Antimatter - Knowledge

3163: 81: 2142:, as a magnetized neutron star rotation cycle shears electron-positron pairs from the star surface. Therein the antimatter forms a wind that crashes upon the ejecta of the progenitor supernovae. This weathering takes place as "the cold, magnetized relativistic wind launched by the star hits the non-relativistically expanding ejecta, a shock wave system forms in the impact: the outer one propagates in the ejecta, while a reverse shock propagates back towards the star." The former ejection of matter in the outer shock wave and the latter production of antimatter in the reverse shock wave are steps in a space weather cycle. 2699:. These magnetic moments can interact with an inhomogeneous magnetic field; some of the antihydrogen atoms can be attracted to a magnetic minimum. Such a minimum can be created by a combination of mirror and multipole fields. Antihydrogen can be trapped in such a magnetic minimum (minimum-B) trap; in November 2010, the ALPHA collaboration announced that they had so trapped 38 antihydrogen atoms for about a sixth of a second. This was the first time that neutral antimatter had been trapped. 1548:, whose seminal paper “On the Theory of Electrons and Protons” (Feb 14th 1930) drew on Dirac's equation and argued for the existence of a positively charged electron (a positron), which as a counterpart to the electron should have the same mass as the electron itself. This meant that it could not be, as Dirac had in fact suggested, a proton. Dirac further postulated the existence of antimatter in a 1931 paper which referred to the positron as an "anti-electron". These were discovered by 8427: 2595:(LEAR), and was led by Walter Oelert and Mario Macri. Fermilab soon confirmed the CERN findings by producing approximately 100 antihydrogen atoms at their facilities. The antihydrogen atoms created during PS210 and subsequent experiments (at both CERN and Fermilab) were extremely energetic and were not well suited to study. To resolve this hurdle, and to gain a better understanding of antihydrogen, two collaborations were formed in the late 1990s, namely, 7305: 2621: – still too "hot" to produce study-effective antihydrogen, but a huge leap forward. In late 2002 the ATHENA project announced that they had created the world's first "cold" antihydrogen. The ATRAP project released similar results very shortly thereafter. The antiprotons used in these experiments were cooled by decelerating them with the Antiproton Decelerator, passing them through a thin sheet of foil, and finally capturing them in a 54: 2162:

electron+positron events, around an energy of 275 ± 32 GeV. At higher energies, up to 500 GeV, the ratio of positrons to electrons begins to fall again. The absolute flux of positrons also begins to fall before 500 GeV, but peaks at energies far higher than electron energies, which peak about 10 GeV. These results on interpretation have been suggested to be due to positron production in annihilation events of massive

7835: 2906: 8439: 2756:) were first observed in the 1970s in proton–nucleus collision experiments at the Institute for High Energy Physics by Y. Prockoshkin's group (Protvino near Moscow, USSR) and later created in nucleus–nucleus collision experiments. Nucleus–nucleus collisions produce antinuclei through the coalescence of antiprotons and antineutrons created in these reactions. In 2011, the 1847: 1866: 2462:). The properties of the antiproton that have been measured all match the corresponding properties of the proton, with the exception of the antiproton having opposite electric charge and magnetic moment from the proton. Shortly afterwards, in 1956, the antineutron was discovered in proton–proton collisions at the 3088:

Not all of that energy can be utilized by any realistic propulsion technology because of the nature of the annihilation products. While electron–positron reactions result in gamma ray photons, these are difficult to direct and use for thrust. In reactions between protons and antiprotons, their energy

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in a Surko-style positron accumulator. This cloud is then recaptured in a second trap near the antiprotons. Manipulations of the trap electrodes then tip the antiprotons into the positron plasma, where some combine with antiprotons to form antihydrogen. This neutral antihydrogen is unaffected by the

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to 250 GeV. In September, 2014, new results with almost twice as much data were presented in a talk at CERN and published in Physical Review Letters. A new measurement of positron fraction up to 500 GeV was reported, showing that positron fraction peaks at a maximum of about 16% of total

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and a few antiprotons in primary cosmic rays, amounting to less than 1% of the particles in primary cosmic rays. This antimatter cannot all have been created in the Big Bang, but is instead attributed to have been produced by cyclic processes at high energies. For instance, electron-positron pairs

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to keep the antimatter from coming into contact with matter and annihilating. The researchers then gradually weakened the magnetic fields and detected the antiatoms using two sensors as they escaped and annihilated. Most of the anti-atoms came out of the bottom opening, and only one-quarter out of

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Scientists claim that antimatter is the costliest material to make. In 2006, Gerald Smith estimated $ 250 million could produce 10 milligrams of positrons (equivalent to $ 25 billion per gram); in 1999, NASA gave a figure of $ 62.5 trillion per gram of antihydrogen. This is because

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scientists were able to preserve antihydrogen for approximately 17 minutes. The record for storing antiparticles is currently held by the TRAP experiment at CERN: antiprotons were kept in a Penning trap for 405 days. A proposal was made in 2018 to develop containment technology advanced enough to

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that decayed into both matter and antimatter. Positrons were detected at a higher rate and in greater density than ever previously detected in a laboratory. Previous experiments made smaller quantities of positrons using lasers and paper-thin targets; newer simulations showed that short bursts of

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The biggest limiting factor in the large-scale production of antimatter is the availability of antiprotons. Recent data released by CERN states that, when fully operational, their facilities are capable of producing ten million antiprotons per minute. Assuming a 100% conversion of antiprotons to

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In 2016, a new antiproton decelerator and cooler called ELENA (Extra Low ENergy Antiproton decelerator) was built. It takes the antiprotons from the antiproton decelerator and cools them to 90 keV, which is "cold" enough to study. This machine works by using high energy and accelerating the

1371:. If surrounding matter is present, the energy content of this radiation will be absorbed and converted into other forms of energy, such as heat or light. The amount of energy released is usually proportional to the total mass of the collided matter and antimatter, in accordance with the notable 2727:

atoms of anti-hydrogen). However, CERN only produces 1% of the anti-matter Fermilab does, and neither are designed to produce anti-matter. According to Gerald Jackson, using technology already in use today we are capable of producing and capturing 20 grams of anti-matter particles per year at a

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There are compelling theoretical reasons to believe that, aside from the fact that antiparticles have different signs on all charges (such as electric and baryon charges), matter and antimatter have exactly the same properties. This means a particle and its corresponding antiparticle must have

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in 1898, in which he coined the term. He hypothesized antiatoms, as well as whole antimatter solar systems, and discussed the possibility of matter and antimatter annihilating each other. Schuster's ideas were not a serious theoretical proposal, merely speculation, and like the previous ideas,

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Cosmic ray antiprotons also have a much higher energy than their normal-matter counterparts (protons). They arrive at Earth with a characteristic energy maximum of 2 GeV, indicating their production in a fundamentally different process from cosmic ray protons, which on average have only

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On 26 April 2011, ALPHA announced that they had trapped 309 antihydrogen atoms, some for as long as 1,000 seconds (about 17 minutes). This was longer than neutral antimatter had ever been trapped before. ALPHA has used these trapped atoms to initiate research into the spectral properties of

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It is quite possible that for some of the stars it is the other way about, these stars being built up mainly of positrons and negative protons. In fact, there may be half the stars of each kind. The two kinds of stars would both show exactly the same spectra, and there would be no way of

1986:(binary star systems containing black holes or neutron stars), mostly on one side of the Galactic Center. While the mechanism is not fully understood, it is likely to involve the production of electron–positron pairs, as ordinary matter gains kinetic energy while falling into a 2099:

threshold). It is hypothesized that during the period of baryogenesis, when the universe was extremely hot and dense, matter and antimatter were continually produced and annihilated. The presence of remaining matter, and absence of detectable remaining antimatter, is called

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Most matter observable from the Earth seems to be made of matter rather than antimatter. If antimatter-dominated regions of space existed, the gamma rays produced in annihilation reactions along the boundary between matter and antimatter regions would be detectable.

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have been artificially produced, albeit with difficulty, and are the most complex anti-nuclei so far observed. Physical principles indicate that complex antimatter atomic nuclei are possible, as well as anti-atoms corresponding to the known chemical elements.

1872: 2481:, anti-nuclei consisting of multiple bound antiprotons and antineutrons have been created. These are typically produced at energies far too high to form antimatter atoms (with bound positrons in place of electrons). In 1965, a group of researchers led by 2664:

electric and magnetic fields used to trap the charged positrons and antiprotons, and within a few microseconds the antihydrogen hits the trap walls, where it annihilates. Some hundreds of millions of antihydrogen atoms have been made in this fashion.

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ratio. AMS-02 revealed in December 2016 that it had discovered a few signals consistent with antihelium nuclei amidst several billion helium nuclei. The result remains to be verified, and as of 2017, the team is trying to rule out contamination.

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Most of the sought-after high-precision tests of the properties of antihydrogen could only be performed if the antihydrogen were trapped, that is, held in place for a relatively long time. While antihydrogen atoms are electrically neutral, the

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Sellner, S.; Besirli, M.; Bohman, M.; Borchert, M. J.; Harrington, J.; Higuchi, T.; Mooser, A.; Nagahama, H.; Schneider, G.; Smorra, C.; Tanaka, T.; Blaum, K.; Matsuda, Y.; Ospelkaus, C.; Quint, W.; Walz, J.; Yamazaki, Y.; Ulmer, S. (2017).

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Arrowsmith, C. D.; Simon, P.; Bilbao, P. J.; Bott, A. F. A.; Burger, S.; Chen, H.; Cruz, F. D.; Davenne, T.; Efthymiopoulos, I.; Froula, D. H.; Goillot, A.; Gudmundsson, J. T.; Haberberger, D.; Halliday, J. W. D.; Hodge, T. (12 June 2024).

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Antimatter has been considered as a trigger mechanism for nuclear weapons. A major obstacle is the difficulty of producing antimatter in large enough quantities, and there is no evidence that it will ever be feasible. Nonetheless, the

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The antiprotons are still hot when initially trapped. To cool them further, they are mixed into an electron plasma. The electrons in this plasma cool via cyclotron radiation, and then sympathetically cool the antiprotons via

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identical masses and decay lifetimes (if unstable). It also implies that, for example, a star made up of antimatter (an "antistar") will shine just like an ordinary star. This idea was tested experimentally in 2016 by the

3124:; the neutrinos from this decay carry about 2/3 of the energy of the muons, meaning that from the original charged pions, the total fraction of their energy converted to neutrinos by one route or another would be about 1544:. Although Dirac had laid the groundwork for the existence of these “antielectrons” he initially failed to pick up on the implications contained within his own equation. He freely gave the credit for that insight to 2933:

and are widely generated for medical use. Antiprotons have also been shown within laboratory experiments to have the potential to treat certain cancers, in a similar method currently used for ion (proton) therapy.

2625:. The overall cooling process is workable, but highly inefficient; approximately 25 million antiprotons leave the Antiproton Decelerator and roughly 25,000 make it to the Penning–Malmberg trap, which is about 535: 1312:

amount of antimatter has ever been assembled due to the extreme cost and difficulty of production and handling. Nonetheless, antimatter is an essential component of widely available applications related to

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Antimatter cannot be stored in a container made of ordinary matter because antimatter reacts with any matter it touches, annihilating itself and an equal amount of the container. Antimatter in the form of

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There is no difference in the gravitational behavior of matter and antimatter. In other words, antimatter falls down when dropped, not up. This was confirmed with the thin, very cold gas of thousands of

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Aguilar, M.; et al. (AMS Collaboration) (August 2002). "The Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer (AMS) on the International Space Station: Part I – results from the test flight on the space shuttle".

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nuclei (that is, anti-alpha particles), in cosmic rays. The detection of natural antihelium could imply the existence of large antimatter structures such as an antistar. A prototype of the

6727:"A rough estimate to produce the 10 milligrams of positrons needed for a human Mars mission is about 250 million dollars using technology that is currently under development," said Smith. 2084:

clouds; positrons are produced in terrestrial gamma ray flashes created by electrons accelerated by strong electric fields in the clouds. Antiprotons have also been found to exist in the

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to a precision of 1.5 parts per billion. It is consistent with the most precise measurement of the proton magnetic moment (also made by BASE in 2014), which supports the hypothesis of

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to produce about 1 billionth of a gram (the amount used so far for particle/antiparticle collisions). In comparison, to produce the first atomic weapon, the cost of the

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particles within the chamber. More than one hundred antiprotons can be captured per second, a huge improvement, but it would still take several thousand years to make a

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Moskalenko, I. V.; Strong, A. W.; Ormes, J. F.; Potgieter, M. S. (January 2002). "Secondary antiprotons and propagation of cosmic rays in the Galaxy and heliosphere".

