2062:
1967:
68:
2114:
1635:
1570:
154:
17:
1718:. Before Hubbert's scaling theory, scientists used natural materials (e.g. clays, soil, and sand) for analogue modelling. For large-scale simulation, analogue modelling should have geometric, kinematic, and dynamic similarity with nature. If the model has these similarities, results from simulation will be more accurate. All these different materials represent the natural features of Earth (such as crust, mantle, and river). Selection of analogue materials is difficult, because of the largely
2129:). This kind of horizontal movement will create a shear zone and several types of fractures and faults. A typical model used for strike-slip tectonics has two (or more) horizontal basal plates moving in opposite directions (or only move one of the plates, other are fixed). The visual results are shown from bird's-eye view. Scientists used
1625:
For the open system, the extrusion or stretching forces are imposed externally. However, the buoyancy forces can be generated both externally or internally. The materials and thermal energy can be added to or remove from the system. For the closed system, there is no energy and materials added to the
39:
processes are exceptionally long (millions of years), and most of the processes started long before human records. Secondly, the length scales of geodynamic processes are enormous (thousands of kilometres), and most of them happen at depth within the Earth. Thus, scientists began making proportional
2065:
The simple analogue modelling of the extension tectonics which showing the formation of normal fault and salt dome (diapirism). This model is built in a glass box. The darker greyish layer is silicone which represents salt, and brownish layers are dry quartz sands which represent the brittle
40:
small-scale simulations of features in the natural world to test geological ideas. Analogue models can directly show the whole structural pattern in 3D and cross-section. They are helpful in understanding the internal structures and the progressive development of Earth's deforming regions.
1181:
738:
483:
2043:. If the simulation only focuses on the upper crustal, the model is always built in the glass box (or two lateral glass walls) with a piston and/or wedges to supply forces to layers of granular materials (normally called sandbox). Depending on the different natural features,
1597:. Longitudinal compression machines are usually used for fracturing. There is a large variety of devices based on the different sources of forces applied to the material. Some devices have multiple forcing systems because nature is not homogeneous.
1491:
1328:
1185:
However, since the forces acting in the nature are unmeasurable, it is impossible to scale the forces and stresses directly. Scientists have been using different formulas to convert forces into the parameters that can be measured.
1024:
581:
326:
2117:
The simplified analogue modelling setting of shear deformation. This model is built on two separate horizontal plates. The brownish layers are dry sand, wet clay, and viscous materials, such as silicone or
124:
was further developed by many scientists later. As the field of geodynamic study expanded, analogue modelling increased, especially for large-scale geological processes. Examples include proto-subduction
31:
is a laboratory experimental method using uncomplicated physical models (such as a sandbox) with certain simple scales of time and length to model geological scenarios and simulate geodynamic evolutions.
886:
533:
895:
When the models and the natural world are geometrically and kinematically similar, dynamic similarity additionally requires that the various forces acting on a point in the model are
2054:
Simulations of mantle influences vary. Because of the different physical and chemical properties between the asthenosphere and lithosphere, viscous materials and a heater (for
1372:
776:
2682:
Tapponnier, P.; Peltzer, G.; Le Dain, A. Y.; Armijo, R.; Cobbold, P. (1982). "Propagating extrusion tectonics in Asia: New insights from simple experiments with plasticine".
319:
255:
1365:
1538:
287:
223:
181:
described the key principles for scaling analogue models. He defined three types of similarity between models and the natural world: geometric, kinematic and dynamic.
3188:
Griffiths, Ross W.; Hackney, Ronald I.; van der Hilst, Rob D. (1995). "A laboratory investigation of effects of trench migration on the descent of subducted slabs".
1208:
1013:
982:
951:
924:
574:
1670:
that most experiments utilize is ordinarily the Earth's field of gravity. However, many models are carried out using simulated gravity, for example, by use of a
1215:
1573:
The simple analogue modelling of the fold-thrust belt system taken in the
Nanjing University physical laboratory. The white and blue materials are quartz sands.
796:
3054:
Rossetti, Federico; Ranalli, Giorgio; Faccenna, Claudio (1999). "Rheological properties of paraffin as an analogue material for viscous crustal deformation".
2229:"A review of analogue modelling of geodynamic processes: Approaches, scaling, materials and quantification, with an application to subduction experiments"
2125:
differ from the dominantly vertical crust movements associated with shortening and extension, being dominantly horizontal in character (in relative terms
2061:
1626:
system. Thus, all the deformations are caused by internal buoyancy forces. Only buoyancy-driven deformation can be simulated in a closed system.
3334:
Dooley, Tim P.; Schreurs, Guido (2012-10-29). "Analogue modelling of intraplate strike-slip tectonics: A review and new experimental results".
2051:(inserted layers with low cohesion, normally glass microbeads), and any other parameters can put into the model, producing various results.
1929:
The study of natural rock properties still needs more research. The more accurate the input data, the more accurate the analogue modelling.
