2536:
649:
47:
1357:
2964:
4583:
4686:
1999:
2916:
3167:
2972:
1659:, by James Joyce, I came across the word "quark" in the phrase "Three quarks for Muster Mark". Since "quark" (meaning, for one thing, the cry of the gull) was clearly intended to rhyme with "Mark", as well as "bark" and other such words, I had to find an excuse to pronounce it as "kwork". But the book represents the dream of a publican named Humphrey Chimpden Earwicker. Words in the text are typically drawn from several sources at once, like the "
10342:
1217:
2574:
1689:
pleased by the symmetry it brought to the subnuclear world." The names "bottom" and "top", coined by Harari, were chosen because they are "logical partners for up and down quarks". Alternative names for bottom and top quarks are "beauty" and "truth" respectively, but these names have somewhat fallen out of use. While "truth" never did catch on, accelerator complexes devoted to massive production of bottom quarks are sometimes called "
1157:, each comprising two leptons and two quarks. The first generation includes up and down quarks, the second strange and charm quarks, and the third bottom and top quarks. All searches for a fourth generation of quarks and other elementary fermions have failed, and there is strong indirect evidence that no more than three generations exist. Particles in higher generations generally have greater mass and less stability, causing them to
4448:: as quarks come closer to each other, the chromodynamic binding force between them weakens. Conversely, as the distance between quarks increases, the binding force strengthens. The color field becomes stressed, much as an elastic band is stressed when stretched, and more gluons of appropriate color are spontaneously created to strengthen the field. Above a certain energy threshold, pairs of quarks and antiquarks
1225:
1669:. From time to time, phrases occur in the book that are partially determined by calls for drinks at the bar. I argued, therefore, that perhaps one of the multiple sources of the cry "Three quarks for Muster Mark" might be "Three quarts for Mister Mark", in which case the pronunciation "kwork" would not be totally unjustified. In any case, the number three fitted perfectly the way quarks occur in nature.
2911:{\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}|V_{\mathrm {ud} }|&|V_{\mathrm {us} }|&|V_{\mathrm {ub} }|\\|V_{\mathrm {cd} }|&|V_{\mathrm {cs} }|&|V_{\mathrm {cb} }|\\|V_{\mathrm {td} }|&|V_{\mathrm {ts} }|&|V_{\mathrm {tb} }|\end{bmatrix}}\approx {\begin{bmatrix}0.974&0.225&0.003\\0.225&0.973&0.041\\0.009&0.040&0.999\end{bmatrix}},}
1288:, to which they ascribed properties such as spin and electric charge. The initial reaction of the physics community to the proposal was mixed. There was particular contention about whether the quark was a physical entity or a mere abstraction used to explain concepts that were not fully understood at the time.
1828:
is the sum of the charges of the constituent quarks, all hadrons have integer charges: the combination of three quarks (baryons), three antiquarks (antibaryons), or a quark and an antiquark (mesons) always results in integer charges. For example, the hadron constituents of atomic nuclei, neutrons and
4567:
of two sea quarks produces a gluon. The result is a constant flux of gluon splits and creations colloquially known as "the sea". Sea quarks are much less stable than their valence counterparts, and they typically annihilate each other within the interior of the hadron. Despite this, sea quarks can
1688:
discovered in cosmic rays years before the quark model was proposed; these particles were deemed "strange" because they had unusually long lifetimes. Glashow, who co-proposed the charm quark with
Bjorken, is quoted as saying, "We called our construct the 'charmed quark', for we were fascinated and
4438:
emission and absorption process. When a gluon is transferred between quarks, a color change occurs in both; for example, if a red quark emits a redâantigreen gluon, it becomes green, and if a green quark absorbs a redâantigreen gluon, it becomes red. Therefore, while each quark's color constantly
3213:
surrounding the quark. These masses typically have very different values. Most of a hadron's mass comes from the gluons that bind the constituent quarks together, rather than from the quarks themselves. While gluons are inherently massless, they possess energy â more specifically,
1337:. The objects that were observed at SLAC would later be identified as up and down quarks as the other flavors were discovered. Nevertheless, "parton" remains in use as a collective term for the constituents of hadrons (quarks, antiquarks, and
3101:, and remain unchanged if the coordinate axes are rotated to a new orientation, the physics of quantum chromodynamics is independent of which directions in three-dimensional color space are identified as blue, red, and green. SU(3)
2551:
While the process of flavor transformation is the same for all quarks, each quark has a preference to transform into the quark of its own generation. The relative tendencies of all flavor transformations are described by a
4639:
The quarkâgluon plasma would be characterized by a great increase in the number of heavier quark pairs in relation to the number of up and down quark pairs. It is believed that in the period prior to 10 seconds after the
1552:. This was a strong indicator of the top quark's existence: without the top quark, the bottom quark would have been without a partner. It was not until 1995 that the top quark was finally observed, also by the
1390:
The strange quark's existence was indirectly validated by SLAC's scattering experiments: not only was it a necessary component of Gell-Mann and Zweig's three-quark model, but it provided an explanation for the
3089:) is the gauge symmetry that relates the color charge in quarks and is the defining symmetry for quantum chromodynamics. Just as the laws of physics are independent of which directions in space are designated
3058:. Similarly, the combination of three quarks, each with different color charges, or three antiquarks, each with different anticolor charges, will result in the same "white" color charge and the formation of a
1654:
In 1963, when I assigned the name "quark" to the fundamental constituents of the nucleon, I had the sound first, without the spelling, which could have been "kwork". Then, in one of my occasional perusals of
1276:, among other particles. Gell-Mann and Zweig posited that they were not elementary particles, but were instead composed of combinations of quarks and antiquarks. Their model involved three flavors of quarks,
10550:
1188:
of contemporary physics: electromagnetism, gravitation, strong interaction, and weak interaction. Gravitation is too weak to be relevant to individual particle interactions except at extremes of energy
3266:
In QCD, quarks are considered to be point-like entities, with zero size. As of 2014, experimental evidence indicates they are no bigger than 10 times the size of a proton, i.e. less than 10 metres.
4609:
The exact conditions needed to give rise to this state are unknown and have been the subject of a great deal of speculation and experimentation. An estimate puts the needed temperature at
6250:
2021:, any up-type quark (up, charm, and top quarks) can change into any down-type quark (down, strange, and bottom quarks) and vice versa. This flavor transformation mechanism causes the
4594:
Under sufficiently extreme conditions, quarks may become "deconfined" out of bound states and propagate as thermalized "free" excitations in the larger medium. In the course of
1829:
protons, have charges of 0 e and +1 e respectively; the neutron is composed of two down quarks and one up quark, and the proton of two up quarks and one down quark.
71:
of individual quarks is arbitrary, but all three colors must be present; red, blue and green are used as an analogy to the primary colors that together produce a white color.
9164:
3154:â that is, that its transformations be allowed to vary with space and time â determines the properties of the strong interaction. In particular, it implies the existence of
4462:
occurs before quarks formed in a high energy collision are able to interact in any other way. The only exception is the top quark, which may decay before it hadronizes.
8632:
S. B. RĂźester; V. Werth; M. Buballa; I. A. Shovkovy; D. H. Rischke (2005). "The Phase
Diagram of Neutral Quark Natter: Self-consistent Treatment of Quark Masses".
4430:. Each gluon carries one color charge and one anticolor charge. In the standard framework of particle interactions (part of a more general formulation known as
1165:. Only first-generation (up and down) quarks occur commonly in nature. Heavier quarks can only be created in high-energy collisions (such as in those involving
5036:
9054:
4849:
The actual probability of decay of one quark to another is a complicated function of (among other variables) the decaying quark's mass, the masses of the
579:: the transformation from a higher mass state to a lower mass state. Because of this, up and down quarks are generally stable and the most common in the
1329:
and was therefore not an elementary particle. Physicists were reluctant to firmly identify these objects with quarks at the time, instead calling them "
2942:
1261:
had independently developed a scheme similar to the
Eightfold Way in the same year. An early attempt at constituent organization was available in the
9194:
8547:
9082:
6258:
4598:, the strong interaction becomes weaker at increasing temperatures. Eventually, color confinement would be effectively lost in an extremely hot
3038:
with an antiquark carrying the corresponding anticolor. The result of two attracting quarks will be color neutrality: a quark with color charge
10265:
9138:
622:
in 1964. Quarks were introduced as parts of an ordering scheme for hadrons, and there was little evidence for their physical existence until
7827:
B. C. Chauhan; M. Picariello; J. Pulido; E. Torrente-Lujan (2007). "QuarkâLepton
Complementarity, Neutrino and Standard Model Data Predict
8331:
5859:
2945:(PMNS matrix). Together, the CKM and PMNS matrices describe all flavor transformations, but the links between the two are not yet clear.
7700:
4853:, and the corresponding element of the CKM matrix. This probability is directly proportional (but not equal) to the magnitude squared (|
2941:
There exists an equivalent weak interaction matrix for leptons (right side of the W boson on the above beta decay diagram), called the
1844:
2975:
The pattern of strong charges for the three colors of quark, three antiquarks, and eight gluons (with two of zero charge overlapping).
10015:
5507:
1616:. Especially in the German-speaking parts of the world there is a widespread legend, however, that Joyce had taken it from the word
10454:
10253:
8857:
7503:
7469:
2557:
1680:
The quark flavors were given their names for several reasons. The up and down quarks are named after the up and down components of
1677:
for the particle he had theorized, but Gell-Mann's terminology came to prominence once the quark model had been commonly accepted.
1634:, but is also a colloquial term for "trivial nonsense". In the legend it is said that he had heard it on a journey to Germany at a
8956:
A. Ali; G. Kramer (2011). "JETS and QCD: A Historical Review of the
Discovery of the Quark and Gluon Jets and Its Impact on QCD".
10601:
8836:
U. Heinz; M. Jacob (2000). "Evidence for a New State of Matter: An
Assessment of the Results from the CERN Lead Beam Programme".
4431:
1525:
In the following years a number of suggestions appeared for extending the quark model to six quarks. Of these, the 1975 paper by
1184:
Having electric charge, mass, color charge, and flavor, quarks are the only known elementary particles that engage in all four
10378:
9212:
9184:
9154:
9128:
9102:
9072:
9044:
8937:
8900:
8616:
8587:
8518:
8489:
8452:
8423:
8386:
8349:
8290:
8261:
8224:
8125:
8068:
8031:
7994:
7957:
7684:
7647:
7596:
7549:
7513:
7479:
7442:
7405:
7370:
7330:
7293:
7264:
7127:
7096:
7067:
7015:
6950:
6750:
6670:
6543:
6469:
6440:
6403:
6196:
6167:
6107:
6057:
5933:
5896:
5328:
5286:
5254:
5225:
5188:
3215:
965:, with a valence quark and an antiquark. The most common baryons are the proton and the neutron, the building blocks of the
3258:, almost the mass of a gold atom, might reveal more about the origin of the mass of quarks and other elementary particles.
977:), most of them differentiated by their quark content and the properties these constituent quarks confer. The existence of
627:
215:
6966:
10574:
9295:
8085:
3016:
The system of attraction and repulsion between quarks charged with different combinations of the three colors is called
7708:
6072:
6044:
M. Gell-Mann (2000) . "The
Eightfold Way: A Theory of Strong Interaction Symmetry". In M. Gell-Mann, Y. Ne'eman (ed.).
1572:
For some time, Gell-Mann was undecided on an actual spelling for the term he intended to coin, until he found the word
1322:
1244:
in 1964. The proposal came shortly after Gell-Mann's 1961 formulation of a particle classification system known as the
476:
7197:
2543:
of the weak interactions between the six quarks. The "intensities" of the lines are determined by the elements of the
2013:
A quark of one flavor can transform into a quark of another flavor only through the weak interaction, one of the four
1169:), and decay quickly; however, they are thought to have been present during the first fractions of a second after the
630:
in 1968. Accelerator program experiments have provided evidence for all six flavors. The top quark, first observed at
10151:
6686:
S. W. Herb; et al. (1977). "Observation of a Dimuon
Resonance at 9.5 GeV in 400-GeV ProtonâNucleus Collisions".
8090:
6324:
S. Kretzer; H. L. Lai; F. I. Olness; W. K. Tung (2004). "CTEQ6 Parton
Distributions with Heavy Quark Mass Effects".
10558:
10522:
10232:
9243:
8575:
8282:
6461:
5246:
4735:
4563:). Sea quarks form when a gluon of the hadron's color field splits; this process also works in reverse in that the
2009:
with time flowing upwards. The CKM matrix (discussed below) encodes the probability of this and other quark decays.
9263:
6094:
Y. Ne'eman (2000) . "Derivation of Strong
Interactions from Gauge Invariance". In M. Gell-Mann, Y. Ne'eman (ed.).
4815:
CP violation is a phenomenon that causes weak interactions to behave differently when left and right are swapped (
4685:
9248:
9233:
9120:
7790:
6565:
4651:
Given sufficiently high baryon densities and relatively low temperatures â possibly comparable to those found in
4629:
1851:"), though this notion is somewhat misguided at subatomic scales because elementary particles are believed to be
1451:
1792: e. Antiquarks have the opposite charge to their corresponding quarks; up-type antiquarks have charges of â
9204:
8861:
8789:
7945:
7171:
6970:
1482:
1383:
9238:
4648:), the universe was filled with quarkâgluon plasma, as the temperature was too high for hadrons to be stable.
1684:, which they carry. Strange quarks were given their name because they were discovered to be components of the
10670:
8687:
M. G. Alford; K. Rajagopal; T. Schaefer; A. Schmitt (2008). "Color Superconductivity in Dense Quark Matter".
7059:
4668:
4452:. These pairs bind with the quarks being separated, causing new hadrons to form. This phenomenon is known as
1553:
1474:
1154:
658:
101:
7566:
10447:
10248:
4799:. This would be highly contrasting with the other three generations' neutrinos, whose masses cannot exceed
2525:
1459:
1307:(the mechanism that allows quarks to decay), equalized the number of known quarks with the number of known
1150:), was conjectured from the beginnings of the quark model but not discovered until the early 21st century.
1493:
with charm antiquarks in mesons. The two parties had assigned the discovered meson two different symbols,
10504:
10415:
9028:
8958:
8306:
6188:
4624:. While a state of entirely free quarks and gluons has never been achieved (despite numerous attempts by
922:. The resulting attraction between different quarks causes the formation of composite particles known as
895:
124:
5120:
M. Breidenbach; et al. (1969). "Observed Behavior of Highly Inelastic ElectronâProton Scattering".
3327:â˛)) are assigned to certain quark flavors, and denote qualities of quark-based systems and hadrons. The
9228:
9064:
8337:
8117:
8019:
7588:
7358:
7223:
6942:
6662:
5278:
5213:
4442:
Since gluons carry color charge, they themselves are able to emit and absorb other gluons. This causes
3275:
3219:
675:
543:
4896:
10371:
10324:
8689:
7852:
6119:
5028:
4919:
3105:
color transformations correspond to "rotations" in color space (which, mathematically speaking, is a
1665:
1330:
1318:
1198:
899:
623:
603:, that differs from the quark only in that some of its properties (such as the electric charge) have
17:
9268:
9253:
4952:
9736:
9020:
8579:
8341:
7916:
7322:
7285:
6738:
4998:
4962:
4929:
4705:
3240:
472:. For this reason, much of what is known about quarks has been drawn from observations of hadrons.