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from "positive electron". Although Dirac did not himself use the term antimatter, its use follows on naturally enough from antielectrons, antiprotons, etc. A complete

1507:. The squirts represented normal matter and the sinks represented negative matter. Pearson's theory required a fourth dimension for the aether to flow from and into. 1982:

may explain the origin of a giant antimatter cloud surrounding the Galactic Center. The observations show that the cloud is asymmetrical and matches the pattern of

1300:, but only a tiny fraction of these have successfully been bound together in experiments to form antiatoms. Minuscule numbers of antiparticles can be generated at 6461: 5361:

Efthymiopoulos, I; Hessler, C; Gaillard, H; Grenier, D; Meddahi, M; Trilhe, P; Pardons, A; Theis, C; Charitonidis, N; Evrard, S; Vincke, H; Lazzaroni, M (2011).

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production is difficult (only very few antiprotons are produced in reactions in particle accelerators) and because there is higher demand for other uses of

2493:. At roughly the same time, observations of antideuterium nuclei were reported by a group of American physicists at the Alternating Gradient Synchrotron at 4850: 2072:

are another kind of antiparticle created by natural radioactivity (β decay). Many different kinds of antiparticles are also produced by (and contained in)

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Gsponer, Andre; Hurni, Jean-Pierre (1987). "The physics of antimatter induced fusion and thermonuclear explosions". In Velarde, G.; Minguez, E. (eds.).

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collisions. Eventually, the electrons are removed by the application of short-duration electric fields, leaving the antiprotons with energies less than

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Antimatter particles carry the same charge as matter particles, but of opposite sign. That is, an antiproton is negatively charged and an antielectron (

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Blaum, K.; Raizen, M. G.; Quint, W. (2014). "An experimental test of the weak equivalence principle for antihydrogen at the future FLAIR facility".

7156: 2276:. The beam demonstrated the highest positron yield achieved so far in a laboratory setting. The experiment employed the 440 GeV proton beam, with 6799: 1859:

A video showing how scientists used the Fermi Gamma ray Space Telescope's gamma ray detector to uncover bursts of antimatter from thunderstorms

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behave exactly identical to regular particles, but traveling backward in time. This concept is nowadays used in modern particle physics, in

470: 6714: 5485: 3120:(carrying about 78% of the charged pion energy), with the muons then decaying into a combination of electrons, positrons and neutrinos (cf. 2035:. This measurement represents the first time that a property of antimatter is known more precisely than the equivalent property in matter. 8029: 6739: 4423: 2962:. Since the energy density of antimatter is higher than that of conventional fuels, an antimatter-fueled spacecraft would have a higher 7242: 7189:

FAQ from CERN with information about antimatter aimed at the general reader, posted in response to antimatter's fictional portrayal in

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of +1, while that of positrons is –1. When a particle and its corresponding antiparticle collide, they are both converted into energy.

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Massam, T.; Muller, Th.; Righini, B.; Schneegans, M.; Zichichi, A. (1965). "Experimental observation of antideuteron production".

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Antiparticles are also produced in any environment with a sufficiently high temperature (mean particle energy greater than the

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Antiparticles bind with each other to form antimatter, just as ordinary particles bind to form normal matter. For example, a

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Weidenspointner, G.; et al. (2008). "An asymmetric distribution of positrons in the Galactic disk revealed by γ-rays".

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Recent observations indicate black holes and neutron stars produce vast amounts of positron-electron plasma via the jets.

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are exploring whether it might be possible to use magnetic scoops to collect the antimatter that occurs naturally in the

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In 2023, the production of the first electron-positron beam-plasma was reported by a collaboration led by researchers at

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in the primordial time of the universe. Antimatter galaxies, if they exist, are expected to have the same chemistry and

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is trying to determine if such galaxies exist by looking for X-ray and gamma ray signatures of annihilation events in

1921:, which are immediately annihilated by contact with nearby matter. They may similarly be produced in regions like the 8079: 6769: 5920:

Pritchard, D. E.; Heinz, T.; Shen, Y. (1983). "Cooling neutral atoms in a magnetic trap for precision spectroscopy".

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atoms that were confined in a vertical shaft surrounded by superconducting electromagnetic coils. These can create a

6546: 4611: 1827:. The results, which are identical to that of hydrogen, confirmed the validity of quantum mechanics for antimatter. 8475: 7864: 5832:

Surko, C. M.; Greaves, R. G. (2004). "Emerging science and technology of antimatter plasmas and trap-based beams".

3260: 5057: 3162: 2836:, the matter or antimatter particles can be trapped and cooled with slightly off-resonant laser radiation using a 8272: 8262: 8247: 8184: 7509: 7148: 3635: 1883: 242: 8039: 6089: 5035: 4846: 4527:

Sala, S.; Ariga, A.; Ereditato, A.; Ferragut, R.; Giammarchi, M.; Leone, M.; Pistillo, C.; Scampoli, P. (2019).

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Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character

8392: 7579: 7504: 7235: 5728: 5667: 5307: 3740: 2494: 2104:. The exact mechanism that produced this asymmetry during baryogenesis remains an unsolved problem. One of the 1003: 7210: 6233: 1418:

is composed almost entirely of ordinary matter, as opposed to an equal mixture of matter and antimatter. This

8470: 8257: 7691: 7519: 7049: 6462:"Giant space magnet may have trapped antihelium, raising idea of lingering pools of antimatter in the cosmos" 5262:"Giant space magnet may have trapped antihelium, raising idea of lingering pools of antimatter in the cosmos" 2856:

contain a billion anti-protons in a portable device to be driven to another lab for further experimentation.

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Dorfan, D. E; Eades, J.; Lederman, L. M.; Lee, W.; Ting, C. C. (June 1965). "Observation of Antideuterons".

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Agakishiev, H.; et al. (STAR Collaboration) (2011). "Observation of the antimatter helium-4 nucleus".

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loses surplus positive charge by emitting a positron (in the same event, a proton becomes a neutron, and a

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show that positrons in the cosmic rays arrive with no directionality, and with energies that range from 10

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announced that it had successfully brought into existence nine hot antihydrogen atoms by implementing the

8232: 8119: 7962: 4723: 3151:, and began considering its possible use in weapons, not just as a trigger, but as the explosive itself. 3064: 2788: 2784: 2154: 2146: 1372: 45: 17: 2656:. While the antiprotons are being cooled in the first trap, a small cloud of positrons is captured from 8252: 7184: 7127: 7080: 7013:

Proceedings of the International Conference on Emerging Nuclear Energy Systems, Madrid, June/July, 1986

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Castelvecchi, D. (19 December 2016). "Ephemeral antimatter atoms pinned down in milestone laser test".

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Positrons are produced naturally in β decays of naturally occurring radioactive isotopes (for example,

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in "ordinary" matter, and can be thought of as matter with reversed charge, parity, and time, known as

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is by adding a bar over the particle's symbol. For example, the proton and antiproton are denoted as

6747: 6673:"Reaching for the stars: Scientists examine using antimatter and fusion to propel future spacecraft" 4673:

Adriani, O.; et al. (2011). "The Discovery of Geomagnetically Trapped Cosmic-Ray Antiprotons".

7977: 7819: 7726: 7625: 7255: 7050:"Air Force pursuing antimatter weapons / Program was touted publicly, then came official gag order" 6788: 3959: 3002: 2885: 2684: 2310: 2085: 1496: 1492: 1426:. The process by which this inequality between matter and antimatter particles developed is called 1068: 790: 542: 331: 4265: 3607: 3542: 3417:

Tsan, Ung Chan (2013). "Mass, Matter, Materialization, Mattergenesis and Conservation of Charge".

2816:. This device cannot, however, contain antimatter that consists of uncharged particles, for which 1450:

of +1, while antiprotons and antineutrons have a baryon number of –1. Similarly, electrons have a

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Dolgov, A. D. (2002). "Cosmological Matter-Antimatter Asymmetry and Antimatter in the Universe".

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Serpico, P. D. (December 2012). "Astrophysical models for the origin of the positron "excess"".

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and other galaxies, where very energetic celestial events occur (principally the interaction of

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Gabrielse, G.; et al. (1989). "Cooling and slowing of trapped antiprotons below 100 meV".

5691:"Background-free observation of cold antihydrogen with field ionization analysis of its states" 3996: 2963: 2825: 2607: 2554: 2526: 2395: 1078: 1058: 928: 237: 4447:"Universe Should Not Actually Exist: Big Bang Produced Equal Amounts of Matter And Antimatter" 1463: 7927: 7824: 4415: 4311: 2841: 2760:

reported the observation of artificially created antihelium-4 nuclei (anti-alpha particles) (

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has, as of 2021, recorded eight events that seem to indicate the detection of antihelium-3.

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Canetti, L.; Drewes, M.; Shaposhnikov, M. (2012). "Matter and antimatter in the universe".

3869: 3820: 3714: 3496: 3426: 3360: 3299: 3082: 2866: 2837: 2539: 2265: 1301: 855: 733: 718: 708: 460:{\displaystyle {\hat {H}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle =i\hbar {\frac {d}{dt}}|\psi _{n}(t)\rangle } 232: 38: 7106: 6531: 6112: 4584: 963: 582: 8: 8465: 8237: 7539: 7431: 7421: 7334: 7289: 6856: 4616: 3203: 2951: 2668: 2105: 2002: 1934: 1549: 1504: 1415: 978: 805: 795: 743: 738: 713: 612: 324: 295: 136: 7172: 7034: 6836: 6629: 6586: 6514: 6391: 6344: 6272: 6211: 6131: 6069: 5972: 5935: 5888: 5847: 5802: 5765: 5708: 5637: 5586: 5563: 5520: 5459: 5436: 5411: 5385: 5222: 5179: 5110: 4999: 4933: 4891: 4883: 4799: 4696: 4629: 4544: 4495: 4352: 4222: 4027: 4019: 3873: 3824: 3718: 3500: 3430: 3372: 3364: 3303: 3021:), and about 2 orders of magnitude greater than the best possible results expected from 2667:

In 2005, ATHENA disbanded and some of the former members (along with others) formed the

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appears in past theories of matter that have now been abandoned. Using the once popular

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Schmidt, G. R. (1999). "Antimatter Production for Near-Term Propulsion Applications".

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Agakishiev, H.; et al. (2011). "Observation of the antimatter helium-4 nucleus".

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in 2010. The blue areas indicate where potential lightning can occur for terrestrial

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A collision between any particle and its anti-particle partner leads to their mutual

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Stewart, P. J. (2010). "Charles Janet: Unrecognized genius of the periodic system".

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Matter–antimatter reactions have practical applications in medical imaging, such as

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Material composed of antiparticles of the corresponding particles of ordinary matter

8356: 7932: 7879: 7809: 7789: 7671: 7294: 7176: 7016: 6878: 6840: 6655: 6633: 6616: 6590: 6526: 6518: 6469: 6395: 6348: 6276: 6215: 6163: 6143: 6135: 6073: 5996: 5976: 5959: 5939: 5892: 5851: 5806: 5769: 5712: 5663: 5641: 5624: 5567: 5524: 5431: 5415: 5269: 5234: 5226: 5195: 5183: 5124: 5119: 5114: 5031: 5011: 5007: 5003: 4942: 4937: 4887: 4825: 4811: 4803: 4700: 4633: 4556: 4548: 4499: 4482: 4376: 4356: 4339: 4236: 4226: 4179: 4090: 4023: 3968: 3877: 3828: 3736: 3722: 3705: 3644: 3504: 3434: 3368: 3307: 3280: 3185: 2845: 2801: 2588: 2391: 2113: 2101: 2068:) and in interactions of gamma quanta (emitted by radioactive nuclei) with matter. 2010: 1994: 1930: 1820: 1516: 1442:) is positively charged. Neutrons do not carry a net charge, but their constituent 1419: 1203: 1178: 1153: 1143: 1098: 968: 775: 755: 750: 607: 194: 189: 6281: 5716: 3576: 3475:

are associated to antimatter particles. All known interactions do conserve matter.