1176:{\displaystyle {\frac {F_{g}^{m}}{F_{g}^{p}}}={\frac {F_{v}^{m}}{F_{v}^{p}}}={\frac {F_{f}^{m}}{F_{f}^{p}}}={\frac {F_{n}^{m}}{F_{n}^{p}}}}
733:{\displaystyle {\frac {t_{1}^{m}}{t_{1}^{p}}}={\frac {t_{2}^{m}}{t_{2}^{p}}}={\frac {t_{3}^{m}}{t_{3}^{p}}}={\frac {t_{n}^{m}}{t_{n}^{p}}}}
478:{\displaystyle {\frac {l_{1}^{m}}{l_{1}^{p}}}={\frac {l_{2}^{m}}{l_{2}^{p}}}={\frac {l_{3}^{m}}{l_{3}^{p}}}={\frac {l_{n}^{m}}{l_{n}^{p}}}}
1980:
Analogue modelling can be used to simulate different geodynamic processes and geological phenomena, such as small-scale problems –
2031:
The use of more complex compression machines substantially increases the number of simulations of compressional tectonics, including
1947:
The variation of natural rocks is greater than in simulated materials; therefore it is difficult to fully model the real situation.
1925:
Because analogue modelling involves the simplification of geodynamic processes, it also has several disadvantages and limitations:
1585:
For example, lateral compression machines are commonly used in simulating deformations involving lithospheric shortening, such as
803:
2761:
Brune, James N.; Ellis, Michael A. (1997-05-01). "Structural features in a brittle–ductile wax model of continental extension".
2377:
Strak, Vincent; Schellart, Wouter P. (2016). "Introduction to the special issue celebrating 200 years of geodynamic modelling".
1944:), and these are most likely heterogeneous systems. Thus they are challenging for simulations (some factors are not even known).
3030:
1966:
1618:. Conversely, if the deformations are caused by external forces or a combination of internal and external forces, it is an
1691:
67:
2348:
2113:
2878:
Davy, Ph.; Cobbold, P.R. (1991-03-10). "Experiments on shortening of a 4-layer model of the continental lithosphere".
2133:-analysis to collect the cross-section images for the observation of the most influenced area during the simulation.
488:
2827:
Koyi, H. (2007-12-18). "Analogue modelling: From a qualitative to a quantitative technique — A historical outline".
1974:
wedge. This simulation is done in a glass tank, with layered different granular materials that represent the crust.
1913:
The results of analogue modelling can be directly used for interpreting nature if the accuracy of the model is high.
545:
To be kinematically similar, they must be geometrically similar and the time needed for changes to occur must be
43:
Analogue modelling has been widely used for geodynamic analysis and to illustrate the development of different
2730:
Vendeville, B.C.; Jackson, M.P.A. (1992-01-01). "The Rise and Fall of
Diapirs During Thin-Skinned Extension".
2703:
3274:
1552:
896:
546:
190:
2147:
1619:
44:
3379:
2013:
1486:{\displaystyle {\frac {F^{m}}{F^{p}}}={\frac {\Delta \rho ^{m}(l^{m})^{3}}{\Delta \rho ^{p}(l^{p})^{3}}}}
87:
72:
1900:
Geodynamic processes can be stopped at any time for investigation, and allow the study of 3D structures.
1674:. These technologies are usually used in studying development of gravity-controlled structures, such as
2021:
76:
2527:
HUBBERT, M. K. (1937-10-01). "Theory of scale models as applied to the study of geologic structures".
748:
2639:
Kincaid, Chris; Olson, Peter (1987-12-10). "An experimental study of subduction and slab migration".
2025:
292:
228:
2442:
2020:. He used a lateral compression machine for the simulation, and this machine is still shown in the
1634:
1331:
1187:
99:
35:
There are numerous limitations affecting the direct study of the Earth. Firstly, the timescales of
1610:
For experimental systems, the energy can be supplied externally (at the boundary) and internally (
1347:
1503:
1569:
153:
116:
came up with the theory of scaling in 1937, meaning that the study of analogue modelling became
1662:(greenish-blue liquid in the glass tank). There is a heater in the tank for heating the liquid.
260:
196:
3142:
2097:. These models can also be built in a glass box which is similar to the above, but instead of
3255:
2429:
2126:
2122:
2078:
1730:
in nature. The rheological characteristic of internal layering was developed by the study of
1711:
121:
117:
3201:
3339:
3289:
3197:
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2887:
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2691:
2648:
2605:
2536:
2386:
2302:
2240:
1715:
1323:{\displaystyle {\frac {F^{m}}{F^{p}}}={\frac {\rho ^{m}(l^{m})^{3}}{\rho ^{p}(l^{p})^{3}}}}
1193:
991:
960:
929:
902:
552:
8:
3270:
3343:
3293:
3275:"Erosion and exhumation in accretionary orogens: Experimental and geological approaches"
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2540:
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2244:
2067:
3313:
3231:
3115:
3098:
2995:
2860:
2848:
2794:
2485:
2293:
Ranalli, Giorgio (2001). "Experimental tectonics: from Sir James Hall to the present".
2142:
2040:
781:
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2314:
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2489:
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2402:
2354:
2344:
2318:
2258:
2102:
2055:
2001:
1957:
There are systematic errors in the apparatus, and random errors due to human factors.
1951:
1647:
2028:. Although the model he used is simpler than current ones, the idea remains in use.
1903:
The scales of the model can be controlled in a practicable range for the laboratory.
3347:
3297:
3213:
3205:
3162:
3110:
3071:
3018:
2985:
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2613:
2544:
2469:
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1787:
1727:
1560:
1548:
1341:
954:
1897:
Analogue models can directly show whole geodynamic processes from start to finish.
1582:
Different geodynamic processes are simulated by different experimental apparatus.