8253:
8060:
7906:
7362:
6535:
6395:
4988:
10675:
10624:
10440:
10292:
9927:
9554:
9288:
8744:
6876:
6809:
6688:
6485:
S. L. Glashow; J. Iliopoulos; L. Maiani (1970). "Weak Interactions with LeptonâHadron Symmetry".
6289:
5921:
5623:
5543:
5446:
5316:
5122:
5080:
4715:
4676:
4383:
3281:
2014:
1863:
1246:
1185:
507:
346:
111:
8481:
7676:
7434:
6432:
10642:
10432:
10227:
9564:
8378:
8023:
5217:
4603:
4416:
4341:
4305:
3383:
3296:
3031:
2980:
1847:. It is sometimes visualized as the rotation of an object around its own axis (hence the name "
1713:
469:
31:
8929:
8415:
7949:
7939:
7397:
7387:
6742:
6732:
5320:
575:
of all quarks. The heavier quarks rapidly change into up and down quarks through a process of
10314:
7739:
7712:
7113:
7007:
6997:
5925:
3139:
3030:; this is discussed at length below. The theory that describes strong interactions is called
2088:
1631:
1350:
8917:
8567:
8539:
8403:
8241:
8048:
7350:
7310:
6523:
6383:
5913:
5308:
5205:
460:, quarks are never found in isolation; they can be found only within hadrons, which include
10566:
10364:
8977:
8808:
8763:
8708:
8653:
8175:
7871:
7799:
7756:
7747:
6895:
6828:
6697:
6626:
6574:
6531:
6496:
6391:
6345:
6298:
6223:
6128:
6068:
5963:
5832:
5766:
5700:
5642:
5562:
5465:
5376:
5357:
5131:
5089:
4837:
3218:(QCBE) â and it is this that contributes so greatly to the overall mass of the hadron (see
3210:
3106:
2553:
1361:
1178:
592:
5993:
5515:
3351:
for all quarks, as baryons are made of three quarks. For antiquarks, the electric charge (
1560:
teams at Fermilab. It had a mass much larger than expected, almost as large as that of a
1177:). Studies of heavier quarks are conducted in artificially created conditions, such as in
8:
10420:
10329:
9312:
9176:
9089:
The Theory of Almost Everything: The Standard Model, the Unsung Triumph of Modern Physics
8865:
8568:
8535:
8242:
8147:
8049:
7769:
7735:
7393:
7351:
7311:
6524:
6384:
6281:
6159:
5745:
5679:
5345:
4891:
1843:
Spin is an intrinsic property of elementary particles, and its direction is an important
1325:(SLAC) and published on October 20, 1969, showed that the proton contained much smaller,
671:
648:
584:
423:
89:
82:
8981:
8821:
8812:
8784:
8768:
8712:
8657:
8188:
8179:
8151:
7875:
7803:
7760:
7031:
6899:
6871:
6832:
6701:
6630:
6578:
6500:
6349:
6302:
6227:
6132:
5967:
5836:
5815:
5770:
5704:
5646:
5566:
5469:
5380:
5135:
5093:
4675:. Because quark Cooper pairs harbor color charge, such a phase of quark matter would be
4590:
of quark matter. The precise details of the diagram are the subject of ongoing research.
3251:. It is hoped that further research into the reasons for the top quark's large mass of ~
30:
This article is about the elementary particle and its antiparticle. For other uses, see
10490:
10411:
10272:
9281:
9087:
8993:
8967:
8837:
8798:
8753:
8724:
8698:
8669:
8643:
8470:
8367:
8165:
7986:
7979:
7887:
7861:
7665:
7423:
7318:
7256:
7119:
6919:
6885:
6852:
6818:
6428:
6421:
6361:
6335:
6254:
5792:
5726:
5632:
5586:
5552:
5489:
5455:
5366:
5180:
5155:
4595:
4444:
4420:
3171:
3017:
2958:
2540:
2520:
1635:
1613:
1522:. The discovery finally convinced the physics community of the quark model's validity.
919:
523:
431:
116:
8012:
7143:
5975:
1646:. Gell-Mann went into further detail regarding the name of the quark in his 1994 book
10484:
10341:
10309:
10222:
9701:
9446:
9373:
9208:
9198:
9180:
9169:
9150:
9124:
9098:
9068:
9058:
9040:
8933:
8918:
8896:
8634:
8612:
8583:
8514:
8485:
8448:
8419:
8404:
8382:
8345:
8286:
8257:
8220:
8193:
8156:
8121:
8064:
8027:
7990:
7953:
7891:
7883:
7680:
7643:
7592:
7545:
7509:
7475:
7438:
7401:
7366:
7326:
7289:
7260:
7123:
7092:
7063:
7011:
6946:
6911:
6856:
6844:
6767:
6746:
6713:
6666:
6638:
6617:
6539:
6487:
6465:
6436:
6399:
6365:
6326:
6235:
6192:
6163:
6140:
6103:
6053:
5929:
5914:
5892:
5844:
5823:
5796:
5757:
5730:
5691:
5660:
5578:
5493:
5481:
5389:
5324:
5309:
5282:
5272:
5250:
5221:
5206:
5184:
5147:
4872:
Despite its name, color charge is not related to the color spectrum of visible light.
4454:
4406:
4389:
3430:
3201:
2529:
2022:
1870:
1749:
1486:
1463:
1346:
1342:
535:
479:
456:
306:
284:
8997:
8785:"Critical Point of QCD at Finite T and Îź, Lattice Results for Physical Quark Masses"
8728:
8673:
7826:
6923:
3243:). The Standard Model posits that elementary particles derive their masses from the
1473:
Charm quarks were produced almost simultaneously by two teams in November 1974 (see
910:(particles with integer spin), of which any number can be in the same state. Unlike
10634:
10319:
10090:
9865:
9726:
9711:
9393:
9304:
9112:
8985:
8925:
8816:
8716:
8661:
8608:
8477:
8444:
8411:
8374:
8216:
8183:
8056:
7879:
7807:
7764:
7672:
7430:
6903:
6836:
6705:
6634:
6592:
6582:
6504:
6353:
6306:
6231:
6136:
6076:
6026:
5971:
5840:
5811:
5782:
5778:
5774:
5716:
5712:
5708:
5655:
5650:
5609:
5574:
5570:
5477:
5473:
5405:
5384:
5159:
5139:
5097:
4599:
4500:
4435:
4393:
2561:
2165:
1993:
1859:
1685:
1627:
1609:
1549:
1304:
1258:
1237:
1162:
946:
865:
615:
604:
527:
515:
503:
387:
195:
120:
5590:
1557:
10665:
10497:
10399:
10287:
10212:
10196:
10136:
9546:
9471:
9461:
9451:
9363:
9146:
8989:
8249:
7148:
6656:
6214:
5954:
5864:
5349:
5174:
4768:
4321:
3244:
3239:; much of the remainder can be attributed to the field energy of the gluons (see
2002:
1752:(e), depending on flavor. Up, charm, and top quarks (collectively referred to as
1707:
1623:
1439:
1334:
1292:
1254:
1194:
970:
957:, which do not influence its quantum numbers. There are two families of hadrons:
902:, which states that no two identical fermions can simultaneously occupy the same
483:
262:
9006:
6907:
6840:
6310:
3406:
3225:
836:, and are denoted by a bar over the symbol for the corresponding quark, such as
10468:
10346:
10260:
10217:
9953:
9741:
9514:
9436:
9431:
9353:
8720:
8665:
6709:
6357:
6099:
6049:
5143:
5102:
5067:
4772:
4691:
4632:
have yielded evidence for liquid-like quark matter exhibiting "nearly perfect"
4602:
of freely moving quarks and gluons. This theoretical phase of matter is called
4496:
3187:
3151:
3078:
3074:
3070:
3051:
2565:
1964:, placed after the symbol for flavor. For example, an up quark with a spin of +
1852:
1838:
1582:
1478:
1443:
1326:
1311:, and implied a mass formula that correctly reproduced the masses of the known
1303:. The addition was proposed because it allowed for a better description of the
1158:
974:
966:
938:
667:
653:
643:
576:
499:
495:
447:
325:
77:
7505:
May We Borrow Your Language?: How English Steals Words From All Over the World
6974:
6117:
Y. Ne'eman (1961). "Derivation of Strong Interactions from Gauge Invariance".
10659:
10609:
10551:
Our Exagmination Round His Factification for Incamination of Work in Progress
10304:
10156:
10123:
9915:
9885:
9817:
9676:
9456:
9383:
9368:
9036:
9011:
8686:
8631:
7003:
4850:
4710:
4679:; that is, color charge would be able to pass through it with no resistance.
4587:
4472:
4459:
4449:
4313:
3328:
3194:
3135:
3046:
will result in a color charge of 0 (or "white" color) and the formation of a
3021:
1458:. The number of supposed quark flavors grew to the current six in 1973, when
1447:
1296:
1285:
1190:
978:
903:
861:
741:
560:
355:
242:
6508:
5749:
5683:
4792:, which constrains the 4th generation neutrino to have a mass greater than ~
3390:; equal to spin for point particles) do not change sign for the antiquarks.
3232:, of which the rest mass of its three valence quarks only contributes about
1291:
In less than a year, extensions to the Gell-MannâZweig model were proposed.
10528:
10282:
9832:
9822:
9812:
9573:
9524:
9466:
9388:
9343:
8307:"Smaller than Small: Looking for Something New With the LHC by Don Lincoln
8197:
7911:
7224:"Why Joyce Is and Is Not Responsible for the Quark in Contemporary Physics"
7088:
6915:
6848:
5664:
5582:
5485:
4993:
4957:
4924:
4660:
4656:
4652:
4633:
4564:
4424:
3013:. Every quark carries a color, while every antiquark carries an anticolor.
2985:
2954:
1537:
1467:
1454:. This theoretical model required the existence of the as-yet undiscovered
1450:(named from their initials) to explain the experimental non-observation of
1269:
1262:
1241:
915:
829:
785:
619:
596:
568:
491:
450:. All commonly observable matter is composed of up quarks, down quarks and
315:
250:
201:
159:
68:
5787:
5721:
4568:
hadronize into baryonic or mesonic particles under certain circumstances.
3155:
2535:
1502:
10463:
10297:
10065:
9968:
9963:
9880:
9875:
9805:
9759:
9716:
9681:
9640:
9532:
9496:
9358:
9016:
7612:
7583:
C. Quigg (2006). "Particles and the Standard Model". In G. Fraser (ed.).
6323:
6030:
5888:
5371:
4664:
4645:
4427:
4349:
3304:
3248:
3035:
2112:) (see picture). This occurs when one of the down quarks in the neutron (
1660:
1642:. Some authors, however, defend a possible German origin of Joyce's word
1577:
1526:
1490:
1455:
1233:
1208:
below for a more complete overview of the six quark flavors' properties.
1174:
864:, and spin as their respective quarks, but the electric charge and other
763:
611:
583:, whereas strange, charm, bottom, and top quarks can only be produced in
556:
519:
246:
128:
46:
8842:
8803:
8758:
5541:) (2014). "Observation of the Resonant Character of the Z(4430) State".
3166:
1928:
particles. The component of spin along a given axis â by convention the
10617:
10039:
9933:
9923:
9905:
9795:
9696:
9631:
9348:
9273:
8648:
7866:
7812:
7785:
6890:
6823:
6587:
6560:
6340:
6212:
B. J. Bjorken; S. L. Glashow (1964). "Elementary Particles and SU(4)".
4820:
4816:
4730:
4725:
4577:
4365:
3320:
3063:
2971:
2544:
2026:
2006:
1299:
predicted the existence of a fourth flavor of quark, which they called
1281:
1166:
1059:
982:
857:
719:
588:
552:
238:
60:
6717:
6597:
5750:"Review of Particle Physics: tⲠ(4th Generation) Quarks, Searches for"
5684:"Review of Particle Physics: bⲠ(4th Generation) Quarks, Searches for"
5610:"Observation of J/Ďp Resonances Consistent with Pentaquark States in Î
5151:
4659:
of weakly interacting quarks. This liquid would be characterized by a
3134:
corresponding to the quark colors, forms a triplet: a three-component
1998:
656:
are quarks (shown in purple). Each of the first three columns forms a
530:), as well as the only known particles whose electric charges are not
10582:
10181:
10171:
10141:
10034:
10000:
9993:
9870:
9860:
9855:
9827:
9595:
9378:
8892:
8510:
7639:
7541:
6019:"An SU(3) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking: II"
4819:) and particles are replaced with their corresponding antiparticles (
4382: Âą 710, in the case of the top quark, denotes two types of
3280:
The following table summarizes the key properties of the six quarks.
1690:
1531:
807:
564:
254:
6080:
6018:
1848:
1216:
10403:
10277:
10105:
10060:
10044:
10005:
9978:
9691:
9686:
9666:
9636:
9626:
9621:
9441:
9416:
9411:
9338:
9094:
8915:
6484:
5637:
4641:
3179:
2066:
1910:
1869:(pronounced "h bar"). For quarks, a measurement of the spin vector
1639:
1545:
1277:
1170:
945:; apart from these, any hadron may contain an indefinite number of
872:
697:
631:
580:
548:
451:
234:
56:
8972:
8703:
8170:
7253:
The Quark and the Jaguar: Adventures in the Simple and the Complex
7056:
How Joyce Wrote Finnegans Wake. A Chapter-by-Chapter Genetic Guide
5557:
5460:
4582:
10186:
10176:
10146:
10100:
10095:
10070:
9988:
9973:
9900:
9895:
9800:
9785:
9731:
9706:
9671:
9600:
9582:
9321:
5994:"An SU(3) Model for Strong Interaction Symmetry and its Breaking"
5240:
4357:
4333:
3312:
3285:
3034:(QCD). A quark, which will have a single color value, can form a
2255:
boson then decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino.
2018:
1681:
1353:
received the 1990 Nobel Prize in physics for their work at SLAC.
1173:, when the universe was in an extremely hot and dense phase (the
891:
531:
443:
94:
10462:
5952:
M. Gell-Mann (1964). "A Schematic Model of Baryons and Mesons".
2963:
1356:
10388:
10166:
10161:
9790:
9777:
9768:
9590:
9504:
9403:
9117:
Constructing Quarks: A Sociological History of Particle Physics
6561:"CP-Violation in the Renormalizable Theory of Weak Interaction"
4621:
3175:
3059:
3055:
1825:
1608:
and the above-quoted lines are about a bird choir mocking king
1308:
1273:
1224:
958:
924:
911:
461:
439:
435:
427:
64:
52:
10356:
9143:
Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts
10191:
10131:
9983:
9842:
9721:
9661:
9616:
9509:
9487:
9200:
Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics
4833:
4720:
4410:
3207:
3082:
3047:
3026:
2989:. There are three types of color charge, arbitrarily labeled
1338:
1312:
1251:
962:
954:
907:
465:
8279:
Precision Electroweak Physics at ElectronâPositron Colliders
5883:
J. D. Barrow (1997) . "The Singularity and Other Problems".
5408:) (2008). "Observation of a Resonance-like Structure in the
4434:), gluons are constantly exchanged between quarks through a
1201:
exists, gravitation is not described by the Standard Model.
