499:
proinflammatory Th1, Th17 lymphocytes and anti-inflammatory regulatory T cells. This is influenced by cytokine microenvironment, as mentioned before, where CD4 T-lymphocytes are activated and also by inflammation level (because pathogens invading organism activate the immune system to various degrees and causing proinflammatory cytokine secretion, therefore they support the rejection). Immunosuppressive drugs are used to suppress the immune response, but the effect is not specific. Therefore, organism can be affected by the infection much more easily. The goal of the future therapies is to suppress the alloimmune response specifically to prevent these risks. The tolerance could be achieved by elimination of most or all alloreactive T cells and by influencing alloreactive effector-regulatory T-lymphocytes ratio in favor of regulatory cells which could inhibit alloreactive effector cells. Another method would be based on costimulatory signal blockade during alloreactive T-lymphocytes activation.
426:). This promotes APC maturation which leads to amplification of T-cell alloreactivity by means of direct and also indirect pathway of alloantigen recognition (as described below). NK cells are able to kill Foxp3 regulatory T-lymphocytes as well and shift the immune response from graft tolerance toward its rejection. Besides the ability of NK cells to influence APC maturation and T cell development, they can probably reduce or even prevent alloimmune response to transplanted tissue – either by killing the Donor APCs or by anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 and TGF-β secretion. However it is important to note that NK cell sub-populations differ in alloreactivity rate and in their immunomodulatory potential. Concerning
422:) family bind concrete MHC class I molecules. If the graft has these ligands on its surface, NK cell cannot be activated (KIR receptors provide inhibitory signal). So if these ligands are missing, there is no inhibitory signal and NK cell becomes activated. It recognizes target cells by "missing-self strategy" and induces their apoptosis by enzymes perforin and granzymes released from its cytotoxic granules. Alloreactive NK cells also secrete proinflammatory cytokines IFN-γ and TNF-α to increase expression of MHC molecules and costimulatory receptors on the surface of APCs (
460:– recipient's APCs infiltrate transplanted tissue, then they process and present, as any other foreign peptides, donor's MHC glycoproteins by MHC class II molecules. Mechanism of indirect allorecognition and therefore the involvement of CD4 T-lymphocytes is the main cause of graft rejection. That is why the compatibility between donor and recipient MHC class II molecules is the most important factor concerning transplantation.
477:
signaling resulting in IL-2 production, clonal expansion and therefore development of effector and memory T-lymphocytes. In contrast, there are also such receptors on T-lymphocytes that cause inhibition of T-cell activation (for instance CD152/CTLA-4 receptor which binds CD80 and CD86 as well). If T-lymphocyte does not receive costimulatory signal, its activation fails and it becomes
740:
Lafferty KJ, Prowse SJ, Simeonovic CJ, Warren HS (1983), Immunobiology of tissue transplantation: a return to the passenger leukocyte concept. Annu Rev
Immunol.1:143-73 – according to Archbold JK, Ely LK, Kjer-Nielsen L, Burrows SR, Rossjohn J, McCluskey J, Macdonald WA (2008), T-cell allorecognition
489:
development. These cells may represent a serious problem after the transplantation. As the effect of being exposed to various infections in the past, antigen-specific T-lymphocytes have developed in patient's body. Part of them is kept in organism as memory cells and these cells could be a reason for
833:
Ashton-Chess J, Giral M, Brouard S, Soulillou JP (2007), Spontaneous operational tolerance after immunosuppressive drug withdrawal in clinical renal allotransplantation. Transplantation. 84(10):1215-9 – according to Sánchez-Fueyo A, Strom TB (2011), Immunologic basis of graft rejection and tolerance
777:
Jenkins MK, Taylor PS, Norton SD, Urdahl KB (1991), CD28 delivers a costimulatory signal involved in antigen-specific IL-2 production by human T cells. J Immunol. 147(8):2461-6 – according to
Priyadharshini B, Greiner DL, Brehm MA (2012), T-cell activation and transplantation tolerance. Transplant
498:
Transplanted tissue is accepted by immunocompetent recipient if it is functional in the absence of immunosuppressive drugs and without histologic signs of rejection. Host can accept another graft from the same donor but reject graft from different donor. Graft acceptance depends on the balance of
787:
Walunas TL, Lenschow DJ, Bakker CY, Linsley PS, Freeman GJ, Green JM, Thompson CB, Bluestone JA (1994), CTLA-4 can function as a negative regulator of T cell activation. Immunity. ;1(5):405-13 – according to
Priyadharshini B, Greiner DL, Brehm MA (2012), T-cell activation and transplantation
476:
T-lymphocytes must receive costimulatory signal. There are costimulatory molecules on T-cell surface and APCs express their ligands (e.g. molecule CD28, which is on the surface of all naĂŻve CD4 and CD8 T-lymphocytes, can bind ligands CD80 and CD86). Receptor-ligand engagement triggers T-cell
171:
is impaired. In many instances the maternal immune system attacks the fetal blood cells, resulting in fetal anemia. HDN ranges from mild to severe. Severe cases require intrauterine transfusions or early delivery to survive, while mild cases may only require phototherapy at birth.