1823:

experiment, which measured the transition between the two lowest energy states of

1797:

respectively. To prevent confusion, however, the two conventions are never mixed.

8412: 8297: 7794: 7661: 7514: 7251: 7151:(from the Frequently Asked Questions at the Center for Antimatter–Matter Studies) 5334: 4780: 3763: 3209: 3206: – Exotic molecule consisting of a hydrogen atom bound to a positronium atom 3006: 2998: 2829: 2696: 2355: 2096: 2028: 2020: 1987: 1922: 1811: 1758: 1576: 1511: 1488: 1458: 1341: 1198: 1193: 1113: 1053: 958: 933: 923: 888: 883: 850: 780: 703: 562: 305: 5943: 5810: 5571: 3179: – Non-standard model of the universe; emphasizes the role of ionized gases 2387: 2261:

ultra-intense lasers and millimeter-thick gold are a far more effective source.

1469: 8351: 7937: 7459: 7454: 7411: 7344: 7339: 7214: 6638: 6611: 6595: 6570: 6296:

Antipov, Y. M.; et al. (1974). "Observation of antihelium3 (in Russian)".

6046: 5773: 5750:

Malmberg, J. H.; deGrassie, J. S. (1975). "Properties of a nonneutral plasma".

5419: 4094: 3197: 3168: 3102: 3094: 3022: 2982: 2978: 2809: 2805: 2715:

antihydrogen, it would take 100 billion years to produce 1 gram or 1

2692: 2676: 2442: 2250: 1983: 1967: 1734: 1557: 1533: 1403: 1345: 1269: 1183: 1168: 1128: 1118: 1093: 1038: 988: 983: 820: 800: 770: 655: 592: 587: 354: 6844: 6522: 5094: 4183: 3972: 3508: 3438: 2671:, which is also based at CERN. The ultimate goal of this endeavour is to test 8459: 8407: 8387: 8179: 8129: 7967: 7696: 7676: 7599: 7559: 7494: 7426: 7349: 7204: 5427: 3889: 3116:(carrying about 22% of the energy of the charged pions) and unstable charged 2929:

is also emitted). Nuclides with surplus positive charge are easily made in a

2757: 2486: 2187: 2038:

Antimatter quantum interferometry has been first demonstrated in 2018 in the

1993:

Antimatter may exist in relatively large amounts in far-away galaxies due to

1572: 1561: 1451: 1447: 1158: 1123: 1083: 1048: 1028: 1023: 1018: 1013: 993: 938: 873: 227: 58: 7138: 7123: 6473: 5273: 3396:"One step closer: UW-Madison scientists help explain scarcity of antimatter" 1033: 7721: 7594: 7589: 7584: 7549: 7499: 7416: 6647: 6407: 6229: 6220: 6155: 5988: 5906: 5897: 5870: 5818: 5724: 5655: 5445: 5138: 5023: 4951: 4647: 4570: 4552: 4513: 4368: 4250: 4102: 3881: 3833: 3806: 3319: 2813: 2672: 2652: 2613: 2506: 2421: 2400: 2359: 2109: 2081: 2069: 2065: 2032: 2013: 1998: 1954: 1918: 1914: 1836: 1824: 1807: 1713: 1692: 1588: 1541: 1500: 1427: 1399: 1352: 1289: 1281: 1173: 998: 973: 948: 903: 898: 835: 815: 249: 199: 184: 179: 146: 112: 90: 7220: 3341:

Canetti, L.; et al. (2012). "Matter and Antimatter in the Universe".

2005:

would be observationally identical, making them difficult to distinguish.

1757:. Another convention is to distinguish particles by positive and negative 8382: 8346: 8338: 7922: 7859: 7768: 7630: 7524: 7436: 6554: 5170: 4145: 3098: 2870: 2817: 2716: 2657: 2531: 2375: 2163: 1522: 1475: 1163: 1133: 1103: 908: 665: 156: 107: 31: 7025: 6882: 6399: 6147: 6139: 5980: 5646: 5238: 5129: 5015: 4504: 4477: 4360: 4231: 4206: 3311: 2380:

The existence of the antiproton was experimentally confirmed in 1955 by

8214: 8064: 7917: 7874: 7569: 7544: 7471: 7375: 7354: 6789:"Extraction of Antiparticles Concentrated in Planetary Magnetic Fields" 5528: 4816: 4130: 3656: 3550:. Vol. 12. Amsterdam-London-New York: Elsevier. pp. 320–325. 3121: 3078: 2918: 2471: 2371: 2128: 2073: 2039: 1950: 1906: 1669: 1529: 1333: 1314: 1293: 1043: 953: 893: 810: 660: 597: 567: 557: 530:{\displaystyle G_{\mu \nu }+\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }={\kappa }T_{\mu \nu }} 300: 161: 117: 102: 8402: 6077: 5855: 4241: 2398:. An antiproton consists of two up antiquarks and one down antiquark ( 8361: 8318: 8109: 7098:

Schmidt, G.R.; Gerrish, H.P.; Martin, J.J.; Smith, G.A.; Meyer, K.J.

6041: 5362: 4973: 3842: 3727: 2974: 2930: 2384: 2242: 1958: 1946: 1938: 1937:). The presence of the resulting antimatter is detectable by the two 1926: 1887: 1879: 1754: 1360: 1108: 840: 7304: 7139:

Freeview Video 'Antimatter' by the Vega Science Trust and the BBC/OU

5690: 5619: 5360: 4638: 4081:

Castelvecchi, D. (5 October 2023). "Antimatter falls down, not up".

3700: 3648: 1521:

differed from the modern concept of antimatter in that it possessed

53: 8069: 7706: 7534: 6193: 5402: 5363:"HiRadMat: A New Irradiation Facility for Material Testing at CERN" 5187: 4990: 4478:"A parts-per-billion measurement of the antiproton magnetic moment" 3513:

Antimatter particles are characterized by negative baryonic number

3148: 3113: 3040: 2926: 2708: 2680: 2584: 2463: 2358:

process. The produced pair beams have a volume that fills multiple

2318: 2233:

Positrons were reported in November 2008 to have been generated by

2228: 2134: 1979: 1962: 1942: 1902: 1650: 1631: 1553: 1495:, the possibility of matter with negative gravity was discussed by 1439: 1395: 1391: 1364: 1305: 943: 680: 572: 97: 62: 6382: 6060: 4913:

Accardo, L.; et al. (AMS Collaboration) (18 September 2014).

4874: 4807: 4687: 4010: 3672:

Quantum Generations: A History of Physics in the Twentieth Century

3355: 3294: 2209:

established an upper limit of 1.1×10 for the antihelium to helium

8302: 8174: 7666: 7554: 7489: 7406: 7401: 4779:

Wardle, J. F. C.; Homan, D. C.; Ojha, R.; Roberts, D. H. (1998).

3487:

Tsan, U. C. (2012). "Negative Numbers And Antimatter Particles".

3403: 3105:

decay more slowly (with a lifetime of 26 nanoseconds) and can be

2922: 2889: 2257: 2173:

There is an ongoing search for larger antimatter nuclei, such as

1398:) and an antiproton (the antiparticle of the proton) can form an 670: 151: 141: 3930:

Beyond Einstein: The Cosmic Quest for the Theory of the Universe

8159: 8034: 7275: 6431:"Antimatter stars may lurk in the solar system's neighbourhood" 5478:"Breaking Through: A Century of Physics at Berkeley, 1868–1968" 2970: 2905: 2877:

was estimated at $ 23 billion with inflation during 2007.

2833: 2821: 2660: 2596: 2478: 2314: 2254: 2198: 2139: 1528:

The modern theory of antimatter began in 1928, with a paper by

1356: 1329: 1277: 650: 645: 7737: 5155: 4308:"Integral discovers the galaxy's antimatter cloud is lopsided" 3200: – Exotic molecule consisting of two atoms of positronium 1917:) produce minute quantities of antiparticles in the resulting 1905:

where high-energy particle collisions take place. High-energy

8323: 8209: 8204: 8054: 8009: 7854: 7849: 7284: 7270: 7213:, costly experiment to study neutrinos & anti-neutrinos. 7100:"Antimatter Production for Near-term Propulsion Applications" 6967:. pp. 5–6 (pp. 6–7 of pdf). AIAA–87–1814. Archived from 6571:"Improved limit on the directly measured antiproton lifetime" 6319:"Antihelium-3 production in lead–lead collisions at 158 5585:

Gabrielse, Gerald; et al. (ATRAP Collaboration) (1996).

5506: 4207:"Observation of the 1S–2S transition in trapped antihydrogen" 3055: 2600: 2362:

and are thus able to sustain collective plasma oscillations.

2238: 2047: 1687: 1503:

proposed the existence of "squirts" and sinks of the flow of

1443: 675: 635: 124: 6567: 6113:"Resonant quantum transitions in trapped antihydrogen atoms" 5300:"Billions of particles of anti-matter created in laboratory" 2365: 1467:, led to the initialism "C.T." and the science fiction term 8169: 8164: 8089: 8044: 8014: 6964: 6923:

Kaye & Laby: Table of Physical & Chemical Constants

6919:"§4.7 Nuclear fission and fusion, and neutron interactions" 6795: 6743: 6710: 6676: 6014: 4753: 4419: 3117: 3090: 3089:

is converted largely into relativistic neutral and charged

2943: 2852: 2580: 2576: 2490: 2273: 2246: 2210: 2043: 2024: 2006: 1337: 1328:

In theory, a particle and its antiparticle (for example, a

1304:; however, total artificial production has been only a few 685: 640: 310: 6502:

International Journal of Modern Physics: Conference Series

6194:"Cold antihydrogen: a new frontier in fundamental physics" 5871:"Cold antihydrogen: a new frontier in fundamental physics" 5386:"Laboratory realization of relativistic pair-plasma beams" 4526: 3443:

Matter conservation means conservation of baryonic number

2888:

of the Earth, and ultimately the belts of gas giants like

7280: 7133: 6707:"New and Improved Antimatter Spaceship for Mars Missions" 5382: 4585:"Antimatter caught streaming from thunderstorms on Earth" 3993: 2158: 7201:

Animated illustration of antihydrogen production at CERN

4847:"NASA – Vast Cloud of Antimatter Traced to Binary Stars" 3521:. Materialization and annihilation obey conservation of 1761:. Thus, the electron and positron are denoted simply as 6257:"Antimatter-Based Propulsion for Exoplanet Exploration" 4529:"First demonstration of antimatter wave interferometry" 3181:

Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets

2869:. According to CERN, it has cost a few hundred million 37:"Anti-nucleus" redirects here. For the antibodies, see 6877:. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. 6612:"Physicists plan antimatter's first outing – in a van" 5957:

Andresen; et al. (2010). "Trapped antihydrogen".

5549: 4781:"Electron-positron Jets Associated with Quasar 3C 279" 4778: 3858:"Quantised singularities in the electromagnetic field" 1953:

of the gamma rays indicate that each carries 511

1882:

flashes daily. The red dots show those spotted by the

7097: 5620:"Production and detection of cold antihydrogen atoms" 3112:

Charged pions ultimately decay into a combination of

2327: 2282: 473: 366: 6954:"Comparison of Fusion/Antiproton Propulsion systems" 6818:"Antiproton portable traps and medical applications" 4974:"Synopsis: More Dark Matter Hints from Cosmic Rays?" 4159:

distinguishing them by present astronomical methods.

