1069:(139 BC). Rein observes that "by this change the control over the voters was scarcely any longer possible; and those who were bribed could not be distinguished from those who were not." One argument in favour of ballot in modern times has been that it would prevent bribery; and probably it would diminish the practice, though not put an end to it. But the notion of Rein that the bare fact of the vote being secret would increase the difficulty of distinguishing the bribed from the unbribed is absurd; for the bare knowledge of a man's vote is no part of the evidence of bribery. It is worth remark that there is no indication of any penalty being attached to the receiving of a bribe for a vote. The utmost that can be proved is, that the divisores or one of the class of persons who assisted in bribery were punished. But this is quite consistent with the rest: the briber and his agents were punished, not the bribed. When, therefore, Rein, who refers to these two passages under the
1015:, and it excluded from office for five years those who were convicted of bribery. But as the penalty was milder than those under the former laws, we must conclude that they were repealed in whole or in part. Another Lex Julia de Ambitu was passed (8 BC) apparently to amend the law of 18 BC. Candidates were required to deposit a sum of money before canvassing, which was forfeited if they were convicted of bribery. If any violence was used by a candidate, he was liable to exile (aquae et ignis interdictio).
40:
1560:
918:, and the enactments against it were numerous. The earliest enactment that is mentioned simply forbade persons "to add white to their dress", with a view to an election (432 BC). This seems to mean using some white sign or token on the dress, to signify that a man was a candidate. The object of the law was to check
1077:
went so far as to declare that if a candidate promised money to a tribe and did not pay it, he should be unpunished; but if he did pay the money, he should further pay to each tribe (annually?) 3000 sesterces as long as he lived. This absurd proposal was not carried; but it shows clearly enough that
758:
For the sake of these mighty and dignified offices and honours you kiss the hands of another man's slaves — and are thus the slaves of men who are not free themselves. … If you wish to be consul you must give up your sleep, run around, kiss men's hands, rot away at other men's doors … send presents
967:
was passed in the consulship of Cicero (63 BC) for the purpose of adding to the penalties of the Acilia
Calpurnia. The penalty under this lex was ten years' exile. This law forbade any person to exhibit public shows for two years before he was a candidate. It also forbade candidates hiring
1010:
obtained the supreme power in Rome, he used to recommend some of the candidates to the people, who, of course, followed his recommendation. As to the consulship, he managed the appointments to that office just as he pleased. The Lex Julia de Ambitu was passed (18 BC) in the time of
1064:
The laws that have been enumerated are probably all that were enacted, at least all of which any notice is preserved. Laws to repress bribery were made while the voting was open; and they continued to be made after the vote by ballot was introduced at the popular elections by the
831:, who gave him the names of such persons as he might meet; the candidate was thus enabled to address them by their name, an indirect compliment which could not fail to be generally gratifying to the electors. The candidate accompanied his address with a shake of the hand (
1033:, were merely the shadow of that which had once a substantial form. A Roman jurist, of the imperial period (Modestinus), in speaking of the Julia Lex de Ambitu, observes, "This law is now obsolete in the city, because the creation of magistrates is the business of the
666:
the previous year suggests that the two forms of legislation are related; both were aimed at curbing wealth-based inequities of power and status within the governing classes. The temptation to indulge in bribery indicates that the traditional
1371:
None of the penalties mentioned in this article include the capital penalty. The generally reliable historian
Polybius, however, a close first-hand observer of Roman polity, flatly states that at Rome the penalty for bribery was death
1081:
The trials for ambitus were numerous in the time of the republic. The oration of Cicero in defence of L. Murena, who was charged with ambitus, and that in defence of Cn. Plancius, who was tried under the Lex
Licinia, are both extant .
1073:, says: "Even those who received money from the candidates, or at least those who distributed it in their names, were punished," he couples two things together that are entirely of a different kind. The proposed
958:
were incapacitated from being candidates for ten years. The Lex Acilia
Calpurnia (67 BC) was intended to suppress treating of the electors and other like matters: the penalties were fine, exclusion from the
1002:
was sole consul for part of that year, appears to have been rather a measure passed for the occasion of the trials then had and contemplated than any thing else. It provided for the mode of naming the
979:) to mark out the members of the several tribes into smaller portions, and to secure more effectually the votes by this division of labour. This distribution of the members of the tribes was called
1029:
was, strictly speaking, no longer applicable. But in a short time, the appointment to public offices was entirely in the power of the emperors; and the magistrates of Rome, as well as the
946:(358 BC) forbade candidates canvassing on market days, and going about to the places in the country where people were collected. The law was passed mainly to check the pretensions of
991:
were taken out of the other three tribes; but the mode in which they were taken is not quite clear. The penalty under the Lex
Licinia was exile, but for what period is uncertain.
