Statistics - Knowledge

2060: 9017: 8640: 8038: 102: 852: 311: 49: 1897: 352: 2385: 1986: 8652: 8024: 916: 1466: 372: 2597: 739: 8676: 8062: 8664: 8050: 1206:. In both types of studies, the effect of differences of an independent variable (or variables) on the behavior of the dependent variable are observed. The difference between the two types lies in how the study is actually conducted. Each can be very effective. An experimental study involves taking measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then taking additional 2013:. Either the true value is or is not within the given interval. However, it is true that, before any data are sampled and given a plan for how to construct the confidence interval, the probability is 95% that the yet-to-be-calculated interval will cover the true value: at this point, the limits of the interval are yet-to-be-observed 1174:. The use of any statistical method is valid when the system or population under consideration satisfies the assumptions of the method. The difference in point of view between classic probability theory and sampling theory is, roughly, that probability theory starts from the given parameters of a total population to 2356:

and claimed to be representative of more than they really are, often by either deliberately or unconsciously overlooking sampling bias. Bar graphs are arguably the easiest diagrams to use and understand, and they can be made either by hand or with simple computer programs. Most people do not look for

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defined nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales. Nominal measurements do not have meaningful rank order among values, and permit any one-to-one (injective) transformation. Ordinal measurements have imprecise differences between consecutive values, but have a meaningful order to those values, and

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of a trend in the data—which measures the extent to which a trend could be caused by random variation in the sample—may or may not agree with an intuitive sense of its significance. The set of basic statistical skills (and skepticism) that people need to deal with information in their everyday lives

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An example of an observational study is one that explores the association between smoking and lung cancer. This type of study typically uses a survey to collect observations about the area of interest and then performs statistical analysis. In this case, the researchers would collect observations of

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often reveals that two variables (properties) of the population under consideration tend to vary together, as if they were connected. For example, a study of annual income that also looks at age of death, might find that poor people tend to have shorter lives than affluent people. The two variables

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allow statisticians to express how closely the sample estimate matches the true value in the whole population. Often they are expressed as 95% confidence intervals. Formally, a 95% confidence interval for a value is a range where, if the sampling and analysis were repeated under the same conditions

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Other categorizations have been proposed. For example, Mosteller and Tukey (1977) distinguished grades, ranks, counted fractions, counts, amounts, and balances. Nelder (1990) described continuous counts, continuous ratios, count ratios, and categorical modes of data. (See also: Chrisman (1998), van

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Referring to statistical significance does not necessarily mean that the overall result is significant in real world terms. For example, in a large study of a drug it may be shown that the drug has a statistically significant but very small beneficial effect, such that the drug is unlikely to help

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workers. The researchers first measured the productivity in the plant, then modified the illumination in an area of the plant and checked if the changes in illumination affected productivity. It turned out that productivity indeed improved (under the experimental conditions). However, the study is

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Traditionally, statistics was concerned with drawing inferences using a semi-standardized methodology that was "required learning" in most sciences. This tradition has changed with the use of statistics in non-inferential contexts. What was once considered a dry subject, taken in many fields as a

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The issue of whether or not it is appropriate to apply different kinds of statistical methods to data obtained from different kinds of measurement procedures is complicated by issues concerning the transformation of variables and the precise interpretation of research questions. "The relationship

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Statistics rarely give a simple Yes/No type answer to the question under analysis. Interpretation often comes down to the level of statistical significance applied to the numbers and often refers to the probability of a value accurately rejecting the null hypothesis (sometimes referred to as the

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In principle confidence intervals can be symmetrical or asymmetrical. An interval can be asymmetrical because it works as lower or upper bound for a parameter (left-sided interval or right sided interval), but it can also be asymmetrical because the two sided interval is built violating symmetry

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of no relationship between two data sets. Rejecting or disproving the null hypothesis is done using statistical tests that quantify the sense in which the null can be proven false, given the data that are used in the test. Working from a null hypothesis, two basic forms of error are recognized:

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between the data and what they describe merely reflects the fact that certain kinds of statistical statements may have truth values which are not invariant under some transformations. Whether or not a transformation is sensible to contemplate depends on the question one is trying to answer."

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can produce subtle but serious errors in description and interpretation—subtle in the sense that even experienced professionals make such errors, and serious in the sense that they can lead to devastating decision errors. For instance, social policy, medical practice, and the reliability of

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assures that inferences and conclusions can safely extend from the sample to the population as a whole. A major problem lies in determining the extent that the sample chosen is actually representative. Statistics offers methods to estimate and correct for any bias within the sample and data

1262:. Consideration of the selection of experimental subjects and the ethics of research is necessary. Statisticians recommend that experiments compare (at least) one new treatment with a standard treatment or control, to allow an unbiased estimate of the difference in treatment effects. 630:

setting. Again, descriptive statistics can be used to summarize the sample data. However, drawing the sample contains an element of randomness; hence, the numerical descriptors from the sample are also prone to uncertainty. To draw meaningful conclusions about the entire population,

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to be studied. Populations can be diverse groups of people or objects such as "all people living in a country" or "every atom composing a crystal". Statistics deals with every aspect of data, including the planning of data collection in terms of the design of

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relied on artistic experiments whereby underlying distributions in nature were artistically revealed. With the advent of computers, statistical methods were applied to formalize such distribution-driven natural processes to make and analyze moving video

543:(null hypothesis fails to be rejected when it is in fact false, giving a "false negative"). Multiple problems have come to be associated with this framework, ranging from obtaining a sufficient sample size to specifying an adequate null hypothesis. 1093:

Today, statistical methods are applied in all fields that involve decision making, for making accurate inferences from a collated body of data and for making decisions in the face of uncertainty based on statistical methodology. The use of modern

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is the largest p-value that allows the test to reject the null hypothesis. This test is logically equivalent to saying that the p-value is the probability, assuming the null hypothesis is true, of observing a result at least as extreme as the

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involves taking measurements of the system under study, manipulating the system, and then taking additional measurements using the same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values of the measurements. In contrast, an

2361:. To make data gathered from statistics believable and accurate, the sample taken must be representative of the whole. According to Huff, "The dependability of a sample can be destroyed by ... allow yourself some degree of skepticism." 2616:

The rapid and sustained increases in computing power starting from the second half of the 20th century have had a substantial impact on the practice of statistical science. Early statistical models were almost always from the class of

848:. The scope of the discipline of statistics broadened in the early 19th century to include the collection and analysis of data in general. Today, statistics is widely employed in government, business, and natural and social sciences. 1340:

refers to finding that an outcome (in this case, worker productivity) changed due to observation itself. Those in the Hawthorne study became more productive not because the lighting was changed but because they were being observed.

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has expedited large-scale statistical computations and has also made possible new methods that are impractical to perform manually. Statistics continues to be an area of active research, for example on the problem of how to analyze

2154:) to be favored, since what is being evaluated is the probability of the observed result given the null hypothesis and not probability of the null hypothesis given the observed result. An alternative to this approach is offered by 2083:

is the set of values of the estimator that leads to refuting the null hypothesis. The probability of type I error is therefore the probability that the estimator belongs to the critical region given that null hypothesis is true

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or process to be studied. Populations can be diverse topics, such as "all people living in a country" or "every atom composing a crystal". Ideally, statisticians compile data about the entire population (an operation called a

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rather than a branch of mathematics. While many scientific investigations make use of data, statistics is generally concerned with the use of data in the context of uncertainty and decision-making in the face of uncertainty.

2345:, outlines a range of considerations. In an attempt to shed light on the use and misuse of statistics, reviews of statistical techniques used in particular fields are conducted (e.g. Warne, Lazo, Ramos, and Ritter (2012)). 1944:, which also describes the variance in a prediction of the dependent variable (y axis) as a function of the independent variable (x axis) and the deviations (errors, noise, disturbances) from the estimated (fitted) curve. 2119:

A difference that is highly statistically significant can still be of no practical significance, but it is possible to properly formulate tests to account for this. One response involves going beyond reporting only the

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in 1749 who started using the term as a collection of quantitative information, in the modern use for this science. The earliest writing containing statistics in Europe dates back to 1663, with the publication of

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are needed. It uses patterns in the sample data to draw inferences about the population represented while accounting for randomness. These inferences may take the form of answering yes/no questions about the data

5531:. There is growing determination to reform statistical analysis... Some suggest changing statistical methods, whereas others would do away with a threshold for defining "significant" results." (p. 63.) 3367: 934:, who transformed statistics into a rigorous mathematical discipline used for analysis, not just in science, but in industry and politics as well. Galton's contributions included introducing the concepts of 985: 2432:

are said to be correlated; however, they may or may not be the cause of one another. The correlation phenomena could be caused by a third, previously unconsidered phenomenon, called a lurking variable or

487:, which draw conclusions from data that are subject to random variation (e.g., observational errors, sampling variation). Descriptive statistics are most often concerned with two sets of properties of a 2664:

more feasible. The computer revolution has implications for the future of statistics with a new emphasis on "experimental" and "empirical" statistics. A large number of both general and special purpose

900:. This was the first book where the realm of games of chance and the realm of the probable (which concerned opinion, evidence, and argument) were combined and submitted to mathematical analysis. The 1940:. Also in a linear regression model the non deterministic part of the model is called error term, disturbance or more simply noise. Both linear regression and non-linear regression are addressed in 3985:"On the Criterion that a given System of Deviations from the Probable in the Case of a Correlated System of Variables is such that it can be reasonably supposed to have arisen from Random Sampling" 5197: 1401:), and permit any linear transformation. Ratio measurements have both a meaningful zero value and the distances between different measurements defined, and permit any rescaling transformation. 1147:

collection procedures. There are also methods of experimental design that can lessen these issues at the outset of a study, strengthening its capability to discern truths about the population.

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between two statistical data sets, or a data set and synthetic data drawn from an idealized model. A hypothesis is proposed for the statistical relationship between the two data sets, an

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is another type of observational study in which people with and without the outcome of interest (e.g. lung cancer) are invited to participate and their exposure histories are collected.

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and production and operations, including services improvement and marketing research. A study of two journals in tropical biology found that the 12 most frequent statistical tests are:

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ii. 19, "We may speak of this hypothesis as the 'null hypothesis', and the null hypothesis is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation."

2876:, where the music is performance-specific. Though this type of artistry does not always come out as expected, it does behave in ways that are predictable and tunable using statistics. 1996:

Most studies only sample part of a population, so results do not fully represent the whole population. Any estimates obtained from the sample only approximate the population value.

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or importance of the observed effect and can also seem to exaggerate the importance of minor differences in large studies. A better and increasingly common approach is to report

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permit any order-preserving transformation. Interval measurements have meaningful distances between measurements defined, but the zero value is arbitrary (as in the case with

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Statistical measurement processes are also prone to error in regards to the data that they generate. Many of these errors are classified as random (noise) or systematic (

983:, who wrote the textbooks that were to define the academic discipline in universities around the world. Fisher's most important publications were his 1918 seminal paper 2827:

of data generated by a distribution function may be transformed with familiar tools used in statistics to reveal underlying patterns, which may then lead to hypotheses.

9057: 2088:) and the probability of type II error is the probability that the estimator does not belong to the critical region given that the alternative hypothesis is true. The 1602:. Descriptive statistics is solely concerned with properties of the observed data, and it does not rest on the assumption that the data come from a larger population. 5407: 1727:

estimators that have the lowest variance for all possible values of the parameter to be estimated (this is usually an easier property to verify than efficiency) and

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The modern field of statistics emerged in the late 19th and early 20th century in three stages. The first wave, at the turn of the century, was led by the work of

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degree-requirement, is now viewed enthusiastically. Initially derided by some mathematical purists, it is now considered essential methodology in certain areas.

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by finding ways to interpret only the data that are favorable to the presenter. A mistrust and misunderstanding of statistics is associated with the quotation, "

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and the application of these methods to the study of the variety of human characteristics—height, weight and eyelash length among others. Pearson developed the

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Planning the research, including finding the number of replicates of the study, using the following information: preliminary estimates regarding the size of

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using the same procedure to determine if the manipulation has modified the values of the measurements. In contrast, an observational study does not involve

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Statistics form a key basis tool in business and manufacturing as well. It is used to understand measurement systems variability, control processes (as in

8707: 2584:, and correlation. Modern fundamental statistical courses for undergraduate students focus on correct test selection, results interpretation, and use of 132: 4385:

Neyman, J (1934). "On the two different aspects of the representative method: The method of stratified sampling and the method of purposive selection".

1214:. Instead, data are gathered and correlations between predictors and response are investigated. While the tools of data analysis work best on data from 8829: 5174: 1404:

Because variables conforming only to nominal or ordinal measurements cannot be reasonably measured numerically, sometimes they are grouped together as

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This still leaves the question of how to obtain estimators in a given situation and carry the computation, several methods have been proposed: the

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around the estimate. Sometimes the bounds for a confidence interval are reached asymptotically and these are used to approximate the true bounds.

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is studied. Once a sample that is representative of the population is determined, data is collected for the sample members in an observational or

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Edwards, A.W.F. (2000) Perspectives: Anecdotal, Historical and Critical Commentaries on Genetics. The Genetics Society of America (154) 1419:1426

8700: 8100: 7159: 2229: 1444:. But the mapping of computer science data types to statistical data types depends on which categorization of the latter is being implemented. 947: 5557: 8859: 7664: 4196: 1916:. The latter gives equal weight to small and big errors, while the former gives more weight to large errors. Residual sum of squares is also 338: 3422: 3069:

In addition, there are particular types of statistical analysis that have also developed their own specialised terminology and methodology:

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is the amount an observation differs from the value the estimator of the expected value assumes on a given sample (also called prediction).

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refers to the extent to which individual observations in a sample differ from a central value, such as the sample or population mean, while

1090:. Jerzy Neyman in 1934 showed that stratified random sampling was in general a better method of estimation than purposive (quota) sampling. 841:. Early applications of statistical thinking revolved around the needs of states to base policy on demographic and economic data, hence its 3188: 1654:. The probability distribution of the statistic, though, may have unknown parameters. Consider now a function of the unknown parameter: an 572:

Statistics is a mathematical body of science that pertains to the collection, analysis, interpretation or explanation, and presentation of

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Fisher|1971|loc=Chapter II. The Principles of Experimentation, Illustrated by a Psycho-physical Experiment, Section 8. The Null Hypothesis

2017:. One approach that does yield an interval that can be interpreted as having a given probability of containing the true value is to use a 7814: 2886: 451:. Representative sampling assures that inferences and conclusions can reasonably extend from the sample to the population as a whole. An 7438: 6079: 2566: 2239: 1690: 1417: 5579: 4798: 5734:. Developed by Rice University (Lead Developer), University of Houston Clear Lake, Tufts University, and National Science Foundation. 4300: 3183: 2294:

can be used or not, but primarily EDA is for seeing what the data can tell us beyond the formal modeling or hypothesis testing task.