3158: 2610:, a device capable of decelerating antiprotons from 2080:

discovered antimatter (positrons) originating above

6693:

Antimatter is the most expensive substance on Earth

6039: 3147:funded studies of the physics of antimatter in the 3001:, and about 3 orders of magnitude greater than the 5919: 2942:Isolated and stored antimatter could be used as a 2346: 2313:, and irradiated a particle converter composed of 2301: 529: 459: 6770:"Manhattan Project: CTBTO Preparatory Commission" 6199:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 5876:Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 5749: 5367:2nd International Particle Accelerator Conference 2969:If matter–antimatter collisions resulted only in 2820:are used. In particular, such a trap may use the 2728:yearly cost of 670 million dollars per facility. 2145:Preliminary results from the presently operating 1690:, so an antiproton must therefore be formed from 8457: 6816:Lewis, R. A.; Smith, G. A.; Howe, S. D. (1997). 6498: 5330:"Laser creates billions of antimatter particles" 3231:"Ten things you might not know about antimatter" 3097:decay almost immediately (with a lifetime of 85 2112:, which has been experimentally observed in the 1461:term for "made of or pertaining to antimatter", 1355:, giving rise to various proportions of intense 6042:"Confinement of antihydrogen for 1,000 seconds" 6011:"Antimatter atoms produced and trapped at CERN" 5587:"The production and study of cold antihydrogen" 4336: 4048: 1499:in the 1880s. Between the 1880s and the 1890s, 6815: 5086: 2253:, which caused the incoming electrons to emit 1292:. Antimatter occurs in natural processes like 7753: 7236: 3467:are associated to matter particles, negative 2956:antimatter-catalyzed nuclear pulse propulsion 2844:. Small particles can also be suspended with 2133:Satellite experiments have found evidence of 2122: 1249: 332: 7010: 6875:35th Joint Propulsion Conference and Exhibit 6459: 5831: 5259: 4609: 4469: 4173: 4080: 3927: 1901:Antiparticles are created everywhere in the 1422:in the visible universe is one of the great 454: 403: 7250: 6704: 6667: 6665: 4720:"Antimatter Found Orbiting Earth – A First" 4476:Smorra, C.; et al. (20 October 2017). 4438: 4205:Ahmadi, M; et al. (19 December 2016). 4150: 2019:In October 2017, scientists working on the 1540:for electrons predicted the possibility of 7760: 7746: 7243: 7229: 6428: 6367: 3277: 1256: 1242: 339: 325: 7074: 7024: 6637: 6594: 6530: 6381: 6352: 6316: 6280: 6219: 6059: 5896: 5786: 5688: 5645: 5584: 5435: 5401: 5169: 5128: 5118: 4989: 4941: 4873: 4815: 4686: 4637: 4612:"Rogue Antimatter Found in Thunderclouds" 4560: 4503: 4240: 4230: 4129: 4009: 3832: 3726: 3605: 3534: 3489:International Journal of Modern Physics E 3419:International Journal of Modern Physics E 3393: 3354: 3293: 2591:. The experiment was performed using the 2366:Antiprotons, antineutrons, and antinuclei 2027:reported a measurement of the antiproton 7047: 6951: 6786: 6662: 5956: 5617: 5592:. CERN. pp. 1–21. No. SPSLC-I-211. 4971: 4394:. Oxford University Press. p. 114. 3761: 3698: 3107:deflected magnetically to produce thrust 2904: 2569:Decelerates antiprotons received from AD 2565:Extra Low Energy Antiproton ring (ELENA) 2217: 52: 6872: 6295: 6254: 5482:Regents of the University of California 5208: 5092: 4912: 4863: 4672: 4444: 3956: 3632: 3622:from the original on 12 September 2006. 3529:(associated to all known interactions). 3340: 3267:from the original on 26 September 2011. 3261:"Smidgen of Antimatter Surrounds Earth" 3194: – Theory of gravity on antimatter 3192:Gravitational interaction of antimatter 2977:of the particles would be converted to 2695:of their component particles produce a 2394:, for which they were awarded the 1959 2050:), by a group led by Marco Giammarchi. 1830: 14: 8458: 7217:science article, updated Sept. 2, 2024 7154: 6776:from the original on 22 December 2014. 6609: 6191: 5868: 5304:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 5074:from the original on 23 September 2014 4475: 4263: 4204: 4123: 3765:Cosmology: The Science of the Universe 2235:Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory 1510:The term antimatter was first used by 7741: 7224: 6110: 5378: 5376: 5038:from the original on 29 November 2019 4961:from the original on 17 October 2014. 4416:"Searching for Primordial Antimatter" 4389: 4266:"The Mystery of the Matter Asymmetry" 4161: 3855: 3804: 3669: 3633:Pearson, K. (1891). "Ether Squirts". 3540: 3394:Tenenbaum, David (28 December 2012). 2848:, using a highly focused laser beam. 2804:can be contained by a combination of 2500: 2468:Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory 2053: 2001:as normal-matter galaxies, and their 1482: 1284:(or "partners") of the corresponding 8438: 6740:"Antimatter Questions & Answers" 5280:from the original on 1 November 2019 4750:"What's the Matter with Antimatter?" 4717: 4591:from the original on 12 January 2011 4457:from the original on 26 October 2017 4288:from the original on 12 October 2008 4054:Introduction to Elementary Particles 3807:"The Quantum Theory of the Electron" 3786:from the original on 10 October 2021 3743:from the original on 10 October 2021 3701:"Potential Matter – A Holiday Dream" 3557:from the original on 10 October 2019 3486: 3416: 3400:University of Wisconsin–Madison News 3241:from the original on 8 November 2018 3101:) into high-energy photons, but the 3005:that can be liberated, today, using 2892:, ideally at a lower cost per gram. 2832:) of the trapped particles. At high 7144:CERN Webcasts (RealPlayer required) 7000:from the original on 24 April 2013. 6916: 6317:Arsenescu, R.; et al. (2003). 5689:Gabrielse, G.; et al. (2002). 5145:from the original on 19 April 2017. 4892:10.1016/j.astropartphys.2011.08.007 3608:"An Interview with Jack Williamson" 3495:(1): 1250005-1–1250005-23. 2201:in June 1998. By not detecting any 2076:. In January 2011, research by the 1945:annihilate with nearby matter. The 1569:Feynman–Stueckelberg interpretation 1514:in two rather whimsical letters to 24: 7068: 6805:from the original on 23 July 2008. 6717:from the original on 6 August 2011 6236:from the original on 29 March 2020 6173:from the original on 23 March 2020 6092:from the original on 23 March 2020 6017:. 17 November 2010. Archived from 5731:from the original on 23 March 2020 5670:from the original on 23 March 2020 5618:Amoretti, M.; et al. (2002). 5599:from the original on 25 March 2020 5466:from the original on 23 July 2010. 5373: 4853:from the original on 7 March 2016. 4835:from the original on 4 April 2016. 4426:from the original on 16 March 2010 3928:Kaku, M.; Thompson, J. T. (1997). 3896: 3812:Proceedings of the Royal Society A 3459:being algebraic numbers. Positive 2544:Decelerated and stored antiprotons 2382:University of California, Berkeley 2185:, was flown into space aboard the 1420:asymmetry of matter and antimatter 1414:There is strong evidence that the 490: 25: 8487: 7117: 7060:from the original on 9 June 2012. 7048:Davidson, Keay (4 October 2004). 6705:Steigerwald, B. (14 March 2006). 6683:from the original on 12 June 2010 6255:Jackson, Gerald (December 2022). 5306:. 3 November 2008. Archived from 5093:Aguilar, M.; et al. (2013). 4318:from the original on 18 June 2008 3762:Harrison, E. R. (16 March 2000). 3587:from the original on 28 July 2019 2882:NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts 2549:Antimatter Factory (2000–present) 2485:reported production of nuclei of 2347:{\displaystyle 1.5\times 10^{13}} 412: 61:photograph of the first observed 8437: 8426: 8425: 7833: 7303: 6961:NASA Technical Memorandum 107030 5488:from the original on 9 July 2010 5342:from the original on 22 May 2009 4654:from the original on 14 May 2015 3517:or/and negative leptonic number 3161: 2966:than a conventional spacecraft. 2641:or 0.1% of the original amount. 1864: 1845: 1446:do. Protons and neutrons have a 79: 7767: 7077:Antimatter: The Ultimate Mirror 7041: 7004: 6986: 6945: 6910: 6889: 6866: 6809: 6780: 6762: 6732: 6698: 6603: 6561: 6539: 6492: 6480:from the original on 1 May 2021 6453: 6441:from the original on 1 May 2021 6422: 6361: 6310: 6289: 6248: 6185: 6111:Amole, C.; et al. (2012). 6104: 6033: 6003: 5950: 5913: 5862: 5825: 5780: 5743: 5682: 5611: 5578: 5543: 5500: 5470: 5452: 5354: 5322: 5292: 5253: 5202: 5149: 5050: 4965: 4906: 4857: 4839: 4772: 4742: 4711: 4666: 4603: 4577: 4520: 4445:Adamson, A. (19 October 2017). 4408: 4383: 4330: 4300: 4257: 4198: 4167: 4138: 4117: 4074: 4042: 3987: 3950: 3921: 3849: 3798: 3755: 3692: 3663: 3636:American Journal of Mathematics 3626: 3599: 2794: 2719:of antihydrogen (approximately 2302:{\displaystyle 3\times 10^{11}} 2202: 2174: 2042:(L-NESS) of Rafael Ferragut in 1999:absorption and emission spectra 1884:Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope 1878:There are some 500 terrestrial 1560:of antimatter was envisaged by 1407: 243:Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider 8393:Galaxy formation and evolution 6532:11858/00-001M-0000-001A-152D-1 6460:Joshua Sokol (19 April 2017). 5120:10.1103/PhysRevLett.110.141102 5008:10.1103/PhysRevLett.113.121102 4943:10.1103/PhysRevLett.113.121101 3606:McCaffery, Larry (July 1991). 