1217:
1233:
1574:
827:
expressed both the continual presence of the candidate at Rome, and his continual solicitations. The candidate, in going his rounds or taking his walk, was accompanied by a
983:. It was an obvious mode of better securing the votes. The mode of appointing the judices in trials under the Lex Licinia was also provided by that lex. They were called
926:
was subsequently employed. Still the practice of using a white dress on occasion of canvassing was usual, and appears to have given origin to the application of the term
641:
was the process of "going around and commending oneself or one's protégés to the people," an activity liable to unethical excesses. In practice, bringing a charge of
1589:
Peter Nadig, Ardet
Ambitus. Untersuchungen zum Phänomen der Wahlbestechungen in der römischen Republik, Peter Lang, Frankfurt am Main - New York 1997 (Prismata VI),
1274:
975:, did not alter the previous laws against bribery; but it was specially directed against a particular mode of canvassing, which consisted in employing agents (
1159:
590:
1025:
While the choice of candidates was thus partly in the hands of the senate, bribery and corruption still influenced the elections, though the name of
971:
In the second consulship of M. Licinius
Crassus and Cn. Pompeius Magnus (55 BC) the Lex Licinia was passed. This lex, which is entitled
1249:
1443:
In the main this is rightly explained by Rein, but completely misunderstood by Wunder and others. Furthermore, Drumann confounds the
1127:
583:
187:
563:
177:
721:
might be alleged when a man of lower social rank defeated his superior in an election: "The defeat of a candidate boasting
348:
170:
153:
1594:
987:, because the accuser or prosecutor nominated four tribes, and the accused was at liberty to reject one of them. The
839:
comprehended generally any kind of treating, such as shows or feasts. Candidates sometimes left Rome and visited the
698:
acquire public office by openly offering gifts, the penalty at Rome for doing so is death. The point is perhaps that
576:
148:
165:
727:
by another not in possession of such standing appears to have been sufficient grounds for initiating a charge of
158:
678:
for electoral corruption is a general term for the crime; defendants would have been charged under a specific
866:, which was the object of several penal enactments, taken as a generic term, comprehended the two species —
1238:
1091:
713:, under whatever statute, might devolve into an occasion for impugning or humiliating a public figure.
361:
1018:
The popular forms of election were observed during the time of
Augustus. Under Tiberius they ceased.
668:
426:
128:
898:). Money was paid for votes; and in order to ensure secrecy and secure the elector, persons called
655:
30:
464:
1244:
1074:
695:
1269:
4.1.148 and 4.10.20–21, as quoted by Fergus Millar, "Epictetus and the
Imperial Court," in
717:
politicians were particularly vulnerable to charges of currying favor with the masses, and
614:
106:
8:
241:
823:), who could in no other manner show their good will or give their assistance. The word
637:
is the origin of the
English word "ambition" which is another of its original meanings;
1609:
1271:
Rome the Greek World, and the East: Government Society, and Culture in the Roman Empire
691:
499:
138:
645:
against a public figure became a favored tactic for undermining a political opponent.
1590:
768:
739:
418:
411:
214:
1022:
observes, "The comitia were transferred from the campus to the patres," the senate.