730:
De Maria A, Fogli M, Mazza S, Basso M, Picciotto A, Costa P, Congia S, Mingari MC, Moretta L (2007), Increased natural cytotoxicity receptor expression and relevant IL-10 production in NK cells from chronically infected viremic HCV patiens. Eur J Immunol.
299:
Humoral (antibody-mediated) type of rejection is caused by recipient's B-lymphocytes which produce alloantibodies against donor MHC class I and II molecules. These alloantibodies can activate the complement – this leads to target cell
711:
McNerney ME, Lee KM, Zhou P, Molinero L, Mashayekhi M, Guzior D, Sattar H, Kuppireddi S, Wang CR, Kumar V, Alegre ML (2006), Role of natural killer cell subsets in cardiac allograft rejection. Am J Transplant.
308:
through Fc receptors of mononuclear leukocytes. Mechanism of humoral rejection is relevant for hyperacute, accelerated and chronic rejection. Alloimmunity can be also regulated by neonatal B cells.
418:
NK cells can also directly target the transplanted tissue. It depends on the balance of activating and inhibitory NK cell receptors and on their ligands expressed by the graft. Receptors of KIR (
450:– occurs when donor's APCs are presenting graft antigens. Recipient's T-lymphocytes can identify either MHC molecules alone or complex MHC molecule-foreign peptide as alloantigens. Specific
688:
Korn T, Bettelli E, Gao W, Awasthi A, Jäger A, Strom TB, Oukka M, Kuchroo VK (2007), IL-21 initiates an alternative pathway to induce proinflammatory T(H)17 cells. Nature 448(7152):484-7
797:
Jenkins MK, Schwartz RH (1987), Antigen presentation by chemically modified splenocytes induces antigen-specific T cell unresponsiveness in vitro and in vivo. J Exp Med. 165(2):302-19
750:
Fangmann J, Dalchau R, Fabre JW (1992), Rejection of skin allografts by indirect allorecognition of donor class I major histocompatibility complex peptides. J Exp Med. 175(6):1521-9
454:(TCR) of CD8 T-lymphocytes recognize these peptides when form the complex with MHC class I molecules and TCR of CD4 T-lymphocytes recognize a complex with MHC class II molecules.
490:"cross-reactivity" – immune response against unrelated but similar graft alloantigens. This immune response is called secondary and is faster, more efficient and more robust.
629:
Fang Li, Mary E. Atz, Elaine F. Reed (2009), Human leukocyte antigen antibodies in chronic transplant vasculopathy-mechanisms and pathways. Curr Opin
Immunol. 21(5): 557–562
611:
Sánchez-Fueyo A, Strom TB (2011), Immunologic basis of graft rejection and tolerance following transplantation of liver or other solid organs. Gastroenterology 140(1):51-64
485:
Alloimmune response can be enhanced by proinflammatory cytokines and by CD4 T-lymphocytes that are responsible for APC maturation and IL-2 production. IL-2 is crucial for
1262:
815:
Williams MA, Tyznik AJ, Bevan MJ (2006), Interleukin-2 signals during priming are required for secondary expansion of CD8 memory T cells. Nature. 441(7095):890-3
1307:
189:. They recognize transplanted tissue because of expression of alloantigens. A transplant is rejected during first several days or weeks after transplantation.