3569: 3480: 3410: 3387: 3334: 3271: 3253: 3223: 2495:Brookhaven National Laboratory 2354:electron-positron pairs via a 1433: 786:Atomic, molecular, and optical 451: 445: 431: 400: 394: 380: 373: 13: 1: 7692:Macroscopic quantum phenomena 7181:10.1016/S0262-4079(12)61690-X 6553:. 9 June 2011. Archived from 6282:10.1080/00295450.2021.1997057 5717:10.1103/PhysRevLett.89.213401 5460:"All Nobel Prizes in Physics" 5231:10.1016/S0370-1573(02)00013-3 4756:. 29 May 2000. Archived from 4610:Castelvecchi, Davide (2015). 4144:This is a consequence of the 4028:10.1088/1367-2630/14/9/095012 3373:10.1088/1367-2630/14/9/095012 3216: 2812:fields, in a device called a 2731: 2489:at the Proton Synchrotron at 2078:American Astronomical Society 1800: 1296:collisions and some types of 7815:Self-interacting dark matter 7702:Order and disorder (physics) 7196:What is direct CP-violation? 6927:National Physical Laboratory 6787:Bickford, J. (August 2007). 6040:ALPHA Collaboration (2011). 4718:Than, Ker (10 August 2011). 3581:Science Fiction Encyclopedia 2915:positron emission tomography 2606:In 1999, CERN activated the 2222: 1913:(or any other matter in the 1473:, as used in such novels as 1424:unsolved problems in physics 1319:positron emission tomography 268:Positron emission tomography 7: 7973:Navarro–Frenk–White profile 7963:Massive compact halo object 7958:Mass dimension one fermions 5944:10.1103/PhysRevLett.51.1983 5811:10.1103/PhysRevLett.63.1360 5572:10.1103/PhysRevLett.14.1003 5260:Joshua Sokol (April 2017). 4724:National Geographic Society 4705:10.1088/2041-8205/737/2/L29 3188: – Hypothetical object 3154: 2789:International Space Station 2785:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 2555:Antiproton Decelerator (AD) 2270:High-Radiation to Materials 2155:International Space Station 2147:Alpha Magnetic Spectrometer 1582: 1571:states that antimatter and 1344:, and other differences in 46:Antimatter (disambiguation) 10: 8492: 7081:Cambridge University Press 6639:10.1038/d41586-018-02221-9 5774:10.1103/PhysRevLett.35.577 5420:10.1038/s41467-024-49346-2 4095:10.1038/d41586-023-03043-0 3904:"Discovering the positron" 3770:Cambridge University Press 3676:Princeton University Press 3541:Dirac, Paul A. M. (1965). 3135: 3131: 2900: 2880:Several studies funded by 2675:through comparison of the 2593:Low Energy Antiproton Ring 2519:Low Energy Antiproton Ring 2504: 2369: 2226: 2126: 2123:Observation in cosmic rays 2108:for this asymmetry is the 2057: 1834: 1532:. Dirac realised that his 1325:, and industrial imaging. 43: 36: 29: 8421: 8370: 8336: 8311: 8223: 7995: 7986: 7903: 7842: 7831: 7775: 7654: 7608: 7480: 7394: 7368: 7312: 7301: 7263: 7075:G. Fraser (18 May 2000). 6523:10.1142/S2010194514602646 6429:Leah Crane (1 May 2021). 6354:10.1088/1367-2630/5/1/301 5158:The Astrophysical Journal 4675:The Astrophysical Journal 4184:10.1038/nature.2016.21193 3973:10.1007/s10698-008-9062-5 3509:10.1142/S021830131250005X 3439:10.1142/S0218301313500274 3212:– Antimatter hypernucleus 2563: 2553: 2548: 2538: 2525: 2517: 2170:one-sixth of the energy. 1538:Schrödinger wave equation 1394:(the antiparticle of the 272: 205:Gravitational interaction 7978:Scalar field dark matter 7820:Scalar field dark matter 7727:Thermo-dielectric effect 7626:Enthalpy of vaporization 7320:Bose–Einstein condensate 6952:Borowski, S. K. (1987). 6596:10.1088/1367-2630/aa7e73 4587:. BBC. 11 January 2011. 3960:Foundations of Chemistry 3805:Dirac, P. A. M. (1928). 3126:0.22 + (2/3)⋅0.78 = 0.74 3048:of matter would produce 3013:per fission reaction or 3003:nuclear potential energy 2780:) from such collisions. 2685:hydrogen spectral series 2311:Super Proton Synchrotron 2110:violation of CP symmetry 2088:around the Earth by the 1957:of energy (that is, the 1493:vortex theory of gravity 543:Einstein field equations 30:Not to be confused with 8476:Fictional power sources 7621:Enthalpy of sublimation 6845:10.1023/A:1012653416870 6798:and Draper Laboratory. 6474:10.1126/science.aal1067 5923:Physical Review Letters 5790:Physical Review Letters 5753:Physical Review Letters 5696:Physical Review Letters 5552:Physical Review Letters 5274:10.1126/science.aal1067 5099:Physical Review Letters 4978:Physical Review Letters 4922:Physical Review Letters 3934:Oxford University Press 3612:Science Fiction Studies 3065:mass–energy equivalence 2937: 2895: 2859: 2559:Decelerates antiprotons 2321:. This yielded a total 1373:mass–energy equivalence 846:Theories of gravitation 761:Electroweak interaction 7843:Hypothetical particles 7825:Primordial black holes 7636:Latent internal energy 7386:Color-glass condensate 7211:"Mining for Neutrinos" 7155:Taylor, Allen (2012). 6825:Hyperfine Interactions 6746:. 2001. Archived from 6575:New Journal of Physics 6332:New Journal of Physics 6221:10.1098/rsta.2010.0026 5898:10.1098/rsta.2010.0026 4553:10.1126/sciadv.aav7610 4156:As Dirac said in 1933 3997:New Journal of Physics 3882:10.1098/rspa.1931.0130 3834:10.1098/rspa.1928.0023 3544:Physics Nobel Lectures 3177:Alfvén–Klein cosmology 2964:thrust-to-weight ratio 2910: 2683:and antihydrogen (see 2608:Antiproton Decelerator 2527:Antiproton Accumulator 2396:Nobel Prize in Physics 2348: 2303: 1468: 1462: 531: 461: 238:Antiproton decelerator 174:Concepts and phenomena 66: 7928:Dark globular cluster 7446:Magnetically ordered 5390:Nature Communications 4972:Schirber, M. (2014). 4866:Astroparticle Physics 4390:Close, F. E. (2009). 4312:European Space Agency 4058:John Wiley & Sons 3772:. pp. 266, 433. 3699:Schuster, A. (1898). 2973:emission, the entire 2908: 2867:particle accelerators 2736:Antihelium-3 nuclei ( 2623:Penning–Malmberg trap 2512:Antimatter facilities 2349: 2304: 2218:Artificial production 1976:European Space Agency 1587:One way to denote an 1546:J. Robert Oppenheimer 1302:particle accelerators 724:Philosophy of physics 532: 462: 132:Antiprotonic hydrogen 56: 8471:Quantum field theory 7948:Dwarf galaxy problem 7870:Minicharged particle 7785:Baryonic dark matter 7325:Fermionic condensate 6994:"Antimatter weapons" 6557:on 17 February 2014. 6547:"Antimatter of Fact" 5338:. 19 November 2008. 3936:. pp. 179–180. 3908:timeline.web.cern.ch 3856:Dirac, Paul (1931). 3447:and leptonic number 3406:on 28 December 2012. 3083:thermonuclear weapon 3063:) of energy (by the 2983:energy per unit mass 2838:magneto-optical trap 2540:Antiproton Collector 2325: 2280: 2266:University of Oxford 2237:in large numbers. A 2106:necessary conditions 2003:astronomical objects 1974:Observations by the 1941:produced every time 1831:Origin and asymmetry 1534:relativistic version 856:Theory of everything 734:Quantum field theory 471: 364: 233:Particle accelerator 44:For other uses, see 39:Antinuclear antibody 7540:Chemical ionization 7432:Programmable matter 7422:Quantum spin liquid 7290:Supercritical fluid 7191:Angels & Demons 7173:2012NewSc.214R..31T 7157:"Angels and Demons" 7149:What is Antimatter? 7035:2005physics...7114G 7019:. pp. 66–169. 6883:10.2514/6.1999-2691 6837:1997HyInt.109..155L 6630:2018Natur.554..412G 6610:Gibney, E. (2018). 6587:2017NJPh...19h3023S 6515:2014IJMPS..3060264B 6400:10.1038/nature10079 6392:2011Natur.473..353S 6345:2003NJPh....5....1A 6273:2022NucTe.208S.107J 6212:2010RSPTA.368.3671M 6192:Madsen, N. (2010). 6140:10.1038/nature10942 6132:2012Natur.483..439A 6070:2011NatPh...7..558A 5981:10.1038/nature09610 5973:2010Natur.468..673A 5936:1983PhRvL..51.1983T 5889:2010RSPTA.368.3671M 5869:Madsen, N. (2010). 5848:2004PhPl...11.2333S 5803:1989PhRvL..63.1360G 5766:1975PhRvL..35..577M 5709:2002PhRvL..89u3401G 5647:10.1038/nature01096 5638:2002Natur.419..456A 5564:1965PhRvL..14.1003D 5521:1965NCimS..39...10M 5412:2024NatCo..15.5029A 5223:2002PhR...366..331A 5180:2002ApJ...565..280M 5111:2013PhRvL.110n1102A 5000:2014PhRvL.113l1102A 4934:2014PhRvL.113l1101A 4884:2012APh....39....2S 4800:1998Natur.395..457W 4697:2011ApJ...737L..29A 4630:2015Natur.521..135C 4617:Scientific American 4545:2019SciA....5.7610S 4505:10.1038/nature24048 4496:2017Natur.550..371S 4422:. 30 October 2008. 4361:10.1038/nature06490 4353:2008Natur.451..159W 4264:Sather, E. (1999). 4232:10.1038/nature21040 4223:2017Natur.541..506A 4020:2012NJPh...14i5012C 3874:1931RSPSA.133...60D 3825:1928RSPSA.117..610D 3719:1898Natur..58..367S 3501:2012IJMPE..2150005T 3431:2013IJMPE..2250027T 3365:2012NJPh...14i5012C 3312:10.1038/nature10079 3304:2011Natur.473..353S 3204:Positronium hydride 3044:of antimatter with 3037:). The reaction of 3035:proton–proton chain 2995:orders of magnitude 2952:interstellar travel 2917:(PET). In positive 2669:ALPHA Collaboration 2587:concept during the 2514: 2477:In addition to anti 2272:(HRMT) facility at 2040:Positron Laboratory 1935:interstellar medium 1416:observable universe 806:Non-linear dynamics 744:Quantum computation 739:Quantum information 613:Satyendra Nath Bose 296:Carl David Anderson 137:Antiprotonic helium 7953:Halo mass function 7913:Cuspy halo problem 7687:Leidenfrost effect 7616:Enthalpy of fusion 7381:Quark–gluon plasma 7167:(2871). CERN: 31. 6862:on 22 August 2011. 6261:Nuclear Technology 6021:on 23 January 2011 5835:Physics of Plasmas 5529:10.1007/BF02814251 5310:on 6 December 2015 4730:on 10 October 2011 4314:. 9 January 2008. 3670:Kragh, H. (2002). 3263:. 11 August 2011. 