411:
396:
10407:
9958:
9890:
9850:
9426:
9421:
9257:
7976:
7783:
6418:
5605:
5538:
4625:
3170:
Current quark masses for all six flavors in comparison, as
1561:
1414:
1392:
595:). For every quark flavor there is a corresponding type of
572:
487:
7740:"Review of Particles Physics: The CKM Quark-Mixing Matrix"
7085:
Das absolut Unveränderliche. Die letzten Rätsel der Physik
6211:
6069:
The Eightfold Way: A Theory of Strong Interaction Symmetry
9254:
The Top Quark And The Higgs Particle by T.A. Heppenheimer
8315:
5511:
4832:"Beauty" and "truth" are contrasted in the last lines of
1470:
could be explained if there were another pair of quarks.
1360:
Photograph of the event that led to the discovery of the
9171:
The Hunting of the Quark: A True Story of Modern Physics
7389:
The Hunting of the Quark: A True Story of Modern Physics
7033:
The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language
5860:"Searching for the Beginning of Time: Cosmic Connection"
1932:
axis â is often denoted by an up arrow â for the value +
930:
6650:
6648:
5816:"Determination of the Number of Light Neutrino Species"
7786:"Remarks on the Unified Model of Elementary Particles"
7198:"Alles Quark? Die Mythen der Physiker und James Joyce"
6558:
6153:
5026:
3206:
refers to the current quark mass plus the mass of the
3182: (red) are shown in bottom left corner for scale.
2948:
2847:
2583:
670:
is the theoretical framework describing all the known
9249:
2008 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Toshihide Maskawa
7425:
Remnants Of The Fall: Revelations Of Particle Secrets
4911:
3222:). For example, a proton has a mass of approximately
2577:
414:
408:
405:
399:
393:
390:
67:
that mediate the forces "binding" them together. The
9244:
2008 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Makoto Kobayashi
9239:
1976 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Samuel C.C. Ting
9229:
1969 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Murray Gell-Mann
6807:
Collisions with the Collider Detector at Fermilab".
6645:
4681:
4458:: quarks never appear in isolation. This process of
1544:
In 1977, the bottom quark was observed by a team at
8438:
8401:
8210:
7144:"What Does 'Quark' Have to Do with Finnegans Wake?"
6615:H. Harari (1975). "A New Quark Model for hadrons".
4982:
4980:
4944:
4628:in the 1980s and 1990s), recent experiments at the
3192:Two terms are used in referring to a quark's mass:
2524:are routinely used in medical applications such as
9234:1976 Physics Nobel Prize lecture by Burton Richter
9168:
9086:
8782:
8472:Facts and Mysteries in Elementary Particle Physics
8469:
8369:Facts and Mysteries in Elementary Particle Physics
8366:
8011:
7978:
7971:
7969:
7664:
7422:
6770:) (1995). "Observation of Top Quark Production in
6420:
2967:All types of hadrons have zero total color charge.
2910:
1808: e and down-type antiquarks have charges of +
1268:At the time of the quark theory's inception, the "
7111:
7053:
4755:
3001:. Each of them is complemented by an anticolor â
10657:
9004:
8916:A. Sedrakian; J. W. Clark; M. G. Alford (2007).
8835:
8605:Introduction to High-energy Heavy-ion Collisions
8548:Progress of Theoretical and Experimental Physics
7567:"Letter of Intent for a Tevatron Beauty Factory"
6083:. CTSL-20 – via University of North Texas.
5241:B. Povh; C. Scholz; K. Rith; F. Zetsche (2008).
4977:
4655:â quark matter is expected to degenerate into a
4439:changes, their strong interaction is preserved.
2017:in particle physics. By absorbing or emitting a
498:. They are the only elementary particles in the
9027:
8955:
7966:
6521:
6381:
5947:
5945:
5500:
5350:"Review of Particle Physics: Pentaquark Update"
5270:
4571:
4423:between quarks is mediated by gluons, massless
3199:refers to the mass of a quark by itself, while
2185:boson, transforming the neutron into a proton (
27:Elementary particle, main constituent of matter
9260:'s experiment to count the families of quarks.
8741:
8565:
8527:
7221:
6116:
6093:
5337:
5119:
4840:" and may have been the origin of those names.
1595:And sure any he has it's all beside the mark.
10448:
10372:
9289:
8742:S. Mrowczynski (1998). "QuarkâGluon Plasma".
8329:
7420:
7348:
7308:
6967:"New Precision Measurement of Top Quark Mass"
6279:
6012:
6010:
5987:
5985:
5911:
5203:
5172:
5115:
5113:
4754:There is also the theoretical possibility of
3077:â relate interactions between particles (see
2930:represents the tendency of a quark of flavor
1435:) hadrons discovered in cosmic rays in 1947.
9193:
9111:
9053:
8141:
8139:
8137:
7937:
7585:The New Physics for the Twenty-First Century
7344:
7342:
7250:
6936:
6730:
6654:
6455:
6377:
6375:
6182:
6066:
6043:
5951:
5942:
5882:
1617:
1161:into lower-generation particles by means of
8858:"RHIC Scientists Serve Up "Perfect" Liquid"
8333:QED: The Strange Theory of Light and Matter
8145:
7733:
7169:
7082:
5426:Ψ′ Mass Distribution in Exclusive BâK
5306:
5065:
5022:
5020:
5018:
5016:
2518:Both beta decay and the inverse process of
1909:; for this reason quarks are classified as
1772: e; down, strange, and bottom quarks (
1466:noted that the experimental observation of
1153:Elementary fermions are grouped into three
969:. A great number of hadrons are known (see
860:in general, antiquarks have the same mass,
10455:
10441:
10379:
10365:
9296:
9282:
9163:
8886:
8602:
8533:
8504:
8467:
8461:
8364:
8276:
8239:
7662:
7564:
7385:
7282:Genius: Richard Feynman and Modern Physics
6874:) (1995). "Observation of the Top Quark".
6685:
6248:
6156:Companion to the History of Modern Science
6007:
5982:
5403:
5397:
5302:
5300:
5298:
5110:
1873:along any axis can only yield the values +
931:§ Strong interaction and color charge
9081:
8971:
8841:
8820:
8802:
8767:
8757:
8702:
8647:
8358:
8187:
8169:
8134:
8111:
8046:
7865:
7811:
7768:
7501:
7339:
7279:
6889:
6869:
6822:
6614:
6610:
6608:
6596:
6586:
6372:
6339:
5857:
5809:
5786:
5743:
5720:
5677:
5654:
5636:
5597:
5556:
5530:
5459:
5388:
5370:
5343:
5101:
1862:whose length is measured in units of the
1236:was independently proposed by physicists
614:was independently proposed by physicists
9303:
8625:
7784:Z. Maki; M. Nakagawa; S. Sakata (1962).
7633:
7613:"The Standard Model of Particle Physics"
7582:
7535:
7309:J. J. Sakurai (1994). S. F. Tuan (ed.).
6995:
6759:
6282:"Very High-Energy Collisions of Hadrons"
6016:
5991:
5013:
4581:
3165:
2983:(QCD), quarks possess a property called
2970:
2962:
2534:
2164:) decays into an up quark by emitting a
1997:
1824: e. Since the electric charge of a
1716:electric charge values â either (−
1501:; thus, it became formally known as the
1355:
1257:, streamlining its structure. Physicist
1223:
1215:
1205:
647:
634:in 1995, was the last to be discovered.
10602:The Wonderful Widow of Eighteen Springs
9137:
8889:Origins: The Quest for Our Cosmic Roots
8680:
8009:
7981:An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory
7727:
7302:
7195:
6863:
6423:An Introduction to Quantum Field Theory
5603:
5536:
5295:
5061:
5059:
14:
10658:
9767:
7977:M. E. Peskin; D. V. Schroeder (1995).
7471:Higgs Force: Cosmic Symmetry Shattered
7467:
7244:
7115:The Germanic loanwords in Proto-Slavic
6959:
6765:
6605:
6419:M. E. Peskin; D. V. Schroeder (1995).
3269:
3138:that transforms under the fundamental
2943:PontecorvoâMakiâNakagawaâSakata matrix
2568:of the entries of the CKM matrix are:
10436:
10360:
9277:
8850:
8083:
7919:, Department of Physics and Astronomy
5508:"Belle Discovers a New Type of Meson"
5001:, Department of Physics and Astronomy
4965:, Department of Physics and Astronomy
4932:, Department of Physics and Astronomy
4400:
3216:quantum chromodynamics binding energy
3042:plus an antiquark with color charge â
1321:experiments conducted in 1968 at the
918:, which causes them to engage in the
571:. Up and down quarks have the lowest
9264:Think Big website, Quarks and Gluons
9033:Introduction to Elementary Particles
7693:
6526:Introduction to Elementary Particles
6386:Introduction to Elementary Particles
5056:
4742:
3460:
3455:
3450:
3445:
3437:
3425:
3420:
3415:
1604:is an outdated English word meaning
587:collisions (such as those involving
10575:War and Peace in the Global Village
7904:
7353:Introduction to High Energy Physics
7172:"Quarks sind so real wie der Papst"
6971:Brookhaven National Laboratory News
4986:
4950:
4917:
2949:Strong interaction and color charge
2528:(PET) and in experiments involving
1987:
464:(such as protons and neutrons) and
24:
8949:
8086:"Quantum Chromodynamics (physics)"
7709:Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
6552:
6073:California Institute of Technology
4863:|) of the corresponding CKM entry.
4767:The main evidence is based on the
4756:more exotic phases of quark matter
3382:â˛) are of opposite sign. Mass and
3355:) and all flavor quantum numbers (
2820:
2817:
2793:
2790:
2766:
2763:
2737:
2734:
2710:
2707:
2683:
2680:
2654:
2651:
2627:
2624:
2600:
2597:
1701:
1323:Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
981:with more valence quarks, such as
628:Stanford Linear Accelerator Center
25:
10687:
9222:
7170:U. Schnabel (16 September 2020).
6559:M. Kobayashi; T. Maskawa (1973).
6154:R. C. Olby; G. N. Cantor (1996).
5066:E. D. Bloom; et al. (1969).
5027:B. Carithers; P. Grannis (1995).
3311:, not to be confused with spin),
2934:to change into a quark of flavor
2257:
1593:Sure he hasn't got much of a bark
1489:. The charm quarks were observed
961:, with three valence quarks, and
637:
605:equal magnitude but opposite sign
454:. Owing to a phenomenon known as
426:and a fundamental constituent of
10559:A Skeleton Key to Finnegans Wake
10340:
10233:Timeline of particle discoveries
8909:
8880:
8829:
8776:
8735:
8596:
8559:
8244:Quantum Field Theory Demystified
7565:J. T. Volk; et al. (1987).
4953:"Bag Model of Quark Confinement"
4684:
4470:Hadrons contain, along with the
2558:CabibboâKobayashiâMaskawa matrix
1948:and down arrow â for the value â
1529:was the first to coin the terms
1452:flavor-changing neutral currents
1197:). However, since no successful
890:particles, which means they are
386:
45:
10386:
9121:The University of Chicago Press
8498:
8432:
8395:
8323:
8299:
8270:
8233:
8204:
8105:
8077:
8040:
8003:
7931:
7898:
7820:
7791:Progress of Theoretical Physics
7777:
7656:
7627:
7605:
7576:
7558:
7529:
7495:
7461:
7414:
7379:
7273:
7215:
7189:
7163:
7136:
7105:
7076:
7047:
7024:
6989:
6930:
6724:
6679:
6566:Progress of Theoretical Physics
6515:
6478:
6449:
6412:
6317:
6273:
6242:
6205:
6176:
6147:
6087:
6037:
5905:
5876:
5851:
5803:
5737:
5671:
5263:
5234:
5197:
4866:
4843:
4826:
4809:
4761:
4630:Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider
4586:A qualitative rendering of the
1591:â Three quarks for Muster Mark!
1250:â or, in more technical terms,
950:
438:, the most stable of which are
9269:Think Big website, Quarks 2019
9205:Johns Hopkins University Press
8862:Brookhaven National Laboratory
8790:Journal of High Energy Physics
8439:F. Wilczek; B. Devine (2006).
8402:F. Wilczek; B. Devine (2006).
8211:W. Weise; A. M. Green (1984).
8091:EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica Online
7946:Johns Hopkins University Press
7884:10.1140/epjc/s10052-007-0212-z
7770:10.1088/0954-3899/37/7A/075021
6939:The Evidence for the Top Quark
6658:The Evidence for the Top Quark
5779:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018
5713:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018
5656:10.1103/PhysRevLett.115.072001
5575:10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.222002
5478:10.1103/PhysRevLett.100.142001
5166:
4884:
4748:
3158:to act as its force carriers.
3085:(commonly abbreviated to SU(3)
2827:
2807:
2800:
2780:
2773:
2753:
2744:
2724:
2717:
2697:
2690:
2670:
2661:
2641:
2634:
2614:
2607:
2587:
2351:(Beta decay, hadron notation)
1483:Brookhaven National Laboratory
1384:Brookhaven National Laboratory
937:The quarks that determine the
541:There are six types, known as
13:
1:
10523:The Ballad of Persse O'Reilly
8822:10.1088/1126-6708/2004/04/050
8783:Z. Fodor; S. D. Katz (2004).
8189:10.1088/1674-1137/38/9/090001
7060:University of Wisconsin Press
6251:"The Road to the Nobel Prize"
6017:G. Zweig (21 February 1964).
5976:10.1016/S0031-9163(64)92001-3
4878:
4465:
4392:in nature, and the second is
3247:, which is associated to the
2512:(Beta decay, quark notation)
1858:Spin can be represented by a
1696:
856:for an up antiquark. As with
219:
10249:History of subatomic physics
8920:Pairing in Fermionic Systems
8152:"Review of Particle Physics"
7054:L. Crispi; S. Slote (2007).
6639:10.1016/0370-2693(75)90072-6
6236:10.1016/0031-9163(64)90433-0
6141:10.1016/0029-5582(61)90134-1
5992:G. Zweig (17 January 1964).
5845:10.1016/0370-2693(89)90704-1
5176:Introductory Nuclear Physics
5029:"Discovery of the Top Quark"
4892:"Quark (subatomic particle)"
4736:quarkâlepton complementarity
4572:Other phases of quark matter
3146:. The requirement that SU(3)
3069:In modern particle physics,
2526:positron emission tomography
1567:
652:Six of the particles in the
7:
10505:The House by the Churchyard
8959:European Physical Journal H
7474:. Quantum Wave Publishing.
7196:H. Beck (2 February 2017).
6908:10.1103/PhysRevLett.74.2632
6841:10.1103/PhysRevLett.74.2626
6311:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.1415
6189:University of Chicago Press
4698:
4495:) that contribute to their
4388:: The first uncertainty is
3050:. This is analogous to the
1541:for the additional quarks.
10:
10692:
9065:Cambridge University Press
8990:10.1140/epjh/e2011-10047-1
8721:10.1103/RevModPhys.80.1455
8666:10.1103/PhysRevD.72.034004
8338:Princeton University Press
8146:K. A. Olive; et al. (
8118:Cambridge University Press
8020:Cambridge University Press
7734:K. Nakamura; et al. (
7667:Understanding the Universe
7589:Cambridge University Press
7359:Cambridge University Press
7112:S. Pronk-Tiethoff (2013).