1444:
843:
Ahmed EB, Daniels M, Alegre ML, Chong AS (2011), Bacterial infections, alloimmunity, and transplantation tolerance. Transplant Rev (Orlando). 25(1):27-35
721:
Yu G, Xu X, Vu MD, Kilpatrick ED, Li XC (2006), NK cells promote transplant tolerance by killing donor antigen-presenting cells. J Exp Med. 203(8):1851-8
560:
1149:
221:. This type of rejection is very fast, the graft is rejected in a few minutes or hours after the transplantation. Accelerated rejection leads to
906:
852:
Ford ML, Larsen CP (2009), Translating costimulation blockade to the clinic - lessons learned from three pathways. Immunol Rev. 229(1):294-306
768:
Li XC, Rothstein DM, Sayegh MH (2009), Costimulatory pathways in transplantation: challenges and new developments. Immunol Rev. 229(1):271-93
620:
Seetharam A, Tiriveedhi V, Mohanakumar T (2010), Alloimmunity and autoimmunity in chronic rejection. Curr Opin Organ
Transplant 15(4):531-536
759:
Gould DS, Auchincloss H Jr (1999), Direct and indirect recognition: the role of MHC antigens in graft rejection. Immunol Today. 20(2):77-82
197:
Hyperacute and accelerated rejection is antibody-mediated immune response to the allograft. Recipient's blood already contains circulating
1144:
253:
of the blood vessels is being damaged, therefore the graft is not sufficiently supplied with blood and is replaced with fibrous tissue (
1154:
1027:
419:
702:
Villard J. (2011), The role of natural killer cells in human solid organ and tissue transplantation. J Innate Immun. 3(4): 395-402
679:
Walsh PT, Strom TB, Turka LA (2004), Routes to transplant tolerance versus rejection: the role of cytokines. Immunity (20):121-131
167:
is similar to a transfusion reaction in that the mother's antibodies cannot tolerate the fetus's antigens, which happens when the
1437:
806:
Curtsinger JM, Mescher MF (2010), Inflammatory cytokines as a third signal for T cell activation. Curr Opin
Immunol. 22(3):333-40
1170:
272:
along with other mononuclear leukocytes (their exact function regarding the topic is not known) participate in the rejection.
1139:
233:
that bind Fc parts of antibodies. Graft rejection occurs within 3 to 5 days. This type of rejection is a typical response to
1165:
518:
824:
Welsh RM, Selin LK (2002), No one is naive: the significance of heterologous T-cell immunity. Nat Rev
Immunol. 2(6):417-26
473:
T-lymphocytes must recognize complex MHC-alloantigen presented by APC through direct or indirect allorecognition pathway.
1430:
899:
1182:
1776:
523:
164:
117:
366:
1771:
557:
1714:
967:
892:
168:
1217:
1071:
245:
Chronic rejection is not yet fully understood, but it is known that it is associated with alloantibody and
443:
Alloantigen on APC surface can be recognized by recipient's T-lymphocytes through two different pathways:
1087:
149:
109:) is the process of becoming alloimmune, that is, developing the relevant antibodies for the first time.
113:
1600:
214:
1297:
1292:
1257:
1237:
1192:
1134:
640:
153:
145:
1422:
373:
gene in the absence of proinflammatory cytokines and thus differentiation of CD4 T-lymphocytes into
1114:
1104:
878:
868:
342:
320:
T-lymphocytes recognize alloantigens significantly influences polarization of the immune response.