1768:
178:
162:
130:
113:
52:
3351:
3166:
2017:
1981:
1675:
1586:
1494:
1337:
107:
91:
48:
3022:
2473:
2462:
Earth and
Environmental Science Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
2398:
2253:
2228:
2048:
1975:
1916:
Analogue modelling can provide new ways of thinking about geological problems.
1741:
To simulate layers with different properties, different materials are chosen:
742:
For example, 1 second in the model represents 1 thousand years in the nature.
189:
To be geometrically similar, lengths in the model and natural example must be
16:
3373:
3359:
3309:
3227:
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3083:
3040:
2950:
2907:
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2747:
2711:
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2582:
2556:
2481:
2406:
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1910:
by altering the parameters, and the influence of each parameter is clarified.
1796:
1781:
1667:
1659:
1655:
1651:
1615:
985:
166:
2660:
2942:
2617:
2152:
2086:
2036:
1866:
1735:
1707:
1590:
1190:
is usually used for showing the relationship between forces and densities (
103:
21:
3143:"Properties of granular analogue model materials: A community wide survey"
3301:
2548:
2004:. The following are some examples of applications of analogue modelling.
1933:
1907:
1820:
537:
For example, 1 centimetre in the model represents 1 kilometre in nature.
36:
2999:
2339:
Schreurs, Guido; Buiter, Susanne J. H. (Susanne Janita Henriët) (2006).
193:
and angles must be equal. When the length of a natural prototype (p) is
98:. This idea of modelling led to many other small-scale studies, such as
2032:
2024:. The final result from the model is quite close to observation of the
1993:
1989:
1850:
1831:
1802:
1731:
1671:
1639:
1614:
forces). If the deformation is only caused by internal forces, it is a
1594:
126:
3141:
KlinkmĂĽller, M.; Schreurs, G.; Rosenau, M.; Kemnitz, H. (2016-08-02).
3099:"Model Experimentation of the Effect of Gravity on Tectonic Processes"
2575:
The negative isostatic anomalies in the East Indies (with
Experiments)
1666:
Because the major research object of analogue modelling is Earth, the
1566:
However, these two equations can lead to different topography scales.
3218:
2782:
2739:
2090:
1985:
56:
2457:
2990:
2965:
2921:
JACOBY, WOLFGANG R. (1973). "Model
Experiment of Plate Movements".
2596:
JACOBY, WOLFGANG R. (1973). "Model
Experiment of Plate Movements".
2421:
1971:
1937:
1813:
1723:
1719:
1703:
1643:
1611:
1016:
79:. The materials squeezed in the box are blankets or layers of clay.
75:
to model geological folding. This machine is still present in the
3140:
2130:
2044:
1941:
1878:
1835:
1556:
1544:
158:
134:
95:
2077:
Compression machines can also be used in reverse for simulating
1340:
is usually used for showing the relationship between forces and
83:
Analogue modelling has a development history of over 200 years.
2098:
2094:
1997:
1679:
138:
2681:
899:
to those at a corresponding point in nature. When the forces (
110:
in the late 19th century. These studies were all qualitative.
3187:
3268:
2341:
Analogue and numerical modelling of crustal-scale processes
2082:
1699:
1695:
881:{\displaystyle v^{p}=v^{m}{\frac {l^{p}t^{m}}{l^{m}t^{p}}}}
142:
2035:, collision, lithospheric shortening, fracture formation,
1970:
Simple analogue modelling of the growth and erosion of an
2704:
10.1130/0091-7613(1982)10<611:petian>2.0.co;2
1862:
1761:
Granular materials (various in density, shape, and size)
161:
formation using flour to represent the upper part of the
1893:
There are many useful properties of analogue modelling:
3053:
1932:
There are many more factors in nature that affect the
3103:
Geophysical
Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society
1642:. The materials this model uses are sand mixture and
1506:
1375:
1350:
1218:
1196:
1027:
994:
963:
932:
905:
806:
784:
751:
584:
555:
491:
329:
295:
263:
231:
199:
47:. Models can explore small-scale processes, such as
2458:"VII.—Experimental Researches in Mountain Building"
2081:, such as lithospheric extension, the formation of
1532:
1485:
1359:
1322:
1202:
1175:
1007:
976:
945:
918:
880:
790:
770:
732:
568:
527:
477:
321:. They need to conform to the following formulas:
313:
281:
257:. Correspondingly, the length in the model (m) is
249:
217:
3017:. Modern Approaches in Geophysics. Vol. 11.
2729:
2422:"Geological Studies in the Pays-D'Enhaut Vaudois"
3371:
2966:"Notes on the Mechanics of Geologic Structures"
2047:(removal of top materials at a certain angle),
1764:Quartz sand, glass microbeads, feldspar powder
1714:of analogue modelling experiments, compared to
528:{\displaystyle \alpha _{n}^{m}=\alpha _{n}^{p}}
3333:
2376:
2338:
2226:
2502:
2227:Schellart, Wouter P.; Strak, Vincent (2016).
1906:The simulation can show different results of
2641:Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth
2638:
1555:to forces and stresses, it is easy to scale
3015:Subduction: Insights from Physical Modeling
2877:
798:) can be scaled by the following equation:
94:similar to those that he had studied at an
86:It has been used since at least 1812, when
2760:
2007:
3217:
3114:
2989:
2252:
1577:
549:. When the required time for changing is
165:and a balloon to represent the inflating
3012:
2112:
2108:
2072:
2060:
1965:
1710:. Different materials came into use for
1633:
1568:
1563:instead of scaling forces and stresses.