6943:Cambridge University Press
6734:A Positron named Priscilla
6710:10.1103/PhysRevLett.39.252
6663:Cambridge University Press
6358:10.1103/PhysRevD.69.114005
5885:The Origin of the Universe
5390:10.1088/0954-3899/33/1/001
5279:Cambridge University Press
5214:Greenwood Publishing Group
5144:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.935
5103:10.1103/PhysRevLett.23.930
4575:
4404:
4034:
3775:
3484:
3276:Flavour (particle physics)
3273:
3220:mass in special relativity
3185:
2952:
2047:) "splits" into a proton (
1991:
1836:
1705:
1438:In a 1970 paper, Glashow,
1272:" included a multitude of
1211:
953:" quarks, antiquarks, and
898:. They are subject to the
674:. This model contains six
641:
29:
10593:
10542:
10514:
10477:
10395:
10338:
10241:
10205:
10122:
10083:
10053:
10027:
10023:
10014:
9946:
9914:
9841:
9776:
9758:
9654:
9609:
9581:
9572:
9563:
9545:
9523:
9495:
9486:
9402:
9329:
9320:
9311:
9256: â A description of
8690:Reviews of Modern Physics
8534:P. A. Zyla; et al. (
7853:European Physical Journal
7572:. Fermilab Proposal #783.
7456:quark keats truth beauty.
5404:S.-K. Choi; et al. (
5076:Scattering at 6° and 10°"
3465:
3403:
3400:
3174:of proportional volumes.
1673:Zweig preferred the name
1666:Through the Looking-Glass
1319:Deep inelastic scattering
1199:quantum theory of gravity
906:. This is in contrast to
900:Pauli exclusion principle
624:deep inelastic scattering
430:. Quarks combine to form
354:
324:
314:
261:
229:
211:
188:
158:
134:
110:
100:
88:
76:
44:
10266:mathematical formulation
9861:Eta and eta prime mesons
9021:University of Nottingham
9005:R. Bowley; E. Copeland.
8570:Learning about Particles
7917:Georgia State University
7313:Modern Quantum Mechanics
7286:Little Brown and Company
6870:S. Abachi; et al. (
6739:National Academies Press
6522:D. J. Griffiths (1987).
6382:D. J. Griffiths (1987).
6075:Synchrotron Laboratory.
5810:D. Decamp; et al. (
5744:C. Amsler; et al. (
5678:C. Amsler; et al. (
5344:W.-M. Yao; et al. (
5271:P. C. W. Davies (1979).
4999:Georgia State University
4963:Georgia State University
4930:Georgia State University
4669:breaking the local SU(3)
3241:chiral symmetry breaking
3022:force carrying particles
2560:(CKM matrix). Enforcing
2015:fundamental interactions
1648:The Quark and the Jaguar
1186:fundamental interactions
868:have the opposite sign.
508:fundamental interactions
9928:Double-charm tetraquark
8745:Acta Physica Polonica B
8566:J. Steinberger (2005).
6877:Physical Review Letters
6810:Physical Review Letters
6689:Physical Review Letters
6509:10.1103/PhysRevD.2.1285
6290:Physical Review Letters
5922:Oxford University Press
5624:Physical Review Letters
5544:Physical Review Letters
5447:Physical Review Letters
5317:Oxford University Press
5123:Physical Review Letters
5081:Physical Review Letters
5068:"High-Energy Inelastic
4920:"Confinement of Quarks"
4897:EncyclopĂŚdia Britannica
4716:nucleon magnetic moment
3395:Quark flavor properties
3261:
3161:
3020:, which is mediated by
1984:axis is denoted by uâ.
1864:reduced Planck constant
1832:
1220:Murray Gell-Mann (2007)
1193:) and distance scales (
896:spinâstatistics theorem
506:to experience all four
10643:Waywords and Meansigns
8864:. 2005. Archived from
8330:R. P. Feynman (1985).
7711:. 2008. Archived from
7705:Virtual Visitor Center
7421:W. B. Rolnick (2003).
7349:D. H. Perkins (2000).
7202:Literaturportal Bayern
6973:. 2004. Archived from
6280:R. P. Feynman (1969).
5912:D. H. Perkins (2003).
5604:R. Aaij; et al. (
5537:R. Aaij; et al. (
5514:. 2007. Archived from
5208:The Quantum Revolution
5204:K. A. Peacock (2008).
5173:S. S. M. Wong (1998).
4591:
4417:quantum chromodynamics
4306:total angular momentum
3384:total angular momentum
3282:Flavor quantum numbers
3183:
3109:). Every quark flavor
3032:quantum chromodynamics
2981:quantum chromodynamics
2976:
2968:
2912:
2548:
2029:, in which a neutron (
2010:
1671:
1618:
1598:
1477:) â one at SLAC under
1387:
1229:
1221:
941:of hadrons are called
663:
32:Quark (disambiguation)
10325:Waveâparticle duality
10315:Relativistic particle
9452:Electron antineutrino
8311:blog 28 October 2014"
8014:The Force of Symmetry
7938:B. A. Schumm (2004).
7251:M. Gell-Mann (1995).
6937:K. W. Staley (2004).
6766:F. Abe; et al. (
6731:M. Bartusiak (1994).
6655:K. W. Staley (2004).
6532:John Wiley & Sons
6456:V. V. Ezhela (1996).
6392:John Wiley & Sons
6183:A. Pickering (1984).
6067:M. Gell-Mann (1961).
5916:Particle Astrophysics
4677:color superconductive
4585:
3169:
3113:, each with subtypes
2974:
2966:
2913:
2538:
2089:electron antineutrino
2001:
1652:
1630:origin which denotes
1588:
1359:
1333:" â a term coined by
1227:
1219:
1179:particle accelerators
832:of quarks are called
651:
593:particle accelerators
10671:Elementary particles
10567:The Gutenberg Galaxy
9555:FaddeevâPopov ghosts
9305:Particles in physics
9177:Simon & Schuster
9060:Elementary Particles
8120:. pp. 285â286.
7748:Journal of Physics G
7636:The New Cosmic Onion
7538:The New Cosmic Onion
7394:Simon & Schuster
7317:(Revised ed.).
7222:G. E. P. Gillespie.
7083:H. Fritzsch (2007).
6191:. pp. 114â125.
6160:Taylor & Francis
6031:10.17181/CERN-TH-412
6023:CERN Document Server
6001:CERN Document Server
5887:(Reprint ed.).
5358:Journal of Physics G
5307:M. Munowitz (2005).
5274:The Forces of Nature
5243:Particles and Nuclei
4838:Ode on a Grecian Urn
4706:colorâflavor locking
2575:
1776:) have a charge of â
1756:) have a charge of +
672:elementary particles
475:Quarks have various
446:, the components of
263:Electric charge
10421:Elementary particle
10330:Particle chauvinism
10273:Subatomic particles
8982:2011EPJH...36..245A
8887:T. Yulsman (2002).
8813:2004JHEP...04..050F
8769:1998AcPPB..29.3711M
8713:2008RvMP...80.1455A
8658:2005PhRvD..72c4004R
8603:C.-Y. Wong (1994).
8536:Particle Data Group
8505:T. Yulsman (2002).
8468:M. Veltman (2003).
8441:Fantastic Realities
8406:Fantastic Realities
8365:M. Veltman (2003).
8277:S. G. Roth (2007).
8240:D. McMahon (2008).
8180:2014ChPhC..38i0001O
8148:Particle Data Group
7876:2007EPJC...50..573C
7804:1962PThPh..28..870M
7761:2010JPhG...37g5021N
7736:Particle Data Group
7715:on 23 November 2011
7701:"Weak Interactions"
7663:D. Lincoln (2004).
7386:M. Riordan (1987).
6900:1995PhRvL..74.2632A
6833:1995PhRvL..74.2626A
6702:1977PhRvL..39..252H
6631:1975PhLB...57..265H
6579:1973PThPh..49..652K
6501:1970PhRvD...2.1285G
6350:2004PhRvD..69k4005K
6303:1969PhRvL..23.1415F
6261:on 25 December 2008
6228:1964PhL....11..255B
6185:Constructing Quarks
6133:1961NucPh..26..222N
5968:1964PhL.....8..214G
5837:1989PhLB..231..519D
5812:ALEPH Collaboration
5771:2008PhLB..667....1A
5746:Particle Data Group
5705:2008PhLB..667....1A
5680:Particle Data Group
5647:2015PhRvL.115g2001A
5567:2014PhRvL.112v2002A
5470:2008PhRvL.100n2001C
5406:Belle Collaboration
5381:2006JPhG...33....1Y
5346:Particle Data Group
5136:1969PhRvL..23..935B
5094:1969PhRvL..23..930B
4432:perturbation theory
4371:* Notation such as
3397:
3270:Table of properties
1475:November Revolution
1228:George Zweig (2015)
1206:table of properties
626:experiments at the
470:quarkâgluon plasmas
432:composite particles
424:elementary particle
83:elementary particle
55:is composed of two
41:
10416:Composite particle
10412:Subatomic particle
8447:. pp. 400ff.
8319:. 28 October 2014.
8219:. pp. 65â66.
8112:A. Watson (2004).
8047:M. Y. Han (2004).
7813:10.1143/PTP.28.870
7642:. pp. 80â90.
7502:P. Gooden (2016).
7280:J. Gleick (1992).
7231:Papers on Joyce 16
6996:J. Joyce (1982) .
6665:. pp. 31â33.
6588:10.1143/PTP.49.652
5858:A. Fisher (1991).
5606:LHCb collaboration
5539:LHCb collaboration
5518:on 22 January 2009
5444:Ψ′ decays".
5181:Wiley Interscience
4604:quarkâgluon plasma
4596:asymptotic freedom
4592:
4445:asymptotic freedom
4421:strong interaction
4401:Interacting quarks
4076:Âą 710 *
3393:
3184:
3018:strong interaction
2977:
2969:
2959:Strong interaction
2908:
2899:
2833:
2564:, the approximate
2554:mathematical table
2549:
2530:neutrino detection
2521:inverse beta decay
2011:
1614:Tristan and Iseult
1388:
1327:point-like objects
1230:
1222:
920:strong interaction
664:
524:strong interaction
512:fundamental forces
356:Baryon number
39:
10653:
10652:
10485:Achmet Borumborad
10430:
10429:
10354:
10353:
10310:Massless particle
10118:
10117:
10114:
10113:
10079:
10078:
9942:
9941:
9754:
9753:
9750:
9749:
9702:Magnetic monopole
9650:
9649:
9541:
9540:
9482:
9481:
9462:Muon antineutrino
9447:Electron neutrino
9214:978-0-8018-7971-5
9186:978-0-671-64884-8
9156:978-0-387-59439-2
9130:978-0-226-66799-7
9104:978-0-13-236678-6
9074:978-0-521-26092-3
9046:978-3-527-40601-2
8939:978-981-256-907-3
8902:978-0-7503-0765-9
8635:Physical Review D
8618:978-981-02-0263-7
8589:978-3-540-21329-1
8520:978-0-7503-0765-9
8491:978-981-238-149-1
8454:978-981-256-649-2
8425:978-981-256-649-2
8388:978-981-238-149-1
8351:978-0-691-08388-9
8292:978-3-540-35164-1
8263:978-0-07-154382-8
8226:978-9971-966-61-4
8213:Quarks and Nuclei
8157:Chinese Physics C
8127:978-0-521-82907-6
8114:The Quantum Quark
8070:978-981-256-034-6
8033:978-0-521-45591-6
7996:978-0-201-50397-5
7959:978-0-8018-7971-5
7907:"The Color Force"
7686:978-981-238-705-9
7649:978-1-58488-798-0
7634:F. Close (2006).
7598:978-0-521-81600-7
7551:978-1-58488-798-0
7536:F. Close (2006).
7515:978-1-78497-798-6
7481:978-0-9572746-1-7
7444:978-981-238-060-9
7407:978-0-671-50466-3
7372:978-0-521-62196-0
7332:978-0-201-53929-5
7295:978-0-316-90316-5
7266:978-0-8050-7253-2
7257:Henry Holt and Co
7129:978-94-012-0984-7
7098:978-3-492-24985-0
7069:978-0-299-21860-7
7017:978-0-14-006286-1
6952:978-0-521-82710-2
6884:(14): 2632â2637.
6817:(14): 2626â2631.
6768:CDF Collaboration
6752:978-0-309-04893-4
6672:978-0-521-82710-2
6618:Physics Letters B
6545:978-0-471-60386-3
6488:Physical Review D
6471:978-1-56396-642-2
6442:978-0-201-50397-5
6405:978-0-471-60386-3
6327:Physical Review D
6297:(24): 1415â1417.
6198:978-0-226-66799-7
6169:978-0-415-14578-7
6109:978-0-7382-0299-0
6096:The Eightfold Way
6059:978-0-7382-0299-0
6046:The Eightfold Way
5935:978-0-19-850952-3
5898:978-0-465-05314-8
5824:Physics Letters B
5758:Physics Letters B
5692:Physics Letters B
5510:(Press release).
5330:978-0-19-516737-5
5288:978-0-521-22523-6
5256:978-3-540-79367-0
5227:978-0-313-33448-1
5190:978-0-471-23973-4
4743:Explanatory notes
4663:of colored quark
4540:) pairs known as
4503:quarkâantiquark (
4455:color confinement
4407:Color confinement
4397:
4297:
4296:
3778:Second generation
3664: Âą 0.3
3523: Âą 0.5
3202:constituent quark
3156:eight gluon types
2938:(or vice versa).
2516:
2515:
1845:degree of freedom
1750:elementary charge
1686:strange particles
1612:in the legend of
1464:Toshihide Maskawa
1163:weak interactions
914:, quarks possess
894:according to the
536:elementary charge
534:multiples of the
457:color confinement
378:
377:
16:(Redirected from
10683:
10635:Nowth upon Nacht
10457:
10450:
10443:
10434:
10433:
10381:
10374:
10367:
10358:
10357:
10344:
10320:Virtual particle
10091:Mesonic molecule
10025:
10024:
10021:
10020:
9866:Bottom eta meson
9774:
9773:
9765:
9764:
9737:WⲠand ZⲠbosons
9727:Sterile neutrino
9712:Majorana fermion
9579:
9578:
9570:
9569:
9493:
9492:
9472:Tau antineutrino
9327:
9326:
9318:
9317:
9298:
9291:
9284:
9275:
9274:
9218:
9190:
9174:
9160:
9134:
9108:
9092:
9078:
9063:(2nd ed.).
9050:
9035:(2nd ed.).
9024:
9001:
8975:
8944:
8943:
8926:World Scientific
8923:
8913:
8907:
8906:
8884:
8878:
8877:
8875:
8873:
8868:on 15 April 2013
8854:
8848:
8847:
8845:
8833:
8827:
8826:
8824:
8806:
8780:
8774:
8773:
8771:
8761:
8739:
8733:
8732:
8706:
8697:(4): 1455â1515.
8684:
8678:
8677:
8651:
8629:
8623:
8622:
8609:World Scientific
8600:
8594:
8593:
8573:
8563:
8557:
8556:
8544:
8531:
8525:
8524:
8502:
8496:
8495:
8478:World Scientific
8475:
8465:
8459:
8458:
8445:World Scientific
8436:
8430:
8429:
8412:World Scientific
8409:
8399:
8393:
8392:
8375:World Scientific
8372:
8362:
8356:
8355:
8336:(1st ed.).
8327:
8321:
8320:
8303:
8297:
8296:
8274:
8268:
8267:
8247:
8237:
8231:
8230:
8217:World Scientific
8208:
8202:
8201:
8191:
8173:
8143:
8132:
8131:
8109:
8103:
8102:
8100:
8098:
8081:
8075:
8074:
8057:World Scientific
8054:
8051:A Story of Light
8044:
8038:
8037:
8017:
8010:V. Icke (1995).