1780:
1538:
1411:
1362:
1342:
989:
423:
641:"Neonatal B cells suppress innate toll-like receptor immune responses and modulate alloimmunity"
1802:
1520:
1456:
1386:
1332:
1227:
1205:
952:
427:
218:
1749:
1605:
1583:
1372:
1327:
1232:
884:
1766:
1699:
1610:
1534:
1337:
1252:
1242:
1124:
1066:
945:
919:
83:
8:
1873:
1826:
1761:
1744:
1578:
1496:
1322:
1312:
962:
513:
277:
234:
226:
67:
86:, which is manifested as deterioration or complete loss of graft function. In contrast,
1646:
1352:
864:
834:
following transplantation of liver or other solid organs. Gastroenterology 140(1):51-64
508:
51:
874:
1878:
1694:
1460:
1406:
1401:
1287:
984:
915:
662:
374:
210:
141:
63:
1814:
1754:
1726:
1721:
1689:
1676:
1666:
1109:
1056:
1022:
996:
652:
398:
345:
269:
202:
186:
144:
can result in alloantibodies reacting towards the transfused cells, resulting in a
1709:
1396:
1210:
977:
972:
564:
451:
657:
1736:
1681:
1622:
1542:
1515:
1282:
1177:
1092:
1052:
1017:
406:
393:
382:
338:
334:
1867:
1704:
1593:
1267:
1060:
927:
478:
389:
360:
352:
329:
265:
27:
1671:
1651:
1588:
1486:
1316:
957:
666:
305:
206:
125:
87:
741:
and MHC-restriction – A case of Jekyll and Hyde? Mol
Immunol. 45(3):583-98
304:. Alternatively, donor cells are coated with alloantibodies that initiate
1272:
1099:
935:
250:
230:
1794:
1547:
1453:
1200:
1012:
47:
1852:
1557:
1452:
1277:
1159:
1048:
581:
568:
222:
120:, of the donor and graft recipient. These products are recognized by
112:
Alloimmunity is caused by the difference between products of highly
16:
Immune response to nonself antigens from members of the same species
1842:
1627:
1615:
1573:
1527:
1491:
1032:
940:
254:
246:
198:
55:
1847:
1661:
1510:
1481:
1391:
1357:
257:). It takes two months at least to reject the graft in this way.
35:
31:
1819:
1807:
1552:
1503:
1302:
430:, the effects on NK cells are milder in comparison to T cells.
396:
along with TGF-β, CD4 T-lymphocytes acquire tissue-destructive
273:
121:
94:
914:
1381:
1367:
1347:
370:
301:
159:
71:
1376:
1247:
1222:
381:). Regulatory T cells produce anti-inflammatory cytokines
317:
469:
T-lymphocytes are fully activated under two conditions:
284:
Cellular rejection – CD4 and CD8 T-lymphocytes, NK cells
213:). In case of hyperacute rejection, antibodies activate
192:
90:
is an immune response to the self's own antigens. (The
607:
605:
603:
601:
599:
597:
595:
185:
Acute rejection is caused by antigen-specific Th1 and
592:
538:by Abul K. Abbas, Andrew H. Lichtman, Shiv Pillai,
788:tolerance. Transplant Rev (Orlando). 26(3):212-22
698:
696:
694:
229:activation (not of the complement) through their
1865:
1150:Transfusion-associated graft versus host disease
385:and TGF-β which ensures the allograft tolerance.
638:
691:
536:Cellular and Molecular Immunology, 7th edition
363:. Then allograft tolerance is mostly observed.
1438:
900:
217:; moreover, the reaction can be enhanced by
54:antigens. In alloimmunity, the body creates
1145:Transfusion associated circulatory overload
632:
1445:
1431:
1155:Febrile non-hemolytic transfusion reaction
1028:International Society of Blood Transfusion
907:
893:
260:
165:Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn
160:Hemolytic disease of the fetus and newborn
128:which infiltrate the graft and damage it.
877:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
867:at the U.S. National Library of Medicine
656:
131:
420:Killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptor
639:Walker WE, Goldstein DR (August 2007).
175:
136:
1866:
280:and cytokines also play a role in it.
152:, there is a risk of reaction against
62:) against the alloantigens, attacking
46:. Two major types of alloantigens are
1426:
1140:Transfusion related acute lung injury
888:
337:(which is usually secreted by mature
324:CD4 T-lymphocytes differentiate into
201:before the transplantation – either
519:Neonatal alloimmune thrombocytopenia
240:
193:Hyperacute and accelerated rejection
205:or antibodies incurred by previous
13:
493:
180:
14:
1890:
1183:Transfusion transmitted infection
858:
348:and destroy the allograft tissue.