2911: 2511: 2501:Antihydrogen atoms 2344: 2309:protons, from the 2299: 2054:Natural production 1980:INTEGRAL satellite 1911:Earth's atmosphere 1552:in 1932 and named 1483:Conceptual history 1369:ionizing radiation 831:General relativity 826:Special relativity 766:Strong interaction 527: 457: 67: 8453: 8452: 8398:Illustris project 8332: 8331: 7805:Mixed dark matter 7800:Light dark matter 7735: 7734: 7717:Superheated vapor 7712:Superconductivity 7682:Equation of state 7530:Flash evaporation 7482:Phase transitions 7467:String-net liquid 7360:Photonic molecule 7330:Degenerate matter 7187:on 27 March 2014. 7090:978-0-521-65252-0 6895:(compared to the 6679:. 12 April 1999. 6624:(7693): 412–413. 6376:(7347): 353–356. 6206:(1924): 3671–82. 6126:(7390): 439–443. 6078:10.1038/nphys2025 5967:(7324): 673–676. 5930:(21): 1983–1986. 5883:(1924): 3671–82. 5856:10.1063/1.1651487 5797:(13): 1360–1363. 5632:(6906): 456–459. 5558:(24): 1003–1006. 5302:(Press release). 4490:(7676): 371–374. 4401:978-0-19-955016-6 4347:(7175): 159–162. 4217:(7638): 506–510. 4067:978-3-527-40601-2 3943:978-0-19-286196-2 3779:978-0-521-66148-5 3685:978-0-691-09552-3 3288:(7347): 353–356. 3235:symmetry magazine 3138:Antimatter weapon 2999:chemical energies 2960:antimatter rocket 2875:Manhattan Project 2802:charged particles 2573: 2572: 2483:Antonino Zichichi 2268:working with the 2138:may be formed in 2060:Positron emission 1931:relativistic jets 1873: 1854: 1323:radiation therapy 1298:radioactive decay 1266: 1265: 729:Quantum mechanics 603:Ernest Rutherford 583:Erwin Schrödinger 578:Werner Heisenberg 428: 376: 349: 348: 210:Positron emission 16:(Redirected from 8483: 8441: 8440: 8429: 8428: 7993: 7992: 7933:Dark matter halo 7880:Sterile neutrino 7837: 7836: 7810:Warm dark matter 7790:Cold dark matter 7762: 7755: 7748: 7739: 7738: 7672:Compressed fluid 7307: 7252:States of matter 7245: 7238: 7231: 7222: 7221: 7188: 7183:. Archived from 7113: 7112:on 6 March 2007. 7111: 7105:. Archived from 7104: 7094: 7062: 7061: 7045: 7039: 7038: 7028: 7017:World Scientific 7008: 7002: 7001: 6990: 6984: 6983: 6981: 6979: 6973: 6958: 6949: 6943: 6942: 6940: 6938: 6929:. Archived from 6914: 6908: 6906: 6904: 6893: 6887: 6886: 6870: 6864: 6863: 6861: 6855:. Archived from 6822: 6813: 6807: 6806: 6804: 6793: 6784: 6778: 6777: 6766: 6760: 6759: 6757: 6755: 6750:on 21 April 2008 6736: 6730: 6729: 6724: 6722: 6702: 6696: 6695: 6690: 6688: 6669: 6660: 6659: 6641: 6607: 6601: 6600: 6598: 6565: 6559: 6558: 6543: 6537: 6536: 6534: 6496: 6490: 6489: 6487: 6485: 6457: 6451: 6450: 6448: 6446: 6426: 6420: 6419: 6385: 6365: 6359: 6358: 6356: 6314: 6308: 6307: 6299:Yadernaya Fizika 6293: 6287: 6286: 6284: 6267:(1): S107–S112. 6252: 6246: 6245: 6243: 6241: 6223: 6189: 6183: 6182: 6180: 6178: 6172: 6117: 6108: 6102: 6101: 6099: 6097: 6063: 6037: 6031: 6030: 6028: 6026: 6007: 6001: 6000: 5954: 5948: 5947: 5917: 5911: 5910: 5900: 5866: 5860: 5859: 5829: 5823: 5822: 5784: 5778: 5777: 5747: 5741: 5740: 5738: 5736: 5686: 5680: 5679: 5677: 5675: 5649: 5615: 5609: 5608: 5606: 5604: 5598: 5591: 5582: 5576: 5575: 5547: 5541: 5540: 5509:Il Nuovo Cimento 5504: 5498: 5497: 5495: 5493: 5474: 5468: 5467: 5456: 5450: 5449: 5439: 5405: 5380: 5371: 5370: 5358: 5352: 5351: 5349: 5347: 5326: 5320: 5319: 5317: 5315: 5296: 5290: 5289: 5287: 5285: 5257: 5251: 5250: 5206: 5200: 5199: 5173: 5171:astro-ph/0106567 5153: 5147: 5146: 5132: 5122: 5090: 5084: 5083: 5081: 5079: 5073: 5062: 5054: 5048: 5047: 5045: 5043: 4993: 4969: 4963: 4962: 4960: 4945: 4919: 4910: 4904: 4903: 4877: 4861: 4855: 4854: 4843: 4837: 4836: 4834: 4819: 4785: 4776: 4770: 4769: 4767: 4765: 4746: 4740: 4739: 4737: 4735: 4726:. Archived from 4715: 4709: 4708: 4690: 4670: 4664: 4663: 4661: 4659: 4641: 4607: 4601: 4600: 4598: 4596: 4581: 4575: 4574: 4564: 4533:Science Advances 4524: 4518: 4517: 4507: 4473: 4467: 4466: 4464: 4462: 4442: 4436: 4435: 4433: 4431: 4412: 4406: 4405: 4387: 4381: 4380: 4334: 4328: 4327: 4325: 4323: 4304: 4298: 4297: 4295: 4293: 4287: 4270: 4261: 4255: 4254: 4244: 4234: 4202: 4196: 4195: 4171: 4165: 4154: 4148: 4142: 4136: 4135: 4133: 4121: 4115: 4114: 4078: 4072: 4071: 4056:(2nd ed.). 4046: 4040: 4039: 4013: 3991: 3985: 3984: 3954: 3948: 3947: 3925: 3919: 3918: 3916: 3914: 3900: 3894: 3893: 3853: 3847: 3846: 3836: 3819:(778): 610–624. 3802: 3796: 3795: 3793: 3791: 3768:(2nd ed.). 3759: 3753: 3752: 3750: 3748: 3730: 3728:10.1038/058367a0 3696: 3690: 3689: 3678:. pp. 5–6. 3667: 3661: 3660: 3630: 3624: 3623: 3603: 3597: 3596: 3594: 3592: 3573: 3567: 3566: 3564: 3562: 3556: 3549: 3538: 3532: 3531: 3484: 3478: 3477: 3414: 3408: 3407: 3402:. Archived from 3391: 3385: 3384: 3358: 3338: 3332: 3331: 3297: 3275: 3269: 3268: 3257: 3251: 3250: 3248: 3246: 3227: 3186:Antimatter comet 3182: 3171: 3166: 3165: 3127: 3085:ever detonated. 3076: 3058: 3053: 3047: 3043: 3032: 3030: 3020: 3018: 3012: 2992: 2990: 2846:optical tweezers 2779: 2778: 2777: 2771: 2768: 2767: 2755: 2754: 2753: 2747: 2744: 2743: 2726: 2724: 2655: 2640: 2638: 2637: 2634: 2631: 2620: 2616: 2589:PS210 experiment 2515: 2510: 2474:and colleagues. 2461: 2459: 2458: 2452: 2449: 2448: 2440: 2438: 2437: 2431: 2428: 2427: 2419: 2417: 2416: 2410: 2407: 2406: 2392:Owen Chamberlain 2353: 2351: 2350: 2345: 2343: 2342: 2308: 2306: 2305: 2300: 2298: 2297: 2190: 2114:weak interaction 2102:baryon asymmetry 1995:cosmic inflation 1875: 1874: 1856: 1855: 1796: 1795: 1794: 1787: 1786: 1778: 1777: 1776: 1769: 1768: 1753: 1751: 1750: 1744: 1741: 1740: 1732: 1730: 1729: 1723: 1720: 1719: 1711: 1709: 1708: 1702: 1699: 1698: 1686: 1684: 1683: 1676: 1675: 1667: 1665: 1664: 1657: 1656: 1648: 1646: 1645: 1638: 1637: 1628: 1627: 1626: 1620: 1617: 1616: 1608: 1607: 1606: 1599: 1598: 1577:Feynman diagrams 1550:Carl D. Anderson 1523:negative gravity 1386: 1385: 1336:) have the same 1280:composed of the 1258: 1251: 1244: 909:Skłodowska-Curie 791:Condensed matter 756:Weak interaction 751:Electromagnetism 608:Louis de Broglie 536: 534: 533: 528: 526: 525: 513: 505: 504: 486: 485: 466: 464: 463: 458: 444: 443: 434: 429: 427: 416: 393: 392: 383: 378: 377: 369: 351: 350: 341: 334: 327: 190:Baryon asymmetry 83: 69: 68: 65:, 2 August 1932. 21: 8491: 8490: 8486: 8485: 8484: 8482: 8481: 8480: 8456: 8455: 8454: 8449: 8417: 8413:UniverseMachine 8366: 8328: 8307: 8225: 8219: 7997: 7988: 7982: 7905: 7899: 7838: 7834: 7829: 7795:Hot dark matter 7777: 7771: 7766: 7736: 7731: 7662:Baryonic matter 7650: 7604: 7575:Saturated fluid 7515:Crystallization 7476: 7450:Antiferromagnet 7390: 7364: 7308: 7299: 7259: 7249: 7120: 7109: 7102: 7091: 7071: 7069:Further reading 7066: 7065: 7046: 7042: 7026:physics/0507114 7015:. Vol. 4. 7009: 7005: 6992: 6991: 6987: 6977: 6975: 6971: 6956: 6950: 6946: 6936: 6934: 6933:on 5 March 2010 6917:Sowerby, M. G. 6915: 6911: 6902: 6900: 6894: 6890: 6871: 6867: 6859: 6820: 6814: 6810: 6802: 6791: 6785: 6781: 6768: 6767: 6763: 6753: 6751: 6738: 6737: 6733: 6720: 6718: 6703: 6699: 6686: 6684: 6671: 6670: 6663: 6608: 6604: 6566: 6562: 6545: 6544: 6540: 6497: 6493: 6483: 6481: 6458: 6454: 6444: 6442: 6427: 6423: 6366: 6362: 6315: 6311: 6294: 6290: 6253: 6249: 6239: 6237: 6190: 6186: 6176: 6174: 6170: 6115: 6109: 6105: 6095: 6093: 6038: 6034: 6024: 6022: 6009: 6008: 6004: 5955: 5951: 5918: 5914: 5867: 5863: 5830: 5826: 5785: 5781: 5748: 5744: 5734: 5732: 5687: 5683: 5673: 5671: 5616: 5612: 5602: 5600: 5596: 5589: 5583: 5579: 5548: 5544: 5505: 5501: 5491: 5489: 5476: 5475: 5471: 5458: 5457: 5453: 5381: 5374: 5359: 5355: 5345: 5343: 5335:Cosmos Magazine 5328: 5327: 5323: 5313: 5311: 5298: 5297: 5293: 5283: 5281: 5258: 5254: 5211:Physics Reports 5207: 5203: 5154: 5150: 5091: 5087: 5077: 5075: 5071: 5060: 5056: 5055: 5051: 5041: 5039: 4970: 4966: 4958: 4917: 4911: 4907: 4868:. 39–40: 2–11. 4862: 4858: 4845: 4844: 4840: 4832: 4783: 4777: 4773: 4763: 4761: 4748: 4747: 4743: 4733: 4731: 4716: 4712: 4671: 4667: 4657: 4655: 4639:10.1038/521135a 4608: 4604: 4594: 4592: 4583: 4582: 4578: 4539:(5): eaav7610. 4525: 4521: 4474: 4470: 4460: 4458: 4443: 4439: 4429: 4427: 4414: 4413: 4409: 4402: 4388: 4384: 4335: 4331: 4321: 4319: 4306: 4305: 4301: 4291: 4289: 4285: 4268: 4262: 4258: 4203: 4199: 4172: 4168: 4155: 4151: 4143: 4139: 4122: 4118: 4089:(7981): 14–15. 4079: 4075: 4068: 4050:Griffiths, D.J. 4047: 4043: 3992: 3988: 3955: 3951: 3944: 3926: 3922: 3912: 3910: 3902: 3901: 3897: 3854: 3850: 3803: 3799: 3789: 3787: 3780: 3760: 3756: 3746: 3744: 3697: 3693: 3686: 3668: 3664: 3649:10.2307/2369570 3631: 3627: 3604: 3600: 3590: 3588: 3575: 3574: 3570: 3560: 3558: 3554: 3547: 3539: 3535: 3485: 3481: 3415: 3411: 3392: 3388: 3339: 3335: 3276: 3272: 3259: 3258: 3254: 3244: 3242: 3229: 3228: 3224: 3219: 3210:Antihypernuclei 3180: 3167: 3160: 3157: 3140: 3134: 3125: 3068: 3051: 3049: 3045: 3038: 3028: 3026: 3016: 3014: 3010: 3007:nuclear fission 2988: 2986: 2940: 2909:A PET/CT system 2903: 2898: 2862: 2797: 2776: 2774: 2773: 2772: 2769: 2766: 2764: 2763: 2762: 2761: 2752: 2750: 2749: 2748: 2745: 2742: 2740: 2739: 2738: 2737: 2734: 2722: 2720: 2711:of antimatter. 