8007:
8001:
8000:
7984:
7973:
7964:
7963:
7941:Deep Down Things
7935:
7929:
7928:
7926:
7924:
7902:
7896:
7895:
7869:
7849:
7848:
7847:
7846:
7837:
7836:
7824:
7818:
7817:
7815:
7781:
7775:
7774:
7772:
7744:
7731:
7725:
7724:
7722:
7720:
7697:
7691:
7690:
7673:World Scientific
7670:
7660:
7654:
7653:
7631:
7625:
7624:
7622:
7620:
7609:
7603:
7602:
7580:
7574:
7573:
7571:
7562:
7556:
7555:
7533:
7527:
7526:
7524:
7522:
7508:. Head of Zeus.
7499:
7493:
7492:
7490:
7488:
7465:
7459:
7458:
7453:
7451:
7431:World Scientific
7428:
7418:
7412:
7411:
7383:
7377:
7376:
7356:
7346:
7337:
7336:
7316:
7306:
7300:
7299:
7277:
7271:
7270:
7248:
7242:
7241:
7239:
7237:
7228:
7219:
7213:
7212:
7210:
7208:
7193:
7187:
7186:
7184:
7182:
7167:
7161:
7160:
7158:
7156:
7140:
7134:
7133:
7109:
7103:
7102:
7080:
7074:
7073:
7051:
7045:
7044:
7042:
7040:
7028:
7022:
7021:
6993:
6987:
6986:
6984:
6982:
6963:
6957:
6956:
6934:
6928:
6927:
6893:
6872:DĂ Collaboration
6867:
6861:
6860:
6826:
6806:
6805:
6804:
6797:
6796:
6789:
6788:
6787:
6781:
6778:
6777:
6763:
6757:
6756:
6728:
6722:
6721:
6683:
6677:
6676:
6652:
6643:
6642:
6612:
6603:
6602:
6600:
6590:
6556:
6550:
6549:
6529:
6519:
6513:
6512:
6495:(7): 1285â1292.
6482:
6476:
6475:
6458:Particle Physics
6453:
6447:
6446:
6426:
6416:
6410:
6409:
6389:
6379:
6370:
6369:
6343:
6321:
6315:
6314:
6286:
6277:
6271:
6270:
6268:
6266:
6257:. Archived from
6249:J. I. Friedman.
6246:
6240:
6239:
6209:
6203:
6202:
6180:
6174:
6173:
6151:
6145:
6144:
6113:
6091:
6085:
6084:
6063:
6041:
6035:
6034:
6014:
6005:
6004:
5998:
5989:
5980:
5979:
5949:
5940:
5939:
5919:
5909:
5903:
5902:
5880:
5874:
5873:
5855:
5849:
5848:
5820:
5807:
5801:
5800:
5790:
5754:
5741:
5735:
5734:
5724:
5688:
5675:
5669:
5668:
5658:
5640:
5618:
5617:
5601:
5595:
5594:
5560:
5534:
5528:
5527:
5525:
5523:
5504:
5498:
5497:
5463:
5443:
5442:
5441:
5434:
5433:
5425:
5424:
5423:
5416:
5415:
5401:
5395:
5394:
5392:
5374:
5372:astro-ph/0601168
5354:
5341:
5335:
5334:
5314:
5304:
5293:
5292:
5269:Section 6.1. in
5267:
5261:
5260:
5238:
5232:
5231:
5211:
5201:
5195:
5194:
5179:(2nd ed.).
5170:
5164:
5163:
5117:
5108:
5107:
5105:
5063:
5054:
5053:
5051:
5049:
5033:
5024:
5011:
5010:
5008:
5006:
4984:
4975:
4974:
4972:
4970:
4948:
4942:
4941:
4939:
4937:
4915:
4909:
4908:
4906:
4904:
4888:
4873:
4870:
4864:
4847:
4841:
4830:
4824:
4813:
4807:
4805:
4798:
4789:
4788:
4787:
4780:
4779:
4765:
4759:
4752:
4694:
4689:
4688:
4620:
4618:
4614:
4562:
4561:
4560:
4552:
4551:
4539:
4538:
4537:
4531:
4528:
4527:
4520:
4519:
4518:
4511:
4510:
4494:
4493:
4492:
4484:
4483:
4415:As described by
4381:
4379:
4376:
4299:
4293:
4292:
4291:
4285:
4282:
4281:
4254:
4252:
4251:
4248:
4245:
4236:
4234:
4233:
4230:
4227:
4218:
4216:
4215:
4212:
4209:
4201:
4199:
4192:
4191:
4190:
4183:
4182:
4168:
4167:
4166:
4160:
4157:
4156:
4129:
4127:
4126:
4123:
4120:
4111:
4109:
4108:
4105:
4102:
4093:
4091:
4090:
4087:
4084:
4075:
4073:
4070:
4063:
4062:
4061:
4054:
4053:
4037:Third generation
4030:
4029:
4028:
4022:
4019:
4018:
3991:
3989:
3988:
3985:
3982:
3973:
3971:
3970:
3967:
3964:
3955:
3953:
3952:
3949:
3946:
3938:
3936:
3929:
3928:
3927:
3920:
3919:
3905:
3904:
3903:
3897:
3894:
3893:
3866:
3864:
3863:
3860:
3857:
3848:
3846:
3845:
3842:
3839:
3830:
3828:
3827:
3824:
3821:
3813:
3811:
3804:
3803:
3802:
3795:
3794:
3771:
3770:
3769:
3763:
3760:
3759:
3735:
3733:
3732:
3729:
3726:
3717:
3715:
3714:
3711:
3708:
3699:
3697:
3696:
3693:
3690:
3681:
3679:
3678:
3675:
3672:
3663:
3661:
3654:
3653:
3652:
3645:
3644:
3630:
3629:
3628:
3622:
3619:
3618:
3594:
3592:
3591:
3588:
3585:
3576:
3574:
3573:
3570:
3567:
3558:
3556:
3555:
3552:
3549:
3540:
3538:
3537:
3534:
3531:
3522:
3520:
3513:
3512:
3511:
3504:
3503:
3487:First generation
3412:
3398:
3392:
3350:
3348:
3347:
3344:
3341:
3257:
3238:
3231:
3071:gauge symmetries
2917:
2915:
2914:
2909:
2904:
2903:
2838:
2837:
2830:
2825:
2824:
2823:
2810:
2803:
2798:
2797:
2796:
2783:
2776:
2771:
2770:
2769:
2756:
2747:
2742:
2741:
2740:
2727:
2720:
2715:
2714:
2713:
2700:
2693:
2688:
2687:
2686:
2673:
2664:
2659:
2658:
2657:
2644:
2637:
2632:
2631:
2630:
2617:
2610:
2605:
2604:
2603:
2590:
2509:
2508:
2507:
2500:
2497:
2496:
2484:
2483:
2482:
2475:
2474:
2462:
2461:
2460:
2453:
2452:
2445:
2444:
2443:
2436:
2435:
2428:
2427:
2426:
2419:
2418:
2406:
2405:
2404:
2397:
2396:
2389:
2388:
2387:
2380:
2379:
2372:
2371:
2370:
2363:
2362:
2348:
2347:
2346:
2339:
2336:
2335:
2323:
2322:
2321:
2314:
2313:
2301:
2300:
2299:
2292:
2291:
2278:
2277:
2276:
2269:
2268:
2258:
2254:
2253:
2252:
2245:
2244:
2236:
2235:
2234:
2227:
2226:
2219:
2218:
2217:
2210:
2209:
2202:
2201:
2200:
2193:
2192:
2184:
2183:
2182:
2175:
2174:
2163:
2162:
2161:
2154:
2153:
2146:
2145:
2144:
2137:
2136:
2129:
2128:
2127:
2120:
2119:
2111:
2110:
2109:
2102:
2099:
2098:
2086:
2085:
2084:
2077:
2076:
2064:
2063:
2062:
2055:
2054:
2046:
2045:
2044:
2037:
2036:
1994:Weak interaction
1988:Weak interaction
1979:
1977:
1976:
1973:
1970:
1963:
1961:
1960:
1957:
1954:
1947:
1945:
1944:
1941:
1938:
1926:
1924:
1923:
1920:
1917:
1908:
1906:
1905:
1902:
1899:
1890:
1888:
1887:
1884:
1881:
1823:
1821:
1820:
1817:
1814:
1807:
1805:
1804:
1801:
1798:
1791:
1789:
1788:
1785:
1782:
1774:down-type quarks
1771:
1769:
1768:
1765:
1762:
1747:
1745:
1744:
1741:
1738:
1731:
1729:
1728:
1725:
1722:
1691:beauty factories
1621:
1610:Mark of Cornwall
1519:
1518:
1517:
1510:
1509:
1500:
1496:
1460:Makoto Kobayashi
1434:
1433:
1432:
1425:
1424:
1412:
1411:
1410:
1403:
1402:
1379:
1378:
1377:
1369:
1368:
1305:weak interaction
1238:Murray Gell-Mann
1149:
1148:
1147:
1141:
1138:
1137:
1130:
1129:
1128:
1121:
1120:
1113:
1112:
1111:
1104:
1103:
1096:
1095:
1094:
1087:
1086:
1079:
1078:
1077:
1070:
1069:
1057:
1056:
1055:
1049:
1046:
1045:
1038:
1037:
1036:
1030:
1027:
1026:
1019:
1018:
1017:
1010:
1009:
1002:
1001:
1000:
993:
992:
979:"exotic" hadrons
888:
886:
885:
882:
879:
855:
854:
853:
847:
844:
843:
827:
826:
825:
818:
817:
805:
804:
803:
796:
795:
783:
782:
781:
774:
773:
761:
760:
759:
752:
751:
739:
738:
737:
730:
729:
717:
716:
715:
708:
707:
695:
694:
693:
686:
685:
616:Murray Gell-Mann
528:weak interaction
516:electromagnetism
510:, also known as
504:particle physics
421:
420:
417:
416:
413:
410:
407:
402:
401:
398:
395:
392:
374:
372:
371:
368:
365:
344:
342:
341:
338:
335:
304:
302:
301:
298:
295:
282:
280:
279:
276:
273:
224:
221:
196:Murray Gell-Mann
183:
182:
181:
175:
172:
171:
154:
153:
152:
145:
144:
69:color assignment
49:
42:
38:
21:
10691:
10690:
10686:
10685:
10684:
10682:
10681:
10680:
10656:
10655:
10654:
10649:
10625:Symphony No. 1
10589:
10538:
10510:
10498:The New Science
10491:Finnegan's Wake
10473:
10461:
10431:
10426:
10391:
10385:
10355:
10350:
10334:
10288:Nuclear physics
10237:
10201:
10137:Davydov soliton
10110:
10075:
10049:
10010:
9938:
9910:
9837:
9746:
9646:
9605:
9559:
9537:
9519:
9478:
9398:
9307:
9302:
9225:
9215:
9187:
9157:
9147:Springer-Verlag
9131:
9105:
9075:
9047:
9029:D. J. Griffiths
8952:
8950:Further reading
8947:
8940:
8914:
8910:
8903:
8885:
8881:
8871:
8869:
8856:
8855:
8851:
8843:nucl-th/0002042
8834:
8830:
8804:hep-lat/0402006
8781:
8777:
8759:nucl-th/9905005
8740:
8736:
8685:
8681:
8630:
8626:
8619:
8611:. p. 149.
8601:
8597:
8590:
8564:
8560:
8542:
8532:
8528:
8521:
8503:
8499:
8492:
8466:
8462:
8455:
8437:
8433:
8426:
8400:
8396:
8389:
8363:
8359:
8352:
8328:
8324:
8305:
8304:
8300:
8293:
8275:
8271:
8264:
8238:
8234:
8227:
8209:
8205:
8144:
8135:
8128:
8110:
8106:
8096:
8094:
8082:
8078:
8071:
8045:
8041:
8034:
8008:
8004:
7997:
7974:
7967:
7960:
7936:
7932:
7922:
7920:
7903:
7899:
7844:
7842:
7841:
7839:
7835:
7832:
7831:
7830:
7828:
7825:
7821:
7782:
7778:
7742:
7732:
7728:
7718:
7716:
7699:
7698:
7694:
7687:
7661:
7657:
7650:
7632:
7628:
7618:
7616:
7611:
7610:
7606:
7599:
7581:
7577:
7569:
7563:
7559:
7552:
7544:. p. 133.
7534:
7530:
7520:
7518:
7516:
7500:
7496:
7486:
7484:
7482:
7468:N. Mee (2012).
7466:
7462:
7449:
7447:
7445:
7419:
7415:
7408:
7384:
7380:
7373:
7347:
7340:
7333:
7307:
7303:
7296:
7288:. p. 390.
7278:
7274:
7267:
7259:. p. 180.
7249:
7245:
7235:
7233:
7226:
7220:
7216:
7206:
7204:
7194:
7190:
7180:
7178:
7168:
7164:
7154:
7152:
7149:Merriam-Webster
7142:
7141:
7137:
7130:
7110:
7106:
7099:
7081:
7077:
7070:
7062:. p. 345.
7052:
7048:
7038:
7036:
7030:
7029:
7025:
7018:
6994:
6990:
6980:
6978:
6977:on 5 March 2016
6965:
6964:
6960:
6953:
6945:. p. 144.
6935:
6931:
6868:
6864:
6803:
6801:
6800:
6799:
6795:
6793:
6792:
6791:
6790:
6786:
6784:
6783:
6782:
6779:
6776:
6774:
6773:
6772:
6771:
6764:
6760:
6753:
6729:
6725:
6684:
6680:
6673:
6653:
6646:
6613:
6606:
6557:
6553:
6546:
6520:
6516:
6483:
6479:
6472:
6454:
6450:
6443:
6417:
6413:
6406:
6380:
6373:
6322:
6318:
6284:
6278:
6274:
6264:
6262:
6247:
6243:
6215:Physics Letters
6210:
6206:
6199:
6181:
6177:
6170:
6162:. p. 673.
6152:
6148:
6120:Nuclear Physics
6114:
6110:
6092:
6088:
6081:10.2172/4008239
6064:
6060:
6042:
6038:
6015:
6008:
5996:
5990:
5983:
5955:Physics Letters
5950:
5943:
5936:
5910:
5906:
5899:
5881:
5877:
5865:Popular Science
5856:
5852:
5818:
5808:
5804:
5752:
5742:
5738:
5686:
5676:
5672:
5616:
5613:
5612:
5611:
5602:
5598:
5535:
5531:
5521:
5519:
5506:
5505:
5501:
5440:
5438:
5437:
5436:
5432:
5430:
5429:
5428:
5427:
5422:
5420:
5419:
5418:
5414:
5412:
5411:
5410:
5409:
5402:
5398:
5352:
5342:
5338:
5331:
5305:
5296:
5289:
5268:
5264:
5257:
5239:
5235:
5228:
5202:
5198:
5191:
5171:
5167:
5130:(16): 935â939.
5118:
5111:
5088:(16): 930â934.