287:Humoral rejection – B-lymphocytes
524:Hemolytic disease of the newborn
433:
316:Cytokine microenvironment where
294:
118:major histocompatibility complex
846:
837:
827:
818:
809:
800:
791:
781:
771:
762:
753:
744:
734:
724:
715:
705:
1772:Immunoglobulin class switching
682:
673:
623:
614:
574:
551:
116:genes, primarily genes of the
1:
545:
529:
169:immune tolerance of pregnancy
1072:Intraoperative blood salvage
388:However, in the presence of
311:
7:
1088:Blood compatibility testing
778:Rev (Orlando). 26(3):212-22
658:10.4049/jimmunol.179.3.1700
502:
465:Activation of T-lymphocytes
413:
355:, CD4 T-lymphocytes become
150:blood compatibility testing
97:means "other", whereas the
10:
1895:
1601:Polyclonal B cell response
1835:
1793:
1735:
1636:
1566:
1474:
1467:
1191:
1135:Transfusion hemosiderosis
1123:
1080:
1041:
1005:
926:
154:human blood group systems
34:from members of the same
1115:Monocyte monolayer assay
879:Medical Subject Headings
869:Medical Subject Headings
458:Indirect allorecognition
424:antigen-presenting cells
343:proinflammatory cytokine
990:Granulocyte transfusion
439:Alloantigen recognition
428:immunosuppressive drugs
261:Mechanisms of rejection
187:cytotoxic T-lymphocytes
156:other than ABO and Rh.
68:allotransplanted tissue
1715:Tolerance in pregnancy
1457:adaptive immune system
586:allaboutantibodies.com
448:Direct allorecognition
369:induces expression of
132:Types of the rejection
126:mononuclear leukocytes
101:prefix means "self".)
82:) response results in
1750:Somatic hypermutation
1584:Polyclonal antibodies
1579:Monoclonal antibodies
1125:Transfusion reactions
341:). Th1 cells produce
148:. Even with standard
1767:Junctional diversity
1535:Antigen presentation
1105:Kleihauer–Betke test
1067:Exchange transfusion
946:Platelet transfusion
920:transfusion medicine
176:Transplant rejection
146:transfusion reaction
137:Transfusion reaction
1762:V(D)J recombination
1745:Affinity maturation
1497:Antigenic variation
1193:Blood group systems
1128:and adverse effects
963:Fresh frozen plasma
514:Allotransplantation
359:secreting IL-4 and
333:in the presence of
38:, which are called
563:2016-10-09 at the
540:Saunders Copyright
509:Allograft diseases
375:regulatory T cells
209:(e.g. by repeated
52:histocompatibility
22:(sometimes called
1861:
1860:
1789:
1788:
1539:professional APCs
1420:
1419:
997:Blood substitutes
985:White blood cells
916:Blood transfusion
487:memory CD8 T cell
270:CD8 T-lymphocytes
241:Chronic rejection
211:blood transfusion
142:Blood transfusion
1886:
1755:Clonal selection
1727:Immune privilege
1722:Immunodeficiency
1677:Cross-reactivity
1667:Hypersensitivity
1472:
1471:
1447:
1440:
1433:
1424:
1423:
1110:Antibody elution
1057:plateletpheresis
1023:Blood management
1006:General concepts
909:
902:
895:
886:
885:
853:
850:
844:
841:
835:
831:
825:
822:
816:
813:
807:
804:
798:
795:
789:
785:
779:
775:
769:
766:
760:
757:
751:
748:
742:
738:
732:
728:
722:
719:
713:
709:
703:
700:
689:
686:
680:
677:
671:
670:
660:
636:
630:
627:
621:
618:
612:
609:
590:
589:
578:
572:
555:
452:T-cell receptors
103:Alloimmunization
64:transfused blood
1894:
1893:
1889:
1888:
1887:
1885:
1884:
1883:
1864:
1863:
1862:
1857:
1831:
1785:
1731:
1710:Clonal deletion
1638:
1632:
1562:
1463:
1451:
1421:
1416:
1211:Secretor status
1187:
1127:
1119:
1076:
1037:
1001:
978:Cryosupernatant
973:Cryoprecipitate
953:Red blood cells
922:
913:
861:
856:
851:
847:
842:
838:
832:
828:
823:
819:
814:
810:
805:
801:
796:
792:
786:
782:
776:
772:
767:
763:
758:
754:
749:
745:
739:
735:
729:
725:
720:
716:
710:
706:
701:
692:
687:
683:
678:
674:
637:
633:
628:
624:
619:
615:
610:
593:
580:
579:
575:
565:Wayback Machine
556:
552:
548:
532:
505:
496:
494:Graft tolerance
436:
416:
339:dendritic cells
314:
297:
263:
243:
235:xenotransplants
195:
183:
181:Acute rejection
178:
162:
139:
134:
107:isoimmunization
84:graft rejection
74:in some cases.