1959:), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also be important. The presence of 1413: 1035: 1876: 1868: 1861: 1793:" in this case does not imply innocence, but merely that the evidence was insufficient to convict. So the jury does not necessarily 1142:

To use a sample as a guide to an entire population, it is important that it truly represents the overall population. Representative

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Even when statistical techniques are correctly applied, the results can be difficult to interpret for those lacking expertise. The

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The final wave, which mainly saw the refinement and expansion of earlier developments, emerged from the collaborative work between

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experiment, which "is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation". In his 1930 book

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where the null hypothesis fails to be rejected and an actual difference between populations is missed, giving a "false negative".

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Stanley, Julian C. (1966). "The Influence of Fisher's "The Design of Experiments" on Educational Research Thirty Years Later".

3214: 3178: 2001:(yielding a different dataset), the interval would include the true (population) value in 95% of all possible cases. This does 1992:: the red line is true value for the mean in this example, the blue lines are random confidence intervals for 100 realizations. 73: 68: 5364: 5349: 550:), but other types of errors (e.g., blunder, such as when an analyst reports incorrect units) can also occur. The presence of 8887: 8882: 5393: 5128: 4964: 4718: 4462: 3827: 3585: 3550: 3521: 3500: 3361: 3093: 511:) characterizes the extent to which members of the distribution depart from its center and each other. Inferences made using 5590: 4346: 3888: 3591: 3397: 8463: 6074: 5774: 2542: 2497:

models are statistical and probabilistic models that capture patterns in the data through use of computational algorithms.

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A random variable that is a function of the random sample and of the unknown parameter, but whose probability distribution

717: 274: 2436:. For this reason, there is no way to immediately infer the existence of a causal relationship between the two variables. 415:, a country") is the discipline that concerns the collection, organization, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of 8804: 8759: 6678: 5826: 5747: 3769: 3467: 2112: 1766:

which is usually (but not necessarily) that no relationship exists among variables or that no change occurred over time.

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Measurement processes that generate statistical data are also subject to error. Many of these errors are classified as

882:. Although the idea of probability was already examined in ancient and medieval law and philosophy (such as the work of 8989: 8929: 8902: 8608: 8093: 5608: 5600: 5546: 5317: 5230: 5108: 4542: 3882: 3844: 3751: 2720: 1323:. The researchers were interested in determining whether increased illumination would increase the productivity of the 700:

Mathematical statistics is the application of mathematics to statistics. Mathematical techniques used for this include

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are now available. Examples of available software capable of complex statistical computation include programs such as

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may be correlated, not because there is causal relationship between them, but because both depend on a third variable

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bias or errors, so they are not noticed. Thus, people may often believe that something is true even if it is not well

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Andersson, M. and Simmons, L.W. (2006) Sexual selection and mate choice. Trends, Ecology and Evolution (21) 296:302

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Warne, R. Lazo; Ramos, T.; Ritter, N. (2012). "Statistical Methods Used in Gifted Education Journals, 2006–2010".

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can help organizations and companies that do not have in-house expertise relevant to their particular questions.

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Increased computing power has also led to the growing popularity of computationally intensive methods based on

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of a test is the probability that it correctly rejects the null hypothesis when the null hypothesis is false.

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The best illustration for a novice is the predicament encountered by a criminal trial. The null hypothesis, H

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of the unknown parameter being estimated, and asymptotically unbiased if its expected value converges at the

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Lydia Denworth, "A Significant Problem: Standard scientific methods are under fire. Will anything change?",

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is the set of values to the right of the observed data point (observed value of the test statistic) and the

419:. In applying statistics to a scientific, industrial, or social problem, it is conventional to begin with a 8849: 8809: 8668: 7542: 7491: 7476: 7466: 7335: 7207: 7174: 7000: 6955: 6785: 5737: 4582:(1990). The knowledge needed to computerise the analysis and interpretation of statistical information. In 3198: 2666: 2570: 2472:

necessary for deriving results related to methods of estimation and inference, but also various aspects of

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To assist in the understanding of statistics Huff proposed a series of questions to be asked in each case:

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sense is the process of using and analyzing those statistics. Descriptive statistics is distinguished from

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J. Franklin, The Science of Conjecture: Evidence and Probability before Pascal, Johns Hopkins Univ Pr 2002

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of treatment effects and experimental error. At this stage, the experimenters and statisticians write the

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Palacios, Bernardo; Rosario, Alfonso; Wilhelmus, Monica M.; Zetina, Sandra; Zenit, Roberto (2019-10-30).

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when reporting whether a hypothesis is rejected or accepted. The p-value, however, does not indicate the

2026: 1594:, for example by testing hypotheses and deriving estimates. It is assumed that the observed data set is 1483: 1298: 1286: 1215: 1171: 167: 88: 78: 31: 9007: 8949: 8919: 8154: 7771: 7743: 7738: 7486: 7245: 7151: 7131: 7039: 6750: 6568: 6051: 5923: 4888: 3668:

Broemeling, Lyle D. (1 November 2011). "An Account of Early Statistical Inference in Arab Cryptology".

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Statistical techniques are used in a wide range of types of scientific and social research, including:

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that only works some of the time, the occasion of which can be predicted using statistical methodology.

2791: 2653: 2337: 2108:. Therefore, the smaller the significance level, the lower the probability of committing type I error. 1433: 1178:

probabilities that pertain to samples. Statistical inference, however, moves in the opposite direction—

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Numerous texts are available, reflecting the scope and reach of the discipline in the business world:

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may result in biased estimates and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems.

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Rubin, Donald B.; Little, Roderick J.A., Statistical analysis with missing data, New York: Wiley 2002

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Although in principle the acceptable level of statistical significance may be subject to debate, the

2080: 2068: 1913: 1777:, asserts that the defendant is guilty. The indictment comes because of suspicion of the guilt. The H 1441: 1227: 1079: 1001: 969: 968:(then called biometry), and the latter founded the world's first university statistics department at 289: 279: 269: 4375:

Gayon, J. (2010) Sexual selection: Another Darwinian process. Comptes Rendus Biologies (333) 134:144

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When full census data cannot be collected, statisticians collect sample data by developing specific

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as a mathematical discipline only took shape at the very end of the 17th century, particularly in

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Further examining the data set in secondary analyses, to suggest new hypotheses for future study.

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in 1589 with reference to a collection of facts and information about a state, it was the German

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The dependability of a sample can be destroyed by ... allow yourself some degree of skepticism.

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is particularly noteworthy for the potential confusion it can cause. Statistical analysis of a

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heavily criticized today for errors in experimental procedures, specifically for the lack of a

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imply that the probability that the true value is in the confidence interval is 95%. From the

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Does it make sense? (Is his/her conclusion logical and consistent with what we already know?)

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Did someone change the subject? (Does he/she offer us the right answer to the wrong problem?)

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There is a general perception that statistical knowledge is all-too-frequently intentionally

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being examined is described by a probability distribution that may have unknown parameters.

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in computer science, in that dichotomous categorical variables may be represented with the

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The Art of Conjecturing, Together with Letter to a Friend on Sets in Court Tennis (trans.)

8: 9037: 8959: 8909: 8819: 8769: 8618: 8528: 8450: 8349: 8283: 8240: 8230: 8210: 8028: 7953: 7876: 7557: 7321: 7314: 7276: 7184: 7164: 7136: 6869: 6735: 6730: 6720: 6712: 6530: 6491: 6381: 6371: 6280: 6059: 6015: 5933: 5858: 5760: 5500: 4828: 4558: 3268: 3114: 2962: 2771: 2577: 2550: 2546: 2534: 2506: 2444: 2244: 2234: 2139:. Although these are produced from the same calculations as those of hypothesis tests or 2136: 2022: 1980: 1921: 1717: 1701: 1558: 1226:—for which a statistician would use a modified, more structured estimation method (e.g., 1223: 1203: 1179: 1175: 1087: 1014: 943: 827: 709: 655: 457: 448: 433: 356: 93: 8692: 5445: 4609: 3926: 2079:

The standard approach is to test a null hypothesis against an alternative hypothesis. A

1420:, due to their numerical nature. Such distinctions can often be loosely correlated with 9021: 8644: 8563: 8503: 8435: 8425: 8364: 8339: 8215: 8172: 8167: 8042: 7853: 7707: 7603: 7552: 7428: 7325: 7309: 7286: 7063: 6797: 6780: 6740: 6651: 6546: 6508: 6479: 6439: 6399: 6345: 6262: 5948: 5943: 5699: 5672: 5631: 5536: 5524: 5472: 5429: 5173:

Natalia Loaiza Velásquez, María Isabel González Lutz & Julián Monge-Nájera (2011).

5075: 4947:

Drennan, Robert D. (2008). "Statistics in archaeology". In Pearsall, Deborah M. (ed.).

4926: 4859: 4832: 4768: 4502: 4475: 4422: 4404: 4273: 4188: 4146: 4138: 4103: 4066: 3774: 3685: 3122: 3103: 3037: 2795: 2736: 2155: 2121: 2100: 1882: 1857: 1743: 1705: 1697: 1355: 1259: 1219: 1211: 1159: 1155: 1022: 935: 887: 879: 796: 765: 749: 679: 639: 608: 516: 480: 472: 452: 429: 314: 218: 106: 3301: 2700: 2165:

Rejecting the null hypothesis does not automatically prove the alternative hypothesis.

2150:: criticisms arise because the hypothesis testing approach forces one hypothesis (the 2143:-values, they describe both the size of the effect and the uncertainty surrounding it. 851: 9016: 8639: 8359: 8344: 8288: 8235: 8037: 7948: 7918: 7910: 7730: 7721: 7646: 7577: 7433: 7418: 7393: 7281: 7222: 7088: 7076: 6702: 6619: 6563: 6486: 6330: 6252: 6031: 5905: 5704: 5596: 5542: 5477: 5459: 5399: 5389: 5327: 5313: 5226: 5189: 5124: 5104: 5067: 4960: 4949: 4930: 4893: 4864: 4774: 4714: 4666: 4538: 4527: 4507: 4458: 4336: 4304: 4265: 4150: 4033: 3878: 3823: 3747: 3689: 3645: 3620: 3581: 3546: 3517: 3496: 3447: 3357: 3234: 3108: 3057: 3042: 2928: 2775: 2581: 2576:

A typical statistics course covers descriptive statistics, probability, binomial and

2538: 2349: 2291: 2258: 2159: 2089: 2018: 1968: 1925: 1810: 1667: 1628: 1538: 1425: 1136: 1056: 643: 615:(like income), while frequency and percentage are more useful in terms of describing 547: 539:(null hypothesis is rejected when it is in fact true, giving a "false positive") and 424: 403: 310: 101: 4277: 4192: 48: 8573: 8548: 8420: 8268: 8205: 7973: 7928: 7692: 7679: 7572: 7547: 7481: 7413: 7291: 6899: 6792: 6725: 6638: 6585: 6404: 6275: 6069: 5953: 5868: 5835: 5694: 5684: 5659: 5635: 5623: 5467: 5449: 5359: 5344: 5059: 4996: 4992: 4918: 4854: 4844: 4613: 4497: 4487: 4396: 4290:

Fisher, R.A. (1915) The evolution of sexual preference. Eugenics Review (7) 184:192

4257: 4180: 4130: 4095: 4058: 3996: 3963: 3930: 3716: 3677: 3022: 3017: 2869: 2839: 2704: 2649: 2638: 2562: 2530: 2494: 2200: 1952: 1789:

is supported by evidence "beyond a reasonable doubt". However, "failure to reject H

1678: 1337: 1167: 1112: 1060: 1048: 1030: 875: 867: 823: 616: 493: 8513: 8440: 8369: 8162: 7890: 7634: 7496: 7423: 7098: 6972: 6945: 6922: 6891: 6518: 6513: 6467: 6197: 5848: 5743: 5689: 5627: 5583: 5454: 5430:"Pollock avoided hydrodynamic instabilities to paint with his dripping technique" 5368: 5353: 4849: 4596:

Chrisman, Nicholas R (1998). "Rethinking Levels of Measurement for Cartography".

4330: 4248:

Edwards, A.W.F. (1998). "Natural Selection and the Sex Ratio: Fisher's Sources".

4047:

Box, JF (February 1980). "R.A. Fisher and the Design of Experiments, 1922–1926".

3872: 3868: 3817: 3570: 3156: 2937: 2916: 2904: 2858: 2850: 2763: 2748: 2510: 2210: 2151: 2014: 2010: 1837: 1763: 1762:

Interpretation of statistical information can often involve the development of a

1663: 1316: 1132: 1083: 1026: 896: 891: 862:

The mathematical foundations of statistics developed from discussions concerning

785: 744: 531: 398: 236: 7380: 5663: 3389: 2456:

comprises descriptive statistics and the application of inferential statistics.

1658:

is a statistic used to estimate such function. Commonly used estimators include

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Expert systems and artificial intelligence: the need for information about data

2908: 2873: 2862: 2787: 2674: 2661: 2657: 2517:, government, and business. Business statistics applies statistical methods in 2514: 2105: 2064: 2009:

perspective, such a claim does not even make sense, as the true value is not a

1872: 1773:, asserts that the defendant is innocent, whereas the alternative hypothesis, H 1709: 1437: 1135:. Statistics itself also provides tools for prediction and forecasting through 927: 863: 761: 705: 412: 386:

to show the observed relationships between different variables, here using the

351: 264: 5403: 4184: 4134: 4000: 2919:. Some fields of inquiry use applied statistics so extensively that they have 2348:

Ways to avoid misuse of statistics include using proper diagrams and avoiding

2335:". Misuse of statistics can be both inadvertent and intentional, and the book 1650:

A statistic is a random variable that is a function of the random sample, but

1557:(or inductive statistics), in that descriptive statistics aims to summarize a 522:

A standard statistical procedure involves the collection of data leading to a

9042: 9031: 8379: 8311: 8263: 7996: 7963: 7826: 7787: 7598: 7567: 7031: 6985: 6590: 6292: 6119: 5883: 5878: 5463: 5337: 5071: 4922: 2943: 2892: 2868:

Statistics can be used to predicatively create art, as in the statistical or

2820: 2744: 2284: 1909: 1900:

A least squares fit: in red the points to be fitted, in blue the fitted line.

1864:

refers to an estimate of difference between sample mean and population mean.