954:
were jealous. By the Lex Cornelia Baebia (181 BC), those who were convicted of
750:(1st–2nd centuries AD) recoiled from the rough-and-tumble of electoral politics and
738:, the ambitious politician yielded of necessity to the bureaucrat in the holding of
1569:
540:
534:
527:
513:
342:
321:
266:
251:
246:
231:
115:
256:
20:
852:
780:
545:
492:
336:
311:
220:
68:
1603:
1564:
1170:
1119:
1096:
1007:
663:
617:, mainly a candidate's attempt to influence the outcome (or direction) of an
441:
291:
59:
1411:
1349:
1173:, "The Political Character of the Classical Roman Republic, 200–151 B.C.,"
960:
735:
659:
354:
306:
276:
202:
77:
1288:, "Charges of Provincial Maladministration undery the Early Principate,"
1212:
and Their Interpretation in the Republic, Principate, and Later Empire,"
1139:
1066:
397:
1332:
1285:
650:
626:
478:
208:
88:
815:) toga. On such occasions, the candidate was attended by his friends (
1266:
803:) was so called from his appearing in the public places, such as the
747:
714:
604:
550:
520:
386:
368:
331:
39:
1563: This article incorporates text from a publication now in the
1012:
999:
767:, sitting three or four times on the tribunal, giving games in the
743:
687:
618:
485:
375:
286:
197:
95:
1491:
1101:
1019:
723:
679:
654:
was the first law criminalizing electoral bribery, instituted by
622:
471:
450:
301:
281:
856:
848:
775:
Bribery of a person already holding office was covered by laws
764:
706:
506:
296:
1131:
1126:(University of Michigan Press, 1998, reprinted 2005), p. 216
630:
1188:
Trials in the Late Roman Republic, 149 BC to 50 BC
1575:
Cyclopædia, or an Universal Dictionary of Arts and Sciences
1390:
Cretata ambitio, Persius, Sat. v.177; Polyb. x.4 ed. Bekker
922:, the name for going about to canvass, in place of which
671:
was insufficient to gather enough votes to win election.
457:
404:
1273:(University of North Caroline Press, 2004), pp. 112–113
702:
could be construed as treason under some circumstances.
1230:
Trials of Character: The Eloquence of Ciceronian Ethos
1158:(Oxford University Press, 1979, 1985), p. 89, note 3
968:persons to attend them and be about their persons.
1156:
War and Imperialism in Republican Rome, 327–70 B.C.
1045:should offend against this law in canvassing for a
1232:(University of North Carolina Press, 1988), n.p.
1057:, with infamy, and subjected to a penalty of 100
709:'s speeches demonstrate how an initial charge of
1601:
1549:, where all the authorities are collected; Cic.
1190:(University of Toronto Press, 1990), pp. xi–xii.
963:, and perpetual incapacity to hold office. The
906:to hold the money until it was to be paid, and
882:are opposed by Cicero, as things allowable, to
847:, in which the citizens had the suffrage; thus
783:were particularly susceptible to such charges.
16:Political corruption crime in ancient Roman law
1578:(1st ed.). James and John Knapton, et al.
1177:74 (1984), pp. 10 (especially note 36) and 11.
1451:or coalition of candidates to procure votes (
1078:the principle was to punish the briber only.
1037:, and does not depend on the pleasure of the
811:, before his fellow-citizens, in a whitened (
694:, makes the extravagant assertion that while
584:
662:in 181 BC. The passage of Rome's first
1584:A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities
771:, and distributing meals in little baskets.
686:). The 2nd-century BC Greek historian
1214:Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt
795:, and his opponent with reference to him,
591:
577:
1006:, and shortened the proceedings. When C.
1568:
937:
690:, a major source on the workings of the
855:towns, when he was a candidate for the
819:), or followed by the poorer citizens (
1602:
1255:The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic
1124:The Crowd in Rome in the Late Republic
914:was a matter which belonged to the
902:were employed to make the bargain,
13:
1541:
1534:
1523:
1508:
1501:
1487:
1480:
1469:
1458:
1439:
1428:
1417:
1407:
1400:
1393:
1386:
1379:
1367:
1356:
1343:
1326:
1315:
1304:
894:in the Greek writers is δεκασμός (
890:, as things illegal. The word for
14:
1621:
1053:, he is punished, according to a
910:to distribute it. The offence of
763:to some. And what is the result?
1558:
1538:A list of them is given by Rein.
38:
1208:Richard Alexander Bauman, "The
1582:Smith, William, D.C.L., LL.D.
1279:
1260:
1222:
1216:II (de Gruyter, 1980), p. 125
1202:
1193:
1180:
1164:
1148:
1113:
786:
1:
1421:Dion Cassius xxxvii.29; Cic.
1107:
1586:. John Murray, London, 1875.
1404:Liv. xl.19; Schol. Bob. p361
1140:substantive form of the verb
7:
1473:Dion Cassius liv.16; Suet.
1210:Leges iudiciorum publicorum
1085:
10:
1626:
1092:Comes sacrarum largitionum
998:(52 BC), passed when
705:The rhetorical tactics of
669:patron-client relationship
18:
1572:, ed. (1728). "Ambitus".
