826:
2337:
medieval art and architecture survived. Joseph Leo
Koerner has noted that Lutherans, seeing themselves in the tradition of the ancient, apostolic church, sought to defend as well as reform the use of images. 'An empty, white-washed church proclaimed a wholly spiritualized cult, at odds with Luther's doctrine of Christ's real presence in the sacraments' (Koerner 2004, 58). In fact, in the 16th century some of the strongest opposition to destruction of images came not from Catholics but from Lutherans against Calvinists: 'You black Calvinist, you give permission to smash our pictures and hack our crosses; we are going to smash you and your Calvinist priests in return' (Koerner 2004, 58). Works of art continued to be displayed in Lutheran churches, often including an imposing large crucifix in the sanctuary, a clear reference to Luther's
407:, "They also possess images, some of them painted, and others formed from different kinds of material; while they maintain that a likeness of Christ was made by Pilate at that time when Jesus lived among them. They crown these images, and set them up along with the images of the philosophers of the world that is to say, with the images of Pythagoras, and Plato, and Aristotle, and the rest. They have also other modes of honouring these images, after the same manner of the Gentiles ". Irenaeus does not speak critically of icons or portraits in a general sense, only of certain gnostic sectarians use of icons. On the other hand, by the 8th century there is evidence that opposition to images was associated with what was by then the largely vanished heresy of
755:
547:, the century-old religion which had inflicted devastating defeats on Byzantium in the decades preceding. Most scholars reject direct religious influence, though many feel the feeling of crisis produced by defeats at the hands of Islam contributed to the Iconoclast movement. Both the cross and secular two-dimensional images continued to be acceptable, indeed were used to replace religious imagery in the two best-known examples. The defeat of Byzantine Iconoclasm was so emphatic that the issue has never arisen again in Orthodoxy. Indeed, the final cessation of the iconoclast controversy and the permanent use of images in the Orthodox Church is celebrated annually during Great Lent during the
420:
new people came into the new large public churches, which began to be decorated with images that certainly drew in part on imperial and pagan imagery: "The representations of Christ as the
Almighty Lord on his judgment throne owed something to pictures of Zeus. Portraits of the Mother of God were not wholly independent of a pagan past of venerated mother-goddesses. In the popular mind the saints had come to fill a role that had been played by heroes and deities." The possibility that Christian art was a movement from below, disapproved of by the clerical hierarchy, vanishes in the large churches built with imperial patronage at the urging of that hierarchy.
366:(died 403) "seems to have been the first cleric to have taken up the matter of Christian religious images as a major issue". He wrote an appeal to John, Bishop of Jerusalem (c. 394) in which he recounted how he tore apart a curtain hanging on the doors of the church decorated with an image of 'Christ or one of the saints' and admonished the other bishop that such images are "opposed ... to our religion", while also replacing the curtain with another expensively embroidered one. Other writers cited in later controversies were
442:(527–565) evidently saw a huge increase in the use of images, both in volume and quality, and a gathering aniconic reaction. According to Kitzinger, "during the late sixth and seventh centuries devotional practices in front of images became elaborate, common, and intense". In addition it was in this period that images seem to have become common in Christian homes, and "Once admitted to that sphere their use and abuse was beyond control". Literary mentions of Christian images greatly increase, in the accounts of pilgrims to the
450:
so that "the image acts or behaves as the subject itself is expected to act or behave. It makes known its wishes ... It enacts evangelical teachings, ... When attacked it bleeds, ... In some cases it defends itself against infidels with physical force ...". Images make promises, and demand that promises made by others are kept, are immune to attack, and most commonly of all, images bestow "some kind of material benefit upon ... votaries". The most famous example of this is the role ascribed to the
20:
307:
they were best advised not to look, and were strictly forbidden to represent what they had seen". These derived respectively from Greek and Near
Eastern pagan religions, from Ancient Greek philosophy, and from the Jewish tradition and the Old Testament. Of the three, Finney concludes that "overall, Israel's aversion to sacred images influenced early Christianity considerably less than the Greek philosophical tradition of invisible deity apophatically defined", so placing less emphasis on the
2137:"But in the cloister, in the sight of the reading monks, what is the point of such ridiculous monstrosity, the strange kind of shapely shapelessness? Why these unsightly monkeys, why these fierce lions, why the monstrous centaurs, why semi-humans, why spotted tigers, why fighting soldiers, why trumpeting huntsmen? ... In short there is such a variety and such a diversity of strange shapes everywhere that we may prefer to read the marbles rather than the books."
990:
1328:
1132:
479:
339:. The objections to "decorative and symbolic devices, narrative and didactic images", a description that encompasses much though not all of the earliest Christian art, were much less, as these were not plausibly capable of "idolatric abuse"; according to Kitzinger, "much of the art of the Roman catacombs betrays a studied attempt to avoid any suspicion or encouragement of idolatric practices".
296:
above mentioned idea of the uncomely personal appearance of Jesus the entire silence of the
Gospels about it and the Old Testament prohibition of images restrained the church from making either pictures or statues of Christ until the Nicene age when a great reaction in this respect took place though not without energetic and long continued opposition.
350:(c. 305) bishops concluded, "Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration", if understood this way, it's the earliest such prohibition known. Though a more formal translation would suggest it is about not having images painted directly into the walls in order to protect them from vandalism.
164:. The Catholic Church and Eastern Orthodox Church accept the church council which condemned iconoclasm and mandated the use of sacred images, the icons of saints, and the crucifix in churches, public shrines, and in homes. The explanation of the consistency of sacred images with the Christian religion was largely based on the arguments of
446:, in works of history, and in popular accounts of the lives of saints; at the same time some of these begin to mention acts of iconoclasm against images. The legendary nature of much of the last two types of material is clear, but the stories remain evidence of practices around images and beliefs as to what images were capable of.
