Applied behavior analysis

999:(DTT). The treatment is done at home with parents involved, and the curriculum is highly individualized with a heavy emphasis on teaching eye contact, fine and gross motor imitation, academics, and language. The use of aversives and reinforcement were used to motivate learning and reduce non-desired behaviors. Early development of the therapy in the 1960s involved use of electric shocks, scolding, and the withholding of food. By the time the children were enrolled in this study, such aversives were abandoned, and a loud "no", electric shock, or slap to the thigh were used only as a last resort to reduce aggressive and self-stimulatory behaviors. The outcome of this study indicated 47% of the experimental group (9/19) went on to lose their autism diagnosis and were described as indistinguishable from their typically developing adolescent peers. This included passing general education without assistance and forming and maintaining friendships. These gains were maintained as reported in the 1993 study, "Long-term outcome for children with autism who received early intensive behavioral treatment". Lovaas' work went on to be recognized by the US Surgeon General in 1999, and his research were replicated in university and private settings. The "Lovaas Method" went on to become known as early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI). 1088:

In order to consider something to fall under the spectrum of analytic, it must demonstrate a functional relationship and it must be provable. Baer et al. outline two methods that may be used in applied settings to demonstrate control while maintaining ethical standards. These are the reversal design and the multiple baseline design. In the reversal design, the experimenter first measures the behavior of choice, introduces an intervention, and then measures the behavior again. Then, the intervention is removed, or reduced, and the behavior is measured yet again. The intervention is effective to the extent that the behavior changes and then changes back in response to these manipulations. The multiple baseline method may be used for behaviors that seem irreversible. Here, several behaviors are measured and then the intervention is applied to each in turn. The effectiveness of the intervention is revealed by changes in just the behavior to which the intervention is being applied.

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procedures, as many punishment procedures are deemed unethical and in many states prohibited. Nonetheless, extinction procedures must be implemented with utmost care by professionals, as they are generally associated with extinction bursts. An extinction burst is the temporary increase in the frequency, intensity, and/or duration of the behavior targeted for extinction. Other characteristics of an extinction burst include an extinction-produced aggression—the occurrence of an emotional response to an extinction procedure often manifested as aggression; and b) extinction-induced response variability—the occurrence of novel behaviors that did not typically occur prior to the extinction procedure. These novel behaviors are a core component of

2060:). This formulation should include a thorough functional assessment, a skills assessment, a sequential analysis (behavior chain analysis), an ecological assessment, a look at existing evidenced-based behavioral models for the problem behavior (such as Fordyce's model of chronic pain) and then a treatment plan based on how environmental factors influence behavior. Some argue that behavior analytic case formulation can be improved with an assessment of rules and rule-governed behavior. Some of the interventions that result from this type of conceptualization involve training specific communication skills to replace the problem behaviors as well as specific setting, antecedent, behavior, and consequence strategies. 1490:). Broadly, there are three types of punishment: presentation of aversive stimuli (e.g., pain), response cost (removal of desirable stimuli as in monetary fines), and restriction of freedom (as in a 'time out'). Punishment in practice can often result in unwanted side effects. Some other potential unwanted effects include resentment over being punished, attempts to escape the punishment, expression of pain and negative emotions associated with it, and recognition by the punished individual between the punishment and the person delivering it. ABA therapist state that they use punishment is used infrequently as a last resort or when there is a direct threat caused by the behavior. 1521:

relation between a behavior (B) and its context (A) is because of consequences (C), more specifically, this relationship between AB because of C indicates that the relationship is established by prior consequences that have occurred in similar contexts. This antecedent–behavior–consequence contingency is termed the three-term contingency. A behavior which occurs more frequently in the presence of an antecedent condition than in its absence is called a discriminated operant. The antecedent stimulus is called a discriminative stimulus (S). The fact that the discriminated operant occurs only in the presence of the discriminative stimulus is an illustration of

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they should not be using counts of behavior without referencing the time base of the observation. Additionally, when given that context of advice, the count and time information provide data rate. The authors of this article suggest that when looking at applied behavior analysis (ABA) and accessing behavior measurement, you should be using the term "rate" instead of "count" to reference frequency. Any references to counts without information about observation time should be avoided.

1330:, for example, campaigns against the use of ABA in autism. The European Council of Autistic People (EUCAP) published a 2024 position statement expressing deep concern about the harm caused by ABA being overlooked. They emphasize that most surveyed autistic individuals view ABA as harmful, abusive, and counterproductive to their well-being. EUCAP advocates for a variety of support methods and the inclusion of autistic individuals in decision-making processes regarding their care. 1063: 45: 636: 1322:. Masking is associated with suicidality and poor long-term mental health. Some autistic advocates contend that it is cruel to try to make autistic people behave as if they were non-autistic without consideration for their well-being, criticizing ABA's framing of autism as a tragedy in need of treatment. Instead, these critics advocate for increased social acceptance of harmless autistic traits and therapies focused on improving 2227: 1732:, they point out how frequency is used to keep track of adaptive and maladaptive behaviors. By doing so, ABA therapists and clinicians are able to create a customized program for that patient. The author notes that tracking frequency, in cases specifically looking at frequency of requesting behaviors during play, language, imitation and socialization, can also be a variable to predict treatment outcome. 982:. In 1965, Lovaas published a series of articles that described a pioneering investigation of the antecedents and consequences that maintained a problem behavior, including the use of electric shock on autistic children to suppress stimming and meltdowns (described as "self-stimulatory behavior" and "tantrum behaviors" respectively) and to coerce "affectionate" behavior, and relied on the methods of 2241: 1525:. More recently behavior analysts have been focusing on conditions that occur prior to the circumstances for the current behavior of concern that increased the likelihood of the behavior occurring or not occurring. These conditions have been referred to variously as "Setting Event", "Establishing Operations", and "Motivating Operations" by various researchers in their publications. 2255: 587: 1910:

hardest prompt to fade (e.g., verbal). In order to minimize errors and ensure a high level of success during learning, prompts are given in a most-to-least sequence and faded systematically. During this process, prompts are faded as quickly as possible so that the learner does not come to depend on them and eventually behaves appropriately without prompting.

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for example a bell (conditioned stimulus) with food caused the dog to elicit salivation (conditioned response). Thus, in classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for a biologically significant consequence. Note that in respondent conditioning, unlike operant conditioning, the response does not

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person receiving services. This emphasis on parental consent stems from ABA viewing the parent as the client, a stance which has been criticized for centering benefits to the parent, not the child, in behavioral interventions. Numerous researchers have argued that ABA is abusive and can increase symptoms of

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later call this "behaviorist" phase a very productive one and the skills-based approach came to dominate counselor training during 1970–90. Task analysis was also used in determining the skills needed to access a career. In education, Englemann (1968) used task analysis as part of the methods to design the

1705:. Applied behavior analysis relies on meticulous measurement and impartial evaluation of observable behavior as a foundational principle. Without accurate data collection and analysis, behavior analysts lack the essential information to assess intervention effectiveness and make informed decisions about 1992:

Generalization is the expansion of a student's performance ability beyond the initial conditions set for acquisition of a skill. Generalization can occur across people, places, and materials used for teaching. For example, once a skill is learned in one setting, with a particular instructor, and with

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Analytic: Behavior analysis is successful when the analyst understands and can manipulate the events that control a target behavior. This may be relatively easy to do in the lab, where a researcher is able to arrange the relevant events, but it is not always easy, or ethical, in an applied situation.

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Reinforcement is the key element in operant conditioning and in most behavior change programs. It is the process by which behavior is strengthened. If a behavior is followed closely in time by a stimulus and this results in an increase in the future frequency of that behavior, then the stimulus is a

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Technological: The description of analytic research must be clear and detailed, so that any competent researcher can repeat it accurately. The goal is to make sure that anyone can implement and understand what is being explained. Cooper et al. describe a good way to check this: Have a person trained

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Applied: ABA focuses on the social significance of the behavior studied. For example, a non-applied researcher may study eating behavior because this research helps to clarify metabolic processes, whereas the applied researcher may study eating behavior in individuals who eat too little or too much,

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the authors state that two major texts, one being the Behavior Analyst Certification Board pair the word "frequency" with two different words—one text pairing with "count" and the other "rate". Despite one major text using the word "count" interchangeably with "frequency", both texts advise readers

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Respondent (classical) conditioning is based on innate stimulus-response relationships called reflexes. In his experiments with dogs, Pavlov usually used the salivary reflex, namely salivation (unconditioned response) following the taste of food (unconditioned stimulus). Pairing a neutral stimulus,

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Doable: To be generally useful, interventions should be available to a variety of individuals, who might be teachers, parents, therapists, or even those who wish to modify their own behavior. With proper planning and training, many interventions can be applied by almost anyone willing to invest the

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Effective: Though analytic methods should be theoretically grounded, they must be effective. Interventions also must be relevant to the client and/or culture. An analyst must ask themselves if the intervention is working. The intervention must also contain a positive change. If an intervention does

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The overall goal is for an individual to eventually not need prompts. As an individual gains mastery of a skill at a particular prompt level, the prompt is faded to a less intrusive prompt. This ensures that the individual does not become overly dependent on a particular prompt when learning a new

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which is an identifier of the unique phase patterns for different durations of behavior. And when finished, the striatum decodes the patterns to aid in memory storage and comparison of event durations. Researchers discovered socio-temporal processes that attach social meaning to time, allowing the

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through an extensive breakdown of how Skinner's view of language as behavioral simply cannot explain the complexity of human language. This suggests that while behaviorist techniques can teach language, it is a very poor measure to explain language fundamentals. Considering Chomsky's critiques, it

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One study revealed extensive undisclosed conflicts of interest (COI) in published ABA studies. 84% of studies published in top behavioral journals over a period of one year had at least one author with a COI involving their employment, either as an ABA clinical provider or a training consultant to

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of five controlled trials found weak evidence indicating that ABA may be effective for some autistic children, noting a high risk of bias in the studies included in the review. The effectiveness of ABA therapies for autism may be overall limited by diagnostic severity, age of intervention, and IQ.

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Functional behavioral assessment (FBA) is an individualized critical thinking process that may be used to address problem behavior. An evaluation is initiated to distinguish the causality of a problem behavior. This interactive evaluation includes gathering data about the ecological circumstances

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is a cue that is used to encourage a desired response from an individual. Prompts are often categorized into a prompt hierarchy from most intrusive to least intrusive, although there is some controversy about what is considered most intrusive, those that are physically intrusive or those that are

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often emerge from a task analysis. Bergan conducted a task analysis of the behavioral consultation relationship and Thomas Kratochwill developed a training program based on teaching Bergan's skills. A similar approach was used for the development of microskills training for counselors. Ivey would

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Researchers and advocates have denounced the ABA ethical code as too lenient, citing its failure to restrict or clarify the use of aversives, the absence of an autism or child development education requirement for ABA therapists, and its emphasis on parental consent rather than the consent of the

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Conceptually Systematic: Behavior analysis should not simply produce a list of effective interventions. Rather, to the extent possible, these methods should be grounded in the principles of applied behavioral analysis. This is aided by the use of theoretically meaningful terms, such as "secondary

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Fluency will increase the response speed and accuracy of a behavior. However, when introduced to a new stimulus different from their usual behavior, there will be a decrease in reaction time or increased response time but with more false alarms. Fluency relies on repeated action so the amount of

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Derivative measures are additional metrics derived from primary data, often by combining or transforming dimensional quantities to offer deeper insights into a phenomenon. Despite not being directly tied to specific dimensions, these measures provide valuable supplemental information. In applied

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Shaping involves gradually modifying the existing behavior into the desired behavior. If the student engages with a dog by hitting it, then they could have their behavior shaped by reinforcing interactions in which they touch the dog more gently. Over many interactions, successful shaping would

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In addition to a relation being made between behavior and its consequences, operant conditioning also establishes relations between antecedent conditions and behaviors. This differs from the S–R formulations (If-A-then-B), and replaces it with an AB-because-of-C formulation. In other words, the

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Behavioral: ABA is pragmatic; it asks how it is possible to get an individual to do something effectively. To answer this question, the behavior itself must be objectively measurable and observable. This is designed so that when someone is trying to determine a target behavior, it is able to be

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One of the primary choices that was made while showing another way of behaving is the manner by which to fade the prompts or prompts. An arrangement should be set up to fade the prompts in an organized style. For instance, blurring the actual brief of directing a kid's hands might follow this

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A 2020 study examined perspectives of autistic adults that received ABA as children and found that the overwhelming majority reported that "behaviorist methods create painful lived experiences", that ABA led to the "erosion of the true actualizing self", and that they felt they had a "lack of

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into some of the ABA practices he developed, including employing electric shocks, slapping, and shouting to modify undesirable behavior. Although the use of aversives in ABA became less common over time, and in 2012 their use was described as inconsistent with contemporary practice, aversives

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Schirmer, Meck & Penney explore the ‘timing’ of temporal information that seeks out the rhythm and duration of the behavior. Given the expressions of behavior, an emotional meaning is obtained through the duration in correspondence with body and vocal expressions. Using the striatal beat

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is the technical term to describe the procedure of withholding/discontinuing reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior, resulting in the decrease of that behavior. The behavior is then set to be extinguished (Cooper et al.). Extinction procedures are often preferred over punishment

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Justin B. Leaf and others examined and responded to several of these criticisms of ABA in three papers published in 2018, 2019, and 2022, respectively, in which they questioned the evidence for such criticisms, concluding that the claim that all ABA is abusive has no basis in the published

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Generality: Behavior analysts should aim for interventions that are generally applicable; the methods should work in different environments, apply to more than one specific behavior, and have long-lasting effects. This generalizability should be implemented from the very beginning of the

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succession: (a) supporting wrists, (b) contacting hands softly, (c) contacting lower arm or elbow, and (d) pulling out actual contact through and through. Fading guarantees that the kid does not turn out to be excessively subject to a specific brief while mastering another expertise.

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Two 2020 reviews found that very few studies directly reported on or investigated possible harms; although a significant number of studies mentioned adverse events in their analysis of why people withdrew from them, there was no effort to monitor or collect data on adverse outcomes.

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that occur prior to an identified conduct issue and the resulting rewards that reinforce the behavior. The data that is collected is then used to recognize and execute individualized interventions pointed toward lessening problem behaviors and expanding positive behavior outcomes.

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Another concern is that ABA research only measures behavior as a means of success, which has led to a lack of qualitative research about autistic experiences of ABA, a lack of research examining the internal effects of ABA and a lack of research for autistic children who are

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Over the years, "behavior analysis" gradually superseded "behavior modification"; that is, from simply trying to alter problematic behavior, behavior analysts sought to understand the function of that behavior, what reinforcement histories (i.e., attention seeking, escape,

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because the latter approach suggested changing behavior without clarifying the relevant behavior-environment interactions. In contrast, ABA changes behavior by first assessing the functional relationship between a targeted behavior and the environment, a process known as a

1701:. Trials-to-criterion, another ABA derivative measure, tracks the number of response opportunities needed to achieve a set level of performance. This metric aids behavior analysts in assessing skill acquisition and mastery, influencing decisions on program adjustments and 994:

In 1987, Lovaas published the study, "Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children". The experimental group in this study received an average of 40 hours per week in a 1:1 teaching setting at a table using errorless

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or have comorbid intellectual disabilities (which is concerning considering this is one of the major populations that intensive ABA focuses on). Research is also lacking about whether ABA is effective long-term and very little longitudinal outcomes have been studied.

