and any work other than simple labor. The category of persons to which the directive applied were those who held significant positions in the Nazi Party or those who joined prior to 1937, the time when membership became compulsory for German citizens.
185:, was undecided on whether a partial occupation of Germany by Allied troops was the most desirable course of action. At the first EAC meeting on January 14, 1944, Strang proposed alternatives that favored the total occupation of Germany, similar to the situation following the
522:
On 10 September 1945, the council issued an appeal to the separate Allied military governors, requesting them to relax trade regulations between the four occupation zones but this was only a recommendation, as each Allied government maintained the real power on such matters.
586:
529:
On 20 September, the council issued an order prohibiting fraternisation between Allied military personnel and the German population, effective from 1 October, except in cases of marriage or when a military governor decided to billet his soldiers with a German family.
486:
In order to eradicate the influence of Nazi literature on the German population, Order no. 4 (13 May 1946) prohibited the publication and dissemination of Nazi or militarist literature and demanded to hand over any existing such literature to the Allied authorities.
285:
654:
In September 1946, disagreement arose regarding the distribution of coal for industry in the four occupation zones and the Soviet representative in the council withdrew his support of the plan agreed upon by the governments of the United States, Britain and France.
578:
Relations between the Western Allies (especially the United States and the United Kingdom) and the Soviet Union subsequently deteriorated and so did their cooperation in the administration of occupied Germany. Within each zone each power ran its own administration:
430:
On 12 October 1946, the council issued Directive no. 38, which, while trying to impose some common rules, allowed the four occupation governments discretion as to treatment of persons arrested by them for suspected war crimes, including the right to grant amnesty.
286:
550:
Law no. 32 (10 July 1946) permitted the German local authorities to employ women in manual labor, due to the shortage in manpower. Supplement to Directive no. 14 (13 September 1946) equalised the wages of female and minor workers with male workers.
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Directive no. 11 of the same day made the work of the council more orderly by establishing English, French, Russian and German as the official languages of the council and by establishing an official gazette to publish the council's official acts.
1117:"United States – France – Great Britain – Soviet Union; Declaration Regarding the Defeat of Germany and the Assumption of Supreme Authority with Respect to Germany and Supplementary Statements".
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The actual exercise of power was carried out according to the model first laid out in the "Agreement on Control Machinery in Germany" that had been signed by the United States, the United Kingdom and the Soviet Union on 14 November 1944 in
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of 1948â49. The Allied Control Council was not formally dissolved and the four Allies de jure still worked together in ruling both Germany ("Germany as a whole") and Austria but ceased all activity until 1971 except the operations of the
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governments, as neither new state could claim formal approval of their constitutions from the full Control Council, and it was unclear how otherwise they might claim legitimate sovereignty over the parts of Germany under their control.
288:
419:
Directive no. 9 (30 August 1945) charged the legal division of the council with responsibility for carrying out the provisions of the London Agreement on the prosecution of German war criminals, signed in London on 8 August.
514:
July 1946. France, not having been a party to the Potsdam conference, reserved the right not to be bound by any agreements made there; and accordingly refused to accept German expellees into the French zone of occupation.
458:
Directive no. 16 (6 November 1945) provided for the equipment of the German police forces with light weapons to combat crime, while the carrying of automatic rifles was prohibited except with special Allied permission.
658:
Against Soviet protests, the two English-speaking powers pushed for a heightened economic collaboration between the different zones, and on 1 January 1947 the British and American zones merged to form the
48:
566:
From the outset, France sought to leverage its position on the Allied Control Council to obstruct policies it believed conflicted with its national interests. De Gaulle had not been invited to the
447:
Soviet government. The complete dissolution of all German military units and military training was provided for in Law no. 8 (30 November 1945), which became effective on 1 December 1945.
742:. In Eastern Germany, the Soviet administration with its representative of the ACC was the highest authority; later this position was converted to a High Commissioner as well, until the
411:
Directive no. 51 (29 April 1947), repealing Directive no. 10, simplified the council's legislative work by reducing the categories of legislative acts to Proclamations, Laws and Orders.
287:
181:
The EAC also recommended the creation of a tripartite British, US and Soviet agency to conduct German affairs following the Nazis' surrender. The British representative at the EAC,
919:), the building was returned to the German government. In 1997, its erstwhile occupant, the Kammergericht, moved in. It now functions as the supreme court of the state of Berlin.
766:. During the talks for unification of Germany in late 1989, it was decided to convene the ACC again as a forum for solving the issue of Allied rights and privileges in Germany.