152:
66:
59:movement and interior Earth structures.
15:
3096:
2526:
2509:. Harvard University. Govt. print. off.
2292:
540:
184:
3372:
2920:
2595:
2529:Geological Society of America Bulletin
2506:The Mechanics of Appalachian Structure
2455:
2012:The first analogue model was built by
1722:-dependent deformation and inconstant
1500:(While the gravitational acceleration
3329:
3327:
3249:
3247:
3245:
3136:
3134:
2822:
2820:
2818:
2816:
2814:
2812:
2810:
2808:
2725:
2723:
2721:
2572:
2334:
2332:
2222:
2220:
2218:
2216:
2214:
2212:
2210:
2208:
2206:
2204:
2202:
2200:
2198:
2196:
2194:
2192:
2190:
2188:
1774:
890:
3282:Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems
2963:
2826:
2568:
2566:
2522:
2520:
2518:
2516:
2372:
2370:
2368:
2288:
2286:
2284:
2282:
2280:
2278:
2276:
2274:
2272:
2186:
2184:
2182:
2180:
2178:
2176:
2174:
2172:
2170:
2168:
71:Lateral compression machine made by
55:, or large-scale processes, such as
3190:Earth and Planetary Science Letters
1950:Analogue modelling cannot simulate
1638:The simple analogue modelling of a
90:squeezed layers of clay to produce
13:
3324:
3253:
3242:
3131:
3116:10.1111/j.1365-246x.1967.tb06247.x
2849:10.1111/j.1747-5457.1997.tb00774.x
2805:
2718:
2329:
1992:, and large-scale problems –
1600:
1444:
1406:
1351:
14:
3391:
2563:
2513:
2365:
2269:
2165:
1745:Materials for analogue modelling
2419:
1920:
1690:Analogue modelling uses various
1629:
771:{\displaystyle v={\frac {l}{t}}}
225:(n=1, 2, 3...) and the angle is
3262:
3181:
3090:
3047:
3013:Shemenda, Alexander I. (1994).
3006:
2957:
2914:
2871:
2754:
2675:
2632:
2589:
1961:
1875:Visco-elasto-plastic materials
314:{\displaystyle \alpha _{n}^{m}}
250:{\displaystyle \alpha _{n}^{p}}
2496:
2449:
2413:
1809:High linear viscous materials
1654:(right in layered brown), and
1471:
1457:
1433:
1419:
1308:
1294:
1273:
1259:
1:
3076:10.1016/s0191-8141(99)00040-1
3056:Journal of Structural Geology
2315:10.1016/s0264-3707(01)00023-0
2158:
1888:
1844:Non-linear viscous materials
1778:Water, sugar solution, honey
148:
3210:10.1016/0012-821x(95)00027-a
2900:10.1016/0040-1951(91)90311-f
2829:Journal of Petroleum Geology
2148:Numerical modeling (geology)
1685:
1650:(left in layered brown) and
1360:{\displaystyle \Delta \rho }
20:Pure shear sandbox model of
7:
3352:10.1016/j.tecto.2012.05.030
3167:10.1016/j.tecto.2016.01.017
2136:
1533:{\displaystyle g^{m}=g^{p}}
926:) acting on the system are
10:
3396:
3269:Konstantinovskaia, Elena;
3097:Ramberg, H. (2010-01-26).
2022:Royal Society of Edinburgh
1605:
172:
77:Royal Society of Edinburgh
62:
3023:10.1007/978-94-011-0952-9
2474:10.1017/S0080456800017658
2456:Cadell, Henry M. (1889).
2399:10.1016/j.jog.2016.08.003
2254:10.1016/j.jog.2016.03.009
1843:
1826:
1808:
1760:
1749:
282:{\displaystyle l_{n}^{m}}
218:{\displaystyle l_{n}^{p}}
2964:Mead, Warren J. (1920).
1859:Visco-plastic materials
1827:Visco-elastic materials
1332:Cauchy momentum equation
1188:Cauchy momentum equation
3202:1995E&PSL.133....1G
2923:Nature Physical Science
2661:10.1029/jb092ib13p13832
2598:Nature Physical Science
2008:Compressional tectonics
2970:The Journal of Geology
2943:10.1038/physci242130a0
2618:10.1038/physci242130a0
2573:Ph.H., Kuenen (1937).
2503:Bailey Willis (1894).
2437:Cite journal requires
2379:Journal of Geodynamics
2343:. Geological Society.
2295:Journal of Geodynamics
2233:Journal of Geodynamics
2119:
2069:
1977:
1938:isostatic compensation
1775:Low-viscous materials
1663:
1578:Experimental apparatus
1574:
1534:
1487:
1367:is density constant):
1361:
1324:
1204:
1177:
1009:
978:
947:
920:
882:
792:
772:
734:
570:
529:
479:
315:
283:
251:
219:
169:
100:fault-propagation fold
80:
25:
2123:Strike-slip tectonics
2118:polydimethylsiloxane.
2116:
2109:Strike-slip tectonics
2079:extensional tectonics
2073:Extensional tectonics
2064:
1969:
1712:quantitative analysis
1637:
1572:
1535:
1488:
1362:
1325:
1205:
1203:{\displaystyle \rho }
1178:
1010:
1008:{\displaystyle F_{f}}
979:
977:{\displaystyle F_{v}}
948:
946:{\displaystyle F_{g}}
921:
919:{\displaystyle F_{n}}
883:
793:
773:
735:
571:
569:{\displaystyle t_{n}}
530:
480:
316:
284:
252:
220:
156:
122:quantitative approach
70:
19:
3302:10.1029/2004gc000794
3271:Malavieille, Jacques
3256:"Analogue Modelling"
2732:Report Investigation
2647:(B13): 13832–13840.