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specific materials, the skill is taught in more general settings with more variation from the initial acquisition phase. For example, if a student has successfully mastered learning colors at the table, the teacher may take the student around the house or school and

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When measuring behavior, there are both dimensions of behavior and quantifiable measures of behavior. In applied behavior analysis, the quantifiable measures are a derivative of the dimensions. These dimensions are repeatability, temporal extent, and temporal locus.

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refers to an increase in the time or number of responses required between reinforcements. Periodic thinning that produces a 30% decrease in reinforcement has been suggested as an efficient way to thin. Schedule thinning is often an important and neglected issue in

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The skill to be learned is broken down into small units for easy learning. For example, a person learning to brush teeth independently may start with learning to unscrew the toothpaste cap. Once they have learned this, the next step may be squeezing the tube, etc.

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Accountable: To be accountable means that ABA must be able to demonstrate that its methods are effective. This requires repeatedly measuring the effect of interventions (success, failure or no effect at all), and, if necessary, making changes that improve their

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noted that "methodological rigor remains a pressing concern" in research into ABA's use as therapy for autism; while the authors found some evidence in favour of behavioral interventions, the effects disappeared when they limited the scope of their review to

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Physical prompts: Physically manipulating the individual to produce the desired response. There are many degrees of physical prompts, from quite intrusive (e.g., the teacher places a hand on the learner's hand) to minimally intrusive (e.g., a slight

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One teaching technique found to be effective with some students, particularly children, is the use of video modeling (the use of taped sequences as exemplars of behavior). It can be used by therapists to assist in the acquisition of both verbal and

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to teach nonverbal children to speak. Lovaas also described how to use social (secondary) reinforcers, teach children to imitate, and what interventions (including electric shocks) may be used to reduce aggression and life-threatening self-injury.

1007:, etc.) promote and maintain it, and how it can be replaced by successful behavior. ABA's priority on compliance and behavioral modification over that of an individual's needs can lead to harmful consequences, including prompt dependency, loss of 4917: 1896:

There are two types of chain in the ABA world: forward chain and backward chain. Forward chain starts with the first step and continues until the final step, while backward chain begins with the last step and moves backward until the first step.

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Another example of shaping is when a toddler learns to walk. The child is reinforced by crawling, standing, taking a few steps, and then eventually walking. When a child is learning to walk, they are praised by a lot of claps and excitements.

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they exhibit a longer time to the response latency in delayed matching of a simple task, and these children seem to have a harder time with social ability. This means that these children require more time to remember things when given the

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The unassisted approach would need to perform their reached target behavior to someone. The assisted learning approach have a limitation that it would need an individual to assist them which could be time-consuming for both individuals

1565:– secondary verbal behavior which alters the effect of primary verbal behavior on the listener. Examples involve quantification, grammar, and qualifying statements (e.g., the differential effects of "I think..." vs. "I know...") 5703:

Ferguson SA, Ward WL, Paule MG, Hall RW, Anand KJ (January 2012). "A pilot study of preemptive morphine analgesia in preterm neonates: effects on head circumference, social behavior, and response latencies in early childhood".

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behavior analysis (ABA), for example, percentage is a derivative measure that quantifies the ratio of specific responses to total responses, offering a nuanced understanding of behavior and assisting in evaluating progress and

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Baer, Wolf, and Risley's 1968 article is still used as the standard description of ABA. It lists the following seven characteristics of ABA. Another resource for the characteristics of applied behavior analysis is the textbook

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and total task presentation. Task analysis has been used in organizational behavior management, a behavior analytic approach to changing the behaviors of members of an organization (e.g., factories, offices, or hospitals).

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Intraverbals – verbal behavior for which the relevant antecedent stimulus was other verbal behavior, but which does not share the response topography of that prior verbal stimulus (e.g., responding to another speaker's

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Leaf JB, Townley-Chochran D, Cihon JH, Mitchell E, Leaf R, Taubman M, et al. (June 2019). "Descriptive Analysis of the Use of Punishment-Based Techniques with Children Diagnosed with Autism Spectrum Disorder".

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VanDerHeyden AM, Snyder P, DiCarlo CF, Stricklin SB, Vagianos LA (2002). "Comparison of within-stimulus and extra-stimulus prompts to increase targeted play behaviors in an inclusive early intervention program".

1759:, is a gauge on how smooth a behavior is performed. Fluency is associated with behaviors that we use over a long duration and be able to perform it with confidence. The three outcomes associated with fluency: 2324: 6001:

Ardoin SP, Binder KS, Foster TE, Zawoyski AM (December 2016). "Repeated versus wide reading: A randomized control design study examining the impact of fluency interventions on underlying reading behavior".

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LeBlanc LA, Hagoplan LP, Maglieri KA, Poling A (2002). "Decreasing the intensity of reinforcement-based interventions for reducing behavior: conceptual issues and a proposed model for clinical practice".

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In 2018, a Cochrane meta-analysis database concluded that some recent research is beginning to suggest that because of the heterology of ASD, there are two different ABA teaching approaches to acquiring

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Empowering: ABA provides tools that give the practitioner feedback on the results of interventions. These allow clinicians to assess their skill level and build confidence in their effectiveness.

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may reduce the rate of response, but on the other hand lengthen the duration of interresponse time. The usage of these medications effectively reduces interest as the reaction declines as well.

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in applied behavior analysis read the description and then act out the procedure in detail. If the person makes any mistakes or has to ask any questions then the description needs improvement.

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refers to the various responses available to an individual; the term may refer to responses that are relevant to a particular situation, or it may refer to everything a person can do.

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Weiss MJ, Delmolino L (2006). "The Relationship Between Early Learning Rates and Treatment Outcome For Children With Autism Receiving Intensive Home-Based Applied Behavior Analysis".

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Punishment is a process by which a consequence immediately follows a behavior which decreases the future frequency of that behavior. As with reinforcement, a stimulus can be added (

967:. In 1968, Baer, Bijou, Risley, Birnbrauer, Wolf, and James Sherman joined the Department of Human Development and Family Life at the University of Kansas, where they founded the 1781:

Unassisted approach - Individual practice of certain behavior. Set a target of response speed and accuracy under a timeframe and readjust accordingly depending on the difficulty.

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trying to change such behavior so that it is more acceptable to the persons involved. It is also based on trying to improve the everyday life of clients that are receiving it.

795:, treating thoughts, emotions, and other covert activity as behavior that is subject to the same responses as overt behavior. This represents a shift away from methodological 7233:

Gerhardt PF, Weiss MJ, Delmolino L (2003). "Treatment of severe aggression in an adolescent with autism: non-contingent reinforcement and functional communication training".

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Public: The methods, results, and theoretical analyses of ABA must be published and open to scrutiny. There are no hidden treatments or mystical, metaphysical explanations.

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the skill in these more natural environments with other materials. Behavior analysts have spent considerable amount of time studying factors that lead to generalization.

1418:, in particular an antecedent contingency called the discriminative stimulus (SD) that influences the strengthening or weakening of behavior through such consequences as 7758: 5670:

Dowdy A, Nepo K, Miodus S, Quigley S, Sevon M (2023). "Operational Definitions, Observation, and Behavioral Recording in Applied Behavior Analysis". In Matson JL (ed.).

1709:. Therefore, precise measurement and assessment play a pivotal role in ABA practice, guiding practitioners to enhance behavioral outcomes and drive significant change. 1358:

has denounced gay conversion therapy, and lecturers in the field of behavior analysis have called such comparisons harmful to both the autistic and LBGTIQA+ community.

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Optimistic: According to several leading authors, behavior analysts have cause to be optimistic that their efforts are socially worthwhile, for the following reasons:

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that it emphasizes normalization instead of acceptance, and a history of, in some forms of ABA and its predecessors, the use of aversives, such as electric shocks.

5192: 1426:. The term is used quite generally, from reaching for a candy bar, to turning up the heat to escape an aversive chill, to studying for an exam to get good grades. 6689:

Barnett D, Bauer A, Bell S, Elliott N, Haski H, Barkley E, et al. (2006). "Preschool Intervention Scripts: Lessons from 20 years of Research and Practice".

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Shreck KA, Metz B, Mulick JA, Smith A (2000). "Making it fit: A Provocative Look at Models of Early Intensive Behavioral Intervention for Children with Autism".

749: 1169:—improves the intellectual performance of those with ASD, most of these studies lack random assignment and there is need for larger sample sizes. A 2018 7103:

Romano JM, Jensen MP, Turner JA, Good AB, Hops H (2000). "Chronic pain patient-partner interactions: further support for a behavioral model of chronic pain".

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claimed that "all textbooks used for thorough training of applied behavior analysts include an overview of the principles of punishment, including the use of

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While ABA seems to be intrinsically linked to autism intervention, it is also used in a broad range of other areas. Recent notable areas of research in the

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Ivey AE, Normington CJ, Miller CD, Morrill WH, Haase RF (1968). "Microcounseling and attending behavior: an approach to prepracticum counselor training".

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argue that employing ABA violates the principles of justice and nonmaleficence and infringes on the autonomy of both autistic children and their parents.

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Chesnut M, Williamson PN, Morrow JE (2003). "The use of visual cues to teach receptive skills to children with severe auditory discrimination deficits".

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Matson JL, Hattier MA, Belva B (January–March 2012). "Treating adaptive living skills of persons with autism using applied behavior analysis: A review".

1162:. Practitioners often use ABA-based techniques to teach adaptive behaviors to, or diminish challenging behaviors presented by, individuals with autism. 7764:

Functional Behavioral Assessment, The IRIS Center – U.S. Department of Education, Office of Special Education Programs Grant and Vanderbilt University

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This is not an exhaustive list of prompts; the nature, number, and order of prompts are chosen to be the most effective for a particular individual.

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For problem behavior, chains can also be analyzed and the chain can be disrupted to prevent the problem behavior. Some behavior therapies, such as

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Modeling: Modeling the desired response. This type of prompt is best suited for individuals who learn through imitation and can attend to a model.

963:, applied the principles of behavior analysis to treat autism, manage the behavior of children and adolescents in juvenile detention centers, and 4534:"Research Review: Conflicts of Interest (COIs) in autism early intervention research - a meta-analysis of COI influences on intervention effects" 2268: 1355: 779:

ABA is an applied science devoted to developing procedures which will produce observable changes in behavior. It is to be distinguished from the

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Cohen H, Amerine-Dickens M, Smith T (April 2006). "Early intensive behavioral treatment: replication of the UCLA model in a community setting".

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observed and understood by anyone. Verbal descriptions are treated as behavior in themselves, and not as substitutes for the behavior described.

4583:"Interventions based on early intensive applied behaviour analysis for autistic children: a systematic review and cost-effectiveness analysis" 1858: 4223:"Spoken language outcomes in limited language preschoolers with autism and global developmental delay: RCT of early intervention approaches" 8433: 6300:

Kratochwill TR, Van Someren KR, Sheridan SM (1989). "Training behavioral consultants: a competency-based model to teach interview skills".

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classification system of behavior analysis has been applied to treatment of a host of communication disorders. Skinner's system includes:

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Malott RW, Shimamune S, Malott ME (1992). "Rule-governed behavior and organizational behavior management: an analysis of interventions".

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Despite many years of research indicating that early intensive behavioral intervention—the traditional form of ABA that relies on

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The behaviors impacted by behavior analysis are largely determined by learning and controlled by manipulable aspects of the environment.

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Manipulations of the independent variable so that its effects on the dependent variable may be quantitatively or qualitatively analyzed

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and the behavior that follows. This is important in behavioral research because it quantifies how quickly an individual may respond to

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intervention. When first starting a new intervention, it is a good idea for that to take place in a natural environment for the client.

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Fields L, Belanich J (March 2023). "Reaction Times and Observing-Responses in Equivalence Classes: Cognitive Processing and Fluency".

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Sallows GO, Graupner TD (November 2005). "Intensive behavioral treatment for children with autism: four-year outcome and predictors".

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required effort for the behavior is lessened to an extent where the individual could focus more on the other factors of the behavior.

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Behavior analysts utilize a few distinct techniques to gather information. A portion of the ways of collect data information include:

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Smith T, Eikeseth S (March 2011). "O. Ivar lovaas: pioneer of applied behavior analysis and intervention for children with autism".

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replace the hitting behavior with patting or other gentler behavior. Shaping is based on a behavior analyst's thorough knowledge of

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D'Ateno P, Mangiapanello K, Taylor BA (2002). "Using video modeling to teach complex play sequences to a preschooler with autism".

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Heward WL, Heron TE, Neef NA, Peterson SM, Sainato DM, Cartlege GY, Cardner III R, Peterson LD, Hersch SB, Dardig JC, eds. (2005).

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Lovaas OI (February 1987). "Behavioral treatment and normal educational and intellectual functioning in young autistic children".

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positive reinforcer. If the removal of an event serves as a reinforcer, this is termed negative reinforcement. There are multiple

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is a single instance of that behavior. If a group of responses have the same function, this group may be called a response class.

6179:"Teaching children with autism to use photographic activity schedules: maintenance and generalization of complex response chains" 1853:

is a process in which a task is analyzed into its component parts so that those parts can be taught through the use of chaining:

729:. Further, the approach seeks to develop socially acceptable alternatives for maladaptive behaviors, often through administering 4846:

Gorycki KA, Ruppel PR, Zane T (31 December 2020). "Is long-term ABA therapy abusive: A response to Sandoval-Norton and Shkedy".

3789: 2992:"A brief, selective history of the Department of Human Development and Family Life at the University of Kansas: The early years" 2871: 8524: 8221: 2816:"Outcome for children with autism who began intensive behavioral treatment between ages 4 and 7: a comparison controlled study" 2273: 1675:

Interresponse time refers to the duration of time that occurs between two instances of behavior, and it helps in understanding

554: 7480: 1406:

Operant behavior is the so-called "voluntary" behavior that is sensitive to, or controlled by its consequences. Specifically,

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rates. There are two measurements that are able to define temporal locus, they are response latency and interresponse time.

1468:

that affect the future probability of behavior. "e would get Beth to comply by hugging him and giving her food as a reward."

979: 6130:"Task clarification, performance feedback, and social praise: Procedures for improving the customer service of bank tellers" 2724: 2128: 936: 6498: 5099: 2493:. APA Handbooks in Psychology Series; APA Reference Books Collection. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. 1237:

Low-quality evidence is likewise a concern in some research reporting on the potential harms of ABA on autistic children.

7790: 4456:

Kupferstein H (2 January 2018). "Evidence of increased PTSD symptoms in autistics exposed to applied behavior analysis".

3440: 8590: 3113:"After you hit a child, you can't just get up and leave him; you are hooked to that kid interview with Ole Ivar Lovaas" 2570: 2338: 1720:

This technique refers to the times that an objective way of behaving was noticed and counted. In the published article

1289: 1043: 964: 815: 745: 2631: 1797:

Latency refers to how much time after a particular boost has been given before the objective way of behaving happens.

1154:

Although BCBA certification does not require any autism training, a large majority of ABA practitioners specialize in

8560: 7748: 4413:

Wilkenfeld DA, McCarthy AM (2020). "Ethical Concerns with Applied Behavior Analysis for Autism Spectrum "Disorder"".

831: 780: 757: 710: 5131: 4730:"Evaluating Kupferstein's claims of the relationship of behavioral intervention to PTSS for individuals with autism" 2656: 8274: 2172: 1702: 1191: 726: 610: 534: 5883:"Applied behavior analytic interventions for children with autism: a description and review of treatment research" 5403: 1730:

Applied Behavioral Analytic Interventions for children with Autism: A Description and Review of Treatment Research

1140:

As a practitioner uses behavioral techniques with positive outcomes, they become more confident of future success.