462:
Law no. 21 (30 March 1946) provided for the establishment of labor courts to resolve labor disputes within the German population. These courts were to be run by German judges.
1166:
558:, while keeping the independence of that church in internal matters. Law no. 62 (20 February 1948) repealed all Nazi laws regulating the activities of churches in Germany.
465:
Gradually, the Allied governments relaxed their control over German political life and on 3 June 1946, the Political Directorate of the Control Council recommended to hold
1054:
245:
German government had been included in the surrender. This was considered a very important issue, inasmuch as Hitler had used the surrender of the civilian government but
490:
Law no. 31 (1 July 1946) prohibited the German police authorities to conduct any surveillance of political activities by German citizens in the various occupation zones.
217:. As such, he authorised the signing of the unconditional surrender of all German armed forces, which took effect on 8 May 1945 and tried to establish a government under
359:
498:
became part of Poland after most Germans had been forcibly relocated westward, while the rest of the territory of Prussia was divided among other German LĂ€nder.
770:
269:
The Governments of the United States of America, the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics and the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland and the
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which assigned four assistants to the Berlin Chief of Police, each to oversee police work in each of the four occupation sectors in that metropolitan area.
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walked out of the meeting of the council and no further Soviet representative attended until the 1970s, thus incapacitating in practice the council.
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for the purpose had been established. The breakdown of the Allied Control Council therefore created a constitutional dilemma for both the nascent
237:
781:. With the ACC's giving up its power in Germany and Germany's becoming a completely independent and reunited country, the ACC officially ended.
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1313:
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Subsequently, the Control Council issued a substantial number of laws, directives, orders and proclamations. They dealt with the abolition of
1443:
1433:
1413:
739:
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683:
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Law no. 4 (30 October 1945) re-established the German court system according to German legislation enacted prior to Hitler's rise to power.
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526:
On 17 September, the council issued recommendations to the four occupying powers to establish tracing bureaus to assist displaced persons.
408:(also enacted on 20 September 1945) repealed some of the stricter Nazi-era laws. This established the legal basis for the council's work.
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1381:
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1458:
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As the Control Council could act only with the agreement of all four members, this move basically paralysed the institution, while the
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Arrival of the four foreign ministers at the Allied Control Council headquarters building for the signing of the final protocol of the
1200:
599:
1345:
A Year of Potsdam German Economy Since Surrender: Prepared by the Economics Division, Office of Military Government for Germany (US)
135:
The council was convened to determine several plans for postwar Europe, including how to change borders and transfer populations in
1163:
1473:
826:
214:
100:
were occupied as two different areas, both by the same four Allies. Both were later divided into four zones by the 1 August 1945
1040:
385:
Proclamations â "to announce matters or acts of special importance to the occupying power or to the German people, or to both".
318:
commanders-in-chief, who for this purpose would form a single organ of control. This authority was called the Control Council.
225:. This government was not recognised by the Allies and Dönitz and the other members were arrested on 23 May by British forces.
1448:
1418:
1368:
93:
755:
723:
In 1955, the ACC gave up its power in Austria and the Austrian state became completely independent with the signing of the
554:
Law no. 49 (20 March 1947) abrogated the German law of 1933 which governed relations between the German government and the
210:
1408:
915:
and the departure of Russian troops in August 1994 (a withdrawal that took place in accordance with article 4 of the
852:
881:
During its short active life, the Allied Control Council was housed in and operated from the former building of the
834:
785:
was legally not a part of the Federal Republic of Germany, although it was administered by it. But with the allied
218:
182:
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An additional agreement was signed on 20 September 1945 and further elaborated the powers of the Control Council.
140:
537:
Law no. 7 (30 November 1945) regulated the distribution of electricity and gas in the various occupation zones.
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Germany due to chaotic conditions. For a brief period, this prospect was feared by some Allied representatives.
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439:
Order no. 1 of 30 August 1945 prohibited the wearing of uniform of the German Army, which now ceased to exist.
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172:(EAC) established in early 1944. By 3 January 1944, the Working Security Committee in the EAC concluded that,
663:. Over the course of 1947 and early 1948, they began to prepare the currency reform that would introduce the
81:
938:
769:
Germany remained under nominal military occupation until 15 March 1991, when the final ratification of the
724:
397:
Instructions â "when the Control Council wishes to impose requirements direct upon a particular authority".