1821: 1814: 1747: 1640: 1636: 1632: 1583: 1329: 1324: 986:

The Correlation between Relatives on the Supposition of Mendelian Inheritance

980: 965: 883: 871: 671: 667: 540: 464: 189: 5639: 5063: 3968: 3951: 3721: 3704: 603:

can be used to summarize the population data. Numerical descriptors include

8321: 8316: 8220: 7938: 7871: 7848: 7763: 7093: 6389: 6287: 6222: 6164: 6149: 6086: 6041: 5708: 5481: 5383: 5193: 4868: 4511: 4492: 4474:

McCarney R, Warner J, Iliffe S, van Haselen R, Griffin M, Fisher P (2007).

4269: 3681: 3118: 3003: 2987: 2968: 2948: 2835: 2824: 2740: 2618: 2518: 2342: 1960: 1948: 1351: 1333: 1075: 1071: 931: 919: 588:

In applying statistics to a problem, it is common practice to start with a

551: 536: 501:) seeks to characterize the distribution's central or typical value, while 444: 375: 27:

Study of the collection, analysis, interpretation, and presentation of data

8078: 5276: 5140: 2766:, description, analysis, and summary of data), probability (typically the 2384: 1985: 1896: 1319:

examined changes to the working environment at the Hawthorne plant of the

622:

When a census is not feasible, a chosen subset of the population called a

8728: 8523: 8187: 8110: 7981: 7943: 7626: 7527: 7389: 7202: 7169: 6661: 6578: 6573: 6217: 6174: 6154: 6134: 6124: 5893: 4579: 4084:

Yates, F (June 1964). "Sir Ronald Fisher and the Design of Experiments".

3566: 3027: 2958: 2846: 2831: 2783: 2779: 2670: 2460:

concerns the logical arguments underlying justification of approaches to

2424: 2371:

How does he/she know? (Does he/she have the resources to know the facts?)

2205: 2132: 1847:

where the null hypothesis is falsely rejected, giving a "false positive".

1659: 1542: 1390: 1290:

that will guide the performance of the experiment and which specifies the

1151: 939: 838: 816: 781: 777: 683: 675: 659: 577: 227: 153: 4525:

Rothman, Kenneth J; Greenland, Sander; Lash, Timothy, eds. (2008). "7".

1598:

from a larger population. Inferential statistics can be contrasted with

1541:

that quantitatively describes or summarizes features of a collection of

1354:, and then look for the number of cases of lung cancer in each group. A 858:

made major contributions to probabilistic methods leading to statistics.

8387: 8182: 6827: 6307: 6007: 5938: 5888: 5863: 5729: 5516: 5079: 5047: 4562: 4408: 4142: 4107: 4070: 3778: 2981: 2739:

formalizes the use of statistics, and other mathematics, in business. (

2622: 1971:

and specific techniques have been developed to address these problems.

1713: 1534: 1490: in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. 1398: 1199: 960: 663: 627: 379: 222: 5731:

Online Statistics Education: An Interactive Multimedia Course of Study

2445:

Applied statistics, theoretical statistics and mathematical statistics

2290:

to summarize their main characteristics, often with visual methods. A

6980: 6832: 6452: 6247: 6159: 6144: 6139: 6104: 5520: 5052:

Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. Series D (The Statistician)

3935: 3910: 3009: 2952: 2912: 2173: 1655: 1550: 1421: 1386: 1191: 1064: 915: 812: 800: 4400: 4099: 4062: 3984: 3541:. Washington, DC: The Mathematical Association of America. pp. 1465: 822:

Although the term 'statistic' was introduced by the Italian scholar

8412: 8331: 8258: 6496: 6114: 5991: 5986: 5981: 4261: 3334: 2732: 2596: 2522: 2428: 2287: 1605: 1190:

A common goal for a statistical research project is to investigate

1100: 1095: 990: 789: 204: 194: 5324:

Applied Business Statistics: Methods and Excel-Based Applications,

4645:

Measurement theory and practice: The world through quantification.

3133:

or SPC), for summarizing data, and to make data-driven decisions.

2312:

structures like bridges all rely on the proper use of statistics.

1408:, whereas ratio and interval measurements are grouped together as 738: 654:), and modeling relationships within the data (for example, using 447:

collect data by developing specific experiment designs and survey

371: 8724: 8197: 8001: 7702: 5528: 5505: 3739:

States and the Masters of Capital: Sovereign Lending, Old and New

2125: 2072: 2063:

In this graph the black line is probability distribution for the

2053: 1682: 1429: 1394: 1040: 597:). This may be organized by governmental statistical institutes. 199: 4732:"Basic Inferential Statistics - Purdue OWL® - Purdue University" 2809: 2468:. Mathematical statistics includes not only the manipulation of 2333:

There are three kinds of lies: lies, damned lies, and statistics

1696:

Between two estimators of a given parameter, the one with lower

1610: 1315:

Experiments on human behavior have special concerns. The famous

1182:

from samples to the parameters of a larger or total population.

7923: 6904: 6878: 6858: 6109: 5900: 4473: 4423:"Science in a Complex World – Big Data: Opportunity or Threat?" 815:(1187–1268) later made an important contribution on the use of 594: 440: 5504:, vol. 321, no. 4 (October 2019), pp. 62–67. "The use of 5427: 5103:

Nikoletseas, M.M. (2014) "Statistics: Concepts and Examples."

2111:

Some problems are usually associated with this framework (See

834:

Natural and Political Observations upon the Bills of Mortality

5752: 5558:"Introductory Statistics: Concepts, Models, and Applications" 3578:

Investigating Statistical Concepts, Applications, and Methods

2600: 1828:

is simply a hypothesis that contradicts the null hypothesis.

1757: 1724: 1428:, polytomous categorical variables with arbitrarily assigned 5003: 4942: 4940: 5843: 4533:(3rd ed.). Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 2678: 1956: 1198:. There are two major types of causal statistical studies: 808: 604: 573: 476: 416: 5534: 4983:

Cohen, Jerome B. (December 1938). "Misuse of Statistics".

3952:"Francis Galton's Account of the Invention of Correlation" 2621:, but powerful computers, coupled with suitable numerical 1617:

independent identically distributed (IID) random variables

1590:. Inferential statistical analysis infers properties of a 8722: 4937: 3976: 3031: 2374:

What's missing? (Does he/she give us a complete picture?)

1376:

Various attempts have been made to produce a taxonomy of

1185: 5592:

Statistics in Psychology: Explanations without Equations

4163: 4978: 4976: 3565: 3194:

List of national and international statistical services

2931:(assesses risk in the insurance and finance industries) 2754:

A typical "Business Statistics" course is intended for

1871:

is the amount by which an observation differs from its

4773:. Cambridge, UK New York: Cambridge University Press. 4476:"The Hawthorne Effect: a randomised, controlled trial" 975:

The second wave of the 1910s and 20s was initiated by

958:, among many other things. Galton and Pearson founded 9005: 5121:

Introduction to Statistics: Concepts and Applications

5119:

Anderson, D.R.; Sweeney, D.J.; Williams, T.A. (1994)

4757:

Piazza Elio, Probabilità e Statistica, Esculapio 2007

642:), estimating numerical characteristics of the data ( 519:, which deals with the analysis of random phenomena. 7665:

Autoregressive conditional heteroskedasticity (ARCH)

5175:"Which statistics should tropical biologists learn?" 4973: 4524: 3766:

Willcox, Walter (1938) "The Founder of Statistics".

3614: 3299: 1311:

Documenting and presenting the results of the study.

1218:, they are also applied to other kinds of data—like 964:

as the first journal of mathematical statistics and

954:

for the fitting of distributions to samples and the

912:

presumably made use of it a decade earlier in 1795.

4586:. Library Association Report, London, March, 23–27. 3804:

Landmark writings in Western Mathematics, 1640-1940

2857:Methods of statistics may be used predicatively in 2778:, and correlation; (follow-on) courses may include 2489: 1723:Other desirable properties for estimators include: 7127: 5722:(Electronic Version): TIBCO Software Inc. (2020). 4658: 4166:"Bayesian Inference for Categorical Data Analysis" 3300: 1063:about a positive feedback runaway effect found in 989:(which was the first to use the statistical term, 9058:Mathematical and quantitative methods (economics) 5586:, 3rd edition by Diez, Barr, and Cetinkaya-Rundel 3867: 3644:(Corr. 2nd print. ed.). New York: Springer. 3461: 3459: 3210:List of university statistical consulting centers 2412: 1893:is simply the square root of mean squared error. 1565:that the sample of data is thought to represent. 1246:The basic steps of a statistical experiment are: 1051:called "probably the most celebrated argument in 979:, and reached its culmination in the insights of 9029: 5673:"Why most published research findings are false" 4908: 4833:"Why Most Published Research Findings Are False" 3617:Handbook of stochastic analysis and applications 2774:), test of hypotheses and confidence intervals, 2633:) as well as the creation of new types, such as 2368:Who says so? (Does he/she have an axe to grind?) 1840:, two broad categories of error are recognized: 1606:Terminology and theory of inferential statistics 1350:both smokers and non-smokers, perhaps through a 793:Manuscript on Deciphering Cryptographic Messages 7213:Multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS) 5277:"Journal of Business & Economic Statistics" 5141:"Journal of Business & Economic Statistics" 5027: 4985:Journal of the American Statistical Association 4687:"Descriptive Statistics | Research Connections" 2580:, test of hypotheses and confidence intervals, 1078:in the 1930s. They introduced the concepts of " 4795:"Cohen (1994) The Earth Is Round (p < .05)" 4598:Cartography and Geographic Information Science 4557: 3845:"Gauss, Least Squares, and the Missing Planet" 3815: 3535:"Teaching Statistics as a Respectable Subject" 3465: 3456: 2505:Statistics is applicable to a wide variety of 2230:Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient 2172:it relies on sample size, and therefore under 2025:: this approach depends on a different way of 1904:Many statistical methods seek to minimize the 1561:, rather than use the data to learn about the 948:Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient 8708: 8094: 5768: 5650:Gigerenzer, G (2004). "Mindless statistics". 5281:Journal of Business & Economic Statistics 5251:Journal of Business & Economic Statistics 5145:Journal of Business & Economic Statistics 4821: 2940:(statistical evaluation of astronomical data) 2810:Statistics applied to mathematics or the arts 2743:is the application of statistical methods to 1611:Statistics, estimators and pivotal quantities 756:Formal discussions on inference date back to 332: 126: 5343:Holmes, L., Illowsky, B., Dean, S. (2017). 4892:, WW Norton & Company, Inc. New York. 4467: 3874:Studies in the history of statistical method 3189:List of important publications in statistics 2695:Business mathematics § University level 2265: 1920:, which provides a handy property for doing 1196:independent variables on dependent variables 580:. Some consider statistics to be a distinct 460:does not involve experimental manipulation. 8108: 4028:. Department of Statistical Science – 3702: 3113:Statistics in various sports, particularly 2887:List of fields of application of statistics 2699:In business, "statistics" is a widely used 2146:Fallacy of the transposed conditional, aka 2027:interpreting what is meant by "probability" 471:, which summarize data from a sample using 8715: 8701: 8101: 8087: 5813: 5775: 5761: 5649: 5519:results has contributed to an illusion of 3902: 3667: 3444:The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms 3339:Digitales Wörterbuch der deutschen Sprache 2880: 1758:Null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis 1704:. Furthermore, an estimator is said to be 795:gave a detailed description of how to use 776:, which contains one of the first uses of 689: 339: 325: 133: 119: 47: 6426: 5698: 5688: 5670: 5471: 5453: 5385:Nonparametric Statistical Methods Using R 4858: 4848: 4827: 4753: 4751: 4501: 4491: 4328: 4301:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 4241: 4164:Agresti, Alan; David B. Hichcock (2005). 3967: 3934: 3720: 3639: 3356:. Oxford University Press. January 2008. 3242:Foundations and major areas of statistics 3184:List of academic statistical associations 2500: 1681:or pivot. Widely used pivots include the 1568: 1518: 1506:Learn how and when to remove this message 1036:The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection 463:Two main statistical methods are used in 5048:"From Statistics to Statistical Science" 5013:(1988). "Modern Elementary Statistics". 4595: 4388:Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 4293: 4284: 4083: 3468:"Descriptive and Inferential Statistics" 2595: 2591: 2383: 2352:. Misuse can occur when conclusions are 2058: 1984: 1895: 1675:does not depend on the unknown parameter 1297:Performing the experiment following the 996:Statistical Methods for Research Workers 914: 850: 803:messages, providing an early example of 737: 370: 350: 5555: 4946: 4882: 4880: 4878: 4766: 4455:Statistical Models: Theory and Practice 4369: 4360: 4322: 4247: 4120: 4046: 3982: 3949: 3816:Sylla, E. D.; Bernoulli, Jacob (2006). 3798:Schneider, I. (2005). Jakob Bernoulli, 3735: 3615:Lakshmikantham, D.; Kannan, V. (2002). 3539:Statistics for the Twenty-First Century 2990:(statistical analysis of economic data) 2975:Data science#Relationship to statistics 2567:Spearman's rank correlation coefficient 2240:Spearman's rank correlation coefficient 2176:p-values may be seriously mis-computed. 1170:and, more generally, the properties of 14: 9030: 8830:Electrical and electronics engineering 8815:Developmental and reproductive biology 7739:Kaplan–Meier estimator (product limit) 5045: 5009: 4770:The Cambridge Dictionary of Statistics 4748: 4703: 4384: 4313: 4173:Statistical Methods & Applications 3908: 3802:(1713). In I. Grattan-Guinness (Ed.), 3705:"The emergence of statistical science" 3516:, Holt, Rinehart and Winston, p. xii, 3387: 3215:Notation in probability and statistics 3179:Glossary of probability and statistics 2806:, often include topics in statistics. 2747:in order to give empirical content to 2688: 2158:, although it requires establishing a 1974: 1781:(status quo) stands in opposition to H 1586:to deduce properties of an underlying 1344: 1186:Experimental and observational studies 1009:models. He originated the concepts of 922:, a founder of mathematical statistics 8696: 8082: 7812: 7379: 7126: 6425: 6195: 5812: 5756: 5606: 5535:Barbara Illowsky; Susan Dean (2014). 5381: 5220: 5168: 5166: 4982: 4123:American Educational Research Journal 3663: 3661: 3532: 2727:. Statistics is also heavily used in 1889:, a widely used class of estimators. 1750:method and the more recent method of 1735:to the true value of such parameter. 1720:to the true value of such parameter. 8663: 8049: 7749:Accelerated failure time (AFT) model 5738:UCLA Statistical Computing Resources 4875: 4656: 3436: 3321:participating institution membership 2830:Predictive methods of statistics in 2707:tool. It is particularly applied in 2419:Correlation does not imply causation 1932:method and least squares applied to 1652:not a function of unknown parameters 1488:adding citations to reliable sources 1459: 1436:, and continuous variables with the 1305:following the experimental protocol. 1228:difference in differences estimation 768:between the 8th and 13th centuries. 718:measure-theoretic probability theory 8675: 8061: 7344:Analysis of variance (ANOVA, anova) 6196: 5748:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 5511:for nearly a century to determine 5028:Huff, Darrell; Irving Geis (1954). 4213: 3842: 3770:International Statistical Institute 3394:Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy 2800:Professional certification programs 1280:of treatments to subjects to allow 1106: 1039:, he applied statistics to various 950:, defined as a product-moment, the 748:was the first work that dealt with 24: 7439:Cochran–Mantel–Haenszel statistics 6065:Pearson product-moment correlation 5566:(3rd Web ed.). Archived from 5492: 5163: 3658: 3537:. In F. Gordon; S. Gordon (eds.). 3514:Statistics for the Social Sciences 2984:(statistical study of populations) 2842:can be used to create video works. 2625:, caused an increased interest in 1234:, among many others) that produce 1208:measurements with different levels 1117: 408: 25: 9079: 8860:Genetics and evolutionary biology 5716: 5361:Principles of Business Statistics 5287:from the original on 27 July 2020 5257:from the original on 23 June 2021 5223:The Manager's Guide to Statistics 5151:from the original on 27 July 2020 3493:Think and Explain with Statistics 3343: 3274:Multivariate analysis of variance 3006:(statistical analysis of disease) 2543:Pearson's correlation coefficient 2075:is represented by the green area. 9015: 8674: 8662: 8651: 8650: 8638: 8060: 8048: 8036: 8023: 8022: 7813: 5609:"Things I have learned (so far)" 5346:Introductory Business Statistics 2965:to discover knowledge from data) 2861:, as in a card trick based on a 2490:Machine learning and data mining 1464: 1361: 309: 100: 8864:Cellular and molecular biology 8559:Computational complexity theory 7698:Least-squares spectral analysis 5421: 5410:from the original on 2022-05-15 5375: 5299: 5269: 5239: 5214: 5203:from the original on 2020-10-19 5133: 5113: 5097: 5086:from the original on 2022-01-15 5039: 5021: 4902: 4812: 4801:from the original on 2015-09-05 4787: 4760: 4724: 4711:Oxford Dictionary of Statistics 4679: 4650: 4637: 4624: 4589: 4573: 4551: 4518: 4444: 4433:from the original on 2016-05-30 4415: 4378: 4349:from the original on 2019-12-25 4232: 4202:from the original on 2013-12-19 4157: 4114: 4077: 4040: 4018: 4007:from the original on 2020-08-18 3943: 3891:from the original on 2020-07-27 3861: 3836: 3809: 3792: 3783: 3760: 3729: 3696: 3633: 3608: 3597:from the original on 2020-11-22 3559: 3526: 3474:from the original on 2020-10-26 3425:from the original on 2020-11-22 3400:from the original on 2021-10-19 3370:from the original on 2020-09-03 2605:open source statistical package 2439: 2408:is called a confounding factor. 2113:criticism of hypothesis testing 2040: 1475:needs additional citations for 1150:Sampling theory is part of the 788:words with and without vowels. 658:). Inference can extend to the 561: 6679:Mean-unbiased minimum-variance 5782: 4997:10.1080/01621459.1938.10502344 4457:, Cambridge University Press. 4335:. Princeton University Press. 3506: 3485: 3411: 3381: 3327: 3293: 3014:geographic information systems 2413:Misinterpretation: correlation 2224:Mean square weighted deviation 1241: 1005:, where he developed rigorous 774:Book of Cryptographic Messages 13: 1: 7992:Geographic information system 7208:Simultaneous equations models 3703:Ostasiewicz, Walenty (2014). 3286: 3099:Structural equation modelling 2934:Applied information economics 2923:. These disciplines include: 1019:Fisher's linear discriminator 866:among mathematicians such as 7175:Coefficient of determination 6786:Uniformly most powerful test 5690:10.1371/journal.pmed.0040168 5628:10.1037/0003-066x.45.12.1304 5455:10.1371/journal.pone.0223706 5182:Revista de Biología Tropical 4850:10.1371/journal.pmed.0020124 4567:Data analysis and regression 3709:Śląski Przegląd Statystyczny 3569:; Rossman, Allan J. (2005). 3199:List of statistical packages 2571:principal component analysis 2185:Some well-known statistical 1643:of these IID variables. The 7: 7744:Proportional hazards models 7688:Spectral density estimation 7670:Vector autoregression (VAR) 7104:Maximum posterior estimator 6336:Randomized controlled trial 5664:10.1016/j.socec.2004.09.033 4951:Encyclopedia of Archaeology 4709:Upton, G., Cook, I. (2008) 4691:www.researchconnections.org 4632:Choosing an analysis method 3640:Schervish, Mark J. (1995). 3446:, Oxford University Press. 3388:Romijn, Jan-Willem (2014). 3254:Probability interpretations 3205:List of statistics articles 3136: 3131:statistical process control 2972: 2951:(for analysis of data from 2656:, while techniques such as 2320:properly is referred to as 2180: 1924:. Least squares applied to 1272:to reduce the influence of 1122: 32:Statistics (disambiguation) 10: 9084: 8965:Probability and statistics 8609:Films about mathematicians 7504:Multivariate distributions 5924:Average absolute deviation 5671:Ioannidis, J.P.A. (2005). 