8418: 8264: 7729: 7531: 2116: 799:, which restricts behavior-change procedures to behaviors that are overt, and was the conceptual underpinning of 783:, which focuses on basic experimental research, but it uses principles developed by such research, in particular 7660:

Steege MW, Mace FC, Perry L, Longenecker H (2007). "Applied behavior analysis: beyond discrete trial teaching".

2052:

with a functional behavioral assessment or analysis at the core. This approach should apply a behavior analytic

1380:

refers to the movement of some part of an organism that changes some aspect of the environment. Often, the term

8621: 8585: 8575: 5544:

Peterson P (2007). "Promoting generalization and maintenance of skills learned via natural language teaching".

5107: 3961:

Eikeseth S (2009). "Outcome of comprehensive psycho-educational interventions for young children with autism".

3277: 3180:

Kirkham P (1 April 2017). "'The line between intervention and abuse' – autism and applied behaviour analysis".

1327: 1256: 658: 529: 357: 1549:– a verbal response evoked by a non-verbal antecedent and maintained by generalized conditioned reinforcement. 814:. As such, behavior analysts focus on the observable relationship of behavior with the environment, including 8656: 8651: 8580: 8305: 8121: 7942: 3517:"Applying behavior analysis to school violence and discipline problems: Schoolwide positive behavior support" 1906: 559: 128: 7265:"Functional analysis and treatment of self-injurious feather plucking in a black vulture (Coragyps atratus)" 2086:

Applied behavior analysts publish in many journals. Some examples of "core" behavior analytic journals are:

8626: 8499: 8345: 8241: 8216: 7987: 1890: 1293: 1285: 1183: 1143:

The literature provides many examples of success in teaching individuals considered previously unteachable.

569: 482: 5672:

Handbook of Applied Behavior Analysis for Children with Autism: Clinical Guide to Assessment and Treatment

8611: 8438: 8161: 1575: 1223: 1022:

include autism, classroom instruction with typically developing students, pediatric feeding therapy, and

603: 6817:

Cautilli J (2005). "Brief report: application of proposed model of decreasing reinforcement intensity".

4013:"Early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI) for young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD)" 8360: 8191: 8186: 2298: 2057: 1465: 1187: 1051: 1039: 75: 5966:

Yang SJ, Gallo DA, Beilock SL (September 2009). "Embodied memory judgments: a case of motor fluency".

5674:. Autism and Child Psychopathology Series. Cham: Springer International Publishing. pp. 107–129. 5632:

Schirmer A, Meck WH, Penney TB (October 2016). "The Socio-Temporal Brain: Connecting People in Time".

4063:

Sandbank M, Bottema-Beutel K, Crowley S, Cassidy M, Dunham K, Feldman JI, et al. (January 2020).

2680:

Dillenburger K, Keenan M (June 2009). "None of the As in ABA stand for autism: dispelling the myths".

974:

Notable graduate students from the University of Washington include Robert Wahler, James Sherman, and

8570: 8529: 8365: 8085: 7560: 5782: 3400: 1047: 753: 524: 515: 140: 3975: 7937: 6359:

Intentional Interviewing and Counseling: Facilitating Client Development in a Multicultural Society

2627: 2211: 1698: 1314:

dispute the value of eliminating autistic behaviors, maintaining that it forces autistic people to

944: 654: 150: 118: 6560:"A comparison of forward and backward procedures for the acquisition of response chains in humans" 6385:"Assessment and training of clinical interviewing skills: analogue analysis and field replication" 6064: 5381:"The man behind ex-gay "conversion therapy" started out trying to make autistic children "normal"" 3352:"Translational research in behavior analysis: historical traditions and imperative for the future" 1354:

project, which used early behavior modification techniques to target boys' gender identities. The

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Davis R, Den Houting J, Nordahl-Hansen A, Fletcher-Watson S (2022). "Helping Autistic Children".

2017: 1499: 1477: 1195: 1166: 1035: 996: 927: 694: 549: 447: 220: 185: 170: 165: 155: 104: 64: 20: 7743: 4923:(Report). United States Food and Drug Administration. p. 4. FDA-2014-N-0238. Archived from 4366:"'Recalling hidden harms': autistic experiences of childhood applied behavioural analysis (ABA)" 8636: 8226: 8065: 7484: 7130:

Malott RW (1992). "A theory of rule-governed behavior and organizational behavior management".

6506: 6470:

McLennan J (1994). "The skills-based model of counselling training: a review of the evidence".

3970: 2293: 1973: 1893:, make extensive use of behavior chain analysis, but is not philosophically behavior analytic. 1684: 1631: 1435: 1411: 1384:

refers to a class of responses that share physical dimensions or functions, and in that case a

1305: 1023: 788: 764: 730: 564: 497: 387: 297: 254: 230: 205: 135: 123: 89: 4581:

Rodgers M, Marshall D, Simmonds M, Le Couteur A, Biswas M, Wright K, et al. (July 2020).

8641: 8555: 8116: 8040: 7967: 7932: 6991:

Corbett BA, Abdullah M (2005). "Video modeling: why does it work for children with autism?".

6037:

Kuhn MR, Stahl SA (March 2003). "Fluency: A review of developmental and remedial practices".

5075:"Commentary: The autistic community is having a reckoning with ABA therapy. We should listen" 2283: 1652: 1627: 835: 800: 721: 544: 539: 457: 322: 287: 262: 160: 59: 54: 23:, a teaching method that is a form of the broader science of applied behavior analysis (ABA). 4275:"Pervasive Undisclosed Conflicts of Interest in Applied Behavior Analysis Autism Literature" 1602:

Response classes occur repeatedly throughout time—i.e., how many times the behavior occurs.

1555:– behavior under control of motivating operations maintained by a characteristic reinforcer. 904:'s study "The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer" (1959) that they published in the 8631: 8413: 8340: 8289: 8050: 8025: 8015: 5713: 3217: 2178: 2013: 2006: 1509: 1401: 1206: 1012: 1008: 931: 919: 911: 839: 784: 698: 442: 367: 277: 114: 99: 7763: 6228:"Teaching children with autism to initiate to peers: effects of a script-fading procedure" 6094: 1748:

This estimation alludes to how much time that somebody participated in a way of behaving.

8: 8428: 8355: 8279: 8100: 8080: 8035: 7972: 7855: 7807: 6433: 3929: 1487: 1483: 1031: 896:

Lovaas prompting several young research subjects and using food as a reinforcer, ca. 1965

827: 792: 706: 372: 362: 347: 312: 307: 292: 272: 267: 145: 84: 7371: 7346: 5717: 4247: 4222: 1706: 1015:. Curtailing of self-soothing behaviors is potentially classifiable as a form of abuse. 8474: 8211: 7947: 7776: 7700: 7384: 7294: 7210: 7185: 7008: 6973: 6584: 6559: 6449: 6409: 6384: 6357: 6252: 6227: 6203: 6178: 6154: 6129: 5921: 5858: 5833: 5760: 5344: 5319: 5174: 5055: 5003: 4976: 4828: 4815: 4790: 4771: 4705: 4680: 4656: 4631: 4607: 4582: 4558: 4533: 4514: 4473: 4438: 4388: 4301: 4274: 4198: 4174:"Communication interventions for autism spectrum disorder in minimally verbal children" 4173: 4089: 4064: 4037: 4012: 3893: 3868: 3753: 3651: 3541: 3516: 3492: 3467: 3445:

Nevada Autism Center, 7730 West Sahara Avenue #115, Las Vegas, NV 89117, (702) 660–2005

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Pinkston JW (August 2022). "Operant responding: Beyond rate and interresponse times".

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Critical to behavior analytic interventions is the concept of a systematic behavioral

744:, ABA has been utilized in a range of other areas, including applied animal behavior, 8616: 8565: 8408: 8330: 8310: 8181: 8060: 8055: 8020: 7997: 7927: 7912: 7708: 7686: 7646: 7617: 7585: 7510: 7388: 7376: 7347:"Applied behavior analysis and the zoo: Forthman and Ogden (1992) thirty years later" 7325: 7286: 7215: 7083: 6977: 6882: 6857: 6639: 6633: 6612: 6589: 6533: 6414: 6363: 6280: 6257: 6208: 6159: 6019: 5983: 5894: 5863: 5764: 5729: 5683: 5649: 5609: 5586: 5576: 5485: 5481: 5349: 5298: 5249: 5178: 5059: 5047: 5008: 4896: 4832: 4820: 4710: 4661: 4612: 4563: 4518: 4442: 4430: 4392: 4339: 4306: 4252: 4203: 4094: 4042: 3988: 3943: 3898: 3849: 3757: 3689: 3655: 3587: 3546: 3497: 3422: 3381: 3324: 3320: 3281: 3238: 3201: 3159: 3086: 3071: 3059: 3021: 2940: 2877: 2845: 2789: 2751: 2697: 2545: 2504: 2494: 2458: 2400: 2334: 2260: 1863: 1656: 1552: 1546: 1113:

In 2005, Heward et al. suggested the addition of the following five characteristics:

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Focus on behavior analysis in education: Achievements, challenges, and opportunities

3582: 3565: 3336: 3293: 3250: 3112: 2535: 2533: 2531: 2529: 2527: 2525: 8448: 8284: 8259: 8251: 8007: 7891: 7870: 7669: 7366: 7358: 7317: 7276: 7242: 7205: 7197: 7166: 7139: 7112: 7075: 7052: 7000: 6965: 6938: 6911: 6849: 6826: 6799: 6771: 6744: 6698: 6579: 6571: 6529: 6479: 6445: 6404: 6396: 6338: 6309: 6247: 6239: 6198: 6190: 6149: 6141: 6046: 6011: 5975: 5948: 5853: 5845: 5756: 5721: 5675: 5641: 5553: 5514: 5339: 5331: 5164: 5039: 4998: 4988: 4950: 4888: 4863: 4855: 4810: 4802: 4741: 4700: 4692: 4651: 4643: 4602: 4594: 4553: 4545: 4504: 4477: 4465: 4422: 4380: 4331: 4296: 4286: 4242: 4234: 4193: 4189: 4185: 4154: 4124: 4084: 4076: 4032: 4028: 4024: 3980: 3933: 3888: 3880: 3839: 3805: 3743: 3647: 3643: 3577: 3536: 3528: 3487: 3479: 3468:"Positive behavior support: Expanding the application of applied behavior analysis" 3412: 3371: 3363: 3316: 3273: 3230: 3189: 3151: 3051: 3011: 3003: 2930: 2922: 2887: 2835: 2827: 2781: 2743: 2739: 2709: 2689: 2448: 2440: 2390: 2382: 2278: 2232: 2074: 2069: 2053: 2049: 2025: 1854: 1522: 1415: 1315: 1242: 397: 352: 337: 332: 215: 190: 5027: 4859: 4789:

Leaf JB, Cihon JH, Leaf R, McEachin J, Liu N, Russell N, et al. (June 2022).

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Moxley RA (2004). "Pragmatic selectionism. The philosophy of behavior analysis".

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Prompters might use any or all of the following to suggest the desired response:

1833: 1634:

inputs reset the cortical phase that initiates the timing. During the event, the

1534: 1323: 1179: 1170: 1155: 1100:

not produce a large enough effect for practical use, then the analysis has failed

987: 952: 879: 867: 847: 807: 741: 195: 7079: 5679: 5153:"Disturbing Behaviours: Ole Ivar Lovaas and the Queer History of Autism Science" 5100:"For Whose Benefit? Evidence, Ethics, and Effectiveness of Autism Interventions" 2755: 2140:

Journal of Behavior Analysis of Sports, Health, Fitness, and Behavioral Medicine

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Englemann S (1968). "Relating operant techniques to programming and teaching".

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systems, especially when these are developed by unqualified practitioners (see

1311: 1227: 1210: 948: 859: 811: 7056: 6483: 6015: 5849: 5725: 5043: 4993: 4696: 4632:"Adverse event reporting in intervention research for young autistic children" 4291: 4065:"Project AIM: Autism intervention meta-analysis for studies of young children" 3884: 3771: 3055: 2911:"A brief history of applied behavior analysis at the University of Washington" 2693: 1569:

Skinner's use of behavioral techniques was famously critiqued by the linguist

8605: 8534: 8443: 8388: 8383: 8325: 8156: 7992: 7977: 7962: 7875: 7835: 7201: 6575: 6400: 6243: 6050: 5590: 5335: 5169: 5152: 4746: 4729: 4647: 4493:"How much compliance is too much compliance: Is long-term ABA therapy abuse?" 4469: 4384: 4323: 3426: 3401:"How much compliance is too much compliance: Is long-term ABA therapy abuse?" 3367: 3193: 3155: 3007: 2926: 2595: 2508: 2488: 2135:

Journal of Behavior Analysis of Offender and Victim: Treatment and Prevention

1977: 1850: 1539: 1458: 1419: 1343: 1234:

ABA clinical providers. However, only 2% of these studies disclosed the COI.

1218: 965:

organize employees who required proper structure and management in businesses

960: 923: 915: 875: 863: 843: 502: 462: 382: 377: 7321: 6194: 6145: 5320:"Publication trends in 25 years of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis" 5219:"Applied behaviour analysis, autism, and a response to recent controversies" 2386: 1810:

In applied behavior analysis, all experiments should include the following:

1137:

Practitioners can improve performance by direct and continuous measurements.

8484: 8335: 8320: 8176: 8166: 7952: 7642:

Behavior Management: Principles and Practices of Positive Behavior Supports

7380: 7290: 7219: 7043: 7028:"Shaping, Chaining, & Task Analysis with an Example from Everyday Life" 6593: 6163: 6023: 5987: 5898: 5867: 5768: 5733: 5653: 5353: 5136: 5051: 5012: 4824: 4714: 4665: 4616: 4567: 4434: 4310: 4256: 4207: 4172:

Brignell A, Chenausky KV, Song H, Zhu J, Suo C, Morgan AT (November 2018).

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ABA has been successfully used in other species. Morris uses ABA to reduce

1931:

Positional prompt: e.g., the target item is placed close to the individual.

1651:

Latency specifically measures the time that elapses between the event of a

1570: 901: 855: 851: 657:

by adding information on neglected viewpoints, or discuss the issue on the

487: 180: 7170: 7143: 6853: 6418: 6261: 6212: 4791:"Concerns About ABA-Based Intervention: An Evaluation and Recommendations" 4491:

Sandoval-Norton AH, Shkedy G, Shkedy D (1 January 2019). Rushby JA (ed.).

4426: 3399:

Sandoval-Norton AH, Shkedy G, Shkedy D (1 January 2019). Rushby JA (ed.).

3218:"Screams, slaps, and love: The strange birth of applied behavior analysis" 3163: 16:

The application of respondent and operant conditioning to change behavior.

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Osnes PG, Lieblein T (2003). "An explicit technology of generalization".

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Gottlieb D, Pomerantz O (2021). "Utilizing Behavior to Assess Welfare".

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The Journal of Speech and Language Pathology – Applied Behavior Analysis

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Bottema-Beutel K, Crowley S, Sandbank M, Woynaroski TG (February 2021).

3087:"Building social behavior in autistic children by use of electric shock" 806:

Behavior analysts also emphasize that the science of behavior must be a

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Bottema-Beutel K, Crowley S, Sandbank M, Woynaroski TG (January 2021).

4531: 4080: 3532: 3483: 2831: 1823:

A system for measuring the behavior and ongoing visual analysis of data

1609:

Rate/frequency is the number of instances of behavior per unit of time.