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169:
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in Saarland of its zone but was never recognized by the Soviet Union, one member of the occupying ACC.
540:
Law no. 9 (promulgated the same day as no. 7) provided for the confiscation of all assets owned by the
466:
363:
865:
164:
Allied preparations for the postwar occupation of Germany began during the second half of 1944, after
555:
254:
391:
Orders â "when the Control Council has requirement to impose on Germany and when laws are not used".
1483:
1090:
Kelsen, Hans (1947). "Is a peace treaty with Germany legally Possible and Politically Desirable?".
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717:
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Law no. 57 (30 August 1947) dissolved all German insurance companies that were connected with the
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202:
77:
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William Durie, "The United States Garrison Berlin 1945â1994", Mission Accomplished, August 2014
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257:(the so-called Berlin Declaration of 1945), which formally confirmed the total dissolution of
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signed by the four powers and the two German states, formally restored full sovereignty to a
262:
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on 30 April 1945 and the consequent termination of any German governance over the nation:
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8:
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933:
773:(signed on 12 September 1990) was lodged with the German Government. This, as the final
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the emergence of an eventual unified German government. For example; France created the
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Directives â "to communicate policy or administrative decisions of the Control Council".
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1134:
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Laws â "on matters of general application, unless they expressly provide otherwise".
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Some reforms were symbolic in nature. Law no. 46 (25 February 1947) proclaimed the
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status and placed the Allied military rule over Germany on a solid legal basis.
30:, 1945â1990 headquarters of the Allied Control Council: View from the Kleistpark
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Enactment and Approved Papers of the Control Council and Coordinating Committee
709:
630:
378:
343:
278:
US Department of State, Treaties and Other International Acts Series, No. 1520.
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113:
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1045:. Washington, DC: Center of Military History United States Army. p. 256.
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The Allied Control Council met once again on 3 September 1971, leading to the
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para-military training, the prohibition to be effective as of 1 January 1946.
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1197:"Scanned original document at the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library & Museum"
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and ultimately lead to the creation of an independent West German state.
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was carried out with a certain uniformity throughout all of Germany. The
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Photos from the 1970â71 Four Power negotiations on the Status of Berlin.
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Gouvernement Militaire de la Zone Française d'Occupation en Allemagne
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the council. The initial members of the Control Council were Marshal
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of 1 August 1945 further specified the tasks of the Control Council.
321:
The purpose of the Allied Control Council in Germany, like the other
16:
1945â1991 military governing body over Germany and Austria until 1955
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Official documents on the Allied Control Council's establishment.
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Foreign Relations of the United States 1944, vol. I, pp. 141â144
967:"The Establishment of the Allied Control Council (June 5, 1945)"
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Expulsion of German-speaking minorities residing outside Germany
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military forces had surrendered unconditionally, no counterpart
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in September 1944. Most of the planning was carried out by the
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27:
1003:
Memorandum of the Working Security Committee, 3 January 1944,
987:, 9 volumes (Berlin, 1946â1948), covering the period 1945â1948
85:
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release be issued following every meeting of the council.
450:
877:
Kammergericht, seat of the court 1913â45 and since 1997
771:
Treaty on the Final Settlement With Respect to Germany
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Dissolution of the German army and government agencies
1077:
The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany 1944â1946
1042:
The U.S. Army in the Occupation of Germany 1944â1946
1310:
The US Army and the Occupation of Germany 1944â1946
734:by September 1949; it remained in operation until
139:. As the four powers had joined themselves into a
1025:Memorandum by Sir William Strang, 30 March 1945,
1400:
625:Control Commission for Germany - British Element
608:ĐĄĐŸĐČĐ”ŃŃĐșĐ°Ń ĐČĐŸĐ”ĐœĐœĐ°Ń Đ°ĐŽĐŒĐžĐœĐžŃŃŃĐ°ŃĐžŃ ĐČ ĐĐ”ŃĐŒĐ°ĐœĐžĐž, ĐĄĐĐĐ
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342:Removing an 'Adolf Hitler Street' sign, part of
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969:. German History in Documents and Images (GHDI)
238:Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force
1347:. United States War Department. pp. 15â16
1314:Center of Military History, United States Army
960:Sources of laws of the Allied Control Council
869:Kammergericht building in 1938 with its tower
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740:Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany
613:Sovetskaia Voennaia Administratsia v Germanii
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271:Provisional Government of the French Republic
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640:Office of Military Government, United States
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584:
474:Denazification and eradication of militarism
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1027:Foreign Relations of the United States 1945
1005:Foreign Relations of the United States 1944
833:. Unsourced material may be challenged and
255:Declaration Regarding the Defeat of Germany
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1119:The American Journal of International Law
853:Learn how and when to remove this message
600:Soviet Military Administration in Germany
1297:, Allied Control Authority Germany, 1945
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249:of the military, in 1918, to create the
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699:reached an early high point during the
323:Allied Control Commissions and Councils
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746:gained near-sovereignty also in 1955.