1307:
who wrote: "In other ages God had not been represented in images, being incorporate and faceless. But since God has now been seen in the flesh, and lived among men, I represent that part of God which is visible. I do not venerate matter, but the
Creator of matter" and stated that it forms part of the
1110:
altarpieces in large numbers, the
Netherlands produced genre scenes (very often depicting ungodly behavior), still lifes, portraits and landscapes. Moralistic messages were often attached to these, though the subject matter often fights somewhat with them. Protestant religious art, mainly in the form
449:
It is this period that the attribution to individual images of the potential to achieve, channel or display various forms of spiritual grace or divine power becomes a regular motif in literature. In the many miracle stories, there is a "tendency to break down the barrier between image and prototype",
295:
Yet previous to the time of
Constantine we find no trace of an image of Christ properly speaking except among the Gnostic Carpocratians and in the case of the heathen emperor Alexander Severus who adorned his domestic chapel as a sort of pantheistic Pantheon with representatives of all religions. The
958:
Answer: The sins forbidden in the second commandment are, all devising, counseling, commanding, using, and anywise approving, any religious worship not instituted by God himself; tolerating a false religion; the making any representation of God, of all or of any of the three persons, either inwardly
1285:
referred to 2 Corinthians 4.6: "the light of the knowledge of the glory of God in the face of Jesus Christ" and wrote that meditation on the icons of Christ "gives us the power to see all things freshly". Williams states that the arguments in favor of the use of images of Christ eventually won over
311:
of most of the first
Christians than most traditional accounts. Finney also suggests that "the reasons for the non-appearance of Christian art before 200 have nothing to do with principled aversion to art, with other-worldliness, or with anti-materialism. The truth is simple and mundane: Christians
1162:
Calvinist aniconism, especially in printed material, and stained glass, can generally be said to have weakened in force, although the range and context of images used are much more restricted than in
Catholicism, Lutheranism, or parts of Anglicanism, the latter of which also incorporated many high
1151:
Lutheran places of worship contain images and sculptures not only of Christ but also of biblical and occasionally of other saints as well as prominent decorated pulpits due to the importance of preaching, stained glass, ornate furniture, magnificent examples of traditional and modern architecture,
419:
However, as
Christianity increasingly spread among gentiles with traditions of religious images, and especially after the conversion of Constantine (c. 312), the legalization of Christianity, and, later that century, the establishment of Christianity as the state religion of the Roman Empire, many
884:
by showing Luther and Cranach "alongside John the Baptist at the foot of the cross". Lutherans strongly opposed the iconoclastic campaigns of the Reformed partisans. But within a few decades of the start of the Reformation, production of new paintings for Lutheran churches had all but ceased, and
306:
Paul Corby Finney's analysis of Early Christian writing and material remains distinguishes three different sources of attitudes affecting Early Christians on the issue: "first that humans could have a direct vision of God; second that they could not; and, third, that although humans could see God
1403:
Today, Lutheran clergy generally have a pronounced interest in music and the visual arts. Parishes include contemporary arts and crafts in their places of worship. Exhibitions, works of art, altars, pulpits, lecterns, crucifixes, wall hangings, and banners are a common part of the liturgical and
462:
of about 593. Though most often images are described as acting through some kind of intermediary, sometimes direct physical contact produces the benefit, as with a dry well that refilled when an icon was lowered in the bucket, or medical benefit ascribed to drinking some ground-up plaster from a
2201:
The Assyrian Church of the East uses neither images nor icons. A stand, holding a copy of the Gospels and covered with a cloth, bears a simple cross that is venerated with the kiss of peace that people in other Eastern churches accord to their icons. The simplicity of their church interiors may
429:
before images comes from the first half of the 6th century; it had already been common before the cross by the end of the 4th century. The lighting of candles before images, and leaving lit candles and lamps (going beyond what might merely be necessary to actually see them) is mentioned in 6th
2336:
Lutherans continued to worship in pre-Reformation churches, generally with few alterations to the interior. It has even been suggested that in Germany to this day one finds more ancient Marian altarpieces in Lutheran than in Catholic churches. Thus in Germany and in Scandinavia many pieces of
385:
It has been suggested that the question of images caused a tension in the early church between a theologically trained clerical elite and the broad mass of followers of the church, and perhaps especially women; the letter of Eusebius being a leading piece of evidence cited here. However other
241:
It is a striking fact that when painting and sculpture first began to infiltrate Christian assembly rooms and cemeteries they did so practically unheeded by either opponents of or apologists for Christianity—engaged though these were in passionate disputes over idols and idolatry. No literary
978:
Romanists make images of God the Father, painting him in their church windows as an old man; and an image of Christ on the crucifix; and, because it is against the letter of this commandment, they sacrilegiously blot it out of their catechism, and divide the tenth commandment into
2397:
As it developed in north-eastern Germany, Lutheran worship became a complex ritual choreography set in a richly furnished church interior. This much is evident from the background of an epitaph painted in 1615 by Martin Schulz, destined for the Nikolaikirche in Berlin (see Figure
2341:. ... In contrast, Reformed (Calvinist) churches are strikingly different. Usually unadorned and somewhat lacking in aesthetic appeal, pictures, sculptures, and ornate altar-pieces are largely absent; there are few or no candles; and crucifixes or crosses are also mostly absent.
2283:
The Beeldenstorm, or Iconoclastic Fury, involved roving bands of radical Calvinists who were utterly opposed to all religious images and decorations in churches and who acted on their beliefs by storming into Catholic churches and destroying all artwork and
1051:". Generally, Reformed churches are now more relaxed over the use of religious art and symbols than they were in the Reformation period, though many denominations avoid images in churches and may discourage the interpretation of Biblical texts in
675:
for example (where images of the Ancient of Days, also banned, are held to represent Christ). Free-standing monumental sculpture is also avoided by the Orthodox churches, and reliefs are much rarer, especially large ones. On the other hand,
2455:
In a new situation, parishes became increasingly active commissioners of altarpieces. In terms of their function, the altarpieces commissioned by parishes represented a new type of artwork. The plainly framed altarpiece acquired a didactic
1925:, The Early Church (The Penguin History of the Church, 1993), p. 283; Hurlbut, J. L. The Story of the Christian Church. Zondervan, 1967, p. 62; Loverance, Rowena (2007). Christian Art. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. 117.
358:(Emperor Constantine's sister) saying "To depict purely the human form of Christ before its transformation, on the other hand, is to break the commandment of God and to fall into pagan error"; though this did not stop her decorating
2235:
Inside their homes, a cross is placed on the eastern wall of the first room. If one sees a cross in a house and do not find a crucifix or pictures, it is almost certain that the particular family belongs to the Church of the
2426:
In fact, Lutherans often justified their continued use of medieval crucifixes with the same arguments employed since the Middle Ages, as is evident from the example of the altar of the Holy Cross in the Cistercian church of
1074:; Bible illustrations or picture books, especially those intended for children, were and continue to be widely used in Protestantism, so that in the 17th century, even "the ordinary Puritan enjoyed a Bible with pictures".
232:
expressed "grave reservations about the dangers of images", though contextualizing these remarks has often been the source of fierce controversy, as the same texts were brought out at intervals in succeeding centuries.
2885:
707:
religious art of his day, which he said distracted monks from their religious life. Nonetheless, he was prepared to sacrifice religious imagery also, both to save money and avoid "distractions of the senses".
1186:
rather than Calvinist tradition, and are therefore readier to use large crosses and other images, though not with the profusion of traditional Catholicism or Lutheranism. Hence works like the 52 ft tall
528:. Iconoclasts believed that icons could not represent both the divine and the human natures of the Messiah at the same time, but separately. Because an icon which depicted Jesus as purely physical would be
2728:
1262:
The use of icons and images of Jesus continues to employed in Christian denominations such as Lutherans, Anglicans, Methodists and Catholics. The veneration of icons is a key element of the
876:–1553), were commissioned, although they now served a dual purpose of exciting the mind to thoughts of the Divine, as well as serving to teach Lutheran doctrine. The altarpiece in
390:
suggests that "church authorities at least tolerated if not approved both the decoration and the content of the iconography on its own property over a fairly long period of time".
284:, of about 230–256, which of the very early churches surviving is in the best condition, there are frescos of biblical scenes including a figure of Jesus, as well as Christ as the
892:
preached in violent terms the rejection of what they perceived as idolatrous Catholic practices such as religious pictures, statues, or relics of saints, as well as against the
1123:(1606–1669), who also painted biblical subjects. In the early stages of the Reformation, Protestant propagandists made vigorous use of images satirizing their opponents.
2883:
1102:
The virtual end of the production of religious painting in Reformed parts of Europe had the effect of diverting artistic production into secular subjects, especially in
312:
lacked land and capital. Art requires both. As soon as they began to acquire land and capital, Christians began to experiment with their own distinctive forms of art".
516:". The simple belief that images were idolatrous appears to have been their main motive; reference was made to the prohibitions on the worship of graven images in the
1308:
theological basis for the veneration of images. The use of significant representations of Jesus has continued among Catholics, e.g. with the 2008 parishioner funded
825:
242:
statement from the period prior to the year 300 would make one suspect the existence of any Christian images other than the most laconic and hieroglyphic of symbols.
1095:) reacted by quietly removing some types of medieval imagery that could not be justified theologically, but otherwise by strengthening its commitment to the use of
2078:
Mango, Cyril, "Historical Introduction," in Bryer & Herrin, pp. 1–6, "Chronology", pp. 178–179, "Anthology of Texts in Translation", pp. 180–186
622:
long remained unacceptable; he was typically only shown with the features of Jesus, which had become fairly standardized by the 6th century, in scenes such as the
2736:
1286:
iconoclasm among Christians at large because the use of icons is "so closely connected with the most essential beliefs of Christians about Jesus Christ himself".
2202:
reflect a concession to the Islamic objection to religious pictures in places of worship, or it may merely attest to the poverty of an isolated Christian people.
343:
agrees: "In two-dimensional, applied art of this kind there was never any danger of idolatry in the sense of actual worship of cult-images and votive pictures".