5064:
5057:
5047:
5045:
5031:
5025:
5014:
5004:
5002:
4985:
4978:
4968:
4966:
4949:
4945:
4935:
4933:
4916:
4912:
4902:
4900:
4890:
4889:
4885:
4881:
4876:
4871:
4867:
4862:
4848:
4844:
4831:
4827:
4814:
4810:
4800:
4793:
4786:
4784:
4783:
4782:
4778:
4776:
4775:
4774:
4773:
4769:resonance width
4766:
4762:
4753:
4749:
4745:
4740:
4701:
4690:
4683:
4672:
4616:
4612:
4610:
4580:
4574:
4559:
4556:
4555:
4554:
4550:
4548:
4547:
4546:
4545:
4536:
4534:
4533:
4532:
4529:
4526:
4524:
4523:
4522:
4521:
4517:
4515:
4514:
4513:
4509:
4507:
4506:
4505:
4504:
4497:quantum numbers
4491:
4488:
4487:
4486:
4482:
4480:
4479:
4478:
4477:
4468:
4413:
4403:
4398:
4385:
4377:
4374:
4372:
4370:
4369:
4331:
4325:
4322:electric charge
4300:
4290:
4288:
4287:
4286:
4283:
4280:
4278:
4277:
4276:
4275:
4249:
4246:
4243:
4242:
4240:
4231:
4228:
4225:
4224:
4222:
4213:
4210:
4207:
4206:
4204:
4197:
4195:
4189:
4187:
4186:
4185:
4181:
4179:
4178:
4177:
4176:
4165:
4163:
4162:
4161:
4158:
4155:
4153:
4152:
4151:
4150:
4124:
4121:
4118:
4117:
4115:
4106:
4103:
4100:
4099:
4097:
4088:
4085:
4082:
4081:
4079:
4071:
4068:
4066:
4060:
4058:
4057:
4056:
4052:
4050:
4049:
4048:
4047:
4027:
4025:
4024:
4023:
4020:
4017:
4015:
4014:
4013:
4012:
3986:
3983:
3980:
3979:
3977:
3968:
3965:
3962:
3961:
3959:
3950:
3947:
3944:
3943:
3941:
3934:
3932:
3926:
3924:
3923:
3922:
3918:
3916:
3915:
3914:
3913:
3902:
3900:
3899:
3898:
3895:
3892:
3890:
3889:
3888:
3887:
3861:
3858:
3855:
3854:
3852:
3843:
3840:
3837:
3836:
3834:
3825:
3822:
3819:
3818:
3816:
3809:
3807:
3801:
3799:
3798:
3797:
3793:
3791:
3790:
3789:
3788:
3768:
3766:
3765:
3764:
3761:
3758:
3756:
3755:
3754:
3753:
3730:
3727:
3724:
3723:
3721:
3712:
3709:
3706:
3705:
3703:
3694:
3691:
3688:
3687:
3685:
3676:
3673:
3670:
3669:
3667:
3659:
3657:
3651:
3649:
3648:
3647:
3643:
3641:
3640:
3639:
3638:
3627:
3625:
3624:
3623:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3614:
3613:
3612:
3589:
3586:
3583:
3582:
3580:
3571:
3568:
3565:
3564:
3562:
3553:
3550:
3547:
3546:
3544:
3535:
3532:
3529:
3528:
3526:
3518:
3516:
3510:
3508:
3507:
3506:
3502:
3500:
3499:
3498:
3497:
3443:
3405:
3365:
3345:
3342:
3339:
3338:
3336:
3294:
3278:
3272:
3264:
3252:
3245:Higgs mechanism
3233:
3223:
3190:
3164:
3149:
3145:
3133:
3126:
3119:
3104:
3088:
3054:model in basic
2961:
2951:
2929:
2898:
2897:
2892:
2887:
2881:
2880:
2875:
2870:
2864:
2863:
2858:
2853:
2843:
2842:
2832:
2831:
2826:
2816:
2815:
2811:
2806:
2804:
2799:
2789:
2788:
2784:
2779:
2777:
2772:
2762:
2761:
2757:
2752:
2749:
2748:
2743:
2733:
2732:
2728:
2723:
2721:
2716:
2706:
2705:
2701:
2696:
2694:
2689:
2679:
2678:
2674:
2669:
2666:
2665:
2660:
2650:
2649:
2645:
2640:
2638:
2633:
2623:
2622:
2618:
2613:
2611:
2606:
2596:
2595:
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2003:Feynman diagram
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1726:
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1708:Electric charge
1704:
1702:Electric charge
1699:
1636:farmers' market
1597:
1594:
1592:
1570:
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1440:John Iliopoulos
1431:
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1364:
1363:
1362:
1351:Jerome Friedman
1335:Richard Feynman
1293:Sheldon Glashow
1255:flavor symmetry
1214:
1195:Planck distance
1146:
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971:list of baryons
939:quantum numbers
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484:electric charge
422:) is a type of
404:
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125:electromagnetic
72:
35:
28:
23:
22:
15:
12:
11:
5:
10689:
10679:
10678:
10676:Finnegans Wake
10673:
10668:
10651:
10650:
10648:
10647:
10639:
10631:
10622:
10614:
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10597:
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10494:
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10475:
10474:
10469:Finnegans Wake
10460:
10459:
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10437:
10428:
10427:
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10424:
10418:
10396:
10393:
10392:
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10347:Physics portal
10339:
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10275:
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10261:Standard Model
10258:
10257:
10256:
10245:
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10239:
10238:
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10228:Quasiparticles
10225:
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10124:Quasiparticles
10120:
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10116:
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10111:
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10103:
10098:
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10087:
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9950:
9948:
9944:
9943:
9940:
9939:
9937:
9936:
9931:
9920:
9918:
9916:Exotic hadrons
9912:
9911:
9909:
9908:
9903:
9898:
9893:
9888:
9883:
9878:
9873:
9868:
9863:
9858:
9853:
9847:
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9830:
9825:
9820:
9815:
9810:
9809:
9808:
9803:
9798:
9793:
9782:
9780:
9771:
9762:
9756:
9755:
9752:
9751:
9748:
9747:
9745:
9744:
9742:X and Y bosons
9739:
9734:
9729:
9724:
9719:
9714:
9709:
9704:
9699:
9694:
9689:
9684:
9679:
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9543:
9542:
9539:
9538:
9536:
9535:
9529:
9527:
9521:
9520:
9518:
9517:
9515:W and Z bosons
9512:
9507:
9501:
9499:
9490:
9484:
9483:
9480:
9479:
9477:
9476:
9475:
9474:
9469:
9464:
9459:
9454:
9449:
9439:
9434:
9429:
9424:
9419:
9414:
9408:
9406:
9400:
9399:
9397:
9396:
9391:
9386:
9381:
9376:
9371:
9369:Strange (quark
9366:
9361:
9356:
9351:
9346:
9341:
9335:
9333:
9324:
9315:
9309:
9308:
9301:
9300:
9293:
9286:
9278:
9272:
9271:
9266:
9261:
9251:
9246:
9241:
9236:
9231:
9224:
9223:External links
9221:
9220:
9219:
9213:
9191:
9185:
9161:
9155:
9135:
9129:
9109:
9103:
9079:
9073:
9051:
9045:
9025:
9002:
8951:
8948:
8946:
8945:
8938:
8908:
8901:
8895:. p. 75.
8879:
8849:
8828:
8775:
8734:
8679:
8649:hep-ph/0503184
8624:
8617:
8595:
8588:
8558:
8526:
8519:
8513:. p. 55.
8497:
8490:
8460:
8453:
8431:
8424:
8394:
8387:
8357:
8350:
8322:
8298:
8291:
8285:. p. VI.
8269:
8262:
8232:
8225:
8203:
8133:
8126:
8104:
8076:
8069:
8039:
8032:
8002:
7995:
7987:AddisonâWesley
7965:
7958:
7930:
7897:
7867:hep-ph/0605032
7860:(3): 573â578.
7833:
7819:
7776:
7755:(7A): 075021.
7726:
7692:
7685:
7655:
7648:
7626:
7604:
7597:
7591:. p. 91.
7575:
7557:
7550:
7528:
7514:
7494:
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7443:
7413:
7406:
7378:
7371:
7338:
7331:
7319:AddisonâWesley
7301:
7294:
7272:
7265:
7243:
7214:
7188:
7162:
7135:
7128:
7122:. p. 71.
7104:
7097:
7091:. p. 99.
7075:
7068:
7046:
7023:
7016:
6999:Finnegans Wake
6988:
6958:
6951:
6929:
6891:hep-ex/9503003
6862:
6824:hep-ex/9503002
6802:
6794:
6785:
6775:
6758:
6751:
6723:
6678:
6671:
6644:
6604:
6573:(2): 652â657.
6551:
6544:
6514:
6477:
6470:
6448:
6441:
6429:AddisonâWesley
6411:
6404:
6371:
6341:hep-ph/0307022
6334:(11): 114005.
6316:
6272:
6255:Huáşż University
6241:
6222:(3): 255â257.
6204:
6197:
6175:
6168:
6146:
6108:
6100:Westview Press
6086:
6058:
6052:. p. 11.
6050:Westview Press
6036:
6033:. CERN-TH-412.
6006:
6003:. CERN-TH-401.
5981:
5962:(3): 214â215.
5941:
5934:
5904:
5897:
5875:
5850:
5802:
5788:1854/LU-685594
5736:
5722:1854/LU-685594
5670:
5619:âJ/ĎKp Decays"
5614:
5596:
5551:(22): 222002.
5529:
5499:
5454:(14): 142001.
5439:
5431:
5421:
5413:
5396:
5336:
5329:
5294:
5287:
5262:
5255:
5249:. p. 98.
5233:
5226:
5196:
5189:
5183:. p. 30.
5165:
5109:
5055:
5012:
4976:
4943:
4910:
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4880:
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4875:
4874:
4865:
4857:
4851:decay products
4842:
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4760:
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4733:
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4708:
4702:
4700:
4697:
4696:
4695:
4692:Physics portal
4670:
4576:Main article:
4573:
4570:
4557:
4549:
4535:
4525:
4516:
4508:
4489:
4481:
4473:valence quarks
4467:
4464:
4402:
4399:
4329:
4298:
4295:
4294:
4289:
4279:
4273:
4270:
4267:
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3292:
3271:
3268:
3263:
3260:
3211:particle field
3188:Invariant mass
3163:
3160:
3147:
3143:
3140:representation
3131:
3124:
3117:
3102:
3086:
3079:gauge theories
3075:symmetry group
3052:additive color
2950:
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2159:
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2142:
2134:
2125:
2117:
2106:
2096:
2082:
2074:
2060:
2052:
2042:
2034:
1992:Main article:
1989:
1986:
1839:Spin (physics)
1834:
1831:
1754:up-type quarks
1703:
1700:
1698:
1695:
1657:Finnegans Wake
1589:
1583:Finnegans Wake
1569:
1566:
1515:
1507:
1479:Burton Richter
1446:presented the
1444:Luciano Maiani
1430:
1422:
1408:
1400:
1374:
1366:
1343:Richard Taylor
1213:
1210:
1145:
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1101:
1092:
1084:
1075:
1067:
1053:
1043:
1034:
1024:
1015:
1007:
998:
990:
975:list of mesons
967:atomic nucleus
943:valence quarks
851:
841:
823:
815:
801:
793:
779:
771:
757:
749:
735:
727:
713:
705:
691:
683:
668:Standard Model
654:Standard Model
644:Standard Model
639:
638:Classification
636:
599:, known as an
577:particle decay
500:Standard Model
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150:
142:
136:
132:
131:
114:
108:
107:
104:
98:
97:
92:
86:
85:
80:
74:
73:
50:
26:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
10688:
10677:
10674:
10672:
10669:
10667:
10664:
10663:
10661:
10645:
10644:
10640:
10637:
10636:
10632:
10629:
10628:
10623:
10620:
10619:
10615:
10612:
10611:
10610:Bitter Ending
10607:
10604:
10603:
10599:
10598:
10596:
10592:
10585:
10584:
10580:
10577:
10576:
10572:
10569:
10568:
10564:
10561:
10560:
10556:
10553:
10552:
10548:
10547:
10545:
10541:
10535:
10532:
10530:
10527:
10524:
10520:
10519:
10517:
10513:
10507:
10506:
10502:
10500:
10499:
10495:
10492:
10488:
10486:
10483:
10482:
10480:
10476:
10471:
10470:
10465:
10458:
10453:
10451:
10446:
10444:
10439:
10438:
10435:
10422:
10419:
10417:
10413:
10409:
10405:
10401:
10398:
10397:
10394:
10390:
10382:
10377:
10375:
10370:
10368:
10363:
10362:
10359:
10349:
10348:
10343:
10337:
10331:
10328:
10326:
10323:
10321:
10318:
10316:
10313:
10311:
10308:
10306:
10305:Exotic matter
10303:
10299:
10296:
10295:
10294:
10293:Eightfold way
10291:
10289:
10286:
10284:
10283:Antiparticles
10281:
10279:
10276:
10274:
10271:
10267:
10264:
10263:
10262:
10259:
10255:
10252:
10251:
10250:
10247:
10246:
10244:
10240:
10234:
10231:
10229:
10226:
10224:
10221:
10219:
10216:
10214:
10211:
10210:
10208:
10204:
10198:
10195:
10193:
10190:
10188:
10185:
10183:
10180:
10178:
10175:
10173:
10170:
10168:
10165:
10163:
10160:
10158:
10155:
10153:
10150:
10148:
10145:
10143:
10140:
10138:
10135:
10133:
10130:
10129:
10127:
10125:
10121:
10107:
10104:
10102:
10099:
10097:
10094:
10092:
10089:
10088:
10086:
10082:
10072:
10069:
10067:
10064:
10062:
10059:
10058:
10056:
10052:
10046:
10043:
10041:
10038:
10036:
10033:
10032:
10030:
10026:
10022:
10019:
10017:
10013:
10007:
10004:
10002:
9999:
9995:
9992:
9990:
9987:
9985:
9982:
9980:
9977:
9975:
9972:
9970:
9967:
9966:
9965:
9962:
9960:
9957:
9955:
9954:Atomic nuclei
9952:
9951:
9949:
9945:
9935:
9932:
9929:
9925:
9922:
9921:
9919:
9917:
9913:
9907:
9904:
9902:
9899:
9897:
9894:
9892:
9889:
9887:
9886:Upsilon meson
9884:
9882:
9879:
9877:
9874:
9872:
9869:
9867:
9864:
9862:
9859:
9857:
9854:
9852:
9849:
9848:
9846:
9844:
9840:
9834:
9831:
9829:
9826:
9824:
9821:
9819:
9818:Lambda baryon
9816:
9814:
9811:
9807:
9804:
9802:
9799:
9797:
9794:
9792:
9789:
9788:
9787:
9784:
9783:
9781:
9779:
9775:
9772:
9770:
9766:
9763:
9761:
9757:
9743:
9740:
9738:
9735:
9733:
9730:
9728:
9725:
9723:
9720:
9718:
9715:
9713:
9710:
9708:
9705:
9703:
9700:
9698:
9695:
9693:
9690:
9688:
9685:
9683:
9680:
9678:
9677:Dual graviton
9675:
9673:
9670:
9668:
9665:
9663:
9660:
9659:
9657:
9653:
9642:
9638:
9635:
9633:
9630:
9628:
9625:
9623:
9620:
9618:
9615:
9614:
9612:
9608:
9602:
9599:
9597:
9594:
9592:
9589:
9588:
9586:
9584:
9580:
9577:
9575:
9574:Superpartners
9571:
9568:
9566:
9562:
9556:
9553:
9552:
9550:
9548:
9544:
9534:
9531:
9530:
9528:
9526:
9522:
9516:
9513:
9511:
9508:
9506:
9503:
9502:
9500:
9498:
9494:
9491:
9489:
9485:
9473:
9470:
9468:
9465:
9463:
9460:
9458:
9457:Muon neutrino
9455:
9453:
9450:
9448:
9445:
9444:
9443:
9440:
9438:
9435:
9433:
9430:
9428:
9425:
9423:
9420:
9418:
9415:
9413:
9410:
9409:
9407:
9405:
9401:
9395:
9392:
9390:
9389:Bottom (quark
9387:
9385:
9382:
9380:
9377:
9375:
9372:
9370:
9367:
9365:
9362:
9360:
9357:
9355:
9352:
9350:
9347:
9345:
9342:
9340:
9337:
9336:
9334:
9332:
9328:
9325:
9323:
9319:
9316:
9314:
9310:
9306:
9299:
9294:
9292:
9287:
9285:
9280:
9279:
9276:
9270:
9267:
9265:
9262:
9259:
9255:
9252:
9250:
9247:
9245:
9242:
9240:
9237:
9235:
9232:
9230:
9227:
9226:
9216:
9210:
9206:
9202:
9201:
9196:
9192:
9188:
9182:
9178:
9173:
9172:
9166:
9162:
9158:
9152:
9148:
9144:
9140:
9136:
9132:
9126:
9122:
9118:
9114:
9110:
9106:
9100:
9096:
9091:
9090:
9084:
9080:
9076:
9070:
9066:
9062:
9061:
9056:
9052:
9048:
9042:
9038:
9034:
9030:
9026:
9022:
9018:
9014:
9013:
9012:Sixty Symbols
9008:
9003:
8999:
8995:
8991:
8987:
8983:
8979:
8974:
8969:
8965:
8961:
8960:
8954:
8953:
8941:
8935:
8931:
8927:
8922:
8921:
8912:
8904:
8898:
8894:
8890:
8883:
8867:
8863:
8859:
8853:
8844:
8839:
8832:
8823:
8818:
8814:
8810:
8805:
8800:
8796:
8792:
8791:
8786:
8779:
8770:
8765:
8760:
8755:
8751:
8747:
8746:
8738:
8730:
8726:
8722:
8718:
8714:
8710:
8705:
8700:
8696:
8692:
8691:
8683:
8675:
8671:
8667:
8663:
8659:
8655:
8650:
8645:
8642:(3): 034003.