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The Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis

2020:. Recent efforts to teach shaping have used simulated computer tasks. 1062: 701:

to change behavior of social significance. ABA is the applied form of

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Applied Behavior Analysis: Overview and Summary of Scientific Support

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Clinical and Organizational Applications of Applied Behavior Analysis

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Hayes SC, Brownstein AJ, Zettle RD, Rosenfarb I, Korn Z (May 1986).

4062: 1784:

Assisted approach - Behavior assisted by a teacher or an individual.

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Skills Training Manual for Treating Borderline Personality Disorder

5968:

Journal of Experimental Psychology. Learning, Memory, and Cognition

4221:

Kasari C, Shire S, Shih W, Landa R, Levato L, Smith T (June 2023).

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persisted in some ABA programs. In comments made in 2014 to the US

1004: 477: 472: 432: 6733: 6691:

Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Applied Behavior Analysis

4538:

Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines

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Spreat S (2012). "Behavioral treatments for children with ASDs".

4760: 4580: 2201:

The Journal of Behavioral Assessment and Intervention in Children

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social significance to impact the perception and timing of acts.

1622:

frequency (SBF) model, this highlights the essential role of the

2558: 2482: 2480: 2478: 2476: 2474: 2472: 2196:

The International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy

1581:

For an assessment of verbal behavior from Skinner's system, see

1158:, and ABA itself is often mistakenly considered synonymous with 8350: 8269: 7865: 7825: 7820: 7815: 5783:"Module 5: Measurement | Applied Behavior Analysis (PSYCH 581)" 4764:

Education and Training in Autism and Developmental Disabilities

2985: 2983: 2725:"The natural selection: behavior analysis as a natural science" 2226: 1840: 1832:

An intervention that will benefit the participant in some way (

1639: 1318:

their true personalities and conform to a narrow conception of

1096:

reinforcement" or "errorless discrimination" where appropriate.

900:

The beginnings of ABA can be traced back to Teodoro Ayllon and

818:

and consequences, without resort to "hypothetical constructs".

7183: 6955: 6299: 3078: 6788: 6673: 4974: 2469: 1026:. Other applications of ABA include applied animal behavior, 7768: 7419: 7072:

Handbook of Behavior Modification with the Mentally Retarded

6434:"Allen E. Ivey: transforming counseling theory and practice" 4327:

The Wiley-Blackwell Handbook of Childhood Social Development

2980: 2364: 2362: 1612:

Celeration is the measure of how the rate changes over time.

689:, is a scientific discipline that applies the principles of 7957: 6326: 5834:"On Terms: Frequency and Rate in Applied Behavior Analysis" 4490: 3729: 3398: 1214: 492: 7680: 7659: 6929:

Kemp SM, Eckerman DA (2002). "Simulating a shaping task".

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Readings for Strategies and tactics of behavioral research

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10.1352/0895-8017(2005)110[417:IBTFCW]2.0.CO;2

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Skinner BF (1950). "Are theories of learning necessary?".

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The ability to transfer the behavior to other applications

1722:

On Terms: Frequency and Rate in Applied Behavior Analysis,

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a reinforcer or punisher (e.g., the dog does not get food

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Iwata BA, Wong SE, Riordan MM, Dorsey MF, Lau MM (1982).

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Shapiro ES, Browder DM (1990). "Behavioral Assessment".

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Behavior Analysis and Learning: A Biobehavioral Approach

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Binder C (1993). "Behavioral Fluency: A New Paradigm".

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Merbitz CT, Merbitz NH, Pennypacker HS (October 2016).

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Leaf JB, Ross RK, Cihon JH, Weiss MJ (4 October 2018).

4681:"When autism researchers disregard harms: A commentary" 4214: 3828:"Management of children with autism spectrum disorders" 3725: 3723: 3721: 3719: 3717: 3683: 3605: 2316: 1740:

Same as frequency, yet inside a predefined time limit.

736:

Although service delivery providers commonly implement

7232: 7102: 6609:

The Acting-Out Child: Coping With Classroom Disruption

6496: 6382: 5880: 5669: 3084: 2682:

Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability

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Response latency in children, when being treated with

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Tryon WW (1976). "A system of behavioral diagnosis".

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Effective Educational Practices for Students with ASD

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Modificación de conducta: Principios y Procedimientos

2959:"Identifying applied behavior analysis interventions" 2150:

Journal of Early and Intensive Behavior Interventions

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literature. Others have published similar responses.

6128:

Crowell CR, Anderson DC, Abel DM, Sergio JP (1988).

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Cassidy S, Bradley L, Shaw R, Baron-Cohen S (2018).

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Sandoval-Norton AH, Shkedy G, Shkedy D (June 2021).

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may be more appropriate to teach language through a

1226:

designs and outcomes for which there was no risk of

6721:

Behavior Modification: What is it and how to do it?

5603: 3922:

Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology

3918:"Evidence Base Update for Autism Spectrum Disorder" 3873:

Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology

3564:Waasdorp TE, Bradshaw CP, Leaf PJ (February 2012). 2814:Eikeseth S, Smith T, Jahr E, Eldevik S (May 2007). 2632:"The controversy over autism's most common therapy" 5631: 5026:Cook J, Hull L, Crane L, Mandy W (November 2021). 5025: 4727: 4412: 4408: 4406: 4404: 4402: 4011:Reichow B, Hume K, Barton EE, Boyd BA (May 2018). 3795: 3309:Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics 3216: 3175: 3173: 2865: 2863: 2861: 2859: 2679: 1683:of a certain behavior on a period of time. Use of 1299: 7609: 7311: 6546: 6503:Annual Review of Research in Vocational Education 6225: 6115: 5881:Granpeesheh D, Tarbox J, Dixon DR (August 2009). 5531: 5466: 5420: 5366: 5280: 5268: 5248:. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum Associates. p. 23. 4977:"Risk markers for suicidality in autistic adults" 4845: 3708: 3688:. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall/Merrill. 3668: 3625: 2869: 1766:Maintain the behavior while there are disruptions 1108: 8603: 7190:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 6564:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 5965: 5478:Behavior modification: Principles and procedures 3570:Archives of Pediatrics & Adolescent Medicine 3356:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 2375:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 2371:"The psychiatric nurse as a behavioral engineer" 2166:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 2039: 1826:At least one treatment or intervention condition 1583:Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills 1516:Discriminated operant and three-term contingency 1073:Behavior Modification: Principles and Procedures 907:Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior 7557:"Journal of Organizational Behavior Management" 7414: 7412: 7410: 7408: 7406: 7404: 7402: 7400: 7398: 7344: 6990: 6876: 6080: 6078: 5197:Association for Behavior Analysis International 4399: 4110: 4108: 3514: 3465: 3349: 3263: 3170: 3094:Journal of Experimental Research in Personality 2856: 2269:Association for Behavior Analysis International 1659:, providing insights into their perceptual and 1606:Count is the number of occurrences in behavior. 1356:Association for Behavior Analysis International 1334:self-agency within interpersonal experiences". 7681:Mayer GR, Sulzer-Azaroff B, Wallace M (2011). 7069: 6499:"A social learning theory of career selection" 6177:MacDuff GS, Krantz PJ, McClannahan LE (1993). 5938: 5132:"Is the Most Common Therapy for Autism Cruel?" 5129: 4363: 4144: 4006: 4004: 4002: 3679: 3677: 3638:Miltenberger R, Virues-Ortega J (1 May 2020). 2657:"Is the Most Common Therapy for Autism Cruel?" 2654: 2626: 2426: 1777:There are two types of approaches to fluency: 1288:(FDA), a clinician previously employed by the 7784: 7638: 6901: 5246:Strategies and tactics of behavioral research 5150: 5028:"Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review" 4795:Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 4679:Dawson M, Fletcher-Watson S (February 2022). 4140: 4138: 3915: 3866: 3821: 3819: 3144:Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology 3044:Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders 3041: 2966:Association of Professional Behavior Analysts 2619: 2617: 2368: 2155:Journal of Organizational Behavior Management 740:validated interventions for individuals with 611: 7582:"Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions" 7395: 7262: 6928: 6658: 6497:Krumboltz JD, Mitchell AM, Jones GB (1980). 6075: 5475: 4672: 4623: 4105: 3825: 3598: 3459: 2540:Roane HS, Ringdahl JE, Falcomata TS (2015). 2322: 1841:Methodologies developed through ABA research 1800: 1763:The ability to retain the behavior or action 1149: 791:. Behavior analysis adopts the viewpoint of 6843: 5372: 5144: 5066: 4455: 4178:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 4017:The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 3999: 3674: 3214: 3208: 3085:Lovaas OI, Schaeffer B, Simmons JQ (1965). 2675: 2673: 2422: 2420: 2418: 2416: 2414: 1922:Vocal prompts: Words or other vocalizations 1048:positive behavior interventions and support 763:ABA is considered controversial within the 709:(or the philosophy of the science) and the 7791: 7777: 7532:"Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science" 7445:"Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice" 7258: 7256: 6718: 6513: 6057: 4909: 4135: 3816: 2614: 2304:Professional practice of behavior analysis 2160:Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions 1982:professional practice of behavior analysis 1817:At least one behavior (dependent variable) 1186:respond to 2.5 – 20 hours per week of the 618: 604: 7459:"Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies" 7370: 7280: 7209: 6583: 6519: 6408: 6251: 6202: 6153: 6036: 5857: 5343: 5318:Northup J, Vollmer TR, Serrett K (1993). 5168: 5157:Catalyst: Feminism, Theory, Technoscience 5002: 4992: 4867: 4814: 4782: 4745: 4704: 4655: 4606: 4557: 4508: 4317: 4300: 4290: 4246: 4197: 4088: 4036: 3974: 3954: 3937: 3892: 3843: 3764: 3747: 3581: 3540: 3491: 3416: 3375: 3037: 3035: 3015: 2934: 2839: 2809: 2807: 2805: 2803: 2452: 2394: 1728:In Annals of Clinical Psychiatry article 1342:In 1974, Lovaas co-authored a study with 8647:Industrial and organizational psychology 7345:Fernandez EJ, Martin AL (January 2023). 7314:Behavioral Biology of Laboratory Animals 6816: 6469: 6431: 6355: 5746: 5608:(2nd ed.). Hillsdale, HF: Erlbaum. 5543: 4165: 4058: 4056: 3960: 3736:Advances in Neurodevelopmental Disorders 2670: 2411: 2145:Journal of Contextual Behavioral Science 2101:Behavior Analysis: Research and Practice 1967:refers to a prompt being removed, where 1963:Thinning is often confused with fading. 1061: 883: 731:differential reinforcement contingencies 7699: 7610:Cooper JO, Heron TE, Heward WL (1987). 7253: 7025: 6631: 6091:Behavioral Consulting of Tampa Bay, Inc 5570: 5151:Gibson M, Douglas P (16 October 2018). 5072: 4948: 4915: 3916:Smith T, Iadarola S (2 November 2015). 3466:Anderson CM, Freeman KA (Spring 2000). 3179: 2870:Cooper JO, Heron TE, Heward WL (2007). 2771: 2566:"Division 25 - About Behavior analysis" 1925:Visual prompts: A visual cue or picture 1805: 1395: 1338:Early studies on gay conversion therapy 760:, and athletic exercise, among others. 8604: 7129: 6879:Applied Behavior Analysis for Teachers 6674:Ontario Ministry of Education (2007). 6606: 6274: 6087:"The importance of measuring behavior" 6084: 6071:. University of Massachusetts Amherst. 5911: 5504: 5435:The analysis of human operant behavior 5378: 4882: 4876: 3963:Research in Developmental Disabilities 3867:Rogers SJ, Vismara LA (January 2008). 3860: 3826:Myers SM, Johnson CP (November 2007). 3557: 3266:American Journal of Mental Retardation 3141: 3110: 3032: 2908: 2800: 2486: 2323:Pierce WD, Cheney CD (16 June 2017) . 2274:Behavior analysis of child development 1691: 1201: 7772: 7574: 7549: 7524: 7499: 7263:Morris KL, Slocum SK (October 2019). 7040: 6557: 6069:Applied Behavior Analysis (PSYCH 581) 5665: 5663: 5627: 5625: 5432: 5292: 5244:Johnston JM, Pennypacker HS (1993a). 4364:McGill O, Robinson A (October 2020). 4359: 4357: 4355: 4268: 4266: 4053: 3798:Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders 2732:European Journal of Behavior Analysis 1588: 980:University of California, Los Angeles 7683:Behavior Analysis for Lasting Change 7351:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 7269:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 6389:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 6232:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 6183:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 6134:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 5812:Behavior Analyst Certification Board 5604:Johnston JM, Pennypacker HA (1993). 5453:Behavior Analyst Certification Board 5401: 5324:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 4273:Bottema-Beutel K, Crowley S (2021). 3776:Behavior Analyst Certification Board 3350:Mace FC, Critchfield TS (May 2010). 3343: 3300: 3257: 2996:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2989: 2951: 2915:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2722: 2590: 2588: 2433:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 2427:Baer DM, Wolf MM, Risley TR (1968). 2369:Ayllon T, Michael J (October 1959). 2129:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 1928:Gestural prompts: A physical gesture 1020:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 969:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 937:Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis 629: 5130:DeVita-Raeburn E (11 August 2016). 4415:Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 3909: 2655:DeVita-Raeburn E (11 August 2016). 2186:The Behavioral Development Bulletin 1913: 1792: 1430:Respondent (classical) conditioning 1274: 1249: 713:(or basic experimental research). 13: 8591:Parents Against Child Exploitation 7631: 6450:10.1002/j.1556-6676.2001.tb01949.x 6226:Krantz PJ, McClannahan LE (1993). 5761:10.1016/j.brainresbull.2022.05.009 5660: 5622: 5092: 4525: 4484: 4449: 4352: 4263: 3215:Bowman RA, Baker JP (March 2014). 2571:American Psychological Association 2028:responses, in some cases for long 1616: 1528: 1290:Judge Rotenberg Educational Center 1057: 1044:organizational behavior management 930:, which led to researchers at the 746:organizational behavior management 14: 8668: 8561:Mothers Apart from Their Children 7723: 6881:. Pearson Merrill Prentice Hall. 6039:Journal of Educational Psychology 2596:"EUCAP Position Statement on ABA" 2585: 2490:APA Handbook of Behavior Analysis 2081: 1987: 1959:Thinning a reinforcement schedule 1646: 1217:pervade most ABA studies. A 2019 832:Experimental analysis of behavior 781:experimental analysis of behavior 758:acceptance and commitment therapy 754:behavior management in classrooms 711:experimental analysis of behavior 7473: 7451: 7437: 7338: 7305: 7226: 7177: 7150: 7123: 7096: 7063: 7034: 7019: 6984: 6949: 6922: 6895: 6870: 6837: 6810: 6782: 6755: 6727: 6682: 6667: 6652: 6625: 6600: 6551: 6540: 6490: 6463: 6425: 6376: 6349: 6320: 6293: 6268: 6219: 6170: 6121: 6109: 6030: 5994: 5959: 5932: 5905: 3321:10.1097/00004703-200604002-00013 2253: 2239: 2225: 2173:Perspectives on Behavior Science 2091:Applied Animal Behaviour Science 2063: 1845: 1597: 1452: 1184:higher receptive language skills 955:, Bill Hopkins, Jay Birnbrauer, 634: 585: 43: 8419:Management of domestic violence 8265:Corporal punishment in the home 6877:Alberto P, Troutman AC (2006). 6547:Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 6116:Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 5874: 5825: 5800: 5775: 5740: 5696: 5597: 5571:Skinner BF (17 November 2014). 5564: 5537: 5532:Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 5525: 5498: 5441: 5426: 5421:Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 5414: 5395: 5367:Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 5360: 5311: 5286: 5281:Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 5274: 5269:Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 5262: 5237: 5211: 5185: 5123: 5019: 4968: 4942: 4839: 4754: 4721: 4574: 3709:Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 3702: 3669:Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 3662: 3631: 3626:Cooper, Heron & Heward 1987 3619: 3583:10.1001/archpediatrics.2011.755 3515:Anderson CM, Kincaid D (2005). 3433: 3392: 3135: 3132:(excerpt from Psychology Today) 3104: 2902: 2876:(2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. 2765: 2716: 1300:Views of the autistic community 1192:lower receptive language skills 8576:National Fatherhood Initiative 7645:. Pearson Education, Limited. 7639:Wheeler JJ, Richey DD (2013). 7616:. Merrill Publishing Company. 7026:Gilmore H (20 February 2020). 6993:J Early Intensive Behav Interv 6678:. Queen's Printer for Ontario. 6302:Professional School Psychology 5706:Neurotoxicology and Teratology 5575:. Echo Point Books and Media. 5404:"Reinforcement and Punishment" 5108:Autistic Self Advocacy Network 4190:10.1002/14651858.CD012324.pub2 4029:10.1002/14651858.CD009260.pub3 2744:10.1080/15021149.2009.11434313 2096:Behavioral Health and Medicine 1328:Autistic Self Advocacy Network 1257:post-traumatic stress disorder 1109:Other proposed characteristics 1030:, forensic behavior analysis, 943:A group of researchers at the 727:functional behavior assessment 1: 8581:National Parents Organization 8306:Adverse childhood experiences 7798: 7117:10.1016/S0005-7894(00)80023-4 6659:Malott RW, Kohler KT (2021). 6611:(2nd ed.). Sopris West. 6362:(4th ed.). Brooks/Cole. 5887:Annals of Clinical Psychiatry 4860:10.1080/23311908.2020.1823615 4510:10.1080/23311908.2019.1641258 3939:10.1080/15374416.2015.1077448 3418:10.1080/23311908.2019.1641258 3182:History of the Human Sciences 2309: 2040:Interventions based on an FBA 1493: 1471: 1213:concerns, and a high risk of 774: 328:Industrial and organizational 8346:Effects of domestic violence 7988:Social emotional development 7749:Resources in other libraries 7481:"Behavior and Social Issues" 6970:10.1177/10983007030050010801 6846:Ethics for Behavior Analysts 6534:10.1016/0022-4405(68)90002-2 6004:Journal of School Psychology 5634:Trends in Cognitive Sciences 4951:"The Autism Rights Movement" 4893:10.1017/CBO9780511978616.011 4587:Health Technology Assessment 3648:10.26741/2020/miltenberger6e 1900: 1891:dialectical behavior therapy 1715: 1294:electrical brain stimulation 1286:Food and Drug Administration 986:which was initially used by 483:Human factors and ergonomics 7: 8162:Identification (psychology) 7080:10.1007/978-1-4899-2501-5_5 5680:10.1007/978-3-031-27587-6_6 4916:Cameron M (14 April 2014). 