70:, and even the
28:immune response
17:
12:
11:
5:
1892:
1882:
1881:
1876:
1859:
1858:
1856:
1855:
1850:
1845:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1832:
1830:
1829:
1824:
1823:
1822:
1812:
1811:
1810:
1799:
1797:
1791:
1790:
1787:
1786:
1784:
1783:
1774:
1769:
1764:
1759:
1758:
1757:
1752:
1741:
1739:
1737:Immunogenetics
1733:
1732:
1730:
1729:
1724:
1719:
1718:
1717:
1712:
1707:
1702:
1697:
1685:
1684:
1682:Co-stimulation
1679:
1674:
1669:
1664:
1659:
1654:
1649:
1642:
1640:
1634:
1633:
1631:
1630:
1625:
1623:Immune complex
1619:
1618:
1613:
1608:
1603:
1598:
1597:
1596:
1591:
1586:
1581:
1570:
1568:
1564:
1563:
1561:
1560:
1555:
1550:
1545:
1543:Dendritic cell
1531:
1530:
1525:
1524:
1523:
1521:Conformational
1518:
1507:
1506:
1501:
1500:
1499:
1494:
1489:
1478:
1476:
1469:
1465:
1464:
1450:
1449:
1442:
1435:
1427:
1418:
1417:
1415:
1414:
1409:
1404:
1399:
1394:
1389:
1384:
1379:
1370:
1365:
1360:
1355:
1350:
1345:
1340:
1335:
1330:
1325:
1320:
1310:
1305:
1300:
1295:
1290:
1285:
1280:
1275:
1270:
1265:
1260:
1255:
1250:
1245:
1240:
1235:
1230:
1225:
1220:
1215:
1214:
1213:
1203:
1197:
1195:
1189:
1188:
1186:
1185:
1180:
1178:Serum sickness
1175:
1174:
1173:
1168:
1157:
1152:
1147:
1142:
1137:
1131:
1129:
1121:
1120:
1118:
1117:
1112:
1107:
1102:
1097:
1096:
1095:
1093:Cross-matching
1084:
1082:
1078:
1077:
1075:
1074:
1069:
1064:
1053:plasmapheresis
1045:
1043:
1039:
1038:
1036:
1035:
1030:
1025:
1020:
1018:Blood donation
1015:
1009:
1007:
1003:
1002:
1000:
999:
994:
993:
992:
982:
981:
980:
975:
970:
965:
955:
950:
949:
948:
938:
932:
930:
928:Blood products
924:
923:
912:
911:
904:
897:
889:
883:
882:
872:
860:
859:External links
857:
855:
854:
845:
836:
826:
817:
808:
799:
790:
780:
770:
761:
752:
743:
733:
723:
714:
704:
690:
681:
672:
651:(3): 1700–10.
631:
622:
613:
591:
573:
549:
547:
544:
543:
542:
531:
528:
527:
526:
521:
516:
511:
504:
501:
495:
492:
483:
482:
474:
462:
461:
455:
435:
432:
415:
412:
411:
410:
386:
364:
349:
313:
310:
296:
293:
292:
291:
288:
285:
262:
259:
242:
239:
194:
191:
182:
179:
177:
174:
161:
158:
138:
135:
133:
130:
60:alloantibodies
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
1891:
1880:
1877:
1875:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1854:
1851:
1849:
1846:
1844:
1841:
1840:
1838:
1834:
1828:
1825:
1821:
1818:
1817:
1816:
1813:
1809:
1806:
1805:
1804:
1801:
1800:
1798:
1796:
1792:
1782:
1778:
1775:
1773:
1770:
1768:
1765:
1763:
1760:
1756:
1753:
1751:
1748:
1747:
1746:
1743:
1742:
1740:
1738:
1734:
1728:
1725:
1723:
1720:
1716:
1713:
1711:
1708:
1706:
1705:Clonal anergy
1703:
1701:
1698:
1696:
1693:
1692:
1691:
1687:
1686:
1683:
1680:
1678:
1675:
1673:
1670:
1668:
1665:
1663:
1660:
1658:
1655:
1653:
1650:
1648:
1644:
1643:
1641:
1635:
1629:
1626:
1624:
1621:
1620:
1617:
1614:
1612:
1609:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1595:
1594:Microantibody
1592:
1590:
1587:
1585:
1582:
1580:
1577:
1576:
1575:
1572:
1571:
1569:
1565:
1559:
1556:
1554:
1551:
1549:
1546:
1544:
1540:
1536:
1533:
1532:
1529:
1526:
1522:
1519:
1517:
1514:
1513:
1512:
1509:
1508:
1505:
1502:
1498:
1495:
1493:
1490:
1488:
1485:
1484:
1483:
1480:
1479:
1477:
1473:
1470:
1466:
1462:
1458:
1455:
1448:
1443:
1441:
1436:
1434:
1429:
1428:
1425:
1413:
1410:
1408:
1405:
1403:
1400:
1398:
1395:
1393:
1390:
1388:
1385:
1383:
1380:
1378:
1374:
1371:
1369:
1366:
1364:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1354:
1351:
1349:
1346:
1344:
1341:
1339:
1336:
1334:
1331:
1329:
1326:
1324:
1321:
1318:
1314:
1311:
1309:
1306:
1304:
1301:
1299:
1296:
1294:
1291:
1289:
1286:
1284:
1281:
1279:
1276:
1274:
1271:
1269:
1266:
1264:
1261:
1259:
1256:
1254:
1251:
1249:
1246:
1244:
1241:
1239:
1236:
1234:
1231:
1229:
1228:Chido-Rodgers
1226:
1224:
1221:
1219:
1216:
1212:
1209:
1208:
1207:
1204:
1202:
1199:
1198:
1196:
1194:
1190:
1184:
1181:
1179:
1176:
1172:
1169:
1167:
1164:
1163:
1161:
1158:
1156:
1153:
1151:
1148:
1146:
1143:
1141:
1138:
1136:
1133:
1132:
1130:
1126:
1122:
1116:
1113:
1111:
1108:
1106:
1103:
1101:
1098:
1094:
1091:
1090:
1089:
1086:
1085:
1083:
1079:
1073:
1070:
1068:
1065:
1062:
1061:leukapheresis
1058:
1054:
1050:
1047:
1046:
1044:
1040:
1034:
1031:
1029:
1026:
1024:
1021:
1019:
1016:
1014:
1011:
1010:
1008:
1004:
998:
995:
991:
988:
987:
986:
983:
979:
976:
974:
971:
969:
966:
964:
961:
960:
959:
956:
954:
951:
947:
944:
943:
942:
939:
937:
934:
933:
931:
929:
925:
921:
917:
910:
905:
903:
898:
896:
891:
890:
887:
880:
876:
873:
870:
866:
863:
862:
849:
840:
830:
821:
812:
803:
794:
784:
774:
765:
756:
747:
737:
727:
718:
708:
699:
697:
695:
685:
676:
668:
664:
659:
654:
650:
646:
642:
635:
626:
617:
608:
606:
604:
602:
600:
598:
596:
587:
583:
577:
570:
566:
562:
559:
554:
550:
541:
537:
534:
533:
525:
522:
520:
517:
515:
512:
510:
507:
506:
500:
491:
488:
480:
475:
472:
471:
470:
467:
466:
459:
456:
453:
449:
446:
445:
444:
441:
440:
434:T-lymphocytes
431:
429:
425:
421:
408:
404:
401:
400:
395:
391:
387:
384:
380:
376:
372:
368:
365:
362:
358:
354:
350:
347:
344:
340:
336:
332:
331:
327:
323:
322:
321:
319:
309:
307:
303:
295:B-lymphocytes
289:
286:
283:
282:
281:
279:
275:
274:B-lymphocytes
271:
267:
258:
256:
252:
248:
238:
236:
232:
228:
224:
220:
216:
212:
208:
204:
200:
190:
188:
173:
170:
166:
157:
155:
151:
147:
143:
129:
127:
123:
122:T-lymphocytes
119:
115:
110:
108:
104:
100:
96:
93:
89:
85:
81:
77:
73:
69:
65:
61:
57:
53:
50:antigens and
49:
45:
41:
37:
33:
29:
25:
21:
1672:Inflammation
1657:Alloimmunity
1656:
1652:Autoimmunity
1637:Immunity vs.