1062:
and crucifixes can arouse strong feelings. However while early Anglicans destroyed portraits of saints, portraits of contemporary individuals, including church
822:
traditions, the latter two broadly following the Reformed (Calvinist) faith. Lutherans and Reformed Christians had different views regarding religious imagery.
467:
399:
1066:, were not considered problematic, and exist in large numbers. Reformed Christians did not object to small religious images, typically of episodes from the
2214:
720:, pejoratively but incorrectly also known as the Nestorian Church by its detractors, opposition to religious images eventually became the norm due to the
144:
The use of religious icons and images continues to be advocated at the highest level by religious leaders of major Christian denominations such as some
386:
scholars, including Finney and Toynbee, dispute this reading of the documentary evidence, pointing out that the physical evidence of sites such as the
1711:
237:
described the mentions of Christian views on Christian images before the mid-6th century as "scattered and spotty", and of an earlier period wrote:
532:, and one which showed Him as both human and divine would not be able to do so without confusing the two natures into one mixed nature, which was
125:
in particular rejected all images in churches, and this practice continues today in some Reformed (Calvinist) churches, as well as some forms of
1299:, 67 that: "the veneration of images of Christ, the Blessed Virgin and the saints, be religiously observed". In his 6 May 2009 general audience
1020:, falling with the broader Reformed tradition, also removed most religious images and symbols from churches and discouraged their private use.
945:
2470:
Martin Luther as Prophet, Teacher, and Hero (Texts and Studies in Reformation and Post-Reformation Thought): Images of the Reformer, 1520–1620
1419:
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monk who famously wrote against the excessive use of imagery in a monastic context, and was largely responsible for the unornamented style of
411:, though the historical evidence for this now appears slender, and important early figurative mosaics in Italy were created under Arian rule.
1099:
to promote the Christian message, though tightening up on the detailed content of imagery, which the church brought under stricter control.
291:
The traditional Protestant position on the history of images in places of worship however is expressed by Philip Schaff, who claimed that:
2800:
2251:
885:
large religious sculpture (as opposed to smaller figures decorating pulpits and other fittings) has never been produced for Lutheran use.
1485:
591:. The Western church was anxious to distinguish its use of images from idolatry, and set out its theological position in the Carolingian
508:, in the mid eighth and early ninth centuries. The arguments of the Iconoclasts remain rather obscure, as almost all their writings were
378:, although evidence of opposition to images by church leaders is often also evidence of their usage in the church. In the second century
602:
between 1007 and 1020 the cleric Bernard of Angers was initially disapproving of the large crucifixes with a sculpted three-dimensional
2832:
671:, only became common in the West from about 1200 onwards, and remain controversial in Eastern Orthodoxy, still being prohibited by the
1032:
2140:
323:
and other cults and religions around them, and much early Christian polemic was devoted to attacking paganism for idolatry. In the
256:
it is clear that the use of quite complex figurative Christian images was widespread by that date. There are mentions of images of
470:
objected to sculpture, but not paintings, which is effectively the Orthodox position to the present day, except for small works.
1309:
1157:
Declan Marmion, Salvador Ryan and Gesa E. Thiessen, Remembering the Reformation: Martin Luther and Catholic Theology, page 169
2194:
2150:
1930:
1873:
1650:
1464:
1370:
1077:
Faced with the Protestant challenge to imagery, then far more virulent than it usually is in the 21st century, the Catholic
56:
is the absence of material representations of the natural and supernatural world in various cultures. Most denominations of
948:, as well as from writings of the early church, using the same texts and arguments as Byzantine iconoclasts. The Calvinist
61:
583:, was probably a pivotal work, opening the way to the free general use of large sculpture. This was contemporary with the
3051:
1244:
346:
In the 4th century there are increased, if scattered, expressions of opposition to images. At the Spanish non-ecumenical
2901:
539:
The political aspects of the conflicts are complex, involving with the relationship between the Byzantine Emperors, the
1865:
The Iconoclastic Imagination: Image, Catastrophe, and Economy in America from the Kennedy Assassination to September 11
1863:
1224:
groups continue to avoid photographs or any depictions of people; their children's dolls usually have blank faces. The
680:
have a slightly different theological position in Orthodoxy and play a more significant part in religious life than in
543:
councils, and the Pope. There has been much scholarly discussion over the possible influence on the Iconoclasts of the
1909:
David M. Gwynn, "From Iconoclasm to Arianism: The Construction of Christian Tradition in the Iconoclast Controversy",
60:
have not generally practiced aniconism, or the avoidance or prohibition of these types of images, even dating back to
2973:
2958:
2937:
2923:
2867:
2709:
2684:
2641:
2608:
2574:
2538:
2477:
2448:
2419:
2390:
2362:
2329:
2276:
2116:
2096:
2067:
1677:
1543:
1520:
1423:
1396:
843:
For Lutherans, "the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image", at least temporarily. The Lutheran
754:
454:(or Mandylion) in the failure of the Persian siege of the city in 544. The image is not mentioned in the account of
2369:
According to Koerner, who dwells on Lutheran art, the Reformation renewed rather than removed the religious image.
595:, in similar but slightly different terms to those set out by the Eastern church after the episode of Iconoclasm.
2999:, ed. Enrico Castelnuovo and Giuseppe Sergi, 4 v. (Giulio Einaudi Editore, Turin, 2002–2004) v. 3, pp. 49–84
759:
640:, except in the few cases where both Jesus and God the Father needed to be shown separately, as in scenes of the
324:
261:
3061:
3014:
2222:
2758:
2187:
A Guide to Christian Churches in the Middle East: Present-day Christianity in the Middle East and North Africa
1143:, an English Calvinist foundation, with statues and stained glass figures of divines of the Reformed tradition
2900:
CBCP News (Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines) March 28, 2008: "Divine Mercy Sunday in Mindanao"
619:
73:
2977:
1333:
949:
587:(see below). Religious sculpture, especially if large and free-standing, has always been extremely rare in
81:
1842:"Overview on Iconophile and Iconoclastic Attitudes toward Images in Early Christianity and Late Antiquity"
2882:
26 August 2011: "DIVINE MERCY SHRINE in Misamis Oriental celebrates Birthday of the Blessed Virgin Mary"
1922:
732:
179:
variety) maintain the aniconism of the English Reformation, articulated in the religious injunctions of
2219:
Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East – Archdiocese of Australia, New Zealand and Lebanon
1052:
877:
2951:
Representations and Contradictions: Ambivalence Towards Images, Theatre, Fiction, Relics and Sexuality
743:
632:, which holds that Christ has existed from the beginning of time. Very simply put, as a member of the
1792:
From Iconoclasm to Arianism: The Construction of Christian Tradition in the Iconoclast Controversy",
1213:
proclaiming the Counter-Reformation message, though these are in a gallery, rather than in a church.
1140:
1103:
844:
393:
There is some evidence that the use of images was regarded as especially characteristic of heretics.
332:
175:
contains both schools of thought – aniconism and iconodulism. While some Anglicans (typically of the
25:
1152:
carved or otherwise embellished altar pieces, and liberal use of candles on the altar and elsewhere.
2171:
1278:
941:
848:
126:
89:
1096:
964:
866:
829:
774:
700:
672:
580:
540:
355:
161:
110:
1039:
for her chapel when they were against a law she had approved, and objecting forcefully when the
458:, writing soon after the event, but first appears as the agent of the failure in the history of
133:
has always defended the use of sacred images in churches, shrines, and homes, encouraging their
3056:
3030:, Vol. 58, Parts 1 and 2 (1968), pp. 294–296, Society for the Promotion of Roman Studies,
2808:
2248:
1021:
657:
320:
118:
2530:
2524:
924:
Churches) completely prohibited the display of religious images. Reformed theologians such as
860:
856:
459:
387:
367:
363:
46:
703:. However his attack concentrated on what he saw as frivolous non-religious elements in the
636:
of three persons in one God, representations of God could be achieved by depicting Jesus as
1341:
1252:
1195:
1040:
815:
692:
628:
588:
584:
564:
560:
513:
495:
483:
114:
524:, some of which may now be lost. One theological issue revolved around the two natures of
8:
1078:
1035:, was one of many Anglicans to exhibit somewhat contradictory attitudes, both ordering a
933:
881:
835:
653:
328:
308:
281:
77:
42:
779:
Opposition to religious imagery was a feature of proto-Protestant movements such as the
3046:
2569:. Truebner's Oriental Series (reprint ed.). Abingdon: Routledge (published 2013).