5652:Journal of Socio-Economics 5030:How to Lie with Statistics 4889:How to Lie with Statistics 4618:10.1559/152304098782383043 4026:"Karl Pearson (1857–1936)" 3911:"Typical laws of heredity" 3512:Hays, William Lee, (1973) 3390:"Philosophy of statistics" 3164: 3089:Statistical classification 2884: 2792:multiple linear regression 2692: 2609: 2464:, as well as encompassing 2416: 2338:How to Lie with Statistics 2301: 2269: 2044: 1978: 1785:and is maintained unless H 1572: 1522: 1455: 1365: 1110: 1025:. 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Boston: Addison-Wesley. 4329:Andersson, Malte (1994). 4226:The Design of Experiments 4185:10.1007/s10260-005-0121-y 4135:10.3102/00028312003003223 4050:The American Statistician 4030:University College London 4001:10.1080/14786440009463897 3744:Columbia University Press 3736:Bruneau, Quentin (2022). 3670:The American Statistician 3491:Moses, Lincoln E. (1986) 3308:Oxford English Dictionary 3259:Foundations of statistics 3157:Resources in your library 2961:(applying statistics and 2635:generalized linear models 2555:Shannon's diversity index 2470:probability distributions 2452:sometimes referred to as 2297: 2277:Exploratory data analysis 2272:Exploratory data analysis 2266:Exploratory data analysis 1914:Least absolute deviations 1442:floating-point arithmetic 1294:of the experimental data. 1212:experimental manipulation 1158:. Probability is used in 1002:The Design of Experiments 993:), his classic 1925 work 970:University College London 363:, is used extensively in 8614:Recreational mathematics 7987:Environmental statistics 7509:Elliptical distributions 7302:Generalized linear model 7231:Simple linear regression 7001:Hodges–Lehmann estimator 6458:Probability distribution 6367:Stochastic approximation 5929:Coefficient of variation 5744:Philosophy of Statistics 5513:statistical significance 5283:. Taylor & Francis. 5253:. Taylor & Francis. 5147:. Taylor & Francis. 5046:Nelder, John A. (1999). 4923:10.1177/0016986212444122 3470:. statistics.laerd.com. 3249:Philosophy of statistics 3094:Structured data analysis 3048:Psychological statistics 2794:, and other topics from 2612:Computational statistics 2586:free statistics software 2474:computational statistics 2317:statistical significance 2096:the patient noticeably. 2086:statistical significance 2047:Statistical significance 1942:polynomial least squares 1938:non-linear least squares 1910:methods of least squares 1908:, and these are called " 1831: 1733:converges in probability 1621:probability distribution 1588:probability distribution 1582:is the process of using 1321:Western Electric Company 1260:experimental variability 752:as currently understood. 524:test of the relationship 515:employ the framework of 491:(sample or population): 8760:Artificial intelligence 8499:Mathematical statistics 8489:Mathematical psychology 8459:Engineering mathematics 8393:Algebraic number theory 7647:Cross-correlation (XCF) 7255:Non-standard predictors 6689:Lehmann–Scheffé theorem 6362:Adaptive clinical trial 5740:(archived 17 July 2006) 5538:Introductory Statistics 5382:Cline, Graysen (2019). 5123:, pp. 5–9. West Group. 5064:10.1111/1467-9884.00187 4991:(204). JSTOR: 657–674. 4767:Everitt, Brian (1998). 4665:(2nd ed.). Wiley. 4661:Introductory Statistics 3722:10.15611/sps.2014.12.04 3619:. New York: M. Dekker. 3313:Oxford University Press 3084:Multivariate statistics 3053:Reliability engineering 2921:specialized terminology 2901:computational sociology 2881:Specialized disciplines 2484:Statistical consultants 2466:mathematical statistics 1906:residual sum of squares 1160:mathematical statistics 1152:mathematical discipline 904:was first described by 902:method of least squares 819:in frequency analysis. 784:, to list all possible 696:Mathematical statistics 690:Mathematical statistics 513:mathematical statistics 8990:Structural engineering 8930:Mechanical engineering 8903:Western and South Asia 8645:Mathematics portal 8494:Mathematical sociology 8474:Mathematical economics 8469:Mathematical chemistry 8398:Analytic number theory 8279:Differential equations 8043:Mathematics portal 7864:Engineering statistics 7772:Nelson–Aalen estimator 7349:Analysis of covariance 7236:Ordinary least squares 7160:Pearson product-moment 6564:Statistical functional 6475:Empirical distribution 6308:Controlled experiments 6037:Frequency distribution 5815:Descriptive statistics 5595:. Palgrave Macmillan. 5556:Stockburger, David W. 5525:reproducibility crises 4911:Gifted Child Quarterly 4657:Mann, Prem S. (1995). 4493:10.1186/1471-2288-7-30 3989:Philosophical Magazine 3950:Stigler, S.M. (1989). 3682:10.1198/tas.2011.10191 3419:"Cambridge Dictionary" 2999:Engineering statistics 2760:descriptive statistics 2749:economic relationships 2607: 2501:Statistics in academia 2458:Theoretical statistics 2409: 2170:inferential statistics 2076: 1993: 1930:ordinary least squares 1901: 1891:Root mean square error 1885:is used for obtaining 1826:alternative hypothesis 1600:descriptive statistics 1569:Inferential statistics 1555:inferential statistics 1547:descriptive statistics 1525:Descriptive statistics 1519:Descriptive statistics 1412:, which can be either 1410:quantitative variables 1380:. The psychophysicist 1256:alternative hypotheses 1232:instrumental variables 1172:statistical procedures 1164:sampling distributions 923: 859: 753: 734:Founders of statistics 714:differential equations 634:inferential statistics 600:Descriptive statistics 485:inferential statistics 469:descriptive statistics 421:statistical population 391: 384:descriptive statistics 368: 365:inferential statistics 107:Mathematics portal 8855:Environmental science 8740:Aerospace engineering 8624:Mathematics education 8554:Theory of computation 8274:Hypercomplex analysis 7959:Population statistics 7901:System identification 7635:Autocorrelation (ACF) 7563:Exponential smoothing 7477:Discriminant analysis 7472:Canonical correlation 7336:Partition of variance 7198:Regression validation 7042:(Jonckheere–Terpstra) 6941:Likelihood-ratio test 6630:Frequentist inference 6542:Location–scale family 6463:Sampling distribution 6428:Statistical inference 6395:Cross-sectional study 6382:Observational studies 6341:Randomized experiment 6170:Stem-and-leaf display 5972:Central limit theorem 5724:Data Science Textbook 5616:American Psychologist 5589:Stephen Jones, 2010. 4886:Huff, Darrell (1954) 4797:. YourStatsGuru.com. 3969:10.1214/ss/1177012580 3533:Moore, David (1992). 3264:List of statisticians 3167:Outline of statistics 3063:Statistical mechanics 2897:computational biology 2729:management accounting 2725:operations management 2599: 2592:Statistical computing 2478:design of experiments 2462:statistical inference 2387: 2062: 1988: 1899: 1729:consistent estimators 1625:statistical inference 1580:Statistical inference 1575:Statistical inference 1531:descriptive statistic 1406:categorical variables 1382:Stanley Smith Stevens 1378:levels of measurement 1372:Levels of measurement 1368:Statistical data type 1299:experimental protocol 1287:experimental protocol 1278:randomized assignment 1274:confounding variables 1266:Design of experiments 1236:consistent estimators 1224:observational studies 1204:observational studies 1180:inductively inferring 1007:design of experiments 918: 906:Adrien-Marie Legendre 854: 805:statistical inference 741: 730:History of statistics 702:mathematical analysis 568:Outline of statistics 374: 354: 8604:Informal mathematics 8484:Mathematical physics 8479:Mathematical finance 8464:Mathematical biology 8403:Diophantine geometry 7882:Probabilistic design 7467:Principal components 7310:Exponential families 7262:Nonlinear regression 7241:General linear model 7203:Mixed effects models 7193:Errors and residuals 7170:Confounding variable 7072:Bayesian probability 7050:Van der Waerden test 7040:Ordered alternative 6805:Multiple comparisons 6684:Rao–Blackwellization 6647:Estimating equations 6603:Statistical distance 6321:Factorial experiment 5854:Arithmetic-Geometric 5576:OpenIntro Statistics 5221:Pekoz, Erol (2009). 5032:. New York: Norton. 4634:. Leiden: DSWO Press 4480:BMC Med Res Methodol 4299:Fisher, R.A. (1930) 3983:Pearson, K. (1900). 3642:Theory of statistics 3230:World Statistics Day 3225:Knowledge Statistics 3220:Statistics education 3174:Abundance estimation 3079:jackknife resampling 2772:normal distributions 2735:. The discipline of 2713:marketing management 2709:financial management 2667:statistical software 2578:normal distributions 2527:analysis of variance 2507:academic disciplines 2454:Statistical science, 2434:confounding variable 2390:confounding variable 2322:statistical literacy 2309:Misuse of statistics 2304:Misuse of statistics 2283:) is an approach to 2254:Time series analysis 2195:Analysis of variance 2189:and procedures are: 2148:prosecutor's fallacy 2137:confidence intervals 2031:Bayesian probability 1998:Confidence intervals 1990:Confidence intervals 1934:nonlinear regression 1887:efficient estimators 1752:estimating equations 1687:chi square statistic 1484:improve this article 1258:, and the estimated 1200:experimental studies 1088:confidence intervals 1053:evolutionary biology 1015:ancillary statistics 977:William Sealy Gosset 956:Pearson distribution 910:Carl Friedrich Gauss 856:Carl Friedrich Gauss 772:(717–786) wrote the 582:mathematical science 576:, or as a branch of 388:Iris flower data set 214:Discrete mathematics 30:For other uses, see 8619:Mathematics and art 8529:Operations research 8284:Functional analysis 7954:Official statistics 7877:Methods engineering 7558:Seasonal adjustment 7326:Poisson regressions 7246:Bayesian regression 7185:Regression analysis 7165:Partial correlation 7137:Regression analysis 6736:Prediction interval 6731:Likelihood interval 6721:Confidence interval 6713:Interval estimation 6674:Unbiased estimators 6492:Model specification 6372:Up-and-down designs 6060:Partial correlation 6016:Index of dispersion 5934:Interquartile range 5501:Scientific American 5446:2019PLoSO..1423706P 5322:Wegner, T. (2010). 5310:Business Statistics 5308:Sharpe, N. (2014). 4643:Hand, D.J. (2004). 4610:1998CGISy..25..231C 4529:Modern Epidemiology 4429:. 2 December 2013. 4250:American Naturalist 3956:Statistical Science 3927:1877Natur..15..492. 3466:Lund Research Ltd. 3311:(Online ed.). 3269:Official statistics 2963:pattern recognition 2689:Business statistics 2603:, an example of an 2551:Kruskal-Wallis test 2547:Mann-Whitney U test 2450:Applied statistics, 2235:Regression analysis 2023:Bayesian statistics 1981:Interval estimation 1975:Interval estimation 1700:is said to be more 1345:Observational study 1220:natural experiments 944:regression analysis 828:Gottfried Achenwall 758:Arab mathematicians 710:stochastic analysis 656:regression analysis 458:observational study 361:probability density 357:normal distribution 148:Part of a series on 8564:Numerical analysis 8173:Mathematical logic 8168:Information theory 7974:Spatial statistics 7854:Medical statistics 7754:First hitting time 7708:Whittle likelihood 7359:Degrees of freedom 7354:Multivariate ANOVA 7287:Heteroscedasticity 7099:Bayesian estimator 7064:Bayesian inference 6913:Kolmogorov–Smirnov 6798:Randomization test 6768:Testing hypotheses 6741:Tolerance interval 6652:Maximum likelihood 6547:Exponential family 6480:Density estimation 6440:Statistical theory 6400:Natural experiment 6346:Scientific control 6263:Survey methodology 5949:Standard deviation 5582:2019-06-16 at the 5367:2021-05-18 at the 5352:2021-06-16 at the 4427:Santa Fe Institute 3909:Galton, F (1877). 3495:, Addison-Wesley, 3104:Survey methodology 3038:Medical statistics 3016:, specifically in 2796:business analytics 2737:Management Science 2608: 2559:Tukey's range test 2410: 2156:Bayesian inference 2122:significance level 2101:significance level 2077: 1994: 1902: 1883:Mean squared error 1858:Standard deviation 1813:, which tests for 1744:maximum likelihood 1698:mean squared error 1448:den Berg (1991).) 1434:integral data type 1356:case-control study 1303:analyzing the data 1282:unbiased estimates 1216:randomized studies 1156:probability theory 1137:statistical models 1129:experiment designs 1045:Fisher's principle 1023:Fisher information 936:standard deviation 924: 888:probability theory 880:Christiaan Huygens 860: 797:frequency analysis 766:Islamic Golden Age 754: 750:probability theory 640:hypothesis testing 619:(like education). 