427:Senatus consultum ultimum
322:Extraordinary magistrates
19:For the musical use, see
1298:
1175:Journal of Roman Studies
1138:, "both, around," and a
31:Politics of ancient Rome
1547:Criminalrecht der Römer
1154:William Vernon Harris,
791:A candidate was called
1186:Michael C. Alexander,
1041:; but if any one in a
851:proposed to visit the
773:
765:Twelve bundles of rods
188:Political institutions
938:Laws and restrictions
756:
781:provincial governors
656:M. Baebius Tamphilus
615:political corruption
267:Ordinary magistrates
1253:. See also Millar,
1292:10 (1961) 189–227.
1134:word derives from
759:to many and daily
740:Roman magistracies
692:Roman constitution
625:or other forms of
500:Triumvir monetalis
434:Titles and honours
1570:Chambers, Ephraim
1484:Dion Cassius lv.5
1336:. ii.25; and cf.
1055:senatus consultum
930:to one who was a
605:ancient Roman law
601:
600:
419:Quaestio perpetua
412:Senatus consultum
215:Roman citizenship
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1579:
1562:
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1389:
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1318:
1307:
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1220:
1206:
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1199:Polybius 6.56.4.
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1184:
1178:
1168:
1162:
1152:
1146:
1117:
985:Judices Editicii
593:
586:
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528:Princeps senatus
514:Magister militum
349:Consular tribune
343:Magister equitum
171:Augustan reforms
42:
26:
25:
1625:
1624:
1620:
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1455:, vol. iv p93).
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916:judicia publica
799:. A candidate (
789:
613:was a crime of
597:
568:
564:Other countries
555:
424:
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316:
261:
226:
182:
159:Sullan republic
124:
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63:
33:
24:
21:ambitus (music)
17:
12:
11:
5:
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1247:on the speech
1228:James M. May,
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1111:
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950:, of whom the
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93:
92:27 BC – AD 284
85:
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82:27 BC – AD 395
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69:Roman Republic
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1596:
1595:3-631-31295-4
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1171:Fergus Millar
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1129:
1125:
1121:
1120:Fergus Millar
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1097:Roman finance
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233:
230:
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223:
222:
218:
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211:
210:
206:
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196:
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186:
185:
179:
176:
172:
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160:
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156:
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150:
147:
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144:
143:
140:
137:
136:
131:
130:
126:
125:
119:
118:
114:
110:
109:
105:
104:
97:
94:
90:
87:
86:
80:
79:
75:
71:
70:
66:
62:
61:
60:Roman Kingdom
57:
56:
55:
54:
50:
49:
46:
45:
41:
37:
36:
32:
28:
27:
22:
1583:
1573:
1553:, ed. Wunder
1550:
1546:
1542:
1535:
1528:
1524:
1517:
1513:
1509:
1502:
1495:
1488:
1481:
1474:
1470:
1463:
1459:
1452:
1448:
1444:
1440:
1433:
1429:
1422:
1418:
1412:Dion Cassius
1408:
1401:
1394:
1387:
1380:
1373:
1368:
1361:
1357:
1350:pro Cluentio
1348:
1344:
1337:
1331:
1327:
1320:
1316:
1309:
1305:
1289:
1281:
1270:
1262:
1254:
1248:
1236:
1229:
1224:
1213:
1209:
1204:
1195:
1187:
1182:
1174:
1166:
1155:
1150:
1142:
1135:
1123:
1115:
1080:
1070:
1063:
1058:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1030:
1026:
1024:
1017:
1003:
995:
993:
988:
984:
980:
976:
972:
970:
964:
961:Roman Senate
955:
951:
948:novi homines
947:
944:Lex Poetelia
943:
941:
931:
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
895:
891:
887:
883:
879:
875:
871:
867:
863:
861:
844:
840:
836:
835:). The term
832:
828:
824:
820:
816:
812:
808:
804:
800:
796:
792:
790:
776:
774:
760:
757:
751:
746:philosopher
736:Imperial era
733:
728:
722:
718:
710:
704:
699:
683:
675:
673:
649:
647:
642:
638:
634:
609:
608:
602:
533:
526:
519:
512:
505:
498:
491:
484:
477:
470:
463:
456:
449:
425:
417:
410:
403:
396:
374:
367:
360:
353:
341:
219:
207:
203:Collegiality
139:Constitution
127:
116:
107:
78:Roman Empire
76:
67:
58:
1551:Pro Plancio
1514:pro Plancio
1434:pro Plancio
1397:Liv. vii.15
1075:Lex Aufidia
1067:Lex Gabinia
1051:magistratus
1047:sacerdotium
996:Lex Pompeia
900:interpretes
876:Liberalitas
874:(bribery).