2269:
The Victory of Reason: How Christianity Led to Freedom, Capitalism, and Western Success
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1346:
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1225:
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993:
717:
548:
544:
229:
223:
203:
165:
97:
93:
3010:
2969:
2954:
2933:
2919:
2863:
2705:
2680:
2637:
2604:
2570:
2534:
2473:
2444:
2415:
2386:
2358:
2325:
2272:
2190:
2146:
2112:
2092:
2063:
1926:
1869:
1673:
1646:
1570:
1539:
1516:
1460:
1392:
1300:
1290:
1240:
1047:
resembling angels and saints, nay, grosser absurdities, pictures resembling the Holy
901:
799:
738:
In their homes, Christians belonging to the Assyrian Church of the East hang a plain
725:
645:
265:
196:
149:
101:
45:, is shown enthroned in lower left, while a Reformed church service according to the
2989:, Vol. 8, (1954), pp. 83–150, Dumbarton Oaks, Trustees for Harvard University,
3002:
2946:, "The Structure of Byzantine and European Iconoclasm", in Bryer & Herrin above
1556:
1304:
1071:
925:
921:
905:
807:
641:
517:
505:
336:
188:
2493:
1004:
Apart from official destruction of art, there were outbreaks of violent Calvinist
610:, the earliest life-size crucifix image to survive, probably dates to around 960.
3019:
2982:
2943:
2889:
2777:"The Collection – Museum & Gallery Old Master paintings and period furniture"
2631:
2598:
2564:
2255:
1667:
1640:
1454:
1183:
1164:
791:
767:
739:
681:
668:
451:
359:
347:
340:
234:
192:
130:
85:
69:
1816:
276:, dating from the end of the 2nd century onwards. Jesus is often represented by
202:
Christian aniconism has only very rarely covered general secular images, unlike
2859:
2776:
2600:
Inventing the Holy Land: American Protestant Pilgrimage to Palestine, 1865–1941
1450:
1282:
1199:
1175:
1136:
917:
839:, 1631, a medieval cathedral stripped bare after it adopted the Reformed faith.
790:
produced two main branches of Protestant Christianity; one was the Evangelical
704:
623:
592:
521:
34:
19:
1777:
1744:
Toynbee, pp. 294–295; see also Jensen, pp. 13–19 on the types of early images.
3040:
1295:
1067:
1013:
937:
929:
795:
721:
665:
649:
533:
404:
285:
65:
1754:
959:
in our mind, or outwardly in any kind of image or likeness of any creature'.
189:
Homily against the Peril of Idolatry and the Superfluous Decking of Churches
1009:
763:
633:
606:, and other religious statues that he saw, but he came to accept them. The
529:
509:
57:
1248:
1233:
1179:
1112:
1059:
1017:
944:, explicitly reject the depiction of Christ, citing arguments drawn from
909:
803:
787:
568:
487:
425:
253:
199:, have introduced the devotional use of images back into their churches.
184:
172:
153:
145:
626:. The rationale for this was the doctrine of the pre-existing Christ or
2990:
1351:
1271:
1255:, also explicitly forbid the use of any religious image, including the
1229:
1210:
1206:
1005:
997:
897:
847:
occurred in ornate churches, reflecting Lutherans' exalted view of the
696:
607:
501:
375:
371:
273:
207:
176:
134:
3031:
2675:
Marmion, Declan; Ryan, Salvador; Thiessen, Gesa E. (1 February 2017).
989:
1642:
Ante Pacem: Archaeological Evidence of Church Life Before Constantine
1221:
1171:
1147:
Lutheran churches continue to be ornate, with respect to sacred art:
1120:
889:
724:
in the region, where it forbade any type of depictions of Saints and
455:
443:
439:
277:
180:
122:
53:
30:
2633:
From Sacred to Secular: Visual Images in Early American Publications
1841:
1327:
1313:
1263:
1256:
1131:
1036:
996:, a German Lutheran church that retains its pre-Reformation carved
904:(1486–1541) was the earliest extreme iconoclast, to be followed by
893:
852:
819:
811:
780:
599:
576:
408:
394:
351:
316:
157:
2729:"Construction progressing on new Jesus statue along Interstate 75"
1203:
1116:
1107:
1048:
1044:
913:
575:
had no association of sculpture with cult images and a life-size
29:
showing the destruction of Catholic images in the upper portion.
2918:, 1977, Centre for Byzantine Studies, University of Birmingham,
2677:
Remembering the Reformation: Martin Luther and Catholic Theology
1880:
Tertullian and Origen warned against the use of images in piety.
1371:"A Godfather's Solemn Charge – the Coronation of King Edward VI"
1266:
of the Eastern Orthodox Church which continues to celebrate the
268:
contain the earliest images, mostly painted, but also including
2833:"General Audience of 6 May 2009: John Damascene | BENEDICT XVI"
2716:
Methodism emerges in a Moravian context – this is hard to deny.
1106:
of the 17th century. While Catholic Europe was still producing
1063:
572:
379:
269:
138:
38:
2439:Østrem, Eyolf; Fleischer, Jens; Petersen, Nils Holger (2003).
810:(1484–1531). Out of these branches grew three main sects, the
656:, as it is prominent in the wall paintings of the 3rd century
478:
1755:"CANONS OF THE CHURCH COUNCIL ELvira (Granada) ca. 309 A. D."
1217:
912:. The Reformed (Calvinist) churches (including the Anglican,
661:
525:
257:
211:
3009:, 1972 (English trans from German), Lund Humphries, London,
728:. As such, the Church was forced to get rid of their icons.
433:
1850:
Clement of Alexandria and Origen opposed the use of images.
677:
644:. Alternatively God the Father was represented only by the
2995:
Rudolph, Conrad, "La resistenza all'arte nell'Occidente,"
2410:
Marquardt, Janet T.; Jordan, Alyce A. (14 January 2009).
2062:, pp. 95–96, 106–118, 1985, George Philip, London,
301:
Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church, page 381
2856:
The Dwelling of the Light: Praying with Icons of Christ
2438:
2049:
Kitzinger, p. 94–95 (with long note); Freedberg, p. 170
1456:
The Dwelling of the Light: Praying with Icons of Christ
956:'What are the sins forbidden in the second commandment?
156:. The veneration of icons is also a key element of the
16:
Prohibition of the veneration of images in Christianity
1672:. Massachusetts: Hendrickson Publishers. p. 381.
749:
2985:, "The Cult of Images in the Age before Iconoclasm",
2759:"Giant Jesus statue keeps watch over Ohio interstate"
2324:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138.
1391:. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 138.
1323:
1000:
as well as other smaller post-Reformation paintings.
2827:
2825:
2674:
2441:
The Arts and the Cultural Heritage of Martin Luther
2432:
2412:
Medieval Art and Architecture after the Middle Ages
2403:
888:On the other hand, at the time of the Reformation,
664:. Depictions of God the Father, essentially as the
482:A simple cross replaced a mosaic figure during the
362:with such images. By the end of the century Bishop
2670:
2668:
1480:
1478:
1476:
1277:In his 2003 book on praying with icons of Christ,
1111:of illustrations of biblical events, continued in
1058:In the Anglican Church matters such as the use of
64:. Those in the faith have generally had an active
2930:The Invisible God: The Earliest Christians on Art
2322:Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation
1846:Journal for the Study of Religions and Ideologies
1598:
1596:
1594:
1513:Merriam-Webster's Encyclopedia of World Religions
1389:Encyclopedia of Martin Luther and the Reformation
3038:
2822:
2289:
2091:, pp. 98–106, 1985, George Philip, London,
2089:Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons
2060:Writing in Gold, Byzantine Society and its Icons
1274:and the reintroduction of images into churches.