2697:magnetic moment 2650: 2635: 2632: 2629: 2628: 2626: 2618: 2611: 2513: 2509: 2503: 2457: 2455: 2454: 2453: 2450: 2447: 2445: 2444: 2443: 2441: 2436: 2434: 2433: 2432: 2429: 2426: 2424: 2423: 2422: 2420: 2415: 2413: 2412: 2411: 2408: 2405: 2403: 2402: 2401: 2399: 2378: 2370:Main articles: 2368: 2356:particle shower 2338: 2334: 2326: 2323: 2322: 2293: 2289: 2281: 2278: 2277: 2231: 2225: 2220: 2186: 2153:) on board the 2131: 2125: 2097:pair production 2086:Van Allen Belts 2062: 2056: 2029:magnetic moment 2021:BASE experiment 1988:stellar remnant 1895: 1894: 1893: 1892: 1891: 1876: 1865: 1861: 1860: 1857: 1846: 1839: 1833: 1812:magnetic bottle 1803: 1793: 1791: 1790: 1789: 1785: 1783: 1782: 1781: 1780: 1775: 1773: 1772: 1771: 1767: 1765: 1764: 1763: 1762: 1759:electric charge 1749: 1747: 1746: 1745: 1742: 1739: 1737: 1736: 1735: 1733: 1728: 1726: 1725: 1724: 1721: 1718: 1716: 1715: 1714: 1712: 1707: 1705: 1704: 1703: 1700: 1697: 1695: 1694: 1693: 1691: 1682: 1680: 1679: 1678: 1674: 1672: 1671: 1670: 1668: 1663: 1661: 1660: 1659: 1655: 1653: 1652: 1651: 1649: 1644: 1642: 1641: 1640: 1636: 1634: 1633: 1632: 1630: 1625: 1623: 1622: 1621: 1618: 1615: 1613: 1612: 1611: 1610: 1605: 1603: 1602: 1601: 1597: 1595: 1594: 1593: 1592: 1585: 1512:Arthur Schuster 1489:negative matter 1485: 1436: 1377: 1376: 1346:quantum numbers 1342:electric charge 1340:, but opposite 1262: 1233: 1232: 1229: 1228: 1227: 1217: 1209: 1208: 869: 861: 860: 851:Quantum gravity 801:Complex systems 699: 691: 690: 626: 618: 617: 563:Albert Einstein 553: 545: 518: 514: 509: 497: 493: 478: 474: 472: 469: 468: 467: 439: 435: 430: 420: 415: 388: 384: 379: 368: 367: 365: 362: 361: 345: 316: 315: 306:Andrei Sakharov 291: 283: 282: 263: 255: 254: 223: 215: 214: 175: 167: 166: 93: 49: 42: 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 8489: 8479: 8478: 8473: 8468: 8451: 8450: 8448: 8447: 8435: 8422: 8419: 8418: 8416: 8415: 8410: 8405: 8403:Imaginary mass 8400: 8395: 8390: 8385: 8380: 8374: 8372: 8368: 8367: 8365: 8364: 8359: 8354: 8352:HVC 127-41-330 8349: 8343: 8341: 8334: 8333: 8330: 8329: 8327: 8326: 8321: 8315: 8313: 8312:Other projects 8309: 8308: 8306: 8305: 8300: 8295: 8290: 8285: 8280: 8275: 8270: 8265: 8260: 8255: 8250: 8245: 8240: 8235: 8229: 8227: 8221: 8220: 8218: 8217: 8212: 8207: 8202: 8197: 8192: 8187: 8182: 8177: 8172: 8167: 8162: 8157: 8152: 8147: 8142: 8137: 8132: 8127: 8122: 8117: 8112: 8107: 8102: 8097: 8092: 8087: 8082: 8077: 8072: 8067: 8062: 8057: 8052: 8047: 8042: 8037: 8032: 8027: 8022: 8017: 8012: 8007: 8001: 7999: 7990: 7984: 7983: 7981: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7938:Dark radiation 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7909: 7907: 7901: 7900: 7898: 7897: 7892: 7887: 7882: 7877: 7872: 7867: 7862: 7857: 7852: 7846: 7844: 7840: 7839: 7832: 7830: 7828: 7827: 7822: 7817: 7812: 7807: 7802: 7797: 7792: 7787: 7781: 7779: 7773: 7772: 7765: 7764: 7757: 7750: 7742: 7733: 7732: 7730: 7729: 7724: 7719: 7714: 7709: 7704: 7699: 7694: 7689: 7684: 7679: 7674: 7669: 7664: 7658: 7656: 7652: 7651: 7649: 7648: 7643: 7641:Trouton's rule 7638: 7633: 7628: 7623: 7618: 7612: 7610: 7606: 7605: 7603: 7602: 7597: 7592: 7587: 7582: 7577: 7572: 7567: 7562: 7557: 7552: 7547: 7542: 7537: 7532: 7527: 7522: 7517: 7512: 7510:Critical point 7507: 7502: 7497: 7492: 7486: 7484: 7478: 7477: 7475: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7463: 7462: 7457: 7452: 7444: 7439: 7434: 7429: 7424: 7419: 7414: 7412:Liquid crystal 7409: 7404: 7398: 7396: 7392: 7391: 7389: 7388: 7383: 7378: 7372: 7370: 7366: 7365: 7363: 7362: 7357: 7352: 7347: 7345:Strange matter 7342: 7340:Rydberg matter 7337: 7332: 7327: 7322: 7316: 7314: 7310: 7309: 7302: 7300: 7298: 7297: 7292: 7287: 7278: 7273: 7267: 7265: 7261: 7260: 7248: 7247: 7240: 7233: 7225: 7219: 7218: 7215:New York Times 7208: 7198: 7193: 7152: 7146: 7141: 7136: 7119: 7118:External links 7116: 7115: 7114: 7095: 7089: 7070: 7067: 7064: 7063: 7040: 7003: 6985: 6974:on 28 May 2008 6944: 6909: 6907:, for example) 6888: 6865: 6808: 6779: 6761: 6731: 6697: 6661: 6602: 6560: 6538: 6491: 6452: 6421: 6360: 6309: 6288: 6247: 6184: 6103: 6054:(7): 558–564. 6047:Nature Physics 6032: 6002: 5949: 5912: 5861: 5824: 5779: 5760:(9): 577–580. 5742: 5703:(21): 213401. 5681: 5610: 5577: 5542: 5499: 5469: 5451: 5372: 5353: 5321: 5291: 5252: 5217:(6): 331–405. 5201: 5188:10.1086/324402 5164:(1): 280–296. 5148: 5105:(14): 141102. 5085: 5065:AMS-02 at NASA 5049: 4984:(12): 121102. 4964: 4928:(12): 121101. 4905: 4856: 4838: 4771: 4760:on 4 June 2008 4741: 4710: 4665: 4602: 4576: 4519: 4468: 4437: 4407: 4400: 4382: 4329: 4299: 4256: 4197: 4166: 4149: 4137: 4131:hep-ph/0211260 4116: 4073: 4066: 4060:. p. 61. 4041: 3986: 3949: 3942: 3920: 3895: 3868:(821): 60–72. 3848: 3797: 3778: 3754: 3691: 3684: 3662: 3625: 3598: 3568: 3533: 3479: 3425:(5): 1350027. 3409: 3386: 3333: 3270: 3252: 3221: 3220: 3218: 3215: 3214: 3213: 3207: 3201: 3198:Di-positronium 3195: 3189: 3183: 3173: 3172: 3169:Physics portal 3156: 3153: 3145:U.S. Air Force 3136:Main article: 3133: 3130: 3081:, the largest 2993:) is about 10 2979:kinetic energy 2954:as part of an 2948:interplanetary 2939: 2936: 2902: 2899: 2897: 2894: 2886:Van Allen belt 2861: 2858: 2796: 2793: 2775: 2765: 2751: 2741: 2733: 2730: 2703:antihydrogen. 2677:atomic spectra 2571: 2570: 2567: 2561: 2560: 2557: 2551: 2550: 2546: 2545: 2542: 2536: 2535: 2529: 2523: 2522: 2505:Main article: 2502: 2499: 2456: 2446: 2435: 2425: 2414: 2404: 2367: 2364: 2341: 2337: 2333: 2330: 2296: 2292: 2288: 2285: 2227:Main article: 2224: 2221: 2219: 2216: 2127:Main article: 2124: 2121: 2058:Main article: 2055: 2052: 1984:X-ray binaries 1965:multiplied by 1877: 1863: 1862: 1858: 1844: 1843: 1842: 1841: 1840: 1832: 1829: 1802: 1799: 1792: 1784: 1774: 1766: 1748: 1738: 1727: 1717: 1706: 1696: 1681: 1673: 1662: 1654: 1643: 1635: 1624: 1614: 1604: 1596: 1584: 1581: 1558:periodic table 1484: 1481: 1435: 1432: 1276:is defined as 1270:modern physics 1264: 1263: 1261: 1260: 1253: 1246: 1238: 1235: 1234: 1231: 1230: 1225:Modern physics 1223: 1222: 1218: 1215: 1214: 1211: 1210: 1207: 1206: 1201: 1196: 1191: 1186: 1181: 1176: 1171: 1166: 1161: 1156: 1151: 1146: 1141: 1136: 1131: 1126: 1121: 1116: 1111: 1106: 1101: 1096: 1091: 1086: 1081: 1076: 1071: 1066: 1061: 1059:P. W. Anderson 1056: 1051: 1046: 1041: 1036: 1031: 1026: 1021: 1016: 1011: 1006: 1001: 996: 991: 986: 981: 976: 971: 966: 961: 956: 951: 946: 941: 936: 931: 926: 921: 916: 911: 906: 901: 896: 891: 886: 881: 876: 870: 867: 866: 863: 862: 859: 858: 853: 848: 843: 838: 833: 828: 823: 821:Plasma physics 818: 813: 808: 803: 798: 793: 788: 783: 778: 773: 768: 763: 758: 753: 748: 747: 746: 741: 736: 726: 721: 716: 711: 706: 700: 697: 696: 693: 692: 689: 688: 683: 678: 673: 668: 663: 658: 653: 648: 643: 638: 633: 627: 624: 623: 620: 619: 616: 615: 610: 605: 600: 595: 593:Wolfgang Pauli 590: 588:Pascual Jordan 585: 580: 575: 570: 565: 560: 554: 551: 550: 547: 546: 537: 524: 521: 517: 512: 508: 503: 500: 496: 492: 489: 484: 481: 477: 456: 453: 450: 447: 442: 438: 433: 426: 423: 419: 414: 411: 408: 405: 402: 399: 396: 391: 387: 382: 375: 372: 358: 357: 355:Modern physics 347: 346: 344: 343: 336: 329: 321: 318: 317: 314: 313: 308: 303: 298: 292: 289: 288: 285: 284: 281: 280: 275: 270: 264: 261: 260: 257: 256: 253: 252: 247: 246: 245: 240: 230: 224: 221: 220: 217: 216: 213: 212: 207: 202: 197: 192: 187: 182: 176: 173: 172: 169: 168: 165: 164: 159: 154: 149: 144: 139: 134: 121: 120: 115: 110: 105: 100: 94: 89: 88: 85: 84: 76: 75: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8488: 8477: 8474: 8472: 8469: 8467: 8464: 8463: 8461: 8446: 8445: 8436: 8434: 8433: 8424: 8423: 8420: 8414: 8411: 8409: 8408:Negative mass 8406: 8404: 8401: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8388:Exotic matter 8386: 8384: 8381: 8379: 8376: 8375: 8373: 8369: 8363: 8360: 8358: 8357:Smith's Cloud 8355: 8353: 8350: 8348: 8345: 8344: 8342: 8340: 8339:dark galaxies 8335: 8325: 8322: 8320: 8317: 8316: 8314: 8310: 8304: 8301: 8299: 8296: 8294: 8291: 8289: 8286: 8284: 8281: 8279: 8276: 8274: 8271: 8269: 8266: 8264: 8261: 8259: 8256: 8254: 8251: 8249: 8246: 8244: 8241: 8239: 8236: 8234: 8231: 8230: 8228: 8222: 8216: 8213: 8211: 8208: 8206: 8203: 8201: 8198: 8196: 8193: 8191: 8188: 8186: 8183: 8181: 8178: 8176: 8173: 8171: 8168: 8166: 8163: 8161: 8158: 8156: 8153: 8151: 8148: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8136: 8133: 8131: 8128: 8126: 8123: 8121: 8118: 8116: 8113: 8111: 8108: 8106: 8103: 8101: 8098: 8096: 8093: 8091: 8088: 8086: 8083: 8081: 8078: 8076: 8073: 8071: 8068: 8066: 8063: 8061: 8058: 8056: 8053: 8051: 8048: 8046: 8043: 8041: 8038: 8036: 8033: 8031: 8028: 8026: 8023: 8021: 8018: 8016: 8013: 8011: 8008: 8006: 8003: 8002: 8000: 7994: 7991: 7985: 7979: 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7968:Mirror matter 7966: 7964: 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7910: 7908: 7902: 7896: 7893: 7891: 7888: 7886: 7883: 7881: 7878: 7876: 7873: 7871: 7868: 7866: 7863: 7861: 7858: 7856: 7853: 7851: 7848: 7847: 7845: 7841: 7826: 7823: 7821: 7818: 7816: 7813: 7811: 7808: 7806: 7803: 7801: 7798: 7796: 7793: 7791: 7788: 7786: 7783: 7782: 7780: 7774: 7770: 7763: 7758: 7756: 7751: 7749: 7744: 7743: 7740: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7720: 7718: 7715: 7713: 7710: 7708: 7705: 7703: 7700: 7698: 7697:Mpemba effect 7695: 7693: 7690: 7688: 7685: 7683: 7680: 7678: 7677:Cooling curve 7675: 7673: 7670: 