8641:
8637:
8636:
8628:
8620:
8614:
8610:
8606:
8599:
8591:
8585:
8581:
8577:
8572:
8571:
8562:
8554:
8550:
8549:
8541:
8537:
8530:
8522:
8516:
8512:
8508:
8501:
8493:
8487:
8483:
8479:
8474:
8473:
8464:
8456:
8450:
8446:
8442:
8435:
8427:
8421:
8417:
8413:
8408:
8407:
8398:
8390:
8384:
8380:
8376:
8371:
8370:
8361:
8353:
8347:
8343:
8339:
8335:
8334:
8326:
8318:
8317:
8312:
8310:
8302:
8294:
8288:
8284:
8280:
8273:
8265:
8259:
8255:
8251:
8246:
8245:
8236:
8228:
8222:
8218:
8214:
8207:
8199:
8195:
8190:
8185:
8181:
8177:
8172:
8167:
8163:
8159:
8158:
8153:
8149:
8142:
8140:
8138:
8129:
8123:
8119:
8115:
8108:
8093:
8092:
8087:
8080:
8072:
8066:
8062:
8058:
8053:
8052:
8043:
8035:
8029:
8025:
8021:
8016:
8015:
8006:
7998:
7992:
7988:
7983:
7982:
7972:
7970:
7961:
7955:
7951:
7947:
7943:
7942:
7934:
7918:
7914:
7913:
7908:
7901:
7893:
7889:
7885:
7881:
7877:
7873:
7868:
7863:
7859:
7855:
7854:
7823:
7814:
7809:
7805:
7801:
7797:
7793:
7792:
7787:
7780:
7771:
7766:
7762:
7758:
7754:
7750:
7749:
7741:
7737:
7730:
7714:
7710:
7706:
7702:
7696:
7688:
7682:
7678:
7674:
7669:
7668:
7659:
7651:
7645:
7641:
7637:
7630:
7614:
7608:
7600:
7594:
7590:
7586:
7579:
7568:
7561:
7553:
7547:
7543:
7539:
7532:
7517:
7511:
7507:
7506:
7498:
7483:
7477:
7473:
7472:
7464:
7457:
7446:
7440:
7436:
7432:
7427:
7426:
7417:
7409:
7403:
7399:
7395:
7391:
7390:
7382:
7374:
7368:
7364:
7360:
7355:
7354:
7345:
7343:
7334:
7328:
7324:
7320:
7315:
7314:
7305:
7297:
7291:
7287:
7283:
7276:
7268:
7262:
7258:
7254:
7247:
7232:
7225:
7218:
7203:
7199:
7192:
7177:
7173:
7166:
7151:
7150:
7145:
7139:
7131:
7125:
7121:
7117:
7116:
7108:
7100:
7094:
7090:
7086:
7079:
7071:
7065:
7061:
7057:
7050:
7035:
7034:
7027:
7019:
7013:
7009:
7005:
7004:Penguin Books
7001:
7000:
6992:
6976:
6972:
6968:
6962:
6954:
6948:
6944:
6940:
6933:
6925:
6921:
6917:
6913:
6909:
6905:
6901:
6897:
6892:
6887:
6883:
6879:
6878:
6873:
6866:
6858:
6854:
6850:
6846:
6842:
6838:
6834:
6830:
6825:
6820:
6816:
6812:
6811:
6769:
6762:
6754:
6748:
6744:
6740:
6736:
6735:
6727:
6719:
6715:
6711:
6707:
6703:
6699:
6695:
6691:
6690:
6682:
6674:
6668:
6664:
6660:
6659:
6651:
6649:
6640:
6636:
6632:
6628:
6624:
6620:
6619:
6611:
6609:
6599:
6594:
6589:
6584:
6580:
6576:
6572:
6568:
6567:
6562:
6555:
6547:
6541:
6537:
6533:
6528:
6527:
6518:
6510:
6506:
6502:
6498:
6494:
6490:
6489:
6481:
6473:
6467:
6464:. p. 2.
6463:
6459:
6452:
6444:
6438:
6434:
6430:
6425:
6424:
6415:
6407:
6401:
6397:
6393:
6388:
6387:
6378:
6376:
6367:
6363:
6359:
6355:
6351:
6347:
6342:
6337:
6333:
6329:
6328:
6320:
6312:
6308:
6304:
6300:
6296:
6292:
6291:
6283:
6276:
6260:
6256:
6252:
6245:
6237:
6233:
6229:
6225:
6221:
6217:
6216:
6208:
6200:
6194:
6190:
6186:
6179:
6171:
6165:
6161:
6157:
6150:
6142:
6138:
6134:
6130:
6126:
6122:
6121:
6111:
6105:
6101:
6097:
6090:
6082:
6078:
6074:
6070:
6061:
6055:
6051:
6047:
6040:
6032:
6028:
6024:
6020:
6013:
6011:
6002:
5995:
5988:
5986:
5977:
5973:
5969:
5965:
5961:
5957:
5956:
5948:
5946:
5937:
5931:
5927:
5923:
5918:
5917:
5908:
5900:
5894:
5890:
5886:
5879:
5871:
5867:
5866:
5861:
5854:
5846:
5842:
5838:
5834:
5830:
5826:
5825:
5817:
5813:
5806:
5798:
5794:
5789:
5784:
5780:
5776:
5772:
5768:
5765:(1): 1â1340.
5764:
5760:
5759:
5751:
5747:
5740:
5732:
5728:
5723:
5718:
5714:
5710:
5706:
5702:
5699:(1): 1â1340.
5698:
5694:
5693:
5685:
5681:
5674:
5666:
5662:
5657:
5652:
5648:
5644:
5639:
5634:
5631:(7): 072001.
5630:
5626:
5625:
5620:
5607:
5600:
5592:
5588:
5584:
5580:
5576:
5572:
5568:
5564:
5559:
5554:
5550:
5546:
5545:
5540:
5533:
5517:
5513:
5509:
5503:
5495:
5491:
5487:
5483:
5479:
5475:
5471:
5467:
5462:
5457:
5453:
5449:
5448:
5407:
5400:
5391:
5386:
5382:
5378:
5373:
5368:
5365:(1): 1â1232.
5364:
5360:
5359:
5351:
5347:
5340:
5332:
5326:
5322:
5318:
5313:
5312:
5303:
5301:
5299:
5290:
5284:
5280:
5276:
5275:
5266:
5258:
5252:
5248:
5244:
5237:
5229:
5223:
5219:
5215:
5210:
5209:
5200:
5192:
5186:
5182:
5178:
5177:
5169:
5161:
5157:
5153:
5149:
5145:
5141:
5137:
5133:
5129:
5125:
5124:
5116:
5114:
5104:
5099:
5095:
5091:
5087:
5083:
5082:
5077:
5075:
5071:
5062:
5060:
5043:
5039:
5038:
5030:
5023:
5021:
5019:
5017:
5000:
4996:
4995:
4990:
4983:
4981:
4964:
4960:
4959:
4954:
4947:
4931:
4927:
4926:
4921:
4914:
4899:
4898:
4893:
4887:
4883:
4869:
4860:
4856:
4852:
4846:
4839:
4836:' 1819 poem "
4835:
4829:
4822:
4818:
4812:
4804:
4797:
4791:
4770:
4764:
4757:
4751:
4747:
4737:
4734:
4732:
4729:
4727:
4724:
4722:
4719:
4717:
4714:
4712:
4711:Koide formula
4709:
4707:
4704:
4703:
4693:
4687:
4682:
4680:
4678:
4674:
4666:
4662:
4658:
4654:
4653:neutron stars
4649:
4647:
4643:
4637:
4635:
4631:
4627:
4623:
4607:
4605:
4601:
4597:
4589:
4588:phase diagram
4584:
4579:
4569:
4566:
4543:
4502:
4498:
4475:
4474:
4463:
4461:
4460:hadronization
4457:
4456:
4451:
4447:
4446:
4440:
4437:
4433:
4429:
4426:
4422:
4418:
4412:
4408:
4395:
4391:
4387:
4367:
4363:
4359:
4355:
4351:
4347:
4343:
4339:
4335:
4328:
4323:
4319:
4315:
4314:baryon number
4311:
4307:
4303:
4274:
4271:
4268:
4265:
4262:
4259:
4256:
4238:
4220:
4203:
4194:
4175:
4172:
4171:
4149:
4146:
4143:
4140:
4137:
4134:
4131:
4113:
4095:
4078:
4065:
4046:
4043:
4042:
4039:
4038:
4033:
4011:
4008:
4005:
4002:
3999:
3996:
3993:
3975:
3957:
3940:
3931:
3912:
3909:
3908:
3886:
3883:
3880:
3877:
3874:
3871:
3868:
3850:
3832:
3815:
3806:
3787:
3784:
3783:
3780:
3779:
3774:
3752:
3749:
3746:
3743:
3740:
3737:
3719:
3701:
3683:
3666:
3656:
3637:
3634:
3633:
3611:
3608:
3605:
3602:
3599:
3596:
3578:
3560:
3542:
3525:
3515:
3496:
3493:
3492:
3489:
3488:
3483:
3479:
3476:
3473:
3470:
3469:
3466:Antiparticle
3463:
3458:
3453:
3448:
3440:
3434:
3433:
3428:
3423:
3418:
3411:
3410:
3399:
3396:
3391:
3389:
3385:
3381:
3377:
3373:
3369:
3362:
3358:
3354:
3334:
3330:
3329:baryon number
3326:
3322:
3318:
3314:
3310:
3306:
3302:
3298:
3291:
3287:
3283:
3277:
3267:
3259:
3256:
3253:173 GeV/
3250:
3246:
3242:
3237:
3230:
3229:
3221:
3217:
3212:
3209:
3205:
3203:
3198:
3196:
3195:current quark
3189:
3181:
3177:
3173:
3168:
3159:
3157:
3153:
3141:
3137:
3136:quantum field
3130:
3123:
3116:
3112:
3108:
3107:complex space
3100:
3096:
3092:
3084:
3080:
3076:
3072:
3067:
3065:
3061:
3057:
3053:
3049:
3045:
3041:
3037:
3033:
3029:
3028:
3023:
3019:
3014:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2987:
2982:
2979:According to
2973:
2965:
2960:
2956:
2946:
2944:
2939:
2937:
2933:
2928:
2924:
2905:
2900:
2894:
2889:
2884:
2877:
2872:
2867:
2860:
2855:
2850:
2844:
2839:
2834:
2812:
2785:
2758:
2729:
2702:
2675:
2646:
2619:
2592:
2580:
2571:
2570:
2569:
2567:
2563:
2559:
2556:, called the
2555:
2546:
2542:
2537:
2533:
2531:
2527:
2523:
2522:
2511:
2489:
2486:
2467:
2464:
2411:
2408:
2355:
2354:
2350:
2328:
2325:
2306:
2303:
2283:
2280:
2260:
2259:
2256:
2167:
2090:
2068:
2028:
2024:
2020:
2016:
2008:
2004:
2000:
1995:
1985:
1983:
1931:
1927:
1898:
1880:
1872:
1868:
1865:
1861:
1856:
1854:
1850:
1846:
1840:
1830:
1827:
1775:
1755:
1751:
1715:
1709:
1694:
1692:
1687:
1683:
1678:
1676:
1670:
1668:
1667:
1662:
1658:
1651:
1649:
1645:
1641:
1637:
1633:
1632:a curd cheese
1629:
1625:
1620:
1615:
1611:
1607:
1603:
1596:
1587:
1585:
1584:
1580:'s 1939 book
1579:
1575:
1565:
1563:
1559:
1555:
1551:
1550:Leon Lederman
1547:
1542:
1540:
1539:
1534:
1533:
1528:
1523:
1521:
1492:
1488:
1484:
1481:, and one at
1480:
1476:
1471:
1469:
1465:
1461:
1457:
1453:
1449:
1448:GIM mechanism
1445:
1441:
1436:
1416:
1394:
1385:
1381:
1358:
1354:
1352:
1348:
1347:Henry Kendall
1344:
1340:
1336:
1332:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1314:
1310:
1306:
1302:
1298:
1297:James Bjorken
1294:
1289:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1275:
1271:
1266:
1264:
1260:
1259:Yuval Ne'eman
1256:
1253:
1249:
1248:
1247:Eightfold Way
1243:
1239:
1235:
1226:
1218:
1209:
1207:
1202:
1200:
1196:
1192:
1191:Planck energy
1187:
1182:
1180:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1156:
1151:
1061:
984:
980:
976:
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
935:
933:
932:
927:
926:
921:
917:
913:
909:
905:
904:quantum state
901:
897:
893:
889:
869:
867:
863:
862:mean lifetime
859:
835:
831:
830:Antiparticles
809:
787:
765:
743:
721:
699:
677:
673:
669:
661:
660:
655:
650:
645:
635:
633:
629:
625:
621:
617:
613:
608:
606:
602:
598:
594:
590:
586:
582:
578:
574:
570:
566:
562:
558:
554:
550:
547:, of quarks:
546:
545:
539:
537:
533:
529:
525:
521:
517:
513:
509:
505:
501:
497:
493:
489:
485:
481:
478:
473:
471:
467:
463:
459:
458:
453:
449:
448:atomic nuclei
445:
441:
437:
433:
429:
425:
419:
383:
359:
357:
353:
350:
349:
329:
327:
323:
319:
317:
313:
310:
309:
288:
287:
266:
264:
260:
256:
252:
248:
244:
240:
236:
232:
228:
217:
214:
210:
203:
200:
197:
194:
193:
191:
187:
163:
161:
157:
137:
133:
130:
126:
122:
118:
115:
113:
109:
106:1st, 2nd, 3rd
105:
103:
99:
96:
93:
91:
87:
84:
81:
79:
75:
70:
66:
62:
58:
54:
48:
43:
37:
33:
19:
10641:
10633:
10626:
10616:
10608:
10600:
10581:
10573:
10565:
10557:
10549:
10533:
10529:Bellsybabble
10503:
10496:
10478:Inspirations
10467:
10410: >
10406: >
10402: >
10345:
10016:Hypothetical
9964:Exotic atoms
9833:Omega baryon
9823:Sigma baryon
9813:Delta baryon
9565:Hypothetical
9547:Ghost fields
9533:Higgs boson
9467:Tau neutrino
9359:Charm (quark
9330:
9199:
9195:B. A. Schumm
9170:
9142:
9116:
9113:A. Pickering
9088:
9059:
9055:I. S. Hughes
9032:
9010:
8963:
8957:
8919:
8911:
8888:
8882:
8870:. Retrieved
8866:the original
8852:
8831:
8794:
8788:
8778:
8752:(12): 3711.