109:There have however been periods of aniconism in
2665:
2409:
1473:
1178:traditions, as well as other Wesleyan-Arminian
2315:
2313:
2311:
2309:
2307:
2271:. Random House Publishing Group. p. 176.
1591:
1115:and in book illustrations, for example in the
2414:. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 71.
1445:
1443:
1441:
280:symbols, though he is also portrayed. In the
2849:
2636:. University of Delaware Press. p. 17.
2295:
1861:
1531:
1529:
1508:
1506:
762:by Calvinists, the "signature event" of the
711:
3024:Frühchristliche Sarkophage in Bild und Wort
2914:Bryer, Anthony & Herrin, Judith, eds.,
2486:
2304:
2247:analysed in Arnade, 146 (quoted); see also
2693:
2374:
2178:
1778:"CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Council of Elvira"
1438:
1414:
1412:
1043:put in the royal pew a service book with "
579:(with "corpus") known to have been in the
2793:
2566:Studies in Biblical and Semitic Symbolism
2562:
2346:
2260:
2164:
1526:
1503:
1382:
1380:
1289:In his 29 October 1997 general audience,
1126:
1033:Supreme Governor of the Church of England
434:From Justinian to the Iconoclastic period
403:(1:25–26) says scornfully of the Gnostic
117:of the eighth century, and following the
2805:News Article by Brad Igou, (1991, 2001)"
2461:
2443:. Museum Tusculanum Press. p. 147.
2383:Lutheran Churches in Early Modern Europe
2109:The Pictorial arts of the West, 800–1200
1839:
1645:. Mercer University Press. p. 134.
1449:
1130:
988:
824:
753:
477:
113:, notably during the controversy of the
18:
2704:. Lehigh University Press. p. 29.
2623:
2529:. Edinburgh: Banner of Truth. pp.
2513:Freedberg, pp. 165(quoted)–166, 167–173
2319:
2296:Nuechterlein, Jeanne Elizabeth (2000).
2207:
2138:
1409:
1386:
934:the Divines of the Westminster Assembly
687:
473:
3039:
2953:, London, Blackwell Publishers, 1997.
2699:
2596:
2590:
2522:
2380:
2357:. John Wiley & Sons. p. 146.
2184:
1665:
1659:
1638:
1377:
141:them as if they were gods themselves.
3007:Iconography of Christian Art, Vol. II
2873:
2629:
2385:. Taylor & Francis. p. 237.
2352:
2300:. University of California, Berkeley.
2266:
2139:Harpham, Geoffrey Galt (2006-01-01),
1420:"The Methodist Modern Art Collection"
684:, let alone the Protestant churches.
315:Images were also associated with the
217:
191:, other Anglicans, influenced by the
2756:
2721:
2467:
1817:"CHURCH FATHERS: Letter 51 (Jerome)"
1692:Finney, viii–xii, viii and xi quoted
851:. Lutherans employed the use of the
414:
62:early Christian art and architecture
23:Woodcut of 1563 from the Protestant
2750:
2320:Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017).
1911:Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies
1794:Greek, Roman, and Byzantine Studies
1404:cultural life in Lutheran churches.
1387:Lamport, Mark A. (31 August 2017).
1270:which originally marked the end of
1245:Members Church of God International
1198:, a standard bearer for Protestant
984:Thomas Watson, The Ten Commandments
750:Reformation and Counter-Reformation
731:Houses of worship belonging to the
554:
13:
2516:
2381:Spicer, Andrew (5 December 2016).
2298:Holbein and the Reformation of Art
2267:Stark, Rodney (18 December 2007).
1303:referred to the reasoning used by
855:as it highlighted Martin Luther's
794:, which followed the teachings of
423:The earliest literary evidence of
14:
3073:
2966:Understanding Early Christian Art
2932:, Oxford University Press, 1997,
2111:, pp. 32–33, 1993, Yale UP,
1891:Finney, viii–xii; Toynbee, p. 295
1424:Methodist Church in Great Britain
1016:in 1566. During this time, early
613:
536:, all icons were thus heretical.
520:, and aniconic statements by the
2468:Kolb, Robert (1 December 1999).
2353:Dixon, C. Scott (9 March 2012).
1326:
880:exemplified the doctrine of the
859:. Lutheran altarpieces, such as
758:Print of the destruction in the
327:the issues are discussed in the
137:but condemning anyone who would
2894:
2807:. amishnews.com. Archived from
2801:""The Amish & Photographs"
2769:
2735:. June 15, 2012. Archived from
2679:. Fortress Press. p. 169.
2656:
2603:. Lexington Books. p. 24.
2556:
2547:
2507:
2241:
2131:
2122:
2101:
2081:
2072:
2052:
2043:
2040:Kitzinger, pp. 105–107 and note
2034:
2025:
2016:
2007:
1998:
1989:
1980:
1971:
1962:
1953:
1944:
1935:
1916:
1903:
1894:
1885:
1868:. University of Chicago Press.
1855:
1833:
1809:
1800:
1784:
1770:
1747:
1738:
1729:
1704:
1695:
1686:
1669:History of the Christian Church
1632:
1623:
1614:
1605:
1577:
1026:
798:(1483–1546), and the other the
695:(1090–1153) was an influential
504:, or image destruction, in the
49:takes place in the lower right.
2563:Farbridge, Maurice H. (1923).
2494:"Murray on pictures of Christ"
1840:Strezova, Anita (2013-11-25).
1563:
1549:
1515:by Merriam-Webster (Jan 2000)
1363:
1182:churches, are inspired by the
802:, which followed the ideas of
438:The period after the reign of
84:, religious figures including
1:
2908:
2700:Dreyer, Frederick A. (1999).
2189:. Mission Focus. p. 23.
1585:"Anglican Library – Homilies"
1492:. vatican.va. 29 October 1997
1459:. W.B. Eerdmans. p. 83.
1089:
1082:
968:
952:of 1647 asks in Question 109:
870:
760:Church of Our Lady in Antwerp
354:(died 339) wrote a letter to
3028:The Journal of Roman Studies
1977:Kitzinger, pp. 85–87; 95–115
1536:The Orthodox Christian World
1334:Reformed Christianity portal
1293:reiterated the statement of
1236:until the mid-20th century.
1202:, has a major collection of
950:Westminster Larger Catechism
878:St. Peter und Paul in Weimar
7:
3020:Toynbee, Jocelyn (J. M. C.)
2472:. Baker Books. p. 65.
2145:, Davies Group Publishers,
1639:Snyder, Graydon F. (2003).
1319:
1253:Restorationist-like beliefs
1163:church practices after the
733:Assyrian Church of the East
598:In his travels through the
382:opposed the use of images.
127:fundamentalist Christianity
66:tradition of making artwork
10:
3078:
3052:Censorship in Christianity
2997:Arti e storia nel Medioevo
2757:Maag, Chris (2005-11-18).
2355:Contesting the Reformation
2185:Horner, Norman A. (1989).
1796:47 (2007) 225–251, p. 227.
814:tradition, as well as the
772:
500:There were two periods of
493:
221:
121:of the 16th century, when
2172:"The Shadow of Nestorius"
1141:Mansfield College, Oxford
1104:Dutch Golden Age painting
712:In the Church of the East
648:, which probably reached
563:was still avoided in the
94:other aspects of theology
2964:Jensen, Robin Margaret,
2702:The Genesis of Methodism
1666:Schaff, Phillip (2006).
1357:
1279:Archbishop of Canterbury
2523:Watson, Thomas (1965).