3130:– via Neurodiversity. 2218: 1874: 1743: 1576:Speech language pathologist 1366: 1361: 1224:randomized controlled trial 918:based on the principles of 10: 8673: 8586:Parent–teacher association 8361:Parental abuse by children 8242:Positive Parenting Program 8192:Parent management training 8187:Normative social influence 7603: 7561:Taylor & Francis Group 6844:Bailey J, Burch M (2016). 6085:Prince K (13 March 2013). 5953:10.1007/s40732-022-00519-9 5646:10.1016/j.tics.2016.08.002 5507:The Behavior Analyst Today 5379:Rubino S (17 March 2021). 5295:The Power of Reinforcement 5032:Clinical Psychology Review 4918:Aversive comments – part 1 4807:10.1007/s10803-021-05137-y 4336:10.1002/9781119679028.ch39 4147:The Behavior Analyst Today 4117:The Behavior Analyst Today 3985:10.1016/j.ridd.2008.02.003 3810:10.1016/j.rasd.2011.05.008 3749:10.1007/s41252-021-00201-1 2299:Parent management training 2191:The Behavior Analyst Today 2111:Behavior and Social Issues 2058:Behavioral change theories 2004: 2000: 1878: 1751: 1699:intervention effectiveness 1578:instead of a behaviorist. 1532: 1497: 1475: 1466:schedules of reinforcement 1456: 1433: 1399: 1370: 1303: 1194:need 25 hours per week of 1040:clinical behavior analysis 1028:consumer behavior analysis 825: 821: 18: 8571:National Childbirth Trust 8548: 8457: 8374: 8366:Stress in early childhood 8298: 8250: 8109: 8086:Taking children seriously 8006: 7918:Applied behavior analysis 7901: 7806: 7744:Resources in your library 7735:Applied behavior analysis 7662:Psychology in the Schools 7613:Applied Behavior Analysis 7483:. Uic.edu. Archived from 7057:10.1037/0735-7028.7.4.495 6719:Martin G, Pear J (2003). 6484:10.1080/00050069408257328 6356:Ivey AE, Ivey MB (1998). 6016:10.1016/j.jsp.2016.09.002 5850:10.1007/s40614-015-0048-z 5726:10.1016/j.ntt.2011.10.008 5073:Cernius Y (13 May 2022). 5044:10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102080 4994:10.1186/s13229-018-0226-4 4949:Soloman A (23 May 2008). 4697:10.1177/13623613211031403 4292:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.676303 3885:10.1080/15374410701817808 3111:Chance P (January 1974). 3056:10.1007/s10803-010-1162-0 2873:Applied Behavior Analysis 2694:10.1080/13668250902845244 1945: 1801:Analyzing behavior change 1630:. At onset of the event, 1626:timing that synchronizes 1259:(PTSD) in patients. Some 1150:Use as therapy for autism 718:applied behavior analysis 679:Applied behavior analysis 649:toward certain viewpoints 259:Applied behavior analysis 8227:The talk (sex education) 7938:Developmental psychology 7420:"BAOJournals Have Moved" 7202:10.1901/jeab.1986.45-237 6819:Int J Behav Consult Ther 6576:10.1901/jeab.1978.29-255 6501:. In Wentling TL (ed.). 6401:10.1901/jaba.1982.15-191 6244:10.1901/jaba.1993.26-121 6051:10.1037/0022-0663.95.1.3 5941:The Psychological Record 5476:Miltenberger RG (2008). 5336:10.1901/jaba.1993.26-527 5170:10.28968/cftt.v4i2.29579 4747:10.1108/AIA-02-2018-0007 4648:10.1177/1362361320965331 4470:10.1108/AIA-08-2017-0016 4385:10.1108/AIA-04-2020-0025 3368:10.1901/jeab.2010.93-293 3194:10.1177/0952695117702571 3156:10.1037/0022-006x.55.1.3 3008:10.1901/jaba.1993.26-569 2927:10.1901/jaba.1993.26-563 2329:(6 ed.). New York: 2212:The Psychological Record 1814:At least one participant 1190:, whereas children with 1066:7 Characteristics of ABA 945:University of Washington 19:Not to be confused with 8434:Parental responsibility 8394:Cost of raising a child 7685:(2/E ed.). Sloan. 7507:"Behavior Modification" 7322:10.1201/9780429019517-5 6558:Weiss KM (March 1978). 6277:Behavioral Consultation 6195:10.1901/jaba.1993.26-89 6146:10.1901/jaba.1988.21-65 6065:"Module 5: Measurement" 5749:Brain Research Bulletin 5437:. Dubuque, Iowa: Brown. 4279:Frontiers in Psychology 3772:"BACB CERTIFICANT DATA" 2387:10.1901/jeab.1959.2-323 2106:Behavior and Philosophy 1735: 1685:psychiatric medications 1500:Extinction (psychology) 1478:Punishment (psychology) 1196:discrete trial training 1167:discrete trial training 1052:contact desensitization 1036:behavioral neuroscience 1024:substance use disorders 997:discrete trial training 928:intellectual disability 448:Behavioral neuroscience 105:Behavioral neuroscience 21:discrete trial training 6661:Principles of Behavior 6638:. The Guilford Press. 6507:University of Illinois 5914:Educational Technology 4069:Psychological Bulletin 3845:10.1542/peds.2007-2362 3315:(2 Suppl): S145–S155. 3235:10.1542/peds.2013-2583 2487:Madden G, ed. (2013). 2445:10.1901/jaba.1968.1-91 2294:Educational psychology 2072:in the black vulture ( 1974:contingency management 1436:Classical conditioning 1412:three-term contingency 1348:gay conversion therapy 1306:Autism rights movement 1067: 897: 789:classical conditioning 765:autism rights movement 687:behavioral engineering 498:Psychology of religion 438:Behavioral engineering 124:Cognitive neuroscience 90:Affective neuroscience 8622:Behavior modification 8556:Families Need Fathers 8117:After-school activity 8041:Concerted cultivation 8036:Buddha-like parenting 7968:Nature versus nurture 7933:Cognitive development 7171:10.1300/J075v12n02_09 7144:10.1300/J075v12n02_03 6854:10.4324/9781315669212 4427:10.1353/ken.2020.0000 2820:Behavior Modification 2284:Behavioral activation 2117:Behavior Modification 1707:program modifications 1628:cortical oscillations 1207:Conflicts of interest 1188:naturalistic approach 1065: 895: 836:Behavior modification 826:Further information: 801:behavior modification 722:behavior modification 592:Psychology portal 8657:Autism pseudoscience 8652:Personal development 8414:Right to family life 8341:Dysfunctional family 8051:Free-range parenting 8026:Attachment parenting 8016:Achievement ideology 7159:J Organ Behav Manage 7132:J Organ Behav Manage 6958:J Posit Behav Interv 6432:Littrell JM (2001). 5838:The Behavior Analyst 4887:. pp. 239–257. 4330:. pp. 729–746. 3930:Taylor & Francis 3521:The Behavior Analyst 3472:The Behavior Analyst 2774:Psychological Review 2761:on 29 November 2014. 2544:. Elsevier Science. 2179:The Behavior Analyst 2014:operant conditioning 2007:Shaping (psychology) 1820:At least one setting 1806:Experimental control 1661:cognitive processing 1540:B. F. Skinner's 1408:operant conditioning 1402:Operant conditioning 1396:Operant conditioning 1279:Lovaas incorporated 1013:psychological trauma 1009:intrinsic motivation 932:University of Kansas 920:operant conditioning 912:psychiatric hospital 840:Operant conditioning 785:operant conditioning 705:; the other two are 699:operant conditioning 8627:Behavioral concepts 8429:Parental alienation 8356:Narcissistic parent 8280:Positive discipline 8101:Work at home parent 8081:Strict father model 8066:Nurturant parenting 7973:Parental investment 7808:Kinship terminology 7235:Behav Analyst Today 7074:. pp. 93–122. 6931:Behav Analyst Today 6904:Behav Analyst Today 6792:Behav Analyst Today 6764:Behav Analyst Today 6737:Behav Analyst Today 6632:Linehan MM (1993). 5718:2012NTxT...34...47F 4885:The Autism Spectrum 1951:behavior or skill. 1692:Derivative measures 1488:negative punishment 1484:positive punishment 1350:clinic at UCLA, on 1202:Quality of evidence 1032:behavioral medicine 1005:sensory stimulation 828:Radical behaviorism 793:radical behaviorism 707:radical behaviorism 655:improve the article 443:Behavioral genetics 358:Occupational health 100:Behavioral genetics 31:Part of a series on 8612:Applied psychology 8475:T. Berry Brazelton 8212:Social integration 7948:Identity formation 7674:10.1002/pits.20208 7487:on 15 January 2020 7316:. pp. 51–64. 6607:Walker HM (1995). 6509:. pp. 259–82. 6337:(5, pt. 2): 1–12. 6275:Bergan JR (1977). 6097:on 9 February 2023 5787:websites.umass.edu 4930:on 14 January 2017 4734:Advances in Autism 4550:10.1111/jcpp.13249 4458:Advances in Autism 4373:Advances in Autism 4081:10.1037/bul0000215 3533:10.1007/BF03392103 3484:10.1007/BF03392001 2909:Lovitt TC (1993). 2890:on 9 February 2023 2832:10.1007/BF03392239 2630:(10 August 2016). 2333:. pp. 1–622. 2289:Conversion therapy 1869:direct instruction 1864:Behavioral scripts 1589:Measuring behavior 1160:therapy for autism 1068: 984:errorless learning 922:for patients with 898: 844:B. F. Skinner 560:Schools of thought 398:Sport and exercise 246:Applied psychology 8599: 8598: 8409:Family disruption 8331:Cinderella effect 8311:Child abandonment 8285:Tactical ignoring 8182:Moral development 8061:Helicopter parent 8056:Gatekeeper parent 8021:Atlas personality 7998:Social psychology 7943:Human development 7928:Child development 7913:Attachment theory 7730:Library resources 7714:978-1-59738-007-2 7692:978-1-59738-032-4 7652:978-0-13-285169-5 7623:978-0-675-20223-7 7586:SAGE Publications 7511:SAGE Publications 7331:978-0-429-01951-7 7089:978-1-4899-2503-9 6888:978-0-13-117994-3 6863:978-1-317-36344-6 6645:978-0-89862-034-4 6618:978-1-57035-047-4 6369:978-0-534-35756-6 6286:978-0-675-08488-8 5689:978-3-031-27587-6 5615:978-0-8058-0906-0 5582:978-1-62654-014-9 5491:978-0-495-09153-0 5482:Thomson/Wadsworth 5433:Reese EP (1966). 5304:978-0-7914-5916-4 5293:Flora SR (2004). 5255:978-0-8058-0905-3 5223:Monash University 4955:New York Magazine 4902:978-0-521-11687-9 4848:Cogent Psychology 4497:Cogent Psychology 4345:978-1-119-67898-4 3695:978-0-13-111339-8 3405:Cogent Psychology 2883:978-0-13-142113-4 2647:; republished in 2551:978-0-12-420249-8 2500:978-1-4338-1111-1 2261:Psychology portal 1859:backward chaining 1638:are monitored by 1632:ventral tegmental 893: 703:behavior analysis 676: 675: 628: 627: 525:Counseling topics 468:Consumer behavior 211:Psycholinguistics 95:Affective science 8664: 8449:Shared parenting 8260:Blanket training 8252:Child discipline 7892:In loco parentis 7871:Shared parenting 7793: 7786: 7779: 7770: 7769: 7718: 7696: 7677: 7656: 7627: 7597: 7596: 7594: 7592: 7578: 7572: 7571: 7569: 7567: 7553: 7547: 7546: 7544: 7542: 7528: 7522: 7521: 7519: 7517: 7503: 7497: 7496: 7494: 7492: 7477: 7471: 7470: 7468: 7466: 7455: 7449: 7448: 7441: 7435: 7434: 7432: 7430: 7416: 7393: 7392: 7374: 7363:10.1002/jaba.969 7342: 7336: 7335: 7309: 7303: 7302: 7284: 7282:10.1002/jaba.639 7260: 7251: 7250: 7247:10.1037/h0100124 7230: 7224: 7223: 7213: 7181: 7175: 7174: 7154: 7148: 7147: 7127: 7121: 7120: 7100: 7094: 7093: 7067: 7061: 7060: 7038: 7032: 7031: 7023: 7017: 7016: 7005:10.1037/h0100294 6988: 6982: 6981: 6953: 6947: 6946: 6943:10.1037/h0099975 6926: 6920: 6919: 6916:10.1037/h0099994 6899: 6893: 6892: 6874: 6868: 6867: 6841: 6835: 6834: 6831:10.1037/h0100731 6814: 6808: 6807: 6804:10.1037/h0099991 6786: 6780: 6779: 6776:10.1037/h0100120 6759: 6753: 6752: 6749:10.1037/h0099967 6731: 6725: 6724: 6716: 6707: 6706: 6703:10.1037/h0100216 6686: 6680: 6679: 6671: 6665: 6664: 6656: 6650: 6649: 6629: 6623: 6622: 6604: 6598: 6597: 6587: 6555: 6549: 6544: 6538: 6537: 6517: 6511: 6510: 6494: 6488: 6487: 6467: 6461: 6460: 6458: 6456: 6429: 6423: 6422: 6412: 6380: 6374: 6373: 6353: 6347: 6346: 6343:10.1037/h0026129 6324: 6318: 6317: 6314:10.1037/h0090570 6297: 6291: 6290: 6272: 6266: 6265: 6255: 6223: 6217: 6216: 6206: 6174: 6168: 6167: 6157: 6125: 6119: 6113: 6107: 6106: 6104: 6102: 6093:. Archived from 6082: 6073: 6072: 6061: 6055: 6054: 6034: 6028: 6027: 5998: 5992: 5991: 5980:10.1037/a0016547 5974:(5): 1359–1365. 5963: 5957: 5956: 5936: 5930: 5929: 5909: 5903: 5902: 5878: 5872: 5871: 5861: 5829: 5823: 5822: 5820: 5818: 5804: 5798: 5797: 5795: 5793: 5779: 5773: 5772: 5744: 5738: 5737: 5700: 5694: 5693: 5667: 5658: 5657: 5629: 5620: 5619: 5601: 5595: 5594: 5568: 5562: 5561: 5558:10.1037/h0100252 5541: 5535: 5529: 5523: 5522: 5519:10.1037/h0100137 5502: 5496: 5495: 5480:(4th ed.). 5473: 5464: 5463: 5461: 5459: 5445: 5439: 5438: 5430: 5424: 5418: 5412: 5411: 5399: 5393: 5392: 5390: 5388: 5376: 5370: 5364: 5358: 5357: 5347: 5315: 5309: 5308: 5290: 5284: 5278: 5272: 5266: 5260: 5259: 5241: 5235: 5234: 5232: 5230: 5215: 5209: 5208: 5206: 5204: 5189: 5183: 5182: 5172: 5148: 5142: 5141: 5127: 5121: 5120: 5118: 5116: 5104: 5096: 5090: 5089: 5087: 5085: 5070: 5064: 5063: 5023: 5017: 5016: 5006: 4996: 4981:Molecular Autism 4972: 4966: 4965: 4963: 4961: 4946: 4940: 4939: 4937: 4935: 4929: 4922: 4913: 4907: 4906: 4880: 4874: 4873: 4871: 4843: 4837: 4836: 4818: 4801:(6): 2838–2853. 4786: 4780: 4779: 4758: 4752: 4751: 4749: 4725: 4719: 4718: 4708: 4676: 4670: 4669: 4659: 4627: 4621: 4620: 4610: 4599:10.3310/hta24350 4578: 4572: 4571: 4561: 4529: 4523: 4522: 4512: 4488: 4482: 4481: 4453: 4447: 4446: 4410: 4397: 4396: 4370: 4361: 4350: 4349: 4321: 4315: 4314: 4304: 4294: 4270: 4261: 4260: 4250: 4239:10.1002/aur.2932 4233:(6): 1236–1246. 4218: 4212: 4211: 4201: 4184:(11): CD012324. 4169: 4163: 4162: 4159:10.1037/h0100140 4142: 4133: 4132: 4129:10.1037/h0099886 4112: 4103: 4102: 4092: 4060: 4051: 4050: 4040: 4008: 3997: 3996: 3978: 3958: 3952: 3951: 3941: 3913: 3907: 3906: 3896: 3864: 3858: 3857: 3847: 3838:(5): 1162–1182. 3823: 3814: 3813: 3793: 3787: 3786: 3784: 3782: 3768: 3762: 3761: 3751: 3727: 3712: 3706: 3700: 3699: 3681: 3672: 3666: 3660: 3659: 3642:(6th ed.). 3635: 3629: 3623: 3617: 3616: 3614: 3612: 3602: 3596: 3595: 3585: 3561: 3555: 3554: 3544: 3512: 3506: 3505: 3495: 3463: 3457: 3456: 3454: 3452: 3437: 3431: 3430: 3420: 3396: 3390: 3389: 3379: 3347: 3341: 3340: 3304: 3298: 3297: 3261: 3255: 3254: 3220: 3212: 3206: 3205: 3177: 3168: 3167: 3139: 3133: 3131: 3129: 3127: 3120:Psychology Today 3117: 3108: 3102: 3101: 3091: 3082: 3076: 3075: 3039: 3030: 3029: 3019: 2990:Baer DM (1993). 