609:standard deviation 517:probability theory 481:standard deviation 453:experimental study 411:"description of a 392: 369: 315:Mathematics Portal 18:Applied statistics 9003: 9002: 8985:Scientific naming 8975:Quantum computing 8805:Computer hardware 8800:Clinical research 8795:Civil engineering 8690: 8689: 8289:Harmonic analysis 8076: 8075: 8014: 8013: 8010: 8009: 7949:National accounts 7919:Actuarial science 7911:Social statistics 7804: 7803: 7800: 7799: 7796: 7795: 7731:Survival function 7716: 7715: 7578:Granger causality 7419:Contingency table 7394:Survival analysis 7371: 7370: 7367: 7366: 7223:Linear regression 7118: 7117: 7114: 7113: 7089:Credible interval 7058: 7057: 6841: 6840: 6657:Method of moments 6526:Parametric family 6487:Statistical model 6417: 6416: 6413: 6412: 6331:Random assignment 6253:Statistical power 6187: 6186: 6183: 6182: 6032:Contingency table 6002: 6001: 5869:Generalized/power 5622:(12): 1304–1312. 5607:Cohen, J (1990). 5529:scientific fields 5395:978-1-83947-325-8 5358:Nica, M. (2013). 5129:978-0-314-03309-3 4966:978-0-12-373962-9 4829:Ioannidis, J.P.A. 4719:978-0-19-954145-4 4463:978-0-521-67105-7 3869:Helen Mary Walker 3849:Actuaries Digital 3829:978-0-8018-8235-7 3587:978-0-495-05064-3 3580:. Duxbury Press. 3552:978-0-88385-078-7 3522:978-0-03-077945-9 3501:978-0-201-15619-5 3442:Dodge, Y. (2006) 3363:978-0-19-954145-4 3319:(Subscription or 3235:Robust statistics 3143:Library resources 3109:Survival analysis 3058:Social statistics 3043:Political science 2994:Energy statistics 2929:Actuarial science 2776:linear regression 2660:have made use of 2650:permutation tests 2639:multilevel models 2582:linear regression 2539:linear regression 2292:statistical model 2259:Conjoint Analysis 2168:As everything in 2160:prior probability 2090:statistical power 2019:credible interval 1926:linear regression 1912:" in contrast to 1869:statistical error 1740:method of moments 1668:sample covariance 1629:estimation theory 1539:summary statistic 1516: 1515: 1508: 1426:Boolean data type 1252:treatment effects 1168:sample statistics 1057:Fisherian runaway 1043:concepts such as 952:method of moments 892:Jacob Bernoulli's 650:within the data ( 425:statistical model 349: 348: 304: 303: 143: 142: 16:(Redirected from 9075: 9063:Research methods 9020: 9019: 9011: 8810:Computer science 8717: 8710: 8703: 8694: 8693: 8678: 8677: 8666: 8665: 8654: 8653: 8643: 8642: 8574:Computer algebra 8549:Computer science 8269:Complex analysis 8103: 8096: 8089: 8080: 8079: 8064: 8063: 8052: 8051: 8041: 8040: 8026: 8025: 7929:Crime statistics 7823: 7822: 7810: 7809: 7727: 7726: 7693:Fourier analysis 7680:Frequency domain 7660: 7607: 7573:Structural break 7533: 7532: 7482:Cluster analysis 7429:Log-linear model 7402: 7401: 7377: 7376: 7318: 7292:Homoscedasticity 7148: 7147: 7124: 7123: 7043: 7035: 7027: 7026:(Kruskal–Wallis) 7011: 6996: 6951:Cross validation 6936: 6918:Anderson–Darling 6865: 6852: 6851: 6823:Likelihood-ratio 6815:Parametric tests 6793:Permutation test 6776:1- & 2-tails 6667:Minimum distance 6639:Point estimation 6635: 6634: 6586:Optimal decision 6537: 6436: 6435: 6423: 6422: 6405:Quasi-experiment 6355:Adaptive designs 6206: 6205: 6193: 6192: 6070:Rank correlation 5832: 5831: 5823: 5822: 5810: 5809: 5777: 5770: 5763: 5754: 5753: 5712: 5702: 5692: 5667: 5646: 5644: 5638:. 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Edwards 1031:Lady tasting tea 908:in 1805, though 894:posthumous work 876:Pierre de Fermat 868:Gerolamo Cardano 824:Girolamo Ghilini 617:categorical data 530:to an idealized 494:central tendency 410: 359:, a very common 341: 334: 327: 313: 177: 176: 145: 144: 135: 128: 121: 105: 104: 51: 37: 36: 21: 9083: 9082: 9078: 9077: 9076: 9074: 9073: 9072: 9068:Arab inventions 9048:Formal sciences 9028: 9027: 9026: 9014: 9006: 9004: 8999: 8898:Hebrew toponyms 8893:Arabic toponyms 8731: 8721: 8691: 8686: 8637: 8628: 8578: 8535: 8514:Systems science 8445: 8441:Homotopy theory 8407: 8374: 8326: 8298: 8245: 8192: 8163:Category theory 8149: 8114: 8107: 8077: 8072: 8035: 8006: 7968: 7905: 7891:quality control 7858: 7840:Clinical trials 7817: 7792: 7776: 7764:Hazard function 7758: 7712: 7674: 7658: 7621: 7617:Breusch–Godfrey 7605: 7582: 7522: 7497:Factor analysis 7443: 7424:Graphical model 7396: 7363: 7330: 7316: 7296: 7250: 7217: 7179: 7142: 7141: 7110: 7054: 7041: 7033: 7025: 7009: 6994: 6973:Rank statistics 6967: 6946:Model selection 6934: 6892:Goodness of fit 6886: 6863: 6837: 6809: 6762: 6707: 6696:Median unbiased 6624: 6535: 6468:Order statistic 6430: 6409: 6376: 6350: 6302: 6257: 6200: 6198:Data collection 6179: 6091: 6046: 6020: 5998: 5958: 5910: 5827:Continuous data 5817: 5804: 5786: 5781: 5719: 5642: 5611: 5584:Wayback Machine 5570:on 28 May 2020. 5549: 5495: 5493:Further reading 5490: 5489: 5426: 5422: 5413: 5411: 5396: 5380: 5376: 5369:Wayback Machine 5354:Wayback Machine 5326:Juta Academic. 5304: 5300: 5290: 5288: 5275: 5274: 5270: 5260: 5258: 5245: 5244: 5240: 5233: 5219: 5215: 5206: 5204: 5200: 5177: 5171: 5164: 5154: 5152: 5139: 5138: 5134: 5118: 5114: 5102: 5098: 5089: 5087: 5044: 5040: 5026: 5022: 5015:Credo Reference 5008: 5004: 4981: 4974: 4967: 4945: 4938: 4907: 4903: 4885: 4876: 4826: 4822: 4817: 4813: 4804: 4802: 4793: 4792: 4788: 4781: 4765: 4761: 4756: 4749: 4740: 4738: 4730: 4729: 4725: 4708: 4704: 4695: 4693: 4685: 4684: 4680: 4673: 4655: 4651: 4647:London: Arnold. 4642: 4638: 4629: 4625: 4594: 4590: 4578: 4574: 4556: 4552: 4545: 4523: 4519: 4472: 4468: 4449: 4445: 4436: 4434: 4421: 4420: 4416: 4401:10.2307/2342192 4383: 4379: 4374: 4370: 4365: 4361: 4352: 4350: 4343: 4327: 4323: 4318: 4314: 4298: 4294: 4289: 4285: 4246: 4242: 4237: 4233: 4218: 4214: 4205: 4203: 4199: 4168: 4162: 4158: 4119: 4115: 4100:10.2307/2528399 4082: 4078: 4063:10.2307/2682986 4045: 4041: 4024: 4023: 4019: 4010: 4008: 3981: 3977: 3948: 3944: 3907: 3903: 3894: 3892: 3885: 3866: 3862: 3853: 3851: 3841: 3837: 3830: 3814: 3810: 3800:Ars Conjectandi 3797: 3793: 3788: 3784: 3773:5(4): 321–328. 3765: 3761: 3754: 3734: 3730: 3701: 3697: 3666: 3659: 3652: 3638: 3634: 3627: 3613: 3609: 3600: 3598: 3594: 3588: 3573: 3567:Chance, Beth L. 3564: 3560: 3553: 3531: 3527: 3511: 3507: 3490: 3486: 3477: 3475: 3464: 3457: 3441: 3437: 3428: 3426: 3417: 3416: 3412: 3403: 3401: 3386: 3382: 3373: 3371: 3364: 3349: 3348: 3344: 3332: 3328: 3318: 3298: 3294: 3289: 3284: 3239: 3169: 3163: 3162: 3161: 3151: 3150: 3146: 3139: 3127: 3067: 2938:Astrostatistics 2917:social research 2905:network biology 2889: 2883: 2859:performance art 2851:Jackson Pollock 2812: 2756:business majors 2697: 2691: 2662:Bayesian models 2631:neural networks 2614: 2594: 2515:social sciences 2503: 2492: 2447: 2442: 2423:The concept of 2421: 2415: 2354:overgeneralized 2306: 2300: 2274: 2268: 2263: 2211:Factor analysis 2183: 2152:null hypothesis 2124:to include the 2081:critical region 2069:critical region 2049: 2043: 2029:, that is as a 2011:random variable 1983: 1977: 1838:null hypothesis 1836:Working from a 1834: 1808: 1803:fails to reject 1800: 1792: 1788: 1784: 1780: 1776: 1772: 1764:null hypothesis 1760: 1664:sample variance 1613: 1608: 1577: 1571: 1527: 1521: 1512: 1501: 1495: 1492: 1481: 1469: 1458: 1374: 1366:Main articles: 1364: 1347: 1317:Hawthorne study 1244: 1188: 1125: 1120: 1118:Data collection 1115: 1109: 1084:power of a test 1059:, a concept in 1027:null hypothesis 897:Ars Conjectandi 864:games of chance 745:Ars Conjectandi 736: 728:Main articles: 726: 698: 692: 613:continuous data 570: 564: 532:null hypothesis 345: 300: 299: 250: 242: 241: 237:Decision theory 185: 139: 99: 98: 84:Lists of topics 35: 28: 23: 22: 15: 12: 11: 5: 9081: 9071: 9070: 9065: 9060: 9055: 9050: 9045: 9040: 9025: 9024: 9001: 9000: 8998: 8997: 8992: 8987: 8982: 8977: 8972: 8967: 8962: 8957: 8952: 8950:Nanotechnology 8947: 8942: 8937: 8932: 8927: 8922: 8920:Machine vision 8917: 8912: 8907: 8906: 8905: 8900: 8895: 8890: 8885: 8877: 8876: 8875: 8870: 8862: 8857: 8852: 8847: 8846: 8845: 8840: 8832: 8827: 8822: 8817: 8812: 8807: 8802: 8797: 8792: 8787: 8782: 8777: 8772: 8767: 8762: 8757: 8752: 8747: 8742: 8736: 8733: 8732: 8723:Glossaries of 8720: 8719: 8712: 8705: 8697: 8688: 8687: 8685: 8684: 8672: 8660: 8648: 8633: 8630: 8629: 8627: 8626: 8621: 8616: 8611: 8606: 8601: 8600: 8599: 8592:Mathematicians 8588: 8586: 8584:Related topics 8580: 8579: 8577: 8576: 8571: 8566: 8561: 8556: 8551: 8545: 8543: 8537: 8536: 8534: 8533: 8532: 8531: 8526: 8521: 8519:Control theory 8511: 8506: 8501: 8496: 8491: 8486: 8481: 8476: 8471: 8466: 8461: 8455: 8453: 8447: 8446: 8444: 8443: 8438: 8433: 8428: 8423: 8417: 8415: 8409: 8408: 8406: 8405: 8400: 8395: 8390: 8384: 8382: 8376: 8375: 8373: 8372: 8367: 8362: 8357: 8352: 8347: 8342: 8336: 8334: 8328: 8327: 8325: 8324: 8319: 8314: 8308: 8306: 8300: 8299: 8297: 8296: 8294:Measure theory 8291: 8286: 8281: 8276: 8271: 8266: 8261: 8255: 8253: 8247: 8246: 8244: 8243: 8238: 8233: 8228: 8223: 8218: 8213: 8208: 8202: 8200: 8194: 8193: 8191: 8190: 8185: 8180: 8175: 8170: 8165: 8159: 8157: 8151: 8150: 8148: 8147: 8142: 8137: 8136: 8135: 8130: 8119: 8116: 8115: 8106: 8105: 8098: 8091: 8083: 8074: 8073: 8071: 8070: 8058: 8046: 8032: 8019: 8016: 8015: 8012: 8011: 8008: 8007: 8005: 8004: 7999: 7994: 7989: 7984: 7978: 7976: 7970: 7969: 7967: 7966: 7961: 7956: 7951: 7946: 7941: 7936: 7931: 7926: 7921: 7915: 7913: 7907: 7906: 7904: 7903: 7898: 7893: 7884: 7879: 7874: 7868: 7866: 7860: 7859: 7857: 7856: 7851: 7846: 7837: 7835:Bioinformatics 7831: 7829: 7819: 7818: 7806: 7805: 7802: 7801: 7798: 7797: 7794: 7793: 7791: 7790: 7784: 7782: 7778: 7777: 7775: 7774: 7768: 7766: 7760: 7759: 7757: 7756: 7751: 7746: 7741: 7735: 7733: 7724: 7718: 7717: 7714: 7713: 7711: 7710: 7705: 7700: 7695: 7690: 7684: 7682: 7676: 7675: 7673: 7672: 7667: 7662: 7654: 7649: 7644: 7643: 7642: 7640:partial (PACF) 7631: 7629: 7623: 7622: 7620: 7619: 7614: 7609: 7601: 7596: 7590: 7588: 7587:Specific tests 7584: 7583: 7581: 7580: 7575: 7570: 7565: 7560: 7555: 7550: 7545: 7539: 7537: 7530: 7524: 7523: 7521: 7520: 7519: 7518: 7517: 7516: 7501: 7500: 7499: 7489: 7487:Classification 7484: 7479: 7474: 7469: 7464: 7459: 7453: 7451: 7445: 7444: 7442: 7441: 7436: 7434:McNemar's test 7431: 7426: 7421: 7416: 7410: 7408: 7398: 7397: 7373: 7372: 7369: 7368: 7365: 7364: 7362: 7361: 7356: 7351: 7346: 7340: 7338: 7332: 7331: 7329: 7328: 7312: 7306: 7304: 7298: 7297: 7295: 7294: 7289: 7284: 7279: 7274: 7272:Semiparametric 7269: 7264: 7258: 7256: 7252: 7251: 7249: 7248: 7243: 7238: 7233: 7227: 7225: 7219: 7218: 7216: 7215: 7210: 7205: 7200: 7195: 7189: 7187: 7181: 7180: 7178: 7177: 7172: 7167: 7162: 7156: 7154: 7144: 7143: 7140: 7139: 7134: 7128: 7120: 7119: 7116: 7115: 7112: 7111: 7109: 7108: 7107: 7106: 7096: 7091: 7086: 7085: 7084: 7079: 7068: 7066: 7060: 7059: 7056: 7055: 7053: 7052: 7047: 7046: 7045: 7037: 7029: 7013: 7010:(Mann–Whitney) 7005: 7004: 7003: 6990: 6989: 6988: 6977: 6975: 6969: 6968: 6966: 6965: 6964: 6963: 6958: 6953: 6943: 6938: 6935:(Shapiro–Wilk) 6930: 6925: 6920: 6915: 6910: 6902: 6896: 6894: 6888: 6887: 6885: 6884: 6876: 6867: 6855: 6849: 6847:Specific tests 6843: 6842: 6839: 6838: 6836: 6835: 6830: 6825: 6819: 6817: 6811: 6810: 6808: 6807: 6802: 6801: 6800: 6790: 6789: 6788: 6778: 6772: 6770: 6764: 6763: 6761: 6760: 6759: 6758: 6753: 6743: 6738: 6733: 6728: 6723: 6717: 6715: 6709: 6708: 6706: 6705: 6700: 6699: 6698: 6693: 6692: 6691: 6686: 6671: 6670: 6669: 6664: 6659: 6654: 6643: 6641: 6632: 6626: 6625: 6623: 6622: 6617: 6612: 6611: 6610: 6600: 6595: 6594: 6593: 6583: 6582: 6581: 6576: 6571: 6561: 6556: 6551: 6550: 6549: 6544: 6539: 6523: 6522: 6521: 6516: 6511: 6501: 6500: 6499: 6494: 6484: 6483: 6482: 6472: 6471: 6470: 6460: 6455: 6450: 6444: 6442: 6432: 6431: 6419: 6418: 6415: 6414: 6411: 6410: 6408: 6407: 6402: 6397: 6392: 6386: 6384: 6378: 6377: 6375: 6374: 6369: 6364: 6358: 6356: 6352: 6351: 6349: 6348: 6343: 6338: 6333: 6328: 6323: 6318: 6312: 6310: 6304: 6303: 6301: 6300: 6298:Standard error 6295: 6290: 6285: 6284: 6283: 6278: 6267: 6265: 6259: 6258: 6256: 6255: 6250: 6245: 6240: 6235: 6230: 6228:Optimal design 6225: 6220: 6214: 6212: 6202: 6201: 6189: 6188: 6185: 6184: 6181: 6180: 6178: 6177: 6172: 6167: 6162: 6157: 6152: 6147: 6142: 6137: 6132: 6127: 6122: 6117: 6112: 6107: 6101: 6099: 6093: 6092: 6090: 6089: 6084: 6083: 6082: 6077: 6067: 6062: 6056: 6054: 6048: 6047: 6045: 6044: 6039: 6034: 6028: 6026: 6025:Summary tables 6022: 6021: 6019: 6018: 6012: 6010: 6004: 6003: 6000: 5999: 5997: 5996: 5995: 5994: 5989: 5984: 5974: 5968: 5966: 5960: 5959: 5957: 5956: 5951: 5946: 5941: 5936: 5931: 5926: 5920: 5918: 5912: 5911: 5909: 5908: 5903: 5898: 5897: 5896: 5891: 5886: 5881: 5876: 5871: 5866: 5861: 5859:Contraharmonic 5856: 5851: 5840: 5838: 5829: 5819: 5818: 5806: 5805: 5803: 5802: 5797: 5791: 5788: 5787: 5780: 5779: 5772: 5765: 5757: 5751: 5750: 5741: 5735: 5727: 5718: 5717:External links 5715: 5714: 5713: 5683:(4): 696–701. 