872:largitiones
829:nomenclator
787:Terminology
734:During the
658:during his
398:Mos maiorum
178:Late Empire
121:AD 395–1453
1518:pro Murena
1505:Dig. 48 14
1445:decuriatio
1423:pro Murena
1383:Liv. iv.25
1376:, 6.56.4).
1338:pro Murena
1333:de Oratore
1310:pro Murena
1286:P.A. Brunt
1250:Pro Murena
1245:commentary
1145:, "to go."
1108:References
1071:lex Tullia
1043:municipium
981:decuriatio
965:lex Tullia
928:candidatus
904:sequestres
880:benignitas
857:consulship
837:benignitas
825:assiduitas
821:sectatores
817:deductores
801:candidatus
797:competitor
715:Popularist
660:consulship
651:Lex Baebia
627:soft power
479:Praefectus
387:Public law
242:Centuriate
232:Assemblies
209:Auctoritas
112:AD 395–476
99:AD 284–641
89:Principate
64:753–509 BC
1610:Roman law
1447:with the
1374:Histories
1267:Epictetus
908:divisores
853:Cisalpine
845:municipia
833:prensatio
748:Epictetus
724:nobilitas
674:The word
521:Imperator
369:Decemviri
362:Triumviri
332:Corrector
73:509–27 BC
1604:Category
1414:xxxvi.21
1290:Historia
1257:, p. 99.
1086:See also
1035:princeps
1013:Augustus
1000:Pompeius
896:dekasmos
888:largitio
841:coloniae
813:candidus
688:Polybius
621:through
619:election
551:Tetrarch
541:Augustus
486:Vicarius
465:Officium
376:Interrex
337:Dictator
312:Governor
287:Quaestor
252:Plebeian
198:Imperium
154:Republic
129:Timeline
96:Dominate
1567::
1516:, c23,
1492:Tacitus
1330:Cicero
1275:online.
1218:online.
1160:online.
1128:online.
1102:Largess
1039:populus
1031:populus
1027:ambitus
1020:Tacitus
1004:judices
989:judices
977:sodales
956:ambitus
952:nobiles
932:petitor
924:ambitus
920:ambitio
912:ambitus
892:ambitus
884:ambitus
868:ambitus
864:ambitus
793:petitor
752:ambitus
729:ambitus
719:ambitus
711:ambitus
700:ambitus
680:statute
676:ambitus
643:ambitus
639:ambitus
635:ambitus
623:bribery
610:ambitus
472:Praeses
451:Legatus
442:Emperor
302:Tribune
282:Praetor
247:Curiate
149:Kingdom
117:Eastern
108:Western
51:Periods
1593:
1545:Rein,
1531:. i.16
1529:ad Att
1498:. i.15
1462:Suet.
1449:coitio
1364:. i.16
1362:ad Att
1321:ad Att
1239:passim
1234:online
849:Cicero
769:Circus
742:. The
707:Cicero
629:. The
546:Caesar
507:Lictor
307:Censor
297:Aedile
277:Consul
257:Tribal
166:Empire
1527:Cic.
1520:, c23
1512:Cic.
1496:Annal
1466:. c41
1436:, c18
1432:Cic.
1425:, c23
1360:Cic.
1347:Cic.
1340:, c36
1323:. i.1
1319:Cic.
1312:, c34
1308:Cic.
1299:Notes
1136:ambi-
1132:Latin
1059:aurei
862:That
761:xenia
744:Stoic
633:word
631:Latin
1591:ISBN
1477:. 34
1464:Caes
1353:. 26
1130:The
994:The
886:and
878:and
870:and
843:and
807:and
805:fora
731:."
648:The
1475:Oct
1237:et
1143:ire
1061:".
1049:or
684:lex
603:In
458:Dux
405:Ius
355:Rex
1606::
1494:,
1122:,
942:A
934:.
859:.
779:;
754::
607:,
1372:(
1241:,
682:(
592:e
585:t
578:v
23:.
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