8749:
8743:
8737:
8694:
8688:
8682:
8639:
8633:
8627:
8604:
8598:
8569:
8561:
8552:
8546:
8529:
8506:
8500:
8471:
8463:
8440:
8434:
8405:
8397:
8368:
8360:
8332:
8325:
8314:
8308:
8301:
8278:
8272:
8243:
8235:
8212:
8206:
8164:(9): 1â708.
8161:
8155:
8113:
8107:
8095:. Retrieved
8089:
8079:
8050:
8042:
8013:
8005:
7980:
7975:Part III of
7940:
7933:
7921:. Retrieved
7912:HyperPhysics
7910:
7900:
7857:
7851:
7822:
7795:
7789:
7779:
7752:
7746:
7729:
7719:28 September
7717:. Retrieved
7713:the original
7704:
7695:
7666:
7658:
7635:
7629:
7617:. Retrieved
7607:
7584:
7578:
7560:
7537:
7531:
7519:. Retrieved
7504:
7497:
7485:. Retrieved
7470:
7463:
7455:
7448:. Retrieved
7424:
7416:
7388:
7381:
7352:
7312:
7304:
7281:
7275:
7252:
7246:
7234:. Retrieved
7230:
7217:
7205:. Retrieved
7201:
7191:
7179:. Retrieved
7175:
7165:
7153:. Retrieved
7147:
7138:
7114:
7107:
7089:Piper Verlag
7084:
7078:
7055:
7049:
7037:. Retrieved
7032:
7026:
6998:
6991:
6979:. Retrieved
6975:the original
6961:
6938:
6932:
6881:
6875:
6865:
6814:
6808:
6761:
6733:
6726:
6693:
6687:
6681:
6657:
6622:
6616:
6570:
6564:
6554:
6525:
6517:
6492:
6486:
6480:
6457:
6451:
6422:
6414:
6385:
6331:
6325:
6319:
6294:
6288:
6275:
6265:29 September
6263:. Retrieved
6259:the original
6244:
6219:
6213:
6207:
6184:
6178:
6155:
6149:
6124:
6118:
6095:
6089:
6045:
6039:
6022:
6000:
5959:
5953:
5915:
5907:
5884:
5878:
5869:
5863:
5853:
5828:
5822:
5805:
5762:
5756:
5739:
5696:
5690:
5673:
5628:
5622:
5599:
5548:
5542:
5532:
5520:. Retrieved
5516:the original
5502:
5451:
5445:
5399:
5362:
5356:
5339:
5310:
5273:
5265:
5242:
5236:
5207:
5199:
5175:
5168:
5127:
5121:
5085:
5079:
5073:
5069:
5048:23 September
5046:. Retrieved
5041:
5035:
5003:. Retrieved
4994:HyperPhysics
4992:
4967:. Retrieved
4958:HyperPhysics
4956:
4946:
4934:. Retrieved
4925:HyperPhysics
4923:
4913:
4901:. Retrieved
4895:
4886:
4868:
4858:
4854:
4845:
4828:
4811:
4802:
4795:
4794:45 GeV/
4763:
4750:
4665:Cooper pairs
4661:condensation
4657:Fermi liquid
4650:
4638:
4634:fluid motion
4608:
4593:
4565:annihilation
4541:
4471:
4469:
4453:
4443:
4441:
4428:gauge bosons
4414:
4384:measurement
4361:
4353:
4345:
4337:
4326:
4317:
4309:
4301:
4036:
4035:
4009:antistrange
3777:
3776:
3486:
3485:
3461:
3456:
3451:
3446:
3438:
3431:
3426:
3421:
3416:
3408:
3394:
3387:
3379:
3375:
3371:
3367:
3360:
3356:
3352:
3332:
3324:
3316:
3308:
3300:
3289:
3279:
3265:
3254:
3235:
3227:
3200:
3193:
3191:
3128:
3121:
3114:
3110:
3098:
3094:
3090:
3073:â a kind of
3068:
3043:
3039:
3036:bound system
3025:
3015:
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2990:
2986:color charge
2984:
2978:
2955:Color charge
2940:
2935:
2931:
2926:
2922:
2920:
2550:
2519:
2517:
2012:
1981:
1929:
1896:
1878:
1866:
1857:
1842:
1773:
1753:
1748:) times the
1712:Quarks have
1711:
1679:
1674:
1672:
1664:
1656:
1653:
1647:
1643:
1605:
1601:
1599:
1590:
1581:
1573:
1571:
1543:
1536:
1530:
1524:
1472:
1468:CP violation
1437:
1389:
1317:
1300:
1290:
1270:particle zoo
1267:
1263:Sakata model
1245:
1242:George Zweig
1231:
1203:
1183:
1152:
942:
936:
929:
923:
916:color charge
870:
833:
665:
657:
620:George Zweig
609:
600:
597:antiparticle
542:
540:
511:
492:color charge
482:, including
474:
455:
381:
379:
347:
316:Color charge
307:
285:
202:George Zweig
160:Antiparticle
112:Interactions
36:
10464:James Joyce
10298:Quark model
10066:Theta meson
9969:Positronium
9881:Omega meson
9876:J/psi meson
9806:Antineutron
9717:Dark photon
9682:Graviphoton
9641:Stop squark
9349:Down (quark
9017:Brady Haran
8928:. pp.
8540:"Top quark"
8480:. pp.
8377:. pp.
8340:. pp.
8250:McGrawâHill
8084:C. Sutton.
7948:. pp.
7615:. BBC. 2002
5889:Basic Books
4801:2 MeV/
4646:quark epoch
4450:are created
4390:statistical
4386:uncertainty
4350:strangeness
4272:antibottom
3305:strangeness
3249:Higgs boson
3234:9 MeV/
3178:(gray) and
2025:process of
2023:radioactive
1663:" words in
1661:portmanteau
1578:James Joyce
1527:Haim Harari
1487:Samuel Ting
1456:charm quark
1234:quark model
1175:quark epoch
1167:cosmic rays
1155:generations
1060:pentaquarks
983:tetraquarks
871:Quarks are
678:of quarks (
612:quark model
589:cosmic rays
585:high energy
520:gravitation
223: 1968
164:antiquark (
129:gravitation
78:Composition
10660:Categories
10618:Roaratorio
10515:Inclusions
10040:Heptaquark
10001:Superatoms
9934:Pentaquark
9924:Tetraquark
9906:Quarkonium
9796:Antiproton
9697:Leptoquark
9632:Neutralino
9394:antiquark)
9384:antiquark)
9379:Top (quark
9374:antiquark)
9364:antiquark)
9354:antiquark)
9344:antiquark)
9313:Elementary
9165:M. Riordan
8966:(2): 245.
8578:. p.
8538:) (2020).
8414:. p.
8252:. p.
8150:) (2014).
8059:. p.
8022:. p.
7798:(5): 870.
7738:) (2010).
7675:. p.
7521:14 October
7487:14 October
7450:14 October
7433:. p.
7396:. p.
7361:. p.
7321:. p.
7236:17 January
7155:17 January
7006:. p.
6981:3 November
6741:. p.
6696:(5): 252.
6625:(3): 265.
6598:2433/66179
6534:. p.
6431:. p.
6394:. p.
6127:(2): 222.
6071:(Report).
6065:Original:
5924:. p.
5831:(4): 519.
5814:) (1989).
5748:) (2008).
5682:) (2008).
5638:1507.03414
5608:) (2015).
5348:) (2006).
5319:. p.
5216:. p.
4879:References
4821:C symmetry
4817:P symmetry
4731:quark star
4726:quarkonium
4667:, thereby
4578:QCD matter
4542:sea quarks
4466:Sea quarks
4405:See also:
4394:systematic
4366:bottomness
3884:anticharm
3321:bottomness
3274:See also:
3186:See also:
3150:should be
3064:antibaryon
2953:See also:
2566:magnitudes
2545:CKM matrix
2027:beta decay
2007:beta decay
1980:along the
1853:point-like
1837:See also:
1714:fractional
1706:See also:
1697:Properties
858:antimatter
834:antiquarks
662:of matter.
659:generation
642:See also:
480:properties
212:Discovered
102:Generation
90:Statistics
63:, and the
61:down quark
10583:Joysprick
10278:Particles
10223:Particles
10182:Polariton
10172:Plasmaron
10142:Dropleton
10035:Hexaquark
10006:Molecules
9994:Protonium
9871:Phi meson
9856:Rho meson
9828:Xi baryon
9760:Composite
9596:Gravitino
9339:Up (quark
9083:R. Oerter
9037:WileyâVCH
8973:1012.2288
8893:CRC Press
8797:(4): 50.
8704:0709.4635
8555:: 083C01.
8511:CRC Press
8171:1412.1408
7905:R. Nave.
7892:118107624
7640:CRC Press
7542:CRC Press
7207:2 October
7181:2 October
7039:2 October
6857:119451328
6366:119379329
6115:Original
5797:227119789
5731:227119789
5558:1404.1903
5494:119138620
5461:0708.1790
5044:(3): 4â16
5037:Beam Line
4987:R. Nave.
4951:R. Nave.
4918:R. Nave.
3750:antidown
3401:Particle
3224:938
3081:). Color
3024:known as
3007:antigreen
2840:≈
2562:unitarity
2541:strengths
2087:) and an
1871:component
1600:The word
1568:Etymology
1382:, at the
696:), named
601:antiquark
477:intrinsic
452:electrons
189:Theorized
95:fermionic
57:up quarks
18:Antiquark
10627:RiverRun
10404:Molecule
10254:timeline
10106:R-hadron
10061:Glueball
10045:Skyrmion
9979:Tauonium
9692:Inflaton
9687:Graviton
9667:Curvaton
9637:Sfermion
9627:Higgsino
9622:Chargino
9583:Gauginos
9442:Neutrino
9427:Antimuon
9417:Positron
9412:Electron
9322:Fermions
9197:(2004).
9167:(1987).
9141:(1995).
9115:(1984).
9095:Pi Press
9085:(2005).
9057:(1985).
9031:(2008).
9019:for the
9007:"Quarks"
8998:54062126
8729:14117263
8674:10487860
8576:Springer
8309:PBS Nova
8283:Springer
8198:10020536
7923:26 April
7619:19 April
7176:Die Zeit
6924:42826202
6916:10057979
6849:10057978
6462:Springer
5872:(4): 70.
5665:26317714
5583:24949760
5486:18518023
5247:Springer
4989:"Quarks"
4699:See also
4673:symmetry
4642:Big Bang
4147:antitop
3910:strange
3180:electron
3142:of SU(3)
3003:antiblue
2067:electron
1640:Freiburg
1626:word of
1606:to croak
1546:Fermilab
1511:J/ψ
1204:See the
1171:Big Bang
934:below).
892:fermions
632:Fermilab
581:universe
468:, or in
444:neutrons
10242:Related
10213:Baryons
10187:Polaron
10177:Plasmon
10152:Fracton
10147:Exciton
10101:Diquark
10096:Pomeron
10071:T meson
10028:Baryons
9989:Pionium
9974:Muonium
9901:D meson
9896:B meson
9801:Neutron
9786:Nucleon
9778:Baryons
9769:Hadrons
9732:Tachyon
9707:Majoron
9672:Dilaton
9601:Photino
9437:Antitau
9404:Leptons
9139:B. Povh
8978:Bibcode
8809:Bibcode
8764:Bibcode
8709:Bibcode
8654:Bibcode
8482:295â297
8176:Bibcode
7950:131â132
7872:Bibcode
7800:Bibcode
7757:Bibcode
6896:Bibcode
6829:Bibcode
6718:1155396
6698:Bibcode
6627:Bibcode
6575:Bibcode
6497:Bibcode
6346:Bibcode
6299:Bibcode
6224:Bibcode
6129:Bibcode
5964:Bibcode
5833:Bibcode
5767:Bibcode
5701:Bibcode
5643:Bibcode
5563:Bibcode
5522:20 June
5466:Bibcode
5377:Bibcode
5311:Knowing
5160:2575595
5152:1444731
5132:Bibcode
5090:Bibcode
5005:29 June
4969:29 June
4936:29 June
4903:29 June
4771:of the
4501:virtual
4436:virtual
4358:topness
4334:isospin
4253:
4241:
4235:
4223:
4217:
4205:
4173:bottom
4128:
4116:
4110:
4098:
4092:
4080:
3990:
3978:
3972:
3960:
3954:
3942:
3865:
3853:
3847:
3835:
3829:
3817:
3734:
3722:
3716:
3704:
3698:
3686:
3680:
3668:
3609:antiup
3593:
3581:
3575:
3563:
3557:
3545:
3539:
3527:
3480:Symbol
3474:Symbol
3349:
3337:
3319:), and
3313:topness
3286:isospin
3011:antired
2284:
2261:
2237:). The
2166:virtual
2019:W boson
1978:
1966:
1962:
1950:
1946:
1934:
1925:
1913:
1907:
1893:
1889:
1875:
1822:
1810:
1806:
1794:
1790:
1778:
1770:
1758:
1746:
1734:
1732:) or (+
1730:
1718:
1682:isospin
1548:led by
1386:in 1974
1331:partons
1309:leptons
1286:strange
1274:hadrons
1212:History
959:baryons
947:virtual
925:hadrons
912:leptons
887:
875:
866:charges
806:), and
742:strange
676:flavors
591:and in
561:strange
544:flavors
532:integer
462:baryons
440:protons
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788:(
775:c
766:(
753:s
744:(
731:d
722:(
709:u
700:(
687:q
514:(
418:/
415:k
409:w
406:k
403:,
400:k
394:w
391:k
388:/
384:(
370:3
367:/
364:1
348:ħ
340:2
337:/
334:1
308:e
300:3
297:/
294:1
286:e
278:3
275:/
272:2
267:+
257:)
225:)
218:(
184:)
174:q
146:q
34:.
20:)
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