2987: 2978: 2977: 2975: 2973: 2963: 2955: 2949: 2948: 2938: 2906: 2900: 2899: 2897: 2895: 2886:. Archived from 2867: 2854: 2853: 2843: 2811: 2798: 2797: 2786:10.1037/h0054367 2769: 2763: 2762: 2760: 2754:. Archived from 2729: 2720: 2714: 2713: 2677: 2668: 2664: 2646: 2644: 2642: 2628:DeVita-Raeburn E 2621: 2612: 2611: 2609: 2607: 2592: 2583: 2582: 2580: 2578: 2562: 2556: 2555: 2537: 2520: 2519: 2517: 2515: 2484: 2467: 2466: 2456: 2424: 2409: 2408: 2398: 2366: 2357: 2356: 2354: 2352: 2343:. Archived from 2320: 2279:Behavior therapy 2263: 2258: 2257: 2256: 2249: 2244: 2243: 2242: 2235: 2233:Education portal 2230: 2229: 2123:Behavior Therapy 2075:Coragyps atratus 2070:feather-plucking 2054:theory of change 2050:case formulation 1914:Types of prompts 1855:forward chaining 1793:Response latency 1703:teaching methods 1657:external stimuli 1523:stimulus control 1416:stimulus control 1352:The Feminine Boy 1275:Use of aversives 1250:Ethical concerns 1182:: children with 940:(JABA) in 1968. 894: 810:as opposed to a 671: 668: 662: 638: 637: 630: 620: 613: 606: 590: 589: 588: 555:Research methods 216:Psychophysiology 76:Basic psychology 47: 28: 27: 8672: 8671: 8667: 8666: 8665: 8663: 8662: 8661: 8602: 8601: 8600: 8595: 8544: 8525:Matthew Sanders 8480:Rudolf Dreikurs 8453: 8439:Parents' rights 8399:Deadbeat parent 8376: 8370: 8294: 8246: 8222:The talk (race) 8105: 8096:Tiger parenting 8002: 7897: 7846:Extended family 7802: 7797: 7755: 7754: 7753: 7738: 7737: 7733: 7726: 7721: 7715: 7693: 7653: 7634: 7632:Further reading 7624: 7606: 7601: 7600: 7590: 7588: 7580: 7579: 7575: 7565: 7563: 7555: 7554: 7550: 7540: 7538: 7530: 7529: 7525: 7515: 7513: 7505: 7504: 7500: 7490: 7488: 7479: 7478: 7474: 7464: 7462: 7457: 7456: 7452: 7443: 7442: 7438: 7428: 7426: 7418: 7417: 7396: 7343: 7339: 7332: 7310: 7306: 7261: 7254: 7231: 7227: 7182: 7178: 7155: 7151: 7128: 7124: 7101: 7097: 7090: 7068: 7064: 7039: 7035: 7024: 7020: 6989: 6985: 6954: 6950: 6927: 6923: 6900: 6896: 6889: 6875: 6871: 6864: 6842: 6838: 6815: 6811: 6787: 6783: 6760: 6756: 6732: 6728: 6717: 6710: 6687: 6683: 6672: 6668: 6657: 6653: 6646: 6630: 6626: 6619: 6605: 6601: 6556: 6552: 6545: 6541: 6518: 6514: 6495: 6491: 6468: 6464: 6454: 6452: 6430: 6426: 6381: 6377: 6370: 6354: 6350: 6330:J Couns Psychol 6325: 6321: 6298: 6294: 6287: 6273: 6269: 6224: 6220: 6175: 6171: 6126: 6122: 6114: 6110: 6100: 6098: 6083: 6076: 6063: 6062: 6058: 6035: 6031: 5999: 5995: 5964: 5960: 5937: 5933: 5910: 5906: 5879: 5875: 5830: 5826: 5816: 5814: 5806: 5805: 5801: 5791: 5789: 5781: 5780: 5776: 5745: 5741: 5701: 5697: 5690: 5668: 5661: 5640:(10): 760–772. 5630: 5623: 5616: 5602: 5598: 5583: 5573:Verbal behavior 5569: 5565: 5542: 5538: 5530: 5526: 5503: 5499: 5492: 5474: 5467: 5457: 5455: 5447: 5446: 5442: 5431: 5427: 5419: 5415: 5400: 5396: 5386: 5384: 5377: 5373: 5365: 5361: 5316: 5312: 5305: 5291: 5287: 5279: 5275: 5267: 5263: 5256: 5242: 5238: 5228: 5226: 5217: 5216: 5212: 5202: 5200: 5191: 5190: 5186: 5149: 5145: 5128: 5124: 5114: 5112: 5102: 5098: 5097: 5093: 5083: 5081: 5071: 5067: 5024: 5020: 4973: 4969: 4959: 4957: 4947: 4943: 4933: 4931: 4927: 4920: 4914: 4910: 4903: 4881: 4877: 4844: 4840: 4787: 4783: 4759: 4755: 4726: 4722: 4677: 4673: 4628: 4624: 4579: 4575: 4530: 4526: 4489: 4485: 4454: 4450: 4411: 4400: 4368: 4362: 4353: 4346: 4322: 4318: 4271: 4264: 4227:Autism Research 4219: 4215: 4170: 4166: 4143: 4136: 4113: 4106: 4061: 4054: 4023:(5): CD009260. 4009: 4000: 3976:10.1.1.615.3336 3959: 3955: 3914: 3910: 3865: 3861: 3824: 3817: 3794: 3790: 3780: 3778: 3770: 3769: 3765: 3728: 3715: 3707: 3703: 3696: 3682: 3675: 3667: 3663: 3636: 3632: 3624: 3620: 3610: 3608: 3606:"What is PBIS?" 3604: 3603: 3599: 3562: 3558: 3513: 3509: 3464: 3460: 3450: 3448: 3439: 3438: 3434: 3397: 3393: 3348: 3344: 3305: 3301: 3262: 3258: 3213: 3209: 3178: 3171: 3140: 3136: 3125: 3123: 3115: 3109: 3105: 3089: 3083: 3079: 3040: 3033: 2988: 2981: 2971: 2969: 2961: 2957: 2956: 2952: 2907: 2903: 2893: 2891: 2884: 2868: 2857: 2812: 2801: 2770: 2766: 2758: 2727: 2723:Marr M (2009). 2721: 2717: 2678: 2671: 2667: 2640: 2638: 2622: 2615: 2605: 2603: 2594: 2593: 2586: 2576: 2574: 2564: 2563: 2559: 2552: 2538: 2523: 2513: 2511: 2501: 2485: 2470: 2425: 2412: 2367: 2360: 2350: 2348: 2341: 2321: 2317: 2312: 2259: 2254: 2252: 2247:Medicine portal 2245: 2240: 2238: 2231: 2224: 2221: 2084: 2066: 2042: 2016:principles and 2009: 2003: 1990: 1961: 1948: 1916: 1903: 1883: 1877: 1848: 1843: 1834:behavioral cusp 1808: 1803: 1795: 1754: 1746: 1738: 1718: 1694: 1649: 1619: 1617:Temporal extent 1600: 1591: 1537: 1535:Verbal Behavior 1531: 1529:Verbal behavior 1518: 1502: 1496: 1480: 1474: 1461: 1455: 1449:it salivates). 1438: 1432: 1404: 1398: 1375: 1369: 1364: 1340: 1324:quality of life 1308: 1302: 1277: 1252: 1204: 1180:spoken language 1171:Cochrane review 1152: 1111: 1060: 1058:Characteristics 988:Charles Ferster 953:Sidney W. Bijou 884: 882: 880:Steven C. Hayes 868:Sidney W. Bijou 848:Charles Ferster 824: 808:natural science 777: 750:substance abuse 685:), also called 672: 666: 663: 652: 639: 635: 624: 586: 584: 577: 576: 575: 574: 550:Psychotherapies 518: 508: 507: 428: 420: 419: 418: 417: 248: 238: 237: 236: 235: 196:Neuropsychology 78: 24: 17: 12: 11: 5: 8670: 8660: 8659: 8654: 8649: 8644: 8639: 8634: 8629: 8624: 8619: 8614: 8597: 8596: 8594: 8593: 8588: 8583: 8578: 8573: 8568: 8566:Mothers' Union 8563: 8558: 8552: 8550: 8546: 8545: 8543: 8542: 8540:Benjamin Spock 8537: 8532: 8527: 8522: 8520:Penelope Leach 8517: 8515:Annette Lareau 8512: 8507: 8505:Alan E. Kazdin 8502: 8497: 8492: 8487: 8482: 8477: 8472: 8467: 8465:Mary Ainsworth 8461: 8459: 8455: 8454: 8452: 8451: 8446: 8441: 8436: 8431: 8426: 8421: 8416: 8411: 8406: 8401: 8396: 8391: 8386: 8380: 8378: 8377:social aspects 8372: 8371: 8369: 8368: 8363: 8358: 8353: 8348: 8343: 8338: 8333: 8328: 8323: 8318: 8313: 8308: 8302: 8300: 8296: 8295: 8293: 8292: 8287: 8282: 8277: 8272: 8267: 8262: 8256: 8254: 8248: 8247: 8245: 8244: 8239: 8229: 8224: 8219: 8214: 8209: 8204: 8194: 8189: 8184: 8179: 8174: 8169: 8164: 8159: 8154: 8149: 8144: 8142:Dishabituation 8139: 8134: 8129: 8124: 8119: 8113: 8111: 8107: 8106: 8104: 8103: 8098: 8093: 8088: 8083: 8078: 8073: 8071:Slow parenting 8068: 8063: 8058: 8053: 8048: 8043: 8038: 8033: 8028: 8023: 8018: 8012: 8010: 8004: 8003: 8001: 8000: 7995: 7990: 7985: 7980: 7975: 7970: 7965: 7960: 7955: 7950: 7945: 7940: 7935: 7930: 7925: 7920: 7915: 7909: 7907: 7902:Theories 7899: 7898: 7896: 7895: 7888: 7883: 7881:Blended family 7878: 7873: 7868: 7863: 7861:Nuclear family 7858: 7853: 7848: 7843: 7838: 7833: 7828: 7823: 7818: 7812: 7810: 7804: 7803: 7796: 7795: 7788: 7781: 7773: 7767: 7766: 7761: 7752: 7751: 7746: 7740: 7739: 7728: 7727: 7725: 7724:External links 7722: 7720: 7719: 7713: 7697: 7691: 7678: 7657: 7651: 7635: 7633: 7630: 7629: 7628: 7622: 7605: 7602: 7599: 7598: 7573: 7548: 7523: 7498: 7472: 7461:. Behavior.org 7450: 7436: 7424:baojournal.com 7394: 7337: 7330: 7304: 7275:(4): 918–927. 7252: 7225: 7196:(3): 237–256. 7176: 7149: 7122: 7095: 7088: 7062: 7051:(4): 495–506. 7033: 7018: 6983: 6948: 6921: 6894: 6887: 6869: 6862: 6836: 6809: 6798:(3): 289–300. 6781: 6754: 6726: 6708: 6681: 6666: 6651: 6644: 6624: 6617: 6599: 6570:(2): 255–259. 6550: 6539: 6512: 6489: 6462: 6424: 6395:(2): 191–203. 6375: 6368: 6348: 6319: 6292: 6285: 6267: 6238:(1): 121–132. 6218: 6169: 6120: 6108: 6074: 6056: 6029: 5993: 5958: 5931: 5904: 5893:(3): 162–173. 5873: 5844:(2): 333–338. 5824: 5799: 5774: 5739: 5695: 5688: 5659: 5621: 5614: 5596: 5581: 5563: 5536: 5524: 5497: 5490: 5465: 5440: 5425: 5413: 5408:Lumen Learning 5394: 5371: 5359: 5330:(4): 527–537. 5310: 5303: 5297:. SUNY Press. 5285: 5273: 5261: 5254: 5236: 5225:. 24 June 2022 5210: 5184: 5143: 5122: 5111:. 12 June 2021 5091: 5065: 5018: 4967: 4941: 4908: 4901: 4875: 4838: 4781: 4770:(2): 107–118. 4753: 4740:(3): 122–129. 4720: 4691:(2): 564–566. 4671: 4642:(2): 322–335. 4622: 4573: 4524: 4503:(1): 1641258. 4483: 4448: 4398: 4379:(4): 269–282. 4351: 4344: 4316: 4262: 4213: 4164: 4134: 4104: 4052: 3998: 3969:(1): 158–178. 3953: 3908: 3859: 3815: 3804:(1): 271–276. 3788: 3763: 3742:(2): 126–134. 3713: 3701: 3694: 3673: 3661: 3630: 3618: 3597: 3576:(2): 149–156. 3556: 3507: 3458: 3447:. 3 April 2021 3432: 3391: 3362:(3): 293–312. 3342: 3299: 3272:(6): 417–438. 3256: 3207: 3188:(2): 107–126. 3169: 3134: 3103: 3077: 3050:(3): 375–378. 3031: 3002:(4): 569–572. 2979: 2968:. 25 July 2016 2950: 2921:(4): 563–567. 2901: 2882: 2855: 2826:(3): 264–278. 2799: 2780:(4): 193–216. 2764: 2738:(2): 103–118. 2715: 2688:(2): 193–195. 2669: 2666: 2665: 2652: 2623: 2613: 2602:. 2 April 2024 2584: 2557: 2550: 2521: 2499: 2468: 2410: 2381:(4): 323–334. 2358: 2347:on 3 June 2021 2340:978-1138898585 2339: 2314: 2313: 2311: 2308: 2307: 2306: 2301: 2296: 2291: 2286: 2281: 2276: 2271: 2265: 2264: 2250: 2236: 2220: 2217: 2216: 2215: 2208: 2203: 2198: 2193: 2188: 2183: 2169: 2162: 2157: 2152: 2147: 2142: 2137: 2132: 2125: 2120: 2113: 2108: 2103: 2098: 2093: 2083: 2082:Major journals 2080: 2065: 2062: 2041: 2038: 2005:Main article: 2002: 1999: 1989: 1988:Generalization 1986: 1960: 1957: 1947: 1944: 1940: 1939: 1935: 1932: 1929: 1926: 1923: 1915: 1912: 1902: 1899: 1879:Main article: 1876: 1873: 1847: 1844: 1842: 1839: 1838: 1837: 1830: 1827: 1824: 1821: 1818: 1815: 1807: 1804: 1802: 1799: 1794: 1791: 1786: 1785: 1782: 1771: 1770: 1767: 1764: 1753: 1750: 1745: 1742: 1737: 1734: 1717: 1714: 1693: 1690: 1689: 1688: 1673: 1648: 1647:Temporal locus 1645: 1618: 1615: 1614: 1613: 1610: 1607: 1599: 1596: 1590: 1587: 1567: 1566: 1560: 1556: 1550: 1533:Main article: 1530: 1527: 1517: 1514: 1498:Main article: 1495: 1492: 1486:) or removed ( 1476:Main article: 1473: 1470: 1457:Main article: 1454: 1451: 1434:Main article: 1431: 1428: 1410:refers to the 1400:Main article: 1397: 1394: 1371:Main article: 1368: 1365: 1363: 1360: 1339: 1336: 1312:neurodiversity 1310:Proponents of 1301: 1298: 1276: 1273: 1251: 1248: 1228:detection bias 1211:methodological 1203: 1200: 1151: 1148: 1147: 1146: 1145: 1144: 1141: 1138: 1135: 1129: 1126: 1122: 1119: 1118:effectiveness. 1110: 1107: 1106: 1105: 1101: 1097: 1093: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1059: 1056: 860:Donald M. Baer 823: 820: 812:social science 776: 773: 674: 673: 642: 640: 633: 626: 625: 623: 622: 615: 608: 600: 597: 596: 595: 594: 579: 578: 573: 572: 567: 562: 557: 552: 547: 542: 537: 532: 527: 521: 520: 519: 514: 513: 510: 509: 506: 505: 500: 495: 490: 485: 480: 475: 470: 465: 460: 455: 450: 445: 440: 435: 429: 426: 425: 422: 421: 416: 415: 410: 405: 400: 395: 390: 385: 380: 375: 370: 365: 360: 355: 350: 345: 340: 335: 330: 325: 320: 315: 310: 305: 300: 295: 290: 285: 280: 275: 270: 265: 260: 257: 251: 250: 249: 244: 243: 240: 239: 234: 233: 228: 223: 218: 213: 208: 203: 198: 193: 188: 183: 178: 173: 168: 163: 158: 153: 148: 143: 141:Cross-cultural 138: 133: 132: 131: 121: 112: 107: 102: 97: 92: 87: 81: 80: 79: 74: 73: 70: 69: 68: 67: 62: 57: 49: 48: 40: 39: 33: 32: 15: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 8669: 8658: 8655: 8653: 8650: 8648: 8645: 8643: 8640: 8638: 8637:Life coaching 8635: 8633: 8630: 8628: 8625: 8623: 8620: 8618: 8615: 8613: 8610: 8609: 8607: 8592: 8589: 8587: 8584: 8582: 8579: 8577: 8574: 8572: 8569: 8567: 8564: 8562: 8559: 8557: 8554: 8553: 8551: 8549:Organizations 8547: 8541: 8538: 8536: 8535:B. F. Skinner 8533: 8531: 8530:William Sears 8528: 8526: 8523: 8521: 8518: 8516: 8513: 8511: 8508: 8506: 8503: 8501: 8500:Thomas Gordon 8498: 8496: 8493: 8491: 8488: 8486: 8483: 8481: 8478: 8476: 8473: 8471: 8468: 8466: 8463: 8462: 8460: 8456: 8450: 8447: 8445: 8442: 8440: 8437: 8435: 8432: 8430: 8427: 8425: 8422: 8420: 8417: 8415: 8412: 8410: 8407: 8405: 8402: 8400: 8397: 8395: 8392: 8390: 8389:Child support 8387: 8385: 8384:Child custody 8382: 8381: 8379: 8373: 8367: 8364: 8362: 8359: 8357: 8354: 8352: 8349: 8347: 8344: 8342: 8339: 8337: 8334: 8332: 8329: 8327: 8326:Child neglect 8324: 8322: 8319: 8317: 8314: 8312: 8309: 8307: 8304: 8303: 8301: 8297: 8291: 8288: 8286: 8283: 8281: 8278: 8276: 8273: 8271: 8268: 8266: 8263: 8261: 8258: 8257: 8255: 8253: 8249: 8243: 8240: 8237: 8233: 8230: 8228: 8225: 8223: 8220: 8218: 8215: 8213: 8210: 8208: 8205: 8202: 8198: 8195: 8193: 8190: 8188: 8185: 8183: 8180: 8178: 8175: 8173: 8170: 8168: 8165: 8163: 8160: 8158: 8157:Homeschooling 8155: 8153: 8150: 8148: 8145: 8143: 8140: 8138: 8135: 8133: 8130: 8128: 8125: 8123: 8120: 8118: 8115: 8114: 8112: 8108: 8102: 8099: 8097: 8094: 8092: 8089: 8087: 8084: 8082: 8079: 8077: 8074: 8072: 8069: 8067: 8064: 8062: 8059: 8057: 8054: 8052: 8049: 8047: 8044: 8042: 8039: 8037: 8034: 8032: 8029: 8027: 8024: 8022: 8019: 8017: 8014: 8013: 8011: 8009: 8005: 7999: 7996: 7994: 7993:Socialization 7991: 7989: 7986: 7984: 7981: 7979: 7978:Paternal bond 7976: 7974: 7971: 7969: 7966: 7964: 7963:Maternal bond 7961: 7959: 7956: 7954: 7951: 7949: 7946: 7944: 7941: 7939: 7936: 7934: 7931: 7929: 7926: 7924: 7921: 7919: 7916: 7914: 7911: 7910: 7908: 7905: 7900: 7894: 7893: 7889: 7887: 7884: 7882: 7879: 7877: 7876:Single parent 7874: 7872: 7869: 7867: 7864: 7862: 7859: 7857: 7854: 7852: 7849: 7847: 7844: 7842: 7839: 7837: 7836:Alloparenting 7834: 7832: 7829: 7827: 7824: 7822: 7819: 7817: 7814: 7813: 7811: 7809: 7805: 7801: 7794: 7789: 7787: 7782: 7780: 7775: 7774: 7771: 7765: 7762: 7760: 7757: 7756: 7750: 7747: 7745: 7742: 7741: 7736: 7731: 7716: 7710: 7706: 7702: 7698: 7694: 7688: 7684: 7679: 7675: 7671: 7667: 7663: 7658: 7654: 7648: 7644: 7643: 7637: 7636: 7625: 7619: 7615: 7614: 7608: 7607: 7587: 7583: 7577: 7562: 7558: 7552: 7537: 7533: 7527: 7512: 7508: 7502: 7486: 7482: 7476: 7460: 7454: 7446: 7440: 7425: 7421: 7415: 7413: 7411: 7409: 7407: 7405: 7403: 7401: 7399: 7390: 7386: 7382: 7378: 7373: 7368: 7364: 7360: 7356: 7352: 7348: 7341: 7333: 7327: 7323: 7319: 7315: 7308: 7300: 7296: 7292: 7288: 7283: 7278: 7274: 7270: 7266: 7259: 7257: 7248: 7244: 7241:(4): 386–94. 