2549:10.1130/gsab-48-1459
2127:sinistral or dextral
1934:geodynamic processes
1908:geodynamic processes
1830:Amorphous polymers,
1716:qualitative analysis
1504:
1373:
1348:
1216:
1194:
1025:
992:
961:
930:
903:
804:
782:
749:
582:
553:
541:Kinematic similarity
489:
327:
293:
261:
229:
197:
185:Geometric similarity
45:geological phenomena
3344:2012Tectp.574....1D
3294:2005GGG.....6.2006K
3159:2016Tectp.684...23K
3068:1999JSG....21..413R
2982:1920JG.....28..505M
2935:1973NPhS..242..130J
2892:1991Tectp.188....1D
2841:1997JPetG..20..223K
2775:1997Natur.387...67B
2696:1982Geo....10..611T
2653:1987JGR....9213832K
2610:1973NPhS..242..130J
2541:1937GSAB...48.1459H
2391:2016JGeo..100....1S
2307:2001JGeo...32...65R
2245:2016JGeo..100....7S
2066:sedimentary rocks.
1746:
1170:
1155:
1133:
1118:
1096:
1081:
1059:
1044:
727:
712:
690:
675:
653:
638:
616:
601:
524:
506:
472:
457:
435:
420:
398:
383:
361:
346:
310:
278:
246:
214:
3380:Structural geology
2143:Geologic modelling
2120:
2070:
2041:accretionary wedge
2026:Berwickshire coast
1978:
1952:chemical reactions
1847:Plastic materials
1744:
1726:influenced by the
1664:
1575:
1530:
1483:
1357:
1320:
1200:
1173:
1156:
1141:
1119:
1104:
1082:
1067:
1045:
1030:
1005:
974:
943:
916:
891:Dynamic similarity
878:
788:
778:, the velocities (
768:
730:
713:
698:
676:
661:
639:
624:
602:
587:
566:
525:
510:
492:
475:
458:
443:
421:
406:
384:
369:
347:
332:
311:
296:
279:
264:
247:
232:
215:
200:
170:
157:Analogue model of
81:
29:Analogue modelling
26:
3338:. 574–575: 1–71.
3032:978-94-010-4411-0
2535:(10): 1459–1520.
2420:Hall, Sir James.
2058:) are also used.
2056:mantle convection
2002:mantle convection
1886:
1885:
1786:Sub-lithospheric
1648:continental crust
1593:, collision, and
1561:density contrasts
1549:density contrasts
1493:(Generating from
1481:
1398:
1342:density contrasts
1330:(Generating from
1318:
1241:
1171:
1134:
1097:
1060:
876:
791:{\displaystyle v}
766:
728:
691:
654:
617:
473:
436:
399:
362:
289:and the angle is
3387:
3364:
3363:
3331:
3322:
3321:
3279:
3266:
3260:
3259:
3251:
3240:
3239:
3221:
3185:
3179:
3178:
3138:
3129:
3128:
3118:
3109:(1–4): 307–329.
3094:
3088:
3087:
3051:
3045:
3044:
3010:
3004:
3003:
2993:
2961:
2955:
2954:
2929:(122): 130–134.
2918:
2912:
2911:
2875:
2869:
2868:
2824:
2803:
2802:
2783:10.1038/387067a0
2758:
2752:
2751:
2740:10.23867/ri0209d
2727:
2716:
2715:
2679:
2673:
2672:
2636:
2630:
2629:
2604:(122): 130–134.
2593:
2587:
2586:
2570:
2561:
2560:
2524:
2511:
2510:
2500:
2494:
2493:
2453:
2447:
2446:
2440:
2435:
2433:
2425:
2417:
2411:
2410:
2374:
2363:
2362:
2336:
2327:
2326:
2290:
2267:
2266:
2256:
2224:
1747:
1743:
1728:thermal gradient
1539:
1537:
1536:
1531:
1529:
1528:
1516:
1515:
1492:
1490:
1489:
1484:
1482:
1480:
1479:
1478:
1469:
1468:
1456:
1455:
1442:
1441:
1440:
1431:
1430:
1418:
1417:
1404:
1399:
1397:
1396:
1387:
1386:
1377:
1366:
1364:
1363:
1358:
1329:
1327:
1326:
1321:
1319:
1317:
1316:
1315:
1306:
1305:
1293:
1292:
1282:
1281:
1280:
1271:
1270:
1258:
1257:
1247:
1242:
1240:
1239:
1230:
1229:
1220:
1209:
1207:
1206:
1201:
1182:
1180:
1179:
1174:
1172:
1169:
1164:
1154:
1149:
1140:
1135:
1132:
1127:
1117:
1112:
1103:
1098:
1095:
1090:
1080:
1075:
1066:
1061:
1058:
1053:
1043:
1038:
1029:
1014:
1012:
1011:
1006:
1004:
1003:
983:
981:
980:
975:
973:
972:
952:
950:
949:
944:
942:
941:
925:
923:
922:
917:
915:
914:
887:
885:
884:
879:
877:
875:
874:
873:
864:
863:
853:
852:
851:
842:
841:
831:
829:
828:
816:
815:
797:
795:
794:
789:
777:
775:
774:
769:
767:
759:
739:
737:
736:
731:
729:
726:
721:
711:
706:
697:
692:
689:
684:
674:
669:
660:
655:
652:
647:
637:
632:
623:
618:
615:
610:
600:
595:
586:
575:
573:
572:
567:
565:
564:
534:
532:
531:
526:
523:
518:
505:
500:
484:
482:
481:
476:
474:
471:
466:
456:
451:
442:
437:
434:
429:
419:
414:
405:
400:
397:
392:
382:
377:
368:
363:
360:
355:
345:
340:
331:
320:
318:
317:
312:
309:
304:
288:
286:
285:
280:
277:
272:
256:
254:
253:
248:
245:
240:
224:
222:
221:
216:
213:
208:
3395:
3394:
3390:
3389:
3388:
3386:
3385:
3384:
3370:
3369:
3368:
3367:
3332:
3325:
3277:
3267:
3263:
3252:
3243:
3186:
3182:
3139:
3132:
3095:
3091:
3052:
3048:
3033:
3011:
3007:
2962:
2958:
2919:
2915:
2876:
2872:
2825:
2806:
2769:(6628): 67–70.