5668: 5658:(5): 587–606. 5647: 5645:on 2017-10-18. 5604: 5601:978-1137282392 5587: 5572: 5553: 5548:978-1938168208 5547: 5532: 5494: 5491: 5488: 5487: 5420: 5394: 5374: 5372: 5371: 5356: 5338:open textbooks 5335: 5334: 5320: 5318:978-0134705217 5298: 5268: 5238: 5232:978-0979570438 5231: 5225:. Erol Pekoz. 5213: 5188:(3): 983–992. 5162: 5132: 5112: 5109:978-1500815684 5096: 5058:(2): 257–269. 5038: 5020: 5002: 4972: 4965: 4936: 4917:(3): 134–149. 4901: 4874: 4820: 4811: 4786: 4779: 4759: 4747: 4736:owl.purdue.edu 4723: 4702: 4678: 4671: 4649: 4636: 4623: 4604:(4): 231–242. 4588: 4572: 4550: 4544:978-0781755641 4543: 4517: 4466: 4451:Freedman, D.A. 4443: 4414: 4395:(4): 557–625. 4377: 4368: 4359: 4341: 4321: 4312: 4292: 4283: 4262:10.1086/286141 4256:(6): 564–569. 4240: 4231: 4212: 4156: 4129:(3): 223–229. 4113: 4094:(2): 307–321. 4076: 4039: 4036:on 2008-09-25. 4017: 3975: 3942: 3901: 3884:978-0405066283 3883: 3877:. Arno Press. 3860: 3835: 3828: 3808: 3791: 3782: 3768:Review of the 3759: 3753:978-0231555647 3752: 3728: 3695: 3676:(4): 255–257. 3657: 3650: 3632: 3625: 3607: 3586: 3558: 3551: 3525: 3505: 3484: 3455: 3435: 3410: 3380: 3362: 3350:"Statistics". 3342: 3326: 3291: 3290: 3288: 3285: 3283: 3282: 3280: 3277: 3276: 3271: 3266: 3261: 3256: 3251: 3245: 3244: 3243: 3238: 3237: 3232: 3227: 3222: 3217: 3212: 3207: 3202: 3196: 3191: 3186: 3181: 3176: 3170: 3165:Main article: 3160: 3159: 3153: 3152: 3141: 3140: 3138: 3135: 3126: 3125: 3111: 3106: 3101: 3096: 3091: 3086: 3081: 3071: 3066: 3065: 3060: 3055: 3050: 3045: 3040: 3035: 3025: 3020: 3007: 3001: 2996: 2991: 2985: 2979: 2966: 2956: 2946: 2941: 2935: 2932: 2925: 2909:social science 2885:Main article: 2882: 2879: 2878: 2877: 2874:Iannis Xenakis 2866: 2863:Markov process 2855: 2843: 2828: 2811: 2808: 2802:, such as the 2788:decision trees 2690: 2687: 2658:Gibbs sampling 2610:Main article: 2593: 2590: 2502: 2499: 2491: 2488: 2446: 2443: 2441: 2438: 2414: 2411: 2382: 2381: 2378: 2375: 2372: 2369: 2302:Main article: 2299: 2296: 2270:Main article: 2267: 2264: 2262: 2261: 2256: 2251: 2242: 2237: 2232: 2227: 2221: 2213: 2208: 2203: 2198: 2191: 2182: 2179: 2178: 2177: 2166: 2163: 2144: 2106:test statistic 2065:test statistic 2045:Main article: 2042: 2039: 1979:Main article: 1976: 1973: 1967:may result in 1918:differentiable 1873:expected value 1862:Standard error 1855: 1854: 1851:Type II errors 1848: 1833: 1830: 1815:type II errors 1806: 1798: 1790: 1786: 1782: 1778: 1774: 1770: 1759: 1756: 1710:expected value 1689:and Student's 1653: 1612: 1609: 1607: 1604: 1573:Main article: 1570: 1567: 1523:Main article: 1520: 1517: 1514: 1513: 1472: 1470: 1463: 1457: 1454: 1438:real data type 1363: 1360: 1346: 1343: 1313: 1312: 1309: 1306: 1295: 1263: 1243: 1240: 1187: 1184: 1133:survey samples 1124: 1121: 1119: 1116: 1111:Main article: 1108: 1105: 928:Francis Galton 762:cryptographers 725: 722: 706:linear algebra 694:Main article: 691: 688: 646:), describing 566:Main article: 563: 560: 541:Type II errors 347: 346: 344: 343: 336: 329: 321: 318: 317: 306: 305: 302: 301: 298: 297: 292: 287: 282: 277: 272: 267: 262: 257: 251: 248: 247: 244: 243: 240: 239: 230: 225: 216: 211: 202: 197: 192: 186: 181: 180: 173: 172: 171: 170: 165: 157: 156: 150: 149: 141: 140: 138: 137: 130: 123: 115: 112: 111: 110: 109: 96: 91: 86: 81: 76: 71: 66: 61: 53: 52: 44: 43: 26: 9: 6: 4: 3: 2: 9080: 9069: 9066: 9064: 9061: 9059: 9056: 9054: 9051: 9049: 9046: 9044: 9041: 9039: 9036: 9035: 9033: 9023: 9018: 9013: 9012: 9009: 8996: 8993: 8991: 8988: 8986: 8983: 8981: 8978: 8976: 8973: 8971: 8968: 8966: 8963: 8961: 8958: 8956: 8953: 8951: 8948: 8946: 8943: 8941: 8938: 8936: 8933: 8931: 8928: 8926: 8923: 8921: 8918: 8916: 8913: 8911: 8908: 8904: 8901: 8899: 8896: 8894: 8891: 8889: 8886: 8884: 8881: 8880: 8878: 8874: 8871: 8869: 8866: 8865: 8863: 8861: 8858: 8856: 8853: 8851: 8848: 8844: 8841: 8839: 8836: 8835: 8833: 8831: 8828: 8826: 8823: 8821: 8818: 8816: 8813: 8811: 8808: 8806: 8803: 8801: 8798: 8796: 8793: 8791: 8788: 8786: 8783: 8781: 8778: 8776: 8773: 8771: 8768: 8766: 8763: 8761: 8758: 8756: 8753: 8751: 8748: 8746: 8743: 8741: 8738: 8737: 8734: 8730: 8726: 8718: 8713: 8711: 8706: 8704: 8699: 8698: 8695: 8683: 8682: 8673: 8671: 8670: 8661: 8659: 8658: 8649: 8647: 8646: 8641: 8635: 8634: 8631: 8625: 8622: 8620: 8617: 8615: 8612: 8610: 8607: 8605: 8602: 8598: 8595: 8594: 8593: 8590: 8589: 8587: 8585: 8581: 8575: 8572: 8570: 8567: 8565: 8562: 8560: 8557: 8555: 8552: 8550: 8547: 8546: 8544: 8542: 8541:Computational 8538: 8530: 8527: 8525: 8522: 8520: 8517: 8516: 8515: 8512: 8510: 8507: 8505: 8502: 8500: 8497: 8495: 8492: 8490: 8487: 8485: 8482: 8480: 8477: 8475: 8472: 8470: 8467: 8465: 8462: 8460: 8457: 8456: 8454: 8452: 8448: 8442: 8439: 8437: 8434: 8432: 8429: 8427: 8424: 8422: 8419: 8418: 8416: 8414: 8410: 8404: 8401: 8399: 8396: 8394: 8391: 8389: 8386: 8385: 8383: 8381: 8380:Number theory 8377: 8371: 8368: 8366: 8363: 8361: 8358: 8356: 8353: 8351: 8348: 8346: 8343: 8341: 8338: 8337: 8335: 8333: 8329: 8323: 8320: 8318: 8315: 8313: 8312:Combinatorics 8310: 8309: 8307: 8305: 8301: 8295: 8292: 8290: 8287: 8285: 8282: 8280: 8277: 8275: 8272: 8270: 8267: 8265: 8264:Real analysis 8262: 8260: 8257: 8256: 8254: 8252: 8248: 8242: 8239: 8237: 8234: 8232: 8229: 8227: 8224: 8222: 8219: 8217: 8214: 8212: 8209: 8207: 8204: 8203: 8201: 8199: 8195: 8189: 8186: 8184: 8181: 8179: 8176: 8174: 8171: 8169: 8166: 8164: 8161: 8160: 8158: 8156: 8152: 8146: 8143: 8141: 8138: 8134: 8131: 8129: 8126: 8125: 8124: 8121: 8120: 8117: 8112: 8104: 8099: 8097: 8092: 8090: 8085: 8084: 8081: 8069: 8068: 8059: 8057: 8056: 8047: 8045: 8044: 8039: 8033: 8031: 8030: 8021: 8020: 8017: 8003: 8000: 7998: 7997:Geostatistics 7995: 7993: 7990: 7988: 7985: 7983: 7980: 7979: 7977: 7975: 7971: 7965: 7964:Psychometrics 7962: 7960: 7957: 7955: 7952: 7950: 7947: 7945: 7942: 7940: 7937: 7935: 7932: 7930: 7927: 7925: 7922: 7920: 7917: 7916: 7914: 7912: 7908: 7902: 7899: 7897: 7894: 7892: 7888: 7885: 7883: 7880: 7878: 7875: 7873: 7870: 7869: 7867: 7865: 7861: 7855: 7852: 7850: 7847: 7845: 7841: 7838: 7836: 7833: 7832: 7830: 7828: 7827:Biostatistics 7824: 7820: 7816: 7811: 7807: 7789: 7788:Log-rank test 7786: 7785: 7783: 7779: 7773: 7770: 7769: 7767: 7765: 7761: 7755: 7752: 7750: 7747: 7745: 7742: 7740: 7737: 7736: 7734: 7732: 7728: 7725: 7723: 7719: 7709: 7706: 7704: 7701: 7699: 7696: 7694: 7691: 7689: 7686: 7685: 7683: 7681: 7677: 7671: 7668: 7666: 7663: 7661: 7659:(Box–Jenkins) 7655: 7653: 7650: 7648: 7645: 7641: 7638: 7637: 7636: 7633: 7632: 7630: 7628: 7624: 7618: 7615: 7613: 7612:Durbin–Watson 7610: 7608: 7602: 7600: 7597: 7595: 7594:Dickey–Fuller 7592: 7591: 7589: 7585: 7579: 7576: 7574: 7571: 7569: 7568:Cointegration 7566: 7564: 7561: 7559: 7556: 7554: 7551: 7549: 7546: 7544: 7543:Decomposition 7541: 7540: 7538: 7534: 7531: 7529: 7525: 7515: 7512: 7511: 7510: 7507: 7506: 7505: 7502: 7498: 7495: 7494: 7493: 7490: 7488: 7485: 7483: 7480: 7478: 7475: 7473: 7470: 7468: 7465: 7463: 7460: 7458: 7455: 7454: 7452: 7450: 7446: 7440: 7437: 7435: 7432: 7430: 7427: 7425: 7422: 7420: 7417: 7415: 7414:Cohen's kappa 7412: 7411: 7409: 7407: 7403: 7399: 7395: 7391: 7387: 7383: 7378: 7374: 7360: 7357: 7355: 7352: 7350: 7347: 7345: 7342: 7341: 7339: 7337: 7333: 7327: 7323: 7319: 7313: 7311: 7308: 7307: 7305: 7303: 7299: 7293: 7290: 7288: 7285: 7283: 7280: 7278: 7275: 7273: 7270: 7268: 7267:Nonparametric 7265: 7263: 7260: 7259: 7257: 7253: 7247: 7244: 7242: 7239: 7237: 7234: 7232: 7229: 7228: 7226: 7224: 7220: 7214: 7211: 7209: 7206: 7204: 7201: 7199: 7196: 7194: 7191: 7190: 7188: 7186: 7182: 7176: 7173: 7171: 7168: 7166: 7163: 7161: 7158: 7157: 7155: 7153: 7149: 7145: 7138: 7135: 7133: 7130: 7129: 7125: 7121: 7105: 7102: 7101: 7100: 7097: 7095: 7092: 7090: 7087: 7083: 7080: 7078: 7075: 7074: 7073: 7070: 7069: 7067: 7065: 7061: 7051: 7048: 7044: 7038: 7036: 7030: 7028: 7022: 7021: 7020: 7017: 7016:Nonparametric 7014: 7012: 7006: 7002: 6999: 6998: 6997: 6991: 6987: 6986:Sample median 6984: 6983: 6982: 6979: 6978: 6976: 6974: 6970: 6962: 6959: 6957: 6954: 6952: 6949: 6948: 6947: 6944: 6942: 6939: 6937: 6931: 6929: 6926: 6924: 6921: 6919: 6916: 6914: 6911: 6909: 6907: 6903: 6901: 6898: 6897: 6895: 6893: 6889: 6883: 6881: 6877: 6875: 6873: 6868: 6866: 6861: 6857: 6856: 6853: 6850: 6848: 6844: 6834: 6831: 6829: 6826: 6824: 6821: 6820: 6818: 6816: 6812: 6806: 6803: 6799: 6796: 6795: 6794: 6791: 6787: 6784: 6783: 6782: 6779: 6777: 6774: 6773: 6771: 6769: 6765: 6757: 6754: 6752: 6749: 6748: 6747: 6744: 6742: 6739: 6737: 6734: 6732: 6729: 6727: 6724: 6722: 6719: 6718: 6716: 6714: 6710: 6704: 6701: 6697: 6694: 6690: 6687: 6685: 6682: 6681: 6680: 6677: 6676: 6675: 6672: 6668: 6665: 6663: 6660: 6658: 6655: 6653: 6650: 6649: 6648: 6645: 6644: 6642: 6640: 6636: 6633: 6631: 6627: 6621: 6618: 6616: 6613: 6609: 6606: 6605: 6604: 6601: 6599: 6596: 6592: 6591:loss function 6589: 6588: 6587: 6584: 6580: 6577: 6575: 6572: 6570: 6567: 6566: 6565: 6562: 6560: 6557: 6555: 6552: 6548: 6545: 6543: 6540: 6538: 6532: 6529: 6528: 6527: 6524: 6520: 6517: 6515: 6512: 6510: 6507: 6506: 6505: 6502: 6498: 6495: 6493: 6490: 6489: 6488: 6485: 6481: 6478: 6477: 6476: 6473: 6469: 6466: 6465: 6464: 6461: 6459: 6456: 6454: 6451: 6449: 6446: 6445: 6443: 6441: 6437: 6433: 6429: 6424: 6420: 6406: 6403: 6401: 6398: 6396: 6393: 6391: 6388: 6387: 6385: 6383: 6379: 6373: 6370: 6368: 6365: 6363: 6360: 6359: 6357: 6353: 6347: 6344: 6342: 6339: 6337: 6334: 6332: 6329: 6327: 6324: 6322: 6319: 6317: 6314: 6313: 6311: 6309: 6305: 6299: 6296: 6294: 6293:Questionnaire 6291: 6289: 6286: 6282: 6279: 6277: 6274: 6273: 6272: 6269: 6268: 6266: 6264: 6260: 6254: 6251: 6249: 6246: 6244: 6241: 6239: 6236: 6234: 6231: 6229: 6226: 6224: 6221: 6219: 6216: 6215: 6213: 6211: 6207: 6203: 6199: 6194: 6190: 6176: 6173: 6171: 6168: 6166: 6163: 6161: 6158: 6156: 6153: 6151: 6148: 6146: 6143: 6141: 6138: 6136: 6133: 6131: 6128: 6126: 6123: 6121: 6120:Control chart 6118: 6116: 6113: 6111: 6108: 6106: 6103: 6102: 6100: 6098: 6094: 6088: 6085: 6081: 6078: 6076: 6073: 6072: 6071: 6068: 6066: 6063: 6061: 6058: 6057: 6055: 6053: 6049: 6043: 6040: 6038: 6035: 6033: 6030: 6029: 6027: 6023: 6017: 6014: 6013: 6011: 6009: 6005: 5993: 5990: 5988: 5985: 5983: 5980: 5979: 5978: 5975: 5973: 5970: 5969: 5967: 5965: 5961: 5955: 5952: 5950: 5947: 5945: 5942: 5940: 5937: 5935: 5932: 5930: 5927: 5925: 5922: 5921: 5919: 5917: 5913: 5907: 5904: 5902: 5899: 5895: 5892: 5890: 5887: 5885: 5882: 5880: 5877: 5875: 5872: 5870: 5867: 5865: 5862: 5860: 5857: 5855: 5852: 5850: 5847: 5846: 5845: 5842: 5841: 5839: 5837: 5833: 5830: 5828: 5824: 5820: 5816: 5811: 5807: 5801: 5798: 5796: 5793: 5792: 5789: 5785: 5778: 5773: 5771: 5766: 5764: 5759: 5758: 5755: 5749: 5745: 5742: 5739: 5736: 5733: 5732: 5728: 5725: 5721: 5720: 5710: 5706: 5701: 5696: 5691: 5686: 5682: 5678: 5677:PLOS Medicine 5674: 5669: 5665: 5661: 5657: 5653: 5648: 5641: 5637: 5633: 5629: 5625: 5621: 5617: 5610: 5605: 5602: 5598: 5594: 5593: 5588: 5585: 5581: 5578: 5577: 5573: 5569: 5565: 5564: 5559: 5554: 5550: 5544: 5540: 5539: 5533: 5530: 5526: 5522: 5518: 5514: 5510: 5508: 5503: 5502: 5497: 5496: 5483: 5479: 5474: 5469: 5465: 5461: 5456: 5451: 5447: 5443: 5439: 5435: 5431: 5424: 5409: 5405: 5401: 5397: 5391: 5387: 5386: 5378: 5370: 5366: 5363: 5362: 5357: 5355: 5351: 5348: 5347: 5342: 5341: 5339: 5333: 5329: 5325: 5321: 5319: 5315: 5311: 5307: 5306: 5302: 5286: 5282: 5278: 5272: 5256: 5252: 5248: 5242: 5234: 5228: 5224: 5217: 5199: 5195: 5191: 5187: 5183: 5176: 5169: 5167: 5150: 5146: 5142: 5136: 5130: 5126: 5122: 5116: 5110: 5106: 5100: 5085: 5081: 5077: 5073: 5069: 5065: 5061: 5057: 5053: 5049: 5042: 5035: 5031: 5024: 5016: 5012: 5006: 4998: 4994: 4990: 4986: 4979: 4977: 4968: 4962: 4958: 4953: 4952: 4943: 4941: 4932: 4928: 4924: 4920: 4916: 4912: 4905: 4899: 4898:0-393-31072-8 4895: 4891: 4890: 4883: 4881: 4879: 4870: 4866: 4861: 4856: 4851: 4846: 4842: 4838: 4837:PLOS Medicine 4834: 4830: 4824: 4815: 4800: 4796: 4790: 4782: 4776: 4772: 4771: 4763: 4754: 4752: 4737: 4733: 4727: 4720: 4716: 4712: 4706: 4692: 4688: 4682: 4674: 4672:0-471-31009-3 4668: 4663: 4662: 4653: 4646: 4640: 4633: 4627: 4619: 4615: 4611: 4607: 4603: 4599: 4592: 4585: 4581: 4576: 4568: 4564: 4560: 4559:Mosteller, F. 4554: 4546: 4540: 4536: 4531: 4530: 4521: 4513: 4509: 4504: 4499: 4494: 4489: 4485: 4481: 4477: 4470: 4464: 4460: 4456: 4452: 4447: 4432: 4428: 4424: 4418: 4410: 4406: 4402: 4398: 4394: 4390: 4389: 4381: 4372: 4363: 4348: 4344: 4342:0-691-00057-3 4338: 4334: 4333: 4325: 4316: 4310: 4309:0-19-850440-3 4306: 4302: 4296: 4287: 4279: 4275: 4271: 4267: 4263: 4259: 4255: 4251: 4244: 4235: 4228: 4227: 4223:R.A. Fisher, 4222: 4216: 4198: 4194: 4190: 4186: 4182: 4178: 4174: 4167: 4160: 4152: 4148: 4144: 4140: 4136: 4132: 4128: 4124: 4117: 4109: 4105: 4101: 4097: 4093: 4089: 4088: 4080: 4072: 4068: 4064: 4060: 4056: 4052: 4051: 4043: 4035: 4031: 4027: 4021: 4006: 4002: 3998: 3994: 3990: 3986: 3979: 3970: 3965: 3961: 3957: 3953: 3946: 3937: 3932: 3928: 3924: 3920: 3916: 3912: 3905: 3890: 3886: 3880: 3876: 3875: 3870: 3864: 3850: 3846: 3839: 3831: 3825: 3822:. JHU Press. 