1589:Autoantibody
1487:Superantigen
848:
839:
829:
820:
811:
802:
793:
783:
773:
764:
755:
746:
736:
731:37(2):445-55
726:
717:
707:
684:
675:
648:
644:
634:
625:
616:
585:
576:
553:
539:
535:
497:
486:
484:
468:
464:
463:
457:
447:
442:
438:
437:
417:
405:and secrete
402:
397:
378:
356:
351:If there is
330:helper cells
328:
325:
315:
306:phagocytosis
298:
264:
249:production.
244:
231:Fc receptors
207:immunization
196:
184:
163:
140:
111:
106:
102:
98:
91:
88:autoimmunity
79:
75:
59:
43:
40:alloantigens
39:
23:
20:Alloimmunity
19:
18:
1795:Lymphocytes
1454:Lymphocytic
1201:Blood types
1100:Coombs test
936:Whole blood
865:Alloantigen
712:6(3):505-13
251:Endothelium
219:neutrophils
114:polymorphic
48:blood group
44:isoantigens
30:to nonself
24:isoimmunity
1874:Immunology
1868:Categories
1836:Substances
1700:Peripheral
1688:Inaction:
1567:Antibodies
1548:Macrophage
1461:complement
1013:Blood bank
875:Isoantigen
645:J. Immunol
571:Dictionary
558:Isoantigen
546:References
530:Literature
215:complement
199:antibodies
124:and other
76:Alloimmune
56:antibodies
1853:Cytolysin
1843:Cytokines
1690:Tolerance
1639:tolerance
1558:Immunogen
1218:Augustine
1162:reaction
1160:Hemolytic
1049:Apheresis
941:Platelets
569:eMedicine
403:phenotype
357:Th2 cells
312:Cytokines
290:Cytokines
223:phagocyte
80:isoimmune
1879:Antigens
1803:Cellular
1647:Immunity
1645:Action:
1628:Paratope
1616:Idiotype
1606:Allotype
1574:Antibody
1528:Mimotope
1492:Allergen
1475:Antigens
1468:Lymphoid
1343:Lutheran
1248:Dombrock
1033:ISBT 128
667:17641036
561:Archived
503:See also
414:NK cells
278:NK cells
255:fibrosis
247:cytokine
58:(called
32:antigens
26:) is an
1848:Opsonin
1827:NK cell
1815:Humoral
1695:Central
1662:Allergy
1611:Isotype
1511:Epitope
1482:Antigen
1382:Scianna
1268:Gerbich
1171:delayed
1042:Methods
479:anergic
227:NK cell
36:species
1820:B cell
1808:T cell
1553:B cell
1516:Linear
1504:Hapten
1293:Indian
1238:Cromer
1233:Colton
958:Plasma
881:(MeSH)
871:(MeSH)
665:
582:"Home"
95:prefix
1412:Other
1338:Lewis
1328:Knops
1308:KANNO
1253:Duffy
1243:Diego
1166:acute
1081:Tests
407:IL-17
394:IL-21
383:IL-10
371:Foxp3
367:TGF-β
346:IFN-Îł
335:IL-12
302:lysis
99:auto-
92:allo-
72:fetus
1459:and
1392:T-Tn
1377:RHAG
1375:and
1368:Raph
1363:P1PK
1323:Kidd
1313:Kell
1278:GLOB
1263:FORS
1223:CD59
968:PF24
918:and
663:PMID
399:Th17
390:IL-6
379:Treg
361:IL-5
353:IL-4
268:and
225:and
1781:HLA
1777:MHC
1397:Vel
1387:Sid
1353:MNS
1333:Lan
1303:JMH
1273:GIL
1206:ABO
653:doi
649:179
567:at
392:or
326:Th1
318:CD4
266:CD4
203:IgM
42:or
1870::
1541::
1407:Yt
1402:Xg
1373:Rh
1358:OK
1348:LW
1317:Xk
1298:JR
1288:Ii
1283:Hh
1258:Er
1059:,
1055:,
693:^
661:.
647:.
643:.
594:^
584:.
276:,
237:.
66:,
1779:/
1537:/
1446:e
1439:t
1432:v
1319:)
1315:(
1063:)
1051:(
908:e
901:t
894:v
669:.
655::
588:.
481:.
409:.
377:(
105:(
78:(
Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License. Additional terms may apply.