7240: 7236: 7229: 7221: 7217: 7212: 7207: 7203: 7199: 7195: 7191: 7187: 7180: 7172: 7168: 7165:(2): 103–16. 7164: 7160: 7153: 7145: 7141: 7137: 7133: 7126: 7118: 7114: 7111:(3): 415–40. 7110: 7106: 7099: 7091: 7085: 7081: 7077: 7073: 7066: 7058: 7054: 7050: 7046: 7045: 7037: 7029: 7022: 7014: 7010: 7006: 7002: 6998: 6994: 6987: 6979: 6975: 6971: 6967: 6963: 6959: 6952: 6944: 6940: 6937:(2): 166–78. 6936: 6932: 6925: 6917: 6913: 6910:(4): 364–74. 6909: 6905: 6898: 6890: 6884: 6880: 6873: 6865: 6859: 6855: 6851: 6847: 6840: 6832: 6828: 6824: 6820: 6813: 6805: 6801: 6797: 6793: 6785: 6777: 6773: 6770:(2): 212–24. 6769: 6765: 6758: 6750: 6746: 6743:(2): 188–97. 6742: 6738: 6730: 6722: 6715: 6713: 6704: 6700: 6697:(2): 158–81. 6696: 6692: 6685: 6677: 6670: 6662: 6655: 6647: 6641: 6637: 6636: 6628: 6620: 6614: 6610: 6603: 6595: 6591: 6586: 6581: 6577: 6573: 6569: 6565: 6561: 6554: 6548: 6543: 6535: 6531: 6527: 6523: 6522:J Sch Psychol 6516: 6508: 6504: 6500: 6493: 6485: 6481: 6477: 6473: 6466: 6451: 6447: 6444:(1): 105–18. 6443: 6439: 6435: 6428: 6420: 6416: 6411: 6406: 6402: 6398: 6394: 6390: 6386: 6379: 6371: 6365: 6361: 6360: 6352: 6344: 6340: 6336: 6332: 6331: 6323: 6315: 6311: 6307: 6303: 6296: 6288: 6282: 6278: 6271: 6263: 6259: 6254: 6249: 6245: 6241: 6237: 6233: 6229: 6222: 6214: 6210: 6205: 6200: 6196: 6192: 6188: 6184: 6180: 6173: 6165: 6161: 6156: 6151: 6147: 6143: 6139: 6135: 6131: 6124: 6118:, p. 422 6117: 6112: 6096: 6092: 6088: 6081: 6079: 6070: 6066: 6060: 6052: 6048: 6044: 6040: 6033: 6025: 6021: 6017: 6013: 6009: 6005: 5997: 5989: 5985: 5981: 5977: 5973: 5969: 5962: 5954: 5950: 5946: 5942: 5935: 5927: 5923: 5919: 5915: 5908: 5900: 5896: 5892: 5888: 5884: 5877: 5869: 5865: 5860: 5855: 5851: 5847: 5843: 5839: 5835: 5828: 5813: 5809: 5803: 5788: 5784: 5778: 5770: 5766: 5762: 5758: 5754: 5750: 5743: 5735: 5731: 5727: 5723: 5719: 5715: 5711: 5707: 5699: 5691: 5685: 5681: 5677: 5673: 5666: 5664: 5655: 5651: 5647: 5643: 5639: 5635: 5628: 5626: 5617: 5611: 5607: 5600: 5592: 5588: 5584: 5578: 5574: 5567: 5559: 5555: 5552:(1): 90–131. 5551: 5547: 5540: 5533: 5528: 5520: 5516: 5512: 5508: 5501: 5493: 5487: 5483: 5479: 5472: 5470: 5454: 5450: 5444: 5436: 5429: 5423:, p. 355 5422: 5417: 5409: 5405: 5398: 5383:. LBGTQNATION 5382: 5375: 5368: 5363: 5355: 5351: 5346: 5341: 5337: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5314: 5306: 5300: 5296: 5289: 5282: 5277: 5270: 5265: 5257: 5251: 5247: 5240: 5224: 5220: 5214: 5198: 5194: 5188: 5180: 5176: 5171: 5166: 5162: 5158: 5154: 5147: 5139: 5138: 5133: 5126: 5110: 5109: 5101: 5095: 5080: 5076: 5069: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5045: 5041: 5037: 5033: 5029: 5022: 5014: 5010: 5005: 5000: 4995: 4990: 4986: 4982: 4978: 4971: 4956: 4952: 4945: 4926: 4919: 4912: 4904: 4898: 4894: 4890: 4886: 4879: 4870: 4865: 4861: 4857: 4853: 4849: 4842: 4834: 4830: 4826: 4822: 4817: 4812: 4808: 4804: 4800: 4796: 4792: 4785: 4777: 4773: 4769: 4765: 4757: 4748: 4743: 4739: 4735: 4731: 4724: 4716: 4712: 4707: 4702: 4698: 4694: 4690: 4686: 4682: 4675: 4667: 4663: 4658: 4653: 4649: 4645: 4641: 4637: 4633: 4626: 4618: 4614: 4609: 4604: 4600: 4596: 4593:(35): 1–306. 4592: 4588: 4584: 4577: 4569: 4565: 4560: 4555: 4551: 4547: 4543: 4539: 4535: 4528: 4520: 4516: 4511: 4506: 4502: 4498: 4494: 4487: 4479: 4475: 4471: 4467: 4463: 4459: 4452: 4444: 4440: 4436: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4420: 4416: 4409: 4407: 4405: 4403: 4394: 4390: 4386: 4382: 4378: 4374: 4367: 4360: 4358: 4356: 4347: 4341: 4337: 4333: 4329: 4328: 4320: 4312: 4308: 4303: 4298: 4293: 4288: 4284: 4280: 4276: 4269: 4267: 4258: 4254: 4249: 4244: 4240: 4236: 4232: 4228: 4224: 4217: 4209: 4205: 4200: 4195: 4191: 4187: 4183: 4179: 4175: 4168: 4160: 4156: 4153:(1): 96–105. 4152: 4148: 4141: 4139: 4130: 4126: 4122: 4118: 4111: 4109: 4100: 4096: 4091: 4086: 4082: 4078: 4074: 4070: 4066: 4059: 4057: 4048: 4044: 4039: 4034: 4030: 4026: 4022: 4018: 4014: 4007: 4005: 4003: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3982: 3977: 3972: 3968: 3964: 3957: 3949: 3945: 3940: 3935: 3931: 3927: 3923: 3919: 3912: 3904: 3900: 3895: 3890: 3886: 3882: 3878: 3874: 3870: 3863: 3855: 3851: 3846: 3841: 3837: 3833: 3829: 3822: 3820: 3811: 3807: 3803: 3799: 3792: 3777: 3773: 3767: 3759: 3755: 3750: 3745: 3741: 3737: 3733: 3726: 3724: 3722: 3720: 3718: 3710: 3705: 3697: 3691: 3687: 3680: 3678: 3670: 3665: 3657: 3653: 3649: 3645: 3641: 3634: 3627: 3622: 3607: 3601: 3593: 3589: 3584: 3579: 3575: 3571: 3567: 3560: 3552: 3548: 3543: 3538: 3534: 3530: 3526: 3522: 3518: 3511: 3503: 3499: 3494: 3489: 3485: 3481: 3477: 3473: 3469: 3462: 3446: 3442: 3436: 3428: 3424: 3419: 3414: 3410: 3406: 3402: 3395: 3387: 3383: 3378: 3373: 3369: 3365: 3361: 3357: 3353: 3346: 3338: 3334: 3330: 3326: 3322: 3318: 3314: 3310: 3303: 3295: 3291: 3287: 3283: 3279: 3275: 3271: 3267: 3260: 3252: 3248: 3244: 3240: 3236: 3232: 3229:(3): 364–66. 3228: 3224: 3219: 3211: 3203: 3199: 3195: 3191: 3187: 3183: 3176: 3174: 3165: 3161: 3157: 3153: 3149: 3145: 3138: 3121: 3114: 3107: 3099: 3095: 3088: 3081: 3073: 3069: 3065: 3061: 3057: 3053: 3049: 3045: 3038: 3036: 3027: 3023: 3018: 3013: 3009: 3005: 3001: 2997: 2993: 2986: 2984: 2967: 2960: 2954: 2946: 2942: 2937: 2932: 2928: 2924: 2920: 2916: 2912: 2905: 2889: 2885: 2879: 2875: 2874: 2866: 2864: 2862: 2860: 2851: 2847: 2842: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2825: 2821: 2817: 2810: 2808: 2806: 2804: 2795: 2791: 2787: 2783: 2779: 2775: 2768: 2757: 2753: 2749: 2745: 2741: 2737: 2733: 2726: 2719: 2711: 2707: 2703: 2699: 2695: 2691: 2687: 2683: 2676: 2674: 2662: 2658: 2653: 2650: 2637: 2633: 2629: 2625: 2624: 2620: 2618: 2601: 2597: 2591: 2589: 2573: 2572: 2567: 2561: 2553: 2547: 2543: 2536: 2534: 2532: 2530: 2528: 2526: 2510: 2506: 2502: 2496: 2492: 2491: 2483: 2481: 2479: 2477: 2475: 2473: 2464: 2460: 2455: 2450: 2446: 2442: 2438: 2434: 2430: 2423: 2421: 2419: 2417: 2415: 2406: 2402: 2397: 2392: 2388: 2384: 2380: 2376: 2372: 2365: 2363: 2346: 2342: 2336: 2332: 2328: 2327: 2319: 2315: 2305: 2302: 2300: 2297: 2295: 2292: 2290: 2287: 2285: 2282: 2280: 2277: 2275: 2272: 2270: 2267: 2266: 2262: 2251: 2248: 2237: 2234: 2228: 2223: 2214: 2213: 2209: 2207: 2204: 2202: 2199: 2197: 2194: 2192: 2189: 2187: 2184: 2181: 2180: 2175: 2174: 2170: 2168: 2167: 2163: 2161: 2158: 2156: 2153: 2151: 2148: 2146: 2143: 2141: 2138: 2136: 2133: 2131: 2130: 2126: 2124: 2121: 2119: 2118: 2114: 2112: 2109: 2107: 2104: 2102: 2099: 2097: 2094: 2092: 2089: 2088: 2087: 2079: 2077: 2076: 2071: 2064:Other species 2061: 2059: 2055: 2051: 2046: 2037: 2033: 2032:of behavior. 2031: 2027: 2021: 2019: 2015: 2008: 1998: 1996: 1985: 1983: 1979: 1978:token economy 1975: 1970: 1966: 1956: 1952: 1943: 1936: 1933: 1930: 1927: 1924: 1921: 1920: 1919: 1911: 1908: 1898: 1894: 1892: 1887: 1882: 1872: 1870: 1865: 1860: 1856: 1852: 1851:Task analysis 1846:Task analysis 1835: 1831: 1828: 1825: 1822: 1819: 1816: 1813: 1812: 1811: 1798: 1790: 1783: 1780: 1779: 1778: 1775: 1768: 1765: 1762: 1761: 1760: 1758: 1749: 1741: 1733: 1731: 1726: 1723: 1713: 1710: 1708: 1704: 1700: 1686: 1682: 1678: 1674: 1670: 1666: 1665: 1664: 1662: 1658: 1654: 1644: 1641: 1637: 1633: 1629: 1625: 1611: 1608: 1605: 1604: 1603: 1598:Repeatability 1595: 1586: 1584: 1579: 1577: 1572: 1564: 1561: 1557: 1554: 1551: 1548: 1545: 1544: 1543: 1541: 1536: 1526: 1524: 1513: 1511: 1506: 1501: 1491: 1489: 1485: 1479: 1469: 1467: 1460: 1459:Reinforcement 1453:Reinforcement 1450: 1448: 1444: 1437: 1427: 1425: 1421: 1420:reinforcement 1417: 1413: 1409: 1403: 1393: 1391: 1387: 1383: 1379: 1374: 1359: 1357: 1353: 1349: 1345: 1344:George Rekers 1335: 1331: 1329: 1325: 1321: 1317: 1313: 1307: 1297: 1295: 1291: 1287: 1282: 1272: 1268: 1264: 1262: 1258: 1247: 1244: 1238: 1235: 1231: 1229: 1225: 1220: 1219:meta-analysis 1216: 1212: 1208: 1199: 1197: 1193: 1189: 1185: 1181: 1175: 1172: 1168: 1163: 1161: 1157: 1142: 1139: 1136: 1133: 1132: 1130: 1127: 1123: 1120: 1116: 1115: 1114: 1102: 1098: 1094: 1090: 1086: 1082: 1078: 1077: 1076: 1074: 1064: 1055: 1054:for phobias. 1053: 1049: 1046:, schoolwide 1045: 1041: 1037: 1033: 1029: 1025: 1021: 1016: 1014: 1010: 1006: 1000: 998: 992: 989: 985: 981: 977: 972: 970: 966: 962: 961:Montrose Wolf 958: 954: 950: 946: 941: 939: 938: 934:to start the 933: 929: 925: 924:schizophrenia 921: 917: 916:token economy 914:how to use a 913: 909: 908: 903: 881: 877: 876:Robert Koegel 873: 869: 865: 864:Montrose Wolf 861: 857: 853: 849: 845: 841: 837: 833: 829: 819: 817: 813: 809: 804: 802: 798: 794: 790: 786: 782: 772: 770: 766: 761: 759: 755: 751: 747: 743: 739: 734: 732: 728: 723: 720:has replaced 719: 714: 712: 708: 704: 700: 696: 692: 688: 684: 680: 670: 660: 656: 650: 648: 643:This article 641: 632: 631: 621: 616: 614: 609: 607: 602: 601: 599: 598: 593: 583: 582: 581: 580: 571: 568: 566: 563: 561: 558: 556: 553: 551: 548: 546: 545:Psychologists 543: 541: 538: 536: 535:Organizations 533: 531: 528: 526: 523: 522: 517: 512: 511: 504: 503:Psychometrics 501: 499: 496: 494: 491: 489: 486: 484: 481: 479: 476: 474: 471: 469: 466: 464: 463:Consciousness 461: 459: 456: 454: 451: 449: 446: 444: 441: 439: 436: 434: 431: 430: 424: 423: 414: 411: 409: 406: 404: 401: 399: 396: 394: 391: 389: 386: 384: 383:Psychotherapy 381: 379: 378:Psychometrics 376: 374: 371: 369: 366: 364: 361: 359: 356: 354: 351: 349: 346: 344: 341: 339: 336: 334: 331: 329: 326: 324: 321: 319: 316: 314: 311: 309: 306: 304: 301: 299: 296: 294: 291: 289: 286: 284: 281: 279: 276: 274: 271: 269: 266: 264: 261: 258: 256: 253: 252: 247: 242: 241: 232: 229: 227: 224: 222: 219: 217: 214: 212: 209: 207: 204: 202: 199: 197: 194: 192: 189: 187: 184: 182: 179: 177: 174: 172: 169: 167: 164: 162: 159: 157: 154: 152: 151:Developmental 149: 147: 144: 142: 139: 137: 134: 130: 127: 126: 125: 122: 120: 116: 113: 111: 108: 106: 103: 101: 98: 96: 93: 91: 88: 86: 83: 82: 77: 72: 71: 66: 63: 61: 58: 56: 53: 52: 51: 50: 46: 42: 41: 38: 35: 34: 30: 29: 26: 22: 8642:Mind control 8485:David Elkind 8336:Codependency 8321:Child labour 8177:Latchkey kid 8167:Introjection 7953:Introjection 7917: 7903: 7890: 7856:Noncustodial 7734: 7704: 7682: 7668:(1): 91–99. 7665: 7661: 7641: 7612: 7589:. Retrieved 7576: 7564:. Retrieved 7551: 7539:. Retrieved 7526: 7514:. Retrieved 7501: 7489:. Retrieved 7485:the original 7475: 7463:. Retrieved 7453: 7439: 7427:. Retrieved 7423: 7357:(1): 29–54. 7354: 7350: 7340: 7313: 7307: 7272: 7268: 7238: 7234: 7228: 7193: 7189: 7179: 7162: 7158: 7152: 7138:(2): 45–65. 7135: 7131: 7125: 7108: 7104: 7098: 7071: 7065: 7048: 7044:Prof Psychol 7042: 7036: 7021: 6996: 6992: 6986: 6961: 6957: 6951: 6934: 6930: 6924: 6907: 6903: 6897: 6878: 6872: 6845: 6839: 6825:(1): 21–36. 6822: 6818: 6812: 6795: 6791: 6784: 6767: 6763: 6757: 6740: 6736: 6729: 6720: 6694: 6690: 6684: 6675: 6669: 6660: 6654: 6634: 6627: 6608: 6602: 6567: 6563: 6553: 6542: 6528:(2): 89–96. 6525: 6521: 6515: 6502: 6492: 6478:(2): 79–88. 6475: 6472:Aust Psychol 6471: 6465: 6453:. Retrieved 6441: 6437: 6427: 6392: 6388: 6378: 6358: 6351: 6334: 6328: 6322: 6305: 6301: 6295: 6276: 6270: 6235: 6231: 6221: 6189:(1): 89–97. 6186: 6182: 6172: 6140:(1): 65–71. 6137: 6133: 6123: 6111: 6099:. Retrieved 6095:the original 6090: 6068: 6059: 6042: 6038: 6032: 6007: 6003: 5996: 5971: 5967: 5961: 5947:(1): 53–65. 5944: 5940: 5934: 5920:(10): 8–14. 5917: 5913: 5907: 5890: 5886: 5876: 5841: 5837: 5827: 5815:. Retrieved 5811: 5802: 5790:. Retrieved 5786: 5777: 5752: 5748: 5742: 5712:(1): 47–55. 5709: 5705: 5698: 5671: 5637: 5633: 5605: 5599: 5572: 5566: 5549: 5545: 5539: 5534:, p. 41 5527: 5510: 5506: 5500: 5477: 5456:. Retrieved 5452: 5443: 5434: 5428: 5416: 5407: 5402:Learning L. 5397: 5385:. Retrieved 5374: 5369:, p. 27 5362: 5327: 5323: 5313: 5294: 5288: 5283:, p. 33 5276: 5271:, p. 26 5264: 5245: 5239: 5227:. Retrieved 5222: 5213: 5201:. Retrieved 5196: 5187: 5160: 5156: 5146: 5137:The Atlantic 5135: 5125: 5113:. Retrieved 5106: 5094: 5082:. Retrieved 5078: 5068: 5035: 5031: 5021: 4984: 4980: 4970: 4958:. Retrieved 4954: 4944: 4932:. Retrieved 4925:the original 4911: 4884: 4878: 4851: 4847: 4841: 4798: 4794: 4784: 4767: 4763: 4756: 4737: 4733: 4723: 4688: 4684: 4674: 4639: 4635: 4625: 4590: 4586: 4576: 4541: 4537: 4527: 4500: 4496: 4486: 4464:(1): 19–29. 4461: 4457: 4451: 4421:(1): 31–69. 4418: 4414: 4376: 4372: 4326: 4319: 4282: 4278: 4230: 4226: 4216: 4181: 4177: 4167: 4150: 4146: 4123:(3): 27–32. 4120: 4116: 4072: 4068: 4020: 4016: 3966: 3962: 3956: 3925: 3921: 3911: 3876: 3872: 3862: 3835: 3831: 3801: 3797: 3791: 3779:. Retrieved 3775: 3766: 3739: 3735: 3711:, p. 19 3704: 3685: 3671:, p. 17 3664: 3639: 3633: 3628:, p. 16 3621: 3611:26 September 3609:. Retrieved 3600: 3573: 3569: 3559: 3527:(1): 49–63. 3524: 3520: 3510: 3478:(1): 85–94. 3475: 3471: 3461: 3449:. Retrieved 3444: 3435: 3408: 3404: 3394: 3359: 3355: 3345: 3312: 3308: 3302: 3269: 3265: 3259: 3226: 3222: 3210: 3185: 3181: 3147: 3143: 3137: 3124:. Retrieved 3119: 3106: 3100:(2): 99–109. 3097: 3093: 3080: 3047: 3043: 2999: 2995: 2970:. Retrieved 2965: 2953: 2918: 2914: 2904: 2892:. Retrieved 2888:the original 2872: 2823: 2819: 2777: 2773: 2767: 2756:the original 2735: 2731: 2718: 2685: 2681: 2661:The Atlantic 2660: 2649:The Atlantic 2648: 2639:. Retrieved 2635: 2604:. Retrieved 2599: 2575:. Retrieved 2569: 2560: 2541: 2512:. Retrieved 2489: 2439:(1): 91–97. 2436: 2432: 2378: 2374: 2349:. 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