3821: 3820: 3812: 3806:(pp. 88-103). 3805: 3801: 3795: 3786: 3780: 3776: 3772: 3771: 3763: 3755: 3749: 3745: 3741: 3740: 3732: 3723: 3718: 3715:(18): 76–77. 3714: 3710: 3706: 3699: 3691: 3687: 3683: 3679: 3675: 3671: 3664: 3662: 3653: 3647: 3643: 3636: 3628: 3622: 3618: 3611: 3593: 3589: 3583: 3579: 3572: 3568: 3562: 3554: 3548: 3544: 3540: 3536: 3529: 3523: 3519: 3515: 3509: 3502: 3498: 3494: 3488: 3473: 3469: 3462: 3460: 3453: 3452:0-19-920613-9 3449: 3445: 3439: 3424: 3420: 3414: 3399: 3395: 3391: 3384: 3369: 3365: 3359: 3355: 3354: 3346: 3340: 3336: 3330: 3322: 3314: 3310: 3309: 3303: 3296: 3292: 3281: 3279: 3278: 3275: 3272: 3270: 3267: 3265: 3262: 3260: 3257: 3255: 3252: 3250: 3247: 3246: 3241: 3240: 3236: 3233: 3231: 3228: 3226: 3223: 3221: 3218: 3216: 3213: 3211: 3208: 3206: 3203: 3200: 3197: 3195: 3192: 3190: 3187: 3185: 3182: 3180: 3177: 3175: 3172: 3171: 3168: 3158: 3155: 3154: 3149: 3144: 3134: 3132: 3124: 3120: 3116: 3112: 3110: 3107: 3105: 3102: 3100: 3097: 3095: 3092: 3090: 3087: 3085: 3082: 3080: 3076: 3073: 3072: 3070: 3064: 3061: 3059: 3056: 3054: 3051: 3049: 3046: 3044: 3041: 3039: 3036: 3033: 3029: 3026: 3024: 3021: 3019: 3015: 3011: 3008: 3005: 3002: 3000: 2997: 2995: 2992: 2989: 2986: 2983: 2980: 2976: 2970: 2967: 2964: 2960: 2957: 2954: 2950: 2947: 2945: 2944:Biostatistics 2942: 2939: 2936: 2933: 2930: 2927: 2926: 2924: 2922: 2918: 2914: 2910: 2906: 2902: 2898: 2894: 2893:biostatistics 2888: 2875: 2871: 2867: 2864: 2860: 2856: 2852: 2848: 2844: 2841: 2837: 2833: 2829: 2826: 2825:scatter plots 2822: 2821:number theory 2818: 2817: 2816: 2807: 2805: 2801: 2797: 2793: 2789: 2785: 2781: 2777: 2773: 2769: 2765: 2761: 2758:, and covers 2757: 2752: 2750: 2746: 2745:economic data 2742: 2738: 2734: 2730: 2726: 2722: 2718: 2714: 2710: 2706: 2702: 2696: 2686: 2684: 2680: 2676: 2672: 2668: 2663: 2659: 2655: 2651: 2647: 2642: 2640: 2636: 2632: 2628: 2624: 2620: 2619:linear models 2613: 2606: 2602: 2598: 2589: 2587: 2583: 2579: 2574: 2572: 2568: 2564: 2560: 2556: 2552: 2548: 2544: 2540: 2536: 2532: 2528: 2524: 2520: 2516: 2512: 2508: 2498: 2496: 2487: 2485: 2481: 2479: 2475: 2471: 2467: 2463: 2459: 2455: 2451: 2437: 2435: 2430: 2426: 2420: 2407: 2403: 2399: 2395: 2391: 2386: 2379: 2376: 2373: 2370: 2367: 2366: 2365: 2362: 2360: 2355: 2351: 2346: 2344: 2340: 2339: 2334: 2330: 2325: 2323: 2318: 2313: 2310: 2305: 2295: 2293: 2289: 2286: 2282: 2278: 2273: 2260: 2257: 2255: 2252: 2250: 2248: 2243: 2241: 2238: 2236: 2233: 2231: 2228: 2225: 2222: 2220: 2219: 2216:Mann–Whitney 2214: 2212: 2209: 2207: 2204: 2202: 2199: 2196: 2193: 2192: 2190: 2188: 2175: 2171: 2167: 2164: 2161: 2157: 2153: 2149: 2145: 2142: 2138: 2134: 2130: 2128: 2123: 2118: 2117: 2116: 2114: 2109: 2107: 2102: 2097: 2093: 2091: 2087: 2082: 2074: 2070: 2066: 2061: 2057: 2055: 2048: 2038: 2034: 2032: 2028: 2024: 2020: 2016: 2012: 2008: 2004: 1999: 1991: 1987: 1982: 1972: 1970: 1966: 1962: 1958: 1954: 1950: 1945: 1943: 1939: 1935: 1931: 1927: 1923: 1919: 1915: 1911: 1907: 1898: 1894: 1892: 1888: 1884: 1880: 1878: 1874: 1870: 1865: 1863: 1859: 1852: 1849: 1846: 1845:Type I errors 1843: 1842: 1841: 1839: 1829: 1827: 1823: 1822:statisticians 1818: 1816: 1812: 1804: 1796: 1767: 1765: 1755: 1753: 1749: 1748:least squares 1745: 1741: 1736: 1734: 1730: 1726: 1721: 1719: 1715: 1711: 1707: 1703: 1699: 1694: 1692: 1688: 1684: 1680: 1676: 1671: 1669: 1665: 1661: 1657: 1651: 1648: 1646: 1642: 1641:column vector 1639:given by the 1638: 1637:random vector 1634: 1633:random sample 1630: 1626: 1622: 1619:with a given 1618: 1603: 1601: 1597: 1593: 1589: 1585: 1584:data analysis 1581: 1576: 1566: 1564: 1560: 1556: 1552: 1548: 1544: 1540: 1536: 1532: 1526: 1510: 1507: 1499: 1496:December 2020 1489: 1485: 1479: 1478: 1473:This section 1471: 1467: 1462: 1461: 1453: 1449: 1445: 1443: 1439: 1435: 1431: 1427: 1423: 1419: 1415: 1411: 1407: 1402: 1400: 1396: 1392: 1388: 1383: 1379: 1373: 1369: 1362:Types of data 1359: 1357: 1353: 1342: 1339: 1335: 1331: 1330:control group 1326: 1325:assembly line 1322: 1318: 1310: 1307: 1304: 1300: 1296: 1293: 1289: 1288: 1283: 1279: 1275: 1271: 1267: 1264: 1261: 1257: 1253: 1249: 1248: 1247: 1239: 1237: 1233: 1229: 1225: 1221: 1217: 1213: 1209: 1205: 1201: 1197: 1193: 1183: 1181: 1177: 1173: 1169: 1165: 1162:to study the 1161: 1157: 1153: 1148: 1145: 1140: 1138: 1134: 1130: 1114: 1104: 1102: 1097: 1091: 1089: 1085: 1081: 1077: 1073: 1068: 1066: 1062: 1058: 1054: 1050: 1046: 1042: 1038: 1037: 1032: 1028: 1024: 1020: 1016: 1012: 1008: 1004: 1003: 999:and his 1935 998: 997: 992: 988: 987: 982: 981:Ronald Fisher 978: 973: 971: 967: 966:biostatistics 963: 962: 957: 953: 949: 945: 941: 937: 933: 929: 921: 917: 913: 911: 907: 903: 899: 898: 893: 889: 885: 884:Juan Caramuel 881: 877: 873: 872:Blaise Pascal 869: 865: 857: 853: 849: 847: 845: 840: 836: 835: 829: 825: 820: 818: 814: 810: 806: 802: 798: 794: 791: 787: 783: 779: 775: 771: 767: 764:, during the 763: 759: 751: 747: 746: 740: 735: 731: 721: 719: 715: 711: 707: 703: 697: 687: 685: 682:, as well as 681: 677: 673: 672:interpolation 669: 668:extrapolation 665: 661: 657: 653: 649: 645: 641: 636: 635: 629: 625: 620: 618: 614: 610: 606: 602: 601: 596: 591: 586: 583: 579: 575: 569: 559: 557: 553: 549: 544: 542: 538: 537:Type I errors 533: 529: 525: 520: 518: 514: 510: 506: 505: 500: 496: 495: 490: 486: 482: 478: 474: 470: 466: 465:data analysis 461: 459: 454: 450: 446: 445:statisticians 442: 437: 435: 431: 426: 422: 418: 414: 406: 405: 400: 396: 389: 385: 381: 377: 376:Scatter plots 373: 366: 362: 358: 353: 342: 337: 335: 330: 328: 323: 322: 320: 319: 316: 312: 308: 307: 296: 293: 291: 288: 286: 283: 281: 278: 276: 273: 271: 268: 266: 263: 261: 258: 256: 253: 252: 246: 245: 238: 234: 231: 229: 226: 224: 220: 217: 215: 212: 210: 206: 203: 201: 198: 196: 193: 191: 190:Number theory 188: 187: 184: 179: 178: 175: 174: 169: 166: 164: 161: 160: 159: 158: 155: 152: 151: 147: 146: 136: 131: 129: 124: 122: 117: 116: 114: 113: 108: 103: 97: 95: 92: 90: 87: 85: 82: 80: 77: 75: 72: 70: 67: 65: 64:Statisticians 62: 60: 57: 56: 55: 54: 50: 46: 45: 42: 39: 38: 33: 19: 8834:Engineering 8785:Cell biology 8755:Architecture 8679: 8667: 8655: 8636: 8569:Optimization 8508: 8431:Differential 8355:Differential 8322:Order theory 8317:Graph theory 8221:Group theory 8065: 8053: 8034: 8027: 7939:Econometrics 7889: / 7872:Chemometrics 7849:Epidemiology 7842: / 7815:Applications 7657:ARIMA model 7604:Q-statistic 7553:Stationarity 7449:Multivariate 7392: / 7388: / 7386:Multivariate 7384: / 7324: / 7320: / 7094:Bayes factor 6993:Signed rank 6905: 6879: 6871: 6859: 6554:Completeness 6390:Cohort study 6288:Opinion poll 6223:Missing data 6210:Study design 6165:Scatter plot 6087:Scatter plot 6080:Spearman's ρ 6042:Grouped data 5783: 5730: 5680: 5676: 5655: 5651: 5640:the original 5619: 5615: 5591: 5575: 5568:the original 5561: 5537: 5517:experimental 5506: 5499: 5437: 5433: 5423: 5412:. Retrieved 5384: 5377: 5360: 5345: 5323: 5309: 5301: 5289:. Retrieved 5280: 5271: 5259:. Retrieved 5250: 5241: 5222: 5216: 5205:. Retrieved 5185: 5181: 5153:. Retrieved 5144: 5135: 5120: 5115: 5099: 5088:. Retrieved 5055: 5051: 5041: 5033: 5029: 5023: 5014: 5011:Freund, J.E. 5005: 4988: 4984: 4950: 4914: 4910: 4904: 4887: 4840: 4836: 4823: 4814: 4803:. Retrieved 4789: 4769: 4762: 4739:. Retrieved 4735: 4726: 4710: 4705: 4694:. Retrieved 4690: 4681: 4660: 4652: 4644: 4639: 4631: 4626: 4601: 4597: 4591: 4583: 4580:Nelder, J.A. 4575: 4566: 4553: 4528: 4520: 4483: 4479: 4469: 4454: 4446: 4435:. Retrieved 4426: 4417: 4392: 4386: 4380: 4371: 4362: 4351:. Retrieved 4331: 4324: 4315: 4295: 4286: 4253: 4249: 4243: 4234: 4224: 4220: 4215: 4204:. Retrieved 4176: 4172: 4159: 4126: 4122: 4116: 4091: 4085: 4079: 4054: 4048: 4042: 4034:the original 4020: 4009:. Retrieved 3992: 3991:. Series 5. 3988: 3978: 3962:(2): 73–79. 3959: 3955: 3945: 3918: 3914: 3904: 3893:. Retrieved 3873: 3863: 3852:. 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Retrieved 3352: 3345: 3338: 3329: 3306: 3302:"statistics" 3295: 3147: 3128: 3119:sabermetrics 3077: / 3068: 3004:Epidemiology 2988:Econometrics 2969:Data science 2949:Chemometrics 2890: 2872:invented by 2836:chaos theory 2813: 2753: 2741:Econometrics 2698: 2643: 2615: 2575: 2519:econometrics 2509:, including 2504: 2493: 2482: 2465: 2457: 2453: 2449: 2448: 2440:Applications 2422: 2405: 2401: 2397: 2393: 2363: 2347: 2343:Darrell Huff 2336: 2326: 2314: 2307: 2280: 2276: 2275: 2246: 2217: 2184: 2140: 2126: 2110: 2098: 2094: 2078: 2050: 2041:Significance 2035: 2002: 1995: 1961:missing data 1946: 1903: 1881: 1866: 1856: 1835: 1819: 1802: 1794: 1768: 1761: 1746:method, the 1737: 1722: 1695: 1677:is called a 1674: 1672: 1649: 1614: 1579: 1578: 1546: 1537:sense) is a 1530: 1528: 1502: 1493: 1482:Please help 1477:verification 1474: 1450: 1446: 1403: 1375: 1352:cohort study 1348: 1314: 1291: 1285: 1245: 1189: 1149: 1141: 1126: 1092: 1076:Jerzy Neyman 1072:Egon Pearson 1069: 1034: 1000: 994: 984: 974: 959: 932:Karl Pearson 925: 920:Karl Pearson 895: 861: 843: 832: 821: 799:to decipher 792: 782:combinations 778:permutations 773: 755: 743: 742:Bernoulli's 699: 680:spatial data 648:associations 632: 628:experimental 621: 598: 587: 571: 562:Introduction 552:missing data 545: 521: 508: 502: 498: 492: 489:distribution 488: 475:such as the 462: 438: 402: 394: 393: 382:are used in 232: 40: 9053:Information 9022:Mathematics 8955:Ornithology 8940:Meteorology 8925:Mathematics 8915:Ichthyology 8750:Archaeology 8745:Agriculture 8729:engineering 8681:WikiProject 8524:Game theory 8504:Probability 8241:Homological 8231:Multilinear 8211:Commutative 8188:Type theory 8155:Foundations 8111:mathematics 8067:WikiProject 7982:Cartography 7944:Jurimetrics 7896:Reliability 7627:Time domain 7606:(Ljung–Box) 7528:Time-series 7406:Categorical 7390:Time-series 7382:Categorical 7317:(Bernoulli) 7152:Correlation 7132:Correlation 6928:Jarque–Bera 6900:Chi-squared 6662:M-estimator 6615:Asymptotics 6559:Sufficiency 6326:Interaction 6238:Replication 6218:Effect size 6175:Violin plot 6155:Radar chart 6135:Forest plot 6125:Correlogram 6075:Kendall's τ 5312:, Pearson. 4843:(8): e124. 4219:OED quote: 3117:– known as 3028:Jurimetrics 2959:Data mining 2847:process art 2832:forecasting 2784:time series 2780:forecasting 2701:management- 2671:Mathematica 2425:correlation 2359:represented 2206:Correlation 2007:frequentist 1951:(noise) or 1662:, unbiased 1660:sample mean 1623:: standard 1543:information 1391:temperature 1242:Experiments 1029:during the 1011:sufficiency 940:correlation 839:John Graunt 817:sample size 684:data mining 676:time series 660:forecasting 652:correlation 578:mathematics 528:alternative 509:variability 434:experiments 380:line charts 280:Linguistics 270:Computation 265:Geosciences 228:Probability 154:Mathematics 9038:Statistics 9032:Categories 8970:Psychiatry 8879:Geography 8850:Entomology 8509:Statistics 8388:Arithmetic 8350:Arithmetic 8216:Elementary 8183:Set theory 7934:Demography 7652:ARMA model 7457:Regression 7034:(Friedman) 6995:(Wilcoxon) 6933:Normality 6923:Lilliefors 6870:Student's 6746:Resampling 6620:Robustness 6608:divergence 6598:Efficiency 6536:(monotone) 6531:Likelihood 6448:Population 6281:Stratified 6233:Population 6052:Dependence 6008:Count data 5939:Percentile 5916:Dispersion 5849:Arithmetic 5784:Statistics 5414:2021-09-16 5404:1132348139 5388:. 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