7668: 7665: 7663: 7660: 7659: 7657: 7653: 7647: 7644: 7642: 7639: 7637: 7634: 7632: 7629: 7627: 7624: 7622: 7619: 7617: 7614: 7613: 7611: 7607: 7601: 7600:Vitrification 7598: 7596: 7593: 7591: 7588: 7586: 7583: 7581: 7578: 7576: 7573: 7571: 7568: 7566: 7565:Recombination 7563: 7561: 7560:Melting point 7558: 7556: 7553: 7551: 7548: 7546: 7543: 7541: 7538: 7536: 7533: 7531: 7528: 7526: 7523: 7521: 7518: 7516: 7513: 7511: 7508: 7506: 7505:Critical line 7503: 7501: 7498: 7496: 7495:Boiling point 7493: 7491: 7488: 7487: 7485: 7483: 7479: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7461: 7458: 7456: 7453: 7451: 7448: 7447: 7445: 7443: 7440: 7438: 7435: 7433: 7430: 7428: 7427:Exotic matter 7425: 7423: 7420: 7418: 7415: 7413: 7410: 7408: 7405: 7403: 7400: 7399: 7397: 7393: 7387: 7384: 7382: 7379: 7377: 7374: 7373: 7371: 7367: 7361: 7358: 7356: 7353: 7351: 7348: 7346: 7343: 7341: 7338: 7336: 7333: 7331: 7328: 7326: 7323: 7321: 7318: 7317: 7315: 7311: 7306: 7296: 7293: 7291: 7288: 7286: 7282: 7279: 7277: 7274: 7272: 7269: 7268: 7266: 7262: 7257: 7253: 7246: 7241: 7239: 7234: 7232: 7227: 7226: 7223: 7216: 7212: 7209: 7206: 7205:Exploratorium 7202: 7199: 7197: 7194: 7192: 7186: 7182: 7178: 7174: 7170: 7166: 7162: 7161:New Scientist 7158: 7153: 7150: 7147: 7145: 7142: 7140: 7137: 7135: 7131: 7130: 7125: 7122: 7121: 7108: 7101: 7096: 7092: 7086: 7082: 7078: 7073: 7072: 7059: 7055: 7051: 7044: 7036: 7032: 7027: 7022: 7018: 7014: 7007: 6999: 6995: 6989: 6970: 6966: 6962: 6955: 6948: 6932: 6928: 6924: 6920: 6913: 6898: 6892: 6884: 6880: 6876: 6869: 6858: 6854: 6850: 6846: 6842: 6838: 6834: 6830: 6826: 6819: 6812: 6801: 6797: 6790: 6783: 6775: 6771: 6765: 6749: 6745: 6741: 6735: 6728: 6716: 6712: 6708: 6701: 6694: 6682: 6678: 6674: 6668: 6666: 6657: 6653: 6649: 6645: 6640: 6635: 6631: 6627: 6623: 6619: 6618: 6613: 6606: 6597: 6592: 6588: 6584: 6581:(8): 083023. 6580: 6576: 6572: 6564: 6556: 6552: 6551:The Economist 6548: 6542: 6533: 6528: 6524: 6520: 6516: 6512: 6508: 6504: 6503: 6495: 6479: 6475: 6471: 6467: 6463: 6456: 6440: 6436: 6435:New Scientist 6432: 6425: 6417: 6413: 6409: 6405: 6401: 6397: 6393: 6389: 6384: 6379: 6375: 6371: 6364: 6355: 6350: 6346: 6342: 6338: 6334: 6333: 6328: 6326: 6322: 6313: 6305: 6301: 6300: 6292: 6283: 6278: 6274: 6270: 6266: 6262: 6258: 6251: 6235: 6231: 6227: 6222: 6217: 6213: 6209: 6205: 6201: 6200: 6195: 6188: 6169: 6165: 6161: 6157: 6153: 6149: 6145: 6141: 6137: 6133: 6129: 6125: 6121: 6114: 6107: 6091: 6087: 6083: 6079: 6075: 6071: 6067: 6062: 6057: 6053: 6049: 6048: 6043: 6036: 6020: 6016: 6012: 6006: 5998: 5994: 5990: 5986: 5982: 5978: 5974: 5970: 5966: 5962: 5961: 5953: 5945: 5941: 5937: 5933: 5929: 5925: 5924: 5916: 5908: 5904: 5899: 5894: 5890: 5886: 5882: 5878: 5877: 5872: 5865: 5857: 5853: 5849: 5845: 5841: 5837: 5836: 5828: 5820: 5816: 5812: 5808: 5804: 5800: 5796: 5792: 5791: 5783: 5775: 5771: 5767: 5763: 5759: 5755: 5754: 5746: 5730: 5726: 5722: 5718: 5714: 5710: 5706: 5702: 5698: 5697: 5692: 5685: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5648: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5631: 5627: 5626: 5621: 5614: 5595: 5588: 5581: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5561: 5557: 5553: 5546: 5538: 5534: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5503: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5473: 5465: 5461: 5455: 5447: 5443: 5438: 5433: 5429: 5425: 5421: 5417: 5413: 5409: 5404: 5399: 5395: 5391: 5387: 5379: 5377: 5368: 5364: 5357: 5341: 5337: 5336: 5331: 5325: 5309: 5305: 5301: 5295: 5279: 5275: 5271: 5267: 5263: 5256: 5248: 5244: 5240: 5236: 5232: 5228: 5224: 5220: 5216: 5212: 5205: 5197: 5193: 5189: 5185: 5181: 5177: 5172: 5167: 5163: 5159: 5152: 5144: 5140: 5136: 5131: 5126: 5121: 5116: 5112: 5108: 5104: 5100: 5096: 5089: 5070: 5066: 5059: 5053: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5025: 5021: 5017: 5013: 5009: 5005: 5001: 4997: 4992: 4987: 4983: 4979: 4975: 4968: 4957: 4953: 4949: 4944: 4939: 4935: 4931: 4927: 4923: 4916: 4909: 4901: 4897: 4893: 4889: 4885: 4881: 4876: 4871: 4867: 4860: 4852: 4848: 4842: 4831: 4827: 4823: 4818: 4813: 4809: 4808:10.1038/26675 4805: 4801: 4797: 4794:(6701): 457. 4793: 4789: 4782: 4775: 4759: 4755: 4751: 4745: 4729: 4725: 4721: 4714: 4706: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4689: 4684: 4680: 4676: 4669: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4640: 4635: 4631: 4627: 4624:(7551): 135. 4623: 4619: 4618: 4613: 4606: 4590: 4586: 4580: 4572: 4568: 4563: 4558: 4554: 4550: 4546: 4542: 4538: 4534: 4530: 4523: 4515: 4511: 4506: 4501: 4497: 4493: 4489: 4485: 4484: 4479: 4472: 4456: 4452: 4451:TechTimes.com 4448: 4441: 4425: 4421: 4417: 4411: 4403: 4397: 4393: 4386: 4378: 4374: 4370: 4366: 4362: 4358: 4354: 4350: 4346: 4342: 4341: 4333: 4317: 4313: 4309: 4303: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4275: 4267: 4260: 4252: 4248: 4243: 4238: 4233: 4228: 4224: 4220: 4216: 4212: 4208: 4201: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4181: 4177: 4170: 4164:, p. 325 4163: 4160: 4153: 4147: 4141: 4132: 4127: 4120: 4112: 4108: 4104: 4100: 4096: 4092: 4088: 4084: 4077: 4069: 4063: 4059: 4055: 4051: 4045: 4037: 4033: 4029: 4025: 4021: 4017: 4012: 4007: 4004:(9): 095012. 4003: 3999: 3998: 3990: 3982: 3978: 3974: 3970: 3966: 3962: 3961: 3953: 3945: 3939: 3935: 3931: 3924: 3909: 3905: 3899: 3891: 3887: 3883: 3879: 3875: 3871: 3867: 3863: 3859: 3852: 3844: 3840: 3835: 3830: 3826: 3822: 3818: 3814: 3813: 3808: 3801: 3785: 3781: 3775: 3771: 3767: 3766: 3758: 3742: 3738: 3734: 3729: 3724: 3720: 3716: 3713:(1503): 367. 3712: 3708: 3707: 3702: 3695: 3687: 3681: 3677: 3673: 3666: 3658: 3654: 3650: 3646: 3643:(4): 309–72. 3642: 3638: 3637: 3629: 3621: 3617: 3613: 3609: 3602: 3586: 3582: 3578: 3572: 3553: 3546: 3545: 3537: 3530: 3528: 3524: 3520: 3516: 3510: 3506: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3490: 3483: 3476: 3474: 3470: 3466: 3462: 3458: 3454: 3450: 3446: 3440: 3436: 3432: 3428: 3424: 3420: 3413: 3405: 3401: 3397: 3390: 3382: 3378: 3374: 3370: 3366: 3362: 3357: 3352: 3349:(9): 095012. 3348: 3344: 3337: 3329: 3325: 3321: 3317: 3313: 3309: 3305: 3301: 3296: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3282: 3274: 3266: 3262: 3256: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3226: 3222: 3211: 3208: 3205: 3202: 3199: 3196: 3193: 3190: 3187: 3184: 3178: 3175: 3174: 3170: 3164: 3159: 3152: 3150: 3146: 3139: 3129: 3123: 3119: 3115: 3110: 3108: 3104: 3103:charged pions 3100: 3096: 3095:neutral pions 3092: 3086: 3084: 3080: 3075: 3071: 3066: 3062: 3057: 3042: 3036: 3024: 3008: 3004: 3000: 2997:greater than 2996: 2984: 2980: 2976: 2972: 2967: 2965: 2961: 2957: 2953: 2949: 2945: 2935: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2907: 2893: 2891: 2887: 2883: 2878: 2876: 2872: 2868: 2857: 2854: 2849: 2847: 2843: 2842:magnetic trap 2839: 2835: 2831: 2827: 2823: 2819: 2815: 2811: 2807: 2803: 2792: 2790: 2786: 2781: 2759: 2758:STAR detector 2729: 2718: 2712: 2710: 2704: 2700: 2698: 2694: 2688: 2686: 2682: 2678: 2674: 2670: 2665: 2662: 2659: 2654: 2648: 2642: 2624: 2615: 2609: 2604: 2602: 2598: 2594: 2590: 2586: 2582: 2578: 2568: 2566: 2562: 2558: 2556: 2552: 2547: 2543: 2541: 2537: 2533: 2530: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2508: 2498: 2496: 2492: 2488: 2487:antideuterium 2484: 2480: 2475: 2473: 2469: 2465: 2460: 2439: 2418: 2397: 2393: 2389: 2386: 2383: 2377: 2373: 2363: 2361: 2360:Debye spheres 2357: 2339: 2335: 2331: 2328: 2320: 2316: 2312: 2294: 2290: 2286: 2283: 2275: 2271: 2267: 2262: 2259: 2256: 2252: 2248: 2244: 2240: 2236: 2230: 2215: 2212: 2208: 2204: 2200: 2196: 2195: 2189: 2188:Space Shuttle 2184: 2180: 2176: 2171: 2167: 2165: 2160: 2156: 2152: 2148: 2143: 2141: 2136: 2130: 2120: 2117: 2115: 2111: 2107: 2103: 2098: 2093: 2091: 2090:PAMELA module 2087: 2083: 2079: 2075: 2071: 2070:Antineutrinos 2067: 2061: 2051: 2049: 2045: 2041: 2036: 2034: 2030: 2026: 2022: 2017: 2015: 2014:superclusters 2012: 2008: 2004: 2000: 1996: 1991: 1989: 1985: 1981: 1977: 1972: 1970: 1969: 1964: 1960: 1956: 1952: 1948: 1944: 1940: 1936: 1932: 1928: 1924: 1920: 1919:particle jets 1916: 1912: 1908: 1904: 1899: 1889: 1885: 1881: 1838: 1828: 1826: 1822: 1816: 1813: 1809: 1798: 1760: 1756: 1752: 1731: 1710: 1689: 1685: 1666: 1647: 1590: 1580: 1578: 1574: 1573:antiparticles 1570: 1565: 1563: 1562:Charles Janet 1559: 1555: 1551: 1547: 1543: 1542:antielectrons 1539: 1535: 1531: 1526: 1524: 1519: 1518: 1513: 1508: 1506: 1502: 1498: 1497:William Hicks 1494: 1490: 1480: 1478: 1477: 1472: 1471: 1466: 1465: 1464:contraterrene 1460: 1455: 1453: 1452:lepton number 1449: 1448:baryon number 1445: 1441: 1431: 1429: 1425: 1421: 1417: 1412: 1409: 1405: 1401: 1397: 1393: 1388: 1384: 1380: 1374: 1370: 1366: 1362: 1358: 1354: 1349: 1347: 1343: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1326: 1324: 1320: 1316: 1311: 1307: 1303: 1299: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1283: 1282:antiparticles 1279: 1275: 1271: 1259: 1254: 1252: 1247: 1245: 1240: 1239: 1237: 1236: 1226: 1220: 1219: 1213: 1212: 1205: 1202: 1200: 1197: 1195: 1192: 1190: 1187: 1185: 1182: 1180: 1177: 1175: 1172: 1170: 1167: 1165: 1162: 1160: 1159:J. J. 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