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451:Restoration of order into German hands
423:Shortly after the commencement of the
1464:Soviet UnionâUnited Kingdom relations
1429:International political organizations
358:for the United States, Field Marshal
1469:Soviet UnionâUnited States relations
1444:Organizations disestablished in 1949
1434:International military organizations
1414:Aftermath of World War II in Germany
885:, the supreme court of the state of
831:adding citations to reliable sources
798:
736:West Germany gained near-sovereignty
166:Allied forces began entering Germany
1494:Soviet UnionâWest Germany relations
1489:East GermanyâSoviet Union relations
362:for the United Kingdom and General
295:from 1945 about the control council
13:
1424:Former international organizations
983:Allied Control Authority Germany,
730:The Western powers instituted the
14:
1505:
1479:1990 disestablishments in Germany
1439:Organizations established in 1945
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1092:American Political Science Review
215:Hitler's last political testament
69:), was the governing body of the
889:, which is situated in Berlin's
803:
712:(where persons convicted at the
708:, namely the management of the
414:
406:Law no. 1 of the Control Council
219:Ludwig Graf Schwerin von Krosigk
124:. The organisation was based in
1332:
1320:
1308:Ziemke, Earl Frederick (1990).
1203:from the original on 2006-10-27
1189:
1160:
1066:First Printed 1975-CMH Pub 30-6
1057:from the original on 2005-05-19
517:
59:), and also referred to as the
1474:1945 establishments in Germany
1454:GermanyâSoviet Union relations
1327:Enactments and Approved Papers
1186:, October 7, 1945, pp. 515â521
1176:
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1125:(3): 171â178. 1 January 1945.
1110:
1083:
1019:
1010:
997:
985:Enactments and Approved Papers
764:Four Power Agreement on Berlin
716:were held until 1987) and the
689:Four Power Agreement on Berlin
230:German Instrument of Surrender
148:. In 1949, two German states (
1:
1459:FranceâSoviet Union relations
1164:Chapter XV:The Victory Sealed
991:
562:Incapacitation of the council
505:, established on 1 May 1933.
82:end of World War II in Europe
1449:Allied occupation of Germany
1419:Political history of Germany
1339:Settel, Arthur, ed. (1946).
1184:Department of State Bulletin
939:European Advisory Commission
725:Austrian Independence Treaty
333:
192:Cornelius Wendell Wickersham
170:European Advisory Commission
7:
922:
612:
251:"stab in the back" argument
159:
74:occupation zones in Germany
10:
1510:
795:The Kammergericht building
744:German Democratic Republic
364:Jean de Lattre de Tassigny
94:former eastern territories
84:. After the defeat of the
1104:10.1017/s0003055400261108
738:in 1955 and approved the
701:Soviet blockade of Berlin
629:
607:
556:German Evangelical Church
1409:Politics of World War II
1039:Ziemke, Earl F. (1990).
718:Berlin Air Safety Center
373:laws and organisations,
236:had been drafted by the
44:Allied Control Authority
1029:, vol. III, pp. 208â209
929:Allied-occupied Germany
902:four-power organisation
203:suicide of Adolf Hitler
1382:"Cornerstone of Steel"
1329:, vol. IV, pp. 115â118
954:Far Eastern Commission
911:After the fall of the
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671:March 1948, Marshal
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934:Allied Kommandatura
679:After the breakdown
467:municipal elections
213:in accordance with
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944:History of Germany
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66:Vier MĂ€chte
61:Four Powers
1403:Categories
1351:23 October
1207:2006-12-05
1161:References
1061:2005-05-13
992:References
973:9 November
893:locality.
891:Schöneberg
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126:Schöneberg
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303:de facto
293:Newsreel
276:â
243:civilian
160:Creation
1139:2213921
887:Prussia
835:removed
820:sources
604:Russian
98:Austria
90:Germany
78:Austria
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315:London
234:Berlin
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71:Allied
53:German
28:Berlin
1143:S2CID
1135:JSTOR
635:, and
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