2759:
2755:
2728:
2719:
2680:
2676:
2637:
2633:
2594:
2590:
2571:
2564:
2525:
2514:
2501:
2497:
2454:
2450:
2438:
2436:
2427:
2426:
2418:
2414:
2375:
2366:
2351:
2337:
2330:
2291:
2270:
2225:
2166:
2161:
2139:
2111:
2087:normal faulting
2075:
2016:for simulating
2010:
1964:
1923:
1891:
1688:
1640:subduction zone
1632:
1608:
1603:
1601:Lab environment
1591:thrust faulting
1580:
1524:
1520:
1511:
1507:
1505:
1502:
1501:
1474:
1470:
1464:
1460:
1451:
1447:
1443:
1436:
1432:
1426:
1422:
1413:
1409:
1405:
1403:
1392:
1388:
1382:
1378:
1376:
1374:
1371:
1370:
1349:
1346:
1345:
1311:
1307:
1301:
1297:
1288:
1284:
1283:
1276:
1272:
1266:
1262:
1253:
1249:
1248:
1246:
1235:
1231:
1225:
1221:
1219:
1217:
1214:
1213:
1195:
1192:
1191:
1165:
1160:
1150:
1145:
1139:
1128:
1123:
1113:
1108:
1102:
1091:
1086:
1076:
1071:
1065:
1054:
1049:
1039:
1034:
1028:
1026:
1023:
1022:
999:
995:
993:
990:
989:
968:
964:
962:
959:
958:
937:
933:
931:
928:
927:
910:
906:
904:
901:
900:
893:
869:
865:
859:
855:
854:
847:
843:
837:
833:
832:
830:
824:
820:
811:
807:
805:
802:
801:
783:
780:
779:
758:
750:
747:
746:
722:
717:
707:
702:
696:
685:
680:
670:
665:
659:
648:
643:
633:
628:
622:
611:
606:
596:
591:
585:
583:
580:
579:
560:
556:
554:
551:
550:
543:
519:
514:
501:
496:
490:
487:
486:
467:
462:
452:
447:
441:
430:
425:
415:
410:
404:
393:
388:
378:
373:
367:
356:
351:
341:
336:
330:
328:
325:
324:
305:
300:
294:
291:
290:
273:
268:
262:
259:
258:
241:
236:
230:
227:
226:
209:
204:
198:
195:
194:
187:
175:
151:
131:plate tectonics
65:
12:
11:
5:
3393:
3383:
3382:
3366:
3365:
3336:Tectonophysics
3323:
3273:(2005-02-26).
3261:
3254:Gelder, Inge.
3241:
3180:
3147:Tectonophysics
3130:
3089:
3062:(4): 413–417.
3046:
3031:
3005:
2991:10.1086/622731
2976:(6): 505–523.
2956:
2913:
2880:Tectonophysics
2870:
2835:(2): 223–238.
2804:
2753:
2717:
2674:
2631:
2588:
2562:
2512:
2495:
2468:(1): 337–357.
2448:
2439:|journal=
2412:
2364:
2350:978-1862391918
2349:
2328:
2301:(1–2): 65–76.