1718:(Subscription required)
1538:Augustine Casiday 2012
1310:50 foot statue of Jesus
1243:(Church of Christ) and
1139:19th century chapel of
867:Lucas Cranach the Elder
830:Pieter Jansz. Saenredam
775:The Reformation and art
701:Cistercian architecture
673:Russian Orthodox Church
581:Palatine Chapel, Aachen
333:prohibition of idolatry
162:Eastern Orthodox Church
2662:Freedberg, pp. 176–177
2597:Rogers, S. S. (2011).
2031:Kitzinger, pp. 103–104
1862:O'Gorman, Ned (2016).
1232:, rejected all use of
1160:
1144:
1127:Among Christians today
1022:Elizabeth I of England
1001:
987:
961:
946:the second commandment
840:
770:
766:, August 20, 1566, by
658:Dura-Europos synagogue
491:
397:, (c. 130–202) in his
321:Ancient Roman religion
304:
250:
119:Protestant Reformation
50:
26:Foxe's Book of Martyrs
3062:Christian terminology
2987:Dumbarton Oaks Papers
2880:BusinessWeek Mindanao
2630:Lacey, B. E. (2007).
2128:Schiller, pp. 140–141
1149:
1134:
992:
976:
954:
857:theology of the cross
828:
757:
620:God the Father in art
481:
460:Evagrius Scholasticus
388:Catacomb of Callistus
368:Clement of Alexandria
364:Epiphanius of Salamis
293:
239:
222:Further information:
214:are rare exceptions.
47:Book of Common Prayer
22:
2928:Finney, Paul Corby,
2781:Museum & Gallery
2526:The Ten Commandments
2004:Kitzinger, pp. 95–96
1968:Kitzinger, pp. 96–97
1342:Aniconism in Judaism
1228:, another branch of
1196:Bob Jones University
816:Continental Reformed
693:Bernard of Clairvaux
688:Bernard of Clairvaux
589:Eastern Christianity
585:Byzantine iconoclasm
561:monumental sculpture
514:Triumph of Orthodoxy
496:Byzantine iconoclasm
484:Byzantine iconoclasm
474:Byzantine iconoclasm
468:Julian of Atramytion
380:Origen of Alexandria
115:Byzantine iconoclasm
2968:, Routledge, 2000,
2215:"Sign of the Cross"
1587:. Book 2, Homily 2.
1373:. 20 February 2017.
1079:Counter-Reformation
882:communion of saints
836:Saint Bavo, Haarlem
806:(1509–1564) and of
735:tend to be simple.
654:Hellenistic Judaism
466:In the 6th century
335:is included in the
329:Letters of St. Paul
282:Dura-Europos church
210:groups such as the
37:charged to emulate
2888:2018-03-16 at the
2254:2016-03-03 at the
2119:; Schiller, p. 140
1571:"1559 Injunctions"
1486:"General audience"
1347:Aniconism in Islam
1268:Feast of Orthodoxy
1251:-based sects with
1226:Brethren in Christ
1145:
1002:
994:St Severin, Keitum
841:
771:
746:of the main room.
718:Church of the East
567:until the time of
549:Feast of Orthodoxy
545:aniconism in Islam
492:
490:Church in Istanbul
247:Kitzinger, page 86
230:early Christianity
228:Several voices in
224:Depiction of Jesus
218:Early Christianity
204:aniconism in Islam
166:St. John Damascene
51:
3003:Schiller, Gertrud
2976:, 9780415204545,
2553:Freedberg, p. 175
2496:. the-highway.com
2196:978-1-877736-00-1
2152:978-1-888570-85-4
2022:Kitzinger, p. 102
2013:Kitzinger, p. 101
1941:Jensen, pp. 23–24
1931:978-0-674-02479-3
1913:47 (2007) 225–251
1875:978-0-226-31023-7
1821:www.newadvent.org
1652:978-0-86554-895-4
1602:Freedberg, p. 176
1466:978-0-8028-2778-4
1301:Pope Benedict XVI
1291:Pope John Paul II
1241:Iglesia ni Cristo
1070:, in the form of
1041:Dean of St Paul's
974:–1686) declared:
902:Andreas Karlstadt
800:Reformed Churches
792:Lutheran churches
726:biblical prophets
682:Roman Catholicism
618:The depiction of
463:fresco in water.
430:century sources.
415:After Constantine
309:Jewish background
266:Catacombs of Rome
197:Anglo-Catholicism
187:, as well as the
111:Christian history
3069:
2983:Kitzinger, Ernst
2944:Freedberg, David
2903:
2898:
2892:
2877:
2871:
2853:
2847:
2846:
2844:
2843:
2829:
2820:
2819:
2817:
2816:
2797:
2791:
2790:
2788:
2787:
2773:
2767:
2766:
2754:
2748:
2747:
2745:
2744:
2739:on June 29, 2013
2725:
2719:
2718:
2697:
2691:
2690:
2672:
2663:
2660:
2654:
2653:
2651:
2650:
2627:
2621:
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2617:
2594:
2588:
2587:
2585:
2583:
2560:
2554:
2551:
2545:
2544:
2520:
2514:
2511:
2505:
2504:
2502:
2501:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2465:
2459:
2458:
2436:
2430:
2429:
2407:
2401:
2400:
2378:
2372:
2371:
2350:
2344:
2343:
2339:theologia crucis
2317:
2302:
2301:
2293:
2287:
2286:
2264:
2258:
2249:Art through time
2245:
2239:
2238:
2232:
2230:
2225:on 14 April 2020
2221:. Archived from
2211:
2205:
2204:
2182:
2176:
2175:
2168:
2162:
2161:
2160:
2159:
2142:Bernard's letter
2135:
2129:
2126:
2120:
2105:
2099:
2085:
2079:
2076:
2070:
2056:
2050:
2047:
2041:
2038:
2032:
2029:
2023:
2020:
2014:
2011:
2005:
2002:
1996:
1995:Kitzinger, p. 98
1993:
1987:
1986:Kitzinger, p. 99
1984:
1978:
1975:
1969:
1966:
1960:
1959:Kitzinger, p. 90
1957:
1951:
1950:Kitzinger, p. 94
1948:
1942:
1939:
1933:
1920:
1914:
1907:
1901:
1898:
1892:
1889:
1883:
1882:
1859:
1853:
1852:
1837:
1831:
1830:
1828:
1827:
1813:
1807:
1806:Kitzinger, p. 92
1804:
1798:
1790:David M. Gwynn,
1788:
1782:
1781:
1774:
1768:
1767:
1765:
1764:
1751:
1745:
1742:
1736:
1735:Kitzinger, p. 89
1733:
1727:
1726:
1724:
1723:
1716:Grove Art Online
1708:
1702:
1699:
1693:
1690:
1684:
1683:
1663:
1657:
1656:
1636:
1630:
1629:Jensen, pp. 9–12
1627:
1621:
1618:
1612:
1611:Kitzinger, p. 95
1609:
1603:
1600:
1589:
1588:
1581:
1575:
1574:
1567:
1561:
1560:
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1471:
1470:
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1435:
1433:
1431:
1416:
1407:
1406:
1384:
1375:
1374:
1367:
1336:
1331:
1330:
1305:John of Damascus
1158:
1094:
1091:
1087:
1084:
1030:
1029: 1558–1603
1028:
985:
973:
970:
926:Francis Turretin
922:Reformed Baptist
906:Huldrych Zwingli
875:
872:
808:Huldrych Zwingli
642:Baptism of Jesus
571:around 800; the
555:After Iconoclasm
506:Byzantine Empire
400:Against Heresies
337:Apostolic Decree
302:
248:
3077:
3076:
3072:
3071:
3070:
3068:
3067:
3066:
3037:
3036:
3026:by T. Klauser,
2940:, 9780195113815
2911:
2906:
2899:
2895:
2890:Wayback Machine
2878:
2874:
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2347:
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2305:
2294:
2290:
2279:
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2256:Wayback Machine
2246:
2242:
2228:
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2169:
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2123:
2107:Dodwell, C.R.;
2106:
2102:
2087:Robin Cormack,
2086:
2082:
2077:
2073:
2058:Robin Cormack,
2057:
2053:
2048:
2044:
2039:
2035:
2030:
2026:
2021:
2017:
2012:
2008:
2003:
1999:
1994:
1990:
1985:
1981:
1976:
1972:
1967:
1963:
1958:
1954:
1949:
1945:
1940:
1936:
1921:
1917:
1908:
1904:
1899:
1895:
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1886:
1876:
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1856:
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1825:
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1805:
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1633:
1628:
1624:
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1615:
1610:
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1601:
1592:
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1578:
1569:
1568:
1564:
1555:
1554:
1550:
1534:
1527:
1511:
1504:
1495:
1493:
1490:Vatican website
1484:
1483:
1474:
1467:
1451:Williams, Rowan
1448:
1439:
1429:
1427:
1418:
1417:
1410:
1399:
1385:
1378:
1369:
1368:
1364:
1360:
1332:
1325:
1322:
1316:, Philippines.