2268:
2163:
2162:
2160:
2157:
2156:
2155:
2150:
2145:
2138:
2135:
2110:
2107:
2074:
2071:
2009:
2006:
1984:, fracturing,
1963:
1960:
1959:
1958:
1955:
1948:
1945:
1930:
1922:
1919:
1918:
1917:
1914:
1911:
1904:
1901:
1898:
1890:
1887:
1884:
1883:
1881:
1876:
1872:
1871:
1869:
1860:
1856:
1855:
1853:
1848:
1845:
1841:
1840:
1838:
1828:
1824:
1823:
1817:
1810:
1806:
1805:
1799:
1792:
1791:
1779:
1776:
1772:
1771:
1767:Brittle upper
1765:
1762:
1758:
1757:
1754:
1751:
1687:
1684:
1676:dome formation
1644:silicone putty
1631:
1628:
1607:
1604:
1602:
1599:
1579:
1576:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1514:
1510:
1477:
1473:
1467:
1463:
1459:
1454:
1450:
1446:
1439:
1435:
1429:
1425:
1421:
1416:
1412:
1408:
1402:
1395:
1391:
1385:
1381:
1356:
1353:
1314:
1310:
1304:
1300:
1296:
1291:
1287:
1279:
1275:
1269:
1265:
1261:
1256:
1252:
1245:
1238:
1234:
1228:
1224:
1199:
1168:
1163:
1159:
1153:
1148:
1144:
1138:
1131:
1126:
1122:
1116:
1111:
1107:
1101:
1094:
1089:
1085:
1079:
1074:
1070:
1064:
1057:
1052:
1048:
1042:
1037:
1033:
1002:
998:
971:
967:
940:
936:
913:
909:
892:
889:
872:
868:
862:
858:
850:
846:
840:
836:
827:
823:
819:
814:
810:
787:
765:
762:
757:
754:
725:
720:
716:
710:
705:
701:
695:
688:
683:
679:
673:
668:
664:
658:
651:
646:
642:
636:
631:
627:
621:
614:
609:
605:
599:
594:
590:
563:
559:
542:
539:
522:
517:
513:
509:
504:
499:
495:
470:
465:
461:
455:
450:
446:
440:
433:
428:
424:
418:
413:
409:
403:
396:
391:
387:
381:
376:
372:
366:
359:
354:
350:
344:
339:
335:
308:
303:
299:
276:
271:
267:
244:
239:
235:
212:
207:
203:
186:
183:
174:
171:
150:
147:
64:
61:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3392:
3381:
3378:
3377:
3375:
3361:
3357:
3353:
3349:
3345:
3341:
3337:
3330:
3328:
3319:
3315:
3311:
3307:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3288:(2): Q02006.
3287:
3283:
3276:
3272:
3265:
3257:
3250:
3248:
3246:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3220:
3215:
3211:
3207:
3203:
3199:
3196:(1–2): 1–17.
3195:
3191:
3184:
3176:
3172:
3168:
3164:
3160:
3156:
3152:
3148:
3144:
3137:
3135:
3126:
3122:
3117:
3112:
3108:
3104:
3100:
3093:
3085:
3081:
3077:
3073:
3069:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3050:
3042:
3038:
3034:
3028:
3024:
3020:
3016:
3009:
3001:
2997:
2992:
2987:
2983:
2979:
2975:
2971:
2967:
2960:
2952:
2948:
2944:
2940:
2936:
2932:
2928:
2924:
2917:
2909:
2905:
2901:
2897:
2893:
2889:
2886:(1–2): 1–25.
2885:
2881:
2874:
2866:
2862:
2858:
2854:
2850:
2846:
2842:
2838:
2834:
2830:
2823:
2821:
2819:
2817:
2815:
2813:
2811:
2809:
2800:
2796:
2792:
2788:
2784:
2780:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2749:
2745:
2741:
2737:
2733:
2726:
2724:
2722:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2701:
2697:
2693:
2689:
2685:
2678:
2670:
2666:
2662:
2658:
2654:
2650:
2646:
2642:
2635:
2627:
2623:
2619:
2615:
2611:
2607:
2603:
2599:
2592:
2584:
2580:
2576:
2569:
2567:
2558:
2554:
2550:
2546:
2542:
2538:
2534:
2530:
2523:
2521:
2519:
2517:
2508:
2507:
2499:
2491:
2487:
2483:
2479:
2475:
2471:
2467:
2463:
2459:
2452:
2444:
2431:
2423:
2416:
2408:
2404:
2400:
2396:
2392:
2388:
2384:
2380:
2373:
2371:
2369:
2360:
2356:
2352:
2346:
2342:
2335:
2333:
2324:
2320:
2316:
2312:
2308:
2304:
2300:
2296:
2289:
2287:
2285:
2283:
2281:
2279:
2277:
2275:
2273:
2264:
2260:
2255:
2250:
2246:
2242:
2238:
2234:
2230:
2223:
2221:
2219:
2217:
2215:
2213:
2211:
2209:
2207:
2205:
2203:
2201:
2199:
2197:
2195:
2193:
2191:
2189:
2187:
2185:
2183:
2181:
2179:
2177:
2175:
2173:
2171:
2169:
2164:
2154:
2151:
2149:
2146:
2144:
2141:
2140:
2134:
2132:
2128:
2124:
2115:
2106:
2104:
2103:tensile force
2100:
2096:
2092:
2088:
2084:
2080:
2068:
2063:
2059:
2057:
2052:
2050:
2046:
2042:
2038:
2034:
2029:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2015:
2005:
2003:
1999:
1996:, collision,
1995:
1991:
1987:
1983:
1976:
1973:
1968:
1956:
1953:
1949:
1946:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1928:
1927:
1926:
1921:Disadvantages
1915:
1912:
1909:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1896:
1895:
1894:
1882:
1880:
1877:
1874:
1873:
1870:
1868:
1864:
1861:
1858:
1857:
1854:
1852:
1849:
1846:
1842:
1839:
1837:
1833:
1829:
1825:
1822:
1818:
1815:
1811:
1807:
1804:
1800:
1798:
1797:glucose syrup
1794:
1793:
1790:
1789:
1783:
1782:Asthenosphere
1780:
1777:
1773:
1770:
1766:
1763:
1759:
1755:
1752:
1748:
1742:
1739:
1737:
1733:
1729:
1725:
1721:
1717:
1713:
1709:
1705:
1701:
1697:
1693:
1683:
1681:
1677:
1673:
1669:
1668:gravity field
1661:
1660:asthenosphere
1657:
1656:glucose syrup
1653:
1652:oceanic crust
1649:
1645:
1641:
1636:
1630:Gravity field
1627:
1623:
1621:
1617:
1616:closed system
1613:
1598:
1596:
1592:
1588:
1583:
1571:
1567:
1564:
1562:
1558:
1554:
1550:
1546:
1541:
1525:
1521:
1517:
1512:
1508:
1498:
1496:
1475:
1465:
1461:
1452:
1448:
1437:
1427:
1423:
1414:
1410:
1400:
1393:
1389:
1383:
1379:
1368:
1354:
1343:
1339:
1335:
1333:
1312:
1302:
1298:
1289:
1285:
1277:
1267:
1263:
1254:
1250:
1243:
1236:
1232:
1226:
1222:
1211:
1210:is density):
1197:
1189:
1183:
1166:
1161:
1157:
1151:
1146:
1142:
1136:
1129:
1124:
1120:
1114:
1109:
1105:
1099:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1077:
1072:
1068:
1062:
1055:
1050:
1046:
1040:
1035:
1031:
1020:
1018:
1000:
996:
987:
986:viscous force
969:
965:
956:
938:
934:
911:
907:
898:
888:
870:
866:
860:
856:
848:
844:
838:
834:
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743:
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337:
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322:
306:
301:
297:
274:
269:
265:
242:
237:
233:
210:
205:
201:
192:
182:
180:
168:
167:magma chamber
164:
160:
155:
146:
144:
140:
136:
132:
128:
123:
119:
115:
111:
109:
105:
101:
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2430:cite journal
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2153:Earth analog
2121:
2105:is applied.
2099:thrust force
2076:
2053:
2030:
2011:
1979:
1962:Applications
1924:
1892:
1795:Corn syrup,
1785:
1740:
1736:geochemistry
1708:paraffin wax
1689:
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1553:proportional
1542:
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1369:
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897:proportional
894:
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744:
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547:proportional
544:
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191:proportional
188:
179:King Hubbert
176:
118:quantitative
114:King Hubbert
112:
104:thrust fault
85:
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28:
27:
22:thrust fault
2690:(12): 611.
2049:décollement
1832:biopolymers
1821:lithosphere
1756:Simulation
1750:Categories
1620:open system
1495:Stokes' law
1338:Stokes' law
2159:References
2033:subduction
2014:James Hall
1994:subduction
1990:shear zone
1889:Advantages
1851:Plasticine
1732:seismology
1694:, such as
1672:centrifuge
1595:subduction
1543:Since the
149:Components
127:subduction
88:James Hall
73:James Hall
37:geodynamic
3360:0040-1951
3318:128854343
3310:1525-2027
3236:128693911
3228:0012-821X
3219:1874/7889
3175:0040-1951
3153:: 23–38.
3125:0016-8009
3084:0191-8141
3041:0924-6096
2951:0300-8746
2908:0040-1951
2865:128619258
2857:0141-6421
2791:0028-0836
2748:2475-367X
2712:0091-7613
2669:0148-0227
2626:0300-8746
2583:945425263
2557:0016-7606
2490:130985350
2482:2053-5945
2407:0264-3707
2359:191801955
2323:0264-3707
2263:0264-3707
2091:boudinage
1998:diapirism
1986:boudinage
1936:(such as
1753:Examples
1692:materials
1686:Materials
1680:diapirism
1557:densities
1545:densities
1449:ρ
1445:Δ
1411:ρ
1407:Δ
1355:ρ
1352:Δ
1286:ρ
1251:ρ
1198:ρ
512:α
494:α
298:α
234:α
139:diapirism
135:collision
24:formation
3374:Category
3000:30063760
2239:: 7–32.
2137:See also
1972:orogenic
1867:paraffin
1819:Ductile
1814:silicone
1801:Sinking
1724:rheology
1720:rheology
1704:silicone
1658:for the
1646:for the
1612:buoyancy
1017:friction
177:In 1937
57:tectonic
53:faulting
3340:Bibcode
3290:Bibcode
3198:Bibcode
3155:Bibcode
3064:Bibcode
2978:Bibcode
2931:Bibcode
2888:Bibcode
2837:Bibcode
2799:4358229
2771:Bibcode
2692:Bibcode
2684:Geology
2649:Bibcode
2606:Bibcode
2537:Bibcode
2387:Bibcode
2385:: 1–6.
2303:Bibcode
2241:Bibcode
2095:diapirs
2045:erosion
1982:folding
1942:erosion
1879:Gelatin
1836:bitumen
1812:Syrup,
1606:Systems
1587:folding
988:), and
955:gravity
173:Scaling
159:caldera
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63:History
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2000:, and
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1678:, and
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106:, and
3314:S2CID
3278:(PDF)
3232:S2CID
2996:JSTOR
2861:S2CID
2795:S2CID
2486:S2CID
2083:rifts
2018:folds
1803:slabs
1769:crust
163:crust
108:folds
92:folds
3356:ISSN
3306:ISSN
3224:ISSN
3171:ISSN
3121:ISSN
3080:ISSN
3037:ISSN
3027:ISBN
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2579:OCLC
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2443:help
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2345:ISBN
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2259:ISSN
2093:and
2039:and
1988:and
1940:and
1734:and
1706:and
1700:clay
1696:sand
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3348:doi
3298:doi
3214:hdl
3206:doi
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