1220:and some other
1165:Oxford Movement
1159:
1156:
1129:
1092:
1085:
1025:
986:
983:
971:
957:
873:
777:
768:Frans Hogenberg
752:
740:Christian Cross
714:
690:
669:Ancient of Days
616:
557:
541:Orthodox Church
498:
476:
452:Image of Edessa
436:
417:
348:Synod of Elvira
341:Jocelyn Toynbee
303:
300:
249:
246:
235:Ernst Kitzinger
226:
220:
193:Oxford Movement
154:Roman Catholics
150:Anglo-Catholics
131:Catholic Church
82:The Holy Spirit
70:Christian media
41:purging of the
17:
12:
11:
5:
3075:
3065:
3064:
3059:
3054:
3049:
3035:
3034:
3017:
3000:
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2978:google preview
2962:
2947:
2941:
2926:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2904:
2893:
2872:
2860:Rowan Williams
2848:
2837:www.vatican.va
2821:
2792:
2768:
2763:New York Times
2749:
2720:
2710:
2692:
2685:
2664:
2655:
2642:
2622:
2609:
2589:
2575:
2555:
2546:
2539:
2515:
2506:
2485:
2478:
2460:
2449:
2431:
2420:
2402:
2391:
2373:
2363:
2345:
2330:
2303:
2288:
2277:
2259:
2240:
2206:
2195:
2177:
2163:
2151:
2130:
2121:
2100:
2080:
2071:
2051:
2042:
2033:
2024:
2015:
2006:
1997:
1988:
1979:
1970:
1961:
1952:
1943:
1934:
1923:Henry Chadwick
1915:
1902:
1893:
1884:
1874:
1854:
1832:
1808:
1799:
1783:
1769:
1746:
1737:
1728:
1703:
1701:Finney, p. 108
1694:
1685:
1678:
1658:
1651:
1631:
1622:
1613:
1604:
1590:
1576:
1562:
1559:(VI ed.).
1548:
1525:
1502:
1472:
1465:
1437:
1408:
1397:
1376:
1361:
1359:
1356:
1355:
1354:
1349:
1344:
1338:
1337:
1321:
1318:
1283:Rowan Williams
1200:Fundamentalism
1154:
1137:Gothic Revival
1128:
1125:
1097:art and images
1008:– such as the
981:
918:Congregational
845:Divine Service
773:Main article:
751:
748:
713:
710:
689:
686:
624:Garden of Eden
615:
614:God the Father
612:
593:Libri Carolini
556:
553:
522:Church Fathers
494:Main article:
475:
472:
435:
432:
416:
413:
298:
244:
219:
216:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3074:
3063:
3060:
3058:
3057:Christian art
3055:
3053:
3050:
3048:
3045:
3044:
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3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3018:
3016:
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3008:
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2994:
2992:
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2984:
2981:
2979:
2975:
2974:0-415-20454-2
2971:
2967:
2963:
2960:
2959:0-631-20526-8
2956:
2952:
2949:Goody, Jack,
2948:
2945:
2942:
2939:
2938:0-19-511381-0
2935:
2931:
2927:
2925:
2924:0-7044-0226-2
2921:
2917:
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2902:
2897:
2891:
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2876:
2869:
2868:1-85311-562-2
2865:
2861:
2857:
2852:
2838:
2834:
2828:
2826:
2811:on 2015-05-30
2810:
2806:
2804:
2803:Amish Country
2796:
2782:
2778:
2772:
2764:
2760:
2753:
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2734:
2730:
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2711:9780934223560
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2686:9781506423289
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2643:9780874139617
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2610:9780739148440
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2576:9781136373497
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2540:9780851511467
2536:
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2479:9781441237200
2475:
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2450:9788772898438
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2442:
2435:
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2423:
2421:9781443803984
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2392:9781351921169
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2364:9781118272305
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2331:9781442271593
2327:
2323:
2316:
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2308:
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2280:
2278:9781588365002
2274:
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2253:
2250:
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2216:
2210:
2203:
2198:
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2188:
2181:
2173:
2167:
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2148:
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2117:0-300-06493-4
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2110:
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2097:0-540-01085-5
2094:
2090:
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2075:
2069:
2068:0-540-01085-5
2065:
2061:
2055:
2046:
2037:
2028:
2019:
2010:
2001:
1992:
1983:
1974:
1965:
1956:
1947:
1938:
1932:
1928:
1924:
1919:
1912:
1906:
1900:Jensen, p. 23
1897:
1888:
1881:
1877:
1871:
1867:
1866:
1858:
1851:
1847:
1843:
1836:
1822:
1818:
1812:
1803:
1797:
1793:
1787:
1779:
1773:
1759:
1756:
1750:
1741:
1732:
1717:
1713:
1707:
1698:
1689:
1681:
1679:9781565631960
1675:
1671:
1670:
1662:
1654:
1648:
1644:
1643:
1635:
1626:
1620:Kitzinger, 86
1617:
1608:
1599:
1597:
1595:
1586:
1580:
1572:
1566:
1558:
1557:"Injunctions"
1552:
1545:
1544:0-415-45516-2
1541:
1537:
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1521:0-87779-044-2
1518:
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1442:
1425:
1421:
1415:
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1400:
1398:9781442271593
1394:
1390:
1383:
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1362:
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1350:
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1339:
1335:
1329:
1324:
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1298:
1297:
1296:Lumen gentium
1292:
1287:
1284:
1280:
1275:
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1269:
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1133:
1124:
1122:
1118:
1114:
1109:
1105:
1100:
1098:
1080:
1075:
1073:
1069:
1068:New Testament
1065:
1061:
1060:altar crosses
1056:
1054:
1050:
1046:
1042:
1038:
1034:
1023:
1019:
1015:
1014:Low Countries
1011:
1007:
999:
995:
991:
980:
975:
966:
965:Thomas Watson
960:
953:
951:
947:
943:
939:
938:Robert Dabney
935:
931:
930:Theodore Beza
927:
923:
919:
915:
911:
907:
903:
899:
896:retention of
895:
891:
886:
883:
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868:
864:
863:
858:
854:
850:
846:
838:
837:
831:
827:
823:
821:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
796:Martin Luther
793:
789:
784:
782:
776:
769:
765:
761:
756:
747:
745:
741:
736:
734:
729:
727:
723:
722:rise of Islam
719:
709:
706:
702:
698:
694:
685:
683:
679:
674:
670:
667:
666:Old Testament
663:
659:
655:
651:
650:Christian art
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
630:
625:
621:
611:
609:
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590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
552:
550:
546:
542:
537:
535:
534:Monophysitism
531:
527:
523:
519:
515:
511:
507:
503:
497:
489:
485:
480:
471:
469:
464:
461:
457:
453:
447:
445:
441:
431:
428:
427:
421:
412:
410:
406:
405:Carpocratians
402:
401:
396:
391:
389:
383:
381:
377:
373:
369:
365:
361:
360:her mausoleum
357:
353:
349:
344:
342:
338:
334:
330:
326:
322:
319:of the pagan
318:
313:
310:
297:
292:
289:
287:
286:Good Shepherd
283:
279:
275:
271:
267:
264:onwards. The
263:
259:
255:
243:
238:
236:
231:
225:
215:
213:
209:
205:
200:
198:
194:
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186:
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174:
169:
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163:
159:
155:
151:
147:
142:
140:
136:
132:
128:
124:
120:
116:
112:
107:
105:
104:
99:
95:
91:
87:
83:
79:
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67:
63:
59:
55:
48:
44:
40:
36:
32:
28:
27:
21:
3027:
3023:
3022:, Review of
3006:
2996:
2986:
2965:
2950:
2929:
2915:
2896:
2879:
2875:
2855:
2851:
2840:. Retrieved
2836:
2813:. Retrieved
2809:the original
2802:
2795:
2784:. Retrieved
2780:
2771:
2762:
2752:
2741:. Retrieved
2737:the original
2732:
2723:
2715:
2701:
2695:
2676:
2658:
2647:. Retrieved
2632:
2625:
2614:. Retrieved
2599:
2592:
2580:. Retrieved
2565:
2558:
2549:
2525:
2518:
2509:
2498:. Retrieved
2488:
2469:
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2454:
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2434:
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2376:
2368:
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2338:
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2291:
2282:
2268:
2262:
2243:
2234:
2227:. Retrieved
2223:the original
2218:
2209:
2200:
2186:
2180:
2166:
2156:, retrieved
2141:
2133:
2124:
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2103:
2088:
2083:
2074:
2059:
2054:
2045:
2036:
2027:
2018:
2009:
2000:
1991:
1982:
1973:
1964:
1955:
1946:
1937:
1918:
1910:
1905:
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1887:
1879:
1864:
1857:
1849:
1845:
1835:
1824:. Retrieved
1820:
1811:
1802:
1795:
1791:
1786:
1772:
1761:. Retrieved
1758:www.csun.edu
1757:
1749:
1740:
1731:
1720:. Retrieved
1715:
1712:"Iconoclasm"
1706:
1697:
1688:
1668:
1661:
1641:
1634:
1625:
1616:
1607:
1579:
1565:
1551:
1535:
1512:
1494:. Retrieved
1489:
1455:
1428:. Retrieved
1402:
1388:
1365:
1294:
1288:
1276:
1261:
1238:
1215:
1189:
1169:
1161:
1150:
1146:
1101:
1076:
1057:
1010:Beeldenstorm
1003:
977:
963:The Puritan
962:
955:
936:, and later
887:
861:
842:
834:Interior of
833:
785:
783:in England.
778:
764:Beeldenstorm
744:eastern wall
737:
730:
715:
691:
637:
634:Holy Trinity
627:
617:
603:
597:
558:
538:
530:Nestorianism
499:
465:
448:
437:
424:
422:
418:
398:
392:
384:
345:
314:
305:
294:
290:
251:
240:
227:
201:
170:
143:
108:
102:
72:; depicting
58:Christianity
52:
24:
1249:Philippines
1234:photography
1211:altarpieces
1180:Evangelical
1176:Pentecostal
1113:printmaking
1093: 1648
1086: 1545
1018:Anglicanism
972: 1620
942:John Murray
910:John Calvin
874: 1472
862:Last Supper
804:John Calvin
788:Reformation
646:Hand of God
569:Charlemagne
559:Figurative
512:after the "
488:Hagia Irene
426:proskynesis
325:1st century
262:2nd century
254:archaeology
185:Elizabeth I
173:Anglicanism
98:The Trinity
3041:Categories
3015:0853313245
2916:Iconoclasm
2909:References
2842:2023-04-25
2815:2015-04-12
2786:2023-04-25
2743:2012-09-07
2649:2015-04-12
2616:2015-04-12
2582:24 January
2500:2015-04-12
2158:2011-06-11
1826:2023-04-25
1763:2023-06-03
1722:2023-04-25
1496:2015-04-12
1352:Iconoclasm
1272:iconoclasm
1230:Anabaptism
1207:old master
1006:iconoclasm
998:altarpiece
898:sacred art
890:Calvinists
705:Romanesque
697:Cistercian
608:Gero Cross
518:Mosaic Law
502:iconoclasm
376:Lactantius
372:Tertullian
356:Constantia
274:sarcophagi
272:carved on
208:Anabaptist
195:and later
177:Low-Church
135:veneration
3047:Aniconism
2870:page xiii
2456:function.
2229:11 August
1222:Mennonite
1209:Catholic
1194:in Ohio.
1190:Lux Mundi
1172:Methodist
1121:Rembrandt
849:Eucharist
510:destroyed
456:Procopius
444:Holy Land
440:Justinian
278:pictogram
260:from the
252:Yet from
181:Edward VI
146:Lutherans
123:Calvinism
103:Manus Dei
54:Aniconism
31:Edward VI
2886:Archived
2427:Doberan.
2252:Archived
1453:(2003).
1430:29 April
1320:See also
1314:Mindanao
1264:doxology
1257:crucifix
1184:Moravian
1155:—
1117:etchings
1053:symbolic
1037:crucifix
982:—
894:Lutheran
853:crucifix
820:Anglican
812:Lutheran
781:Lollards
600:Auvergne
577:crucifix
409:Arianism
395:Irenaeus
352:Eusebius
317:idolatry
299:—
245:—
158:doxology
90:prophets
39:Josiah's
2284:finery.
1204:Baroque
1108:Baroque
1064:leaders
1055:terms.
1049:Trinity
1031:), the
1012:in the
914:Puritan
742:on the
716:In the
270:reliefs
171:Modern
160:of the
139:worship
35:Cranmer
33:, whom
3013:
2972:
2957:
2936:
2922:
2866:
2708:
2683:
2640:
2607:
2573:
2537:
2476:
2447:
2418:
2389:
2361:
2328:
2275:
2193:
2149:
2115:
2095:
2066:
1929:
1872:
1676:
1649:
1546:p. 447
1542:
1523:p. 231
1519:
1463:
1426:. 2018
1395:
1192:statue
1072:prints
604:corpus
573:Franks
374:, and
331:and a
129:. The
92:, and
86:saints
43:Temple
3032:JSTOR
2991:JSTOR
2862:2003
2398:5.5).
2236:East.
1358:Notes
1218:Amish
678:icons
662:Syria
652:from
638:Logos
629:Logos
526:Jesus
258:Jesus
212:Amish
96:like
78:Jesus
3011:ISBN
2970:ISBN
2955:ISBN
2934:ISBN
2920:ISBN
2864:ISBN
2733:WCPO
2706:ISBN
2681:ISBN
2638:ISBN
2605:ISBN
2584:2020
2571:ISBN
2535:ISBN
2474:ISBN
2445:ISBN
2416:ISBN
2387:ISBN
2359:ISBN
2326:ISBN
2273:ISBN
2231:2020
2191:ISBN
2147:ISBN
2113:ISBN
2093:ISBN
2064:ISBN
1927:ISBN
1870:ISBN
1674:ISBN
1647:ISBN
1540:ISBN
1517:ISBN
1461:ISBN
1432:2018
1393:ISBN
1239:The
1216:The
1174:and
1170:The
1135:The
1045:cuts
979:two.
940:and
920:and
908:and
818:and
786:The
565:West
183:and
152:and
100:and
88:and
68:and
2858:by
2531:265
1312:in
1119:of
865:by
660:in
74:God
3043::
3005:,
2835:.
2824:^
2779:.
2761:.
2731:.
2714:.
2667:^
2533:.
2453:.
2424:.
2395:.
2367:.
2334:.
2306:^
2281:.
2233:.
2217:.
2199:.
1878:.
1848:.
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