933:
Constitution were particularly concerned that
Congress might seek to exercise the appointment power and fill offices with their supporters, to the derogation of the President's control over the executive branch. The Appointments Clause thus functions as a restraint on Congress and as an important structural element in the separation of powers. Attempts by Congress to circumvent the Appointments Clause, either by making appointments directly, or through devices such as "unilaterally appointing an incumbent to a new and distinct office" under the guise of legislating new duties for an existing office", have been rebuffed by the courts.
37:
972:, the Supreme Court held that only those appointees "exercising significant authority pursuant to the laws of the United States" are "Officers of the United States", and hence it is only those who exercise such "significant authority" who must be appointed by a mechanism set forth in the Appointments Clause. The Framers did not define the line between principal officers and inferior officers, and the Supreme Court has been content to approach the analysis on a case-by-case basis rather than through a definitive test.
827:... and shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law: but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments.
1026:(1991) "Heads of Departments" to refer "to executive divisions like the Cabinet-level departments". The use of the phrase "like the Cabinet-level departments" could mean that, in addition to the Cabinet departments, other entities within the executive branch that are sufficiently analogous to the Cabinet departments may qualify as "Departments" for purposes of the Appointments Clause.
991:'inferior Officers' are officers whose work is directed and supervised at some level by others who were appointed by Presidential nomination with the advice and consent of the Senate." Among those officers recognized as "inferior" are district court clerks, federal supervisors of elections, the Watergate Special Prosecutor, and an Independent Counsel appointed under the
1834:
884:, where he commented "a conclave in which cabal and intrigue will have their full scope. ... he desire of mutual gratification will beget a scandalous bartering of votes and bargaining for places." This separation of powers between the President and Senate is also present in the (immediately preceding)
915:
The actual motion adopted by the Senate when exercising the power is "to advise and consent", which shows how initial advice on nominations and treaties is not a formal power exercised by the Senate. On
November 21, 2013, the Senate changed its rules regarding the number of votes needed to end debate
1926:
In selecting nominees, Washington turned to his closest advisers and to members of
Congress, but the president resolutely insisted that he alone would be responsible for the final selection. He shared a common view that the Senate's constitutionally mandated 'advice' was to come after the nomination
1013:
Another chief question is, what constitutes a "Department", when
Congress seeks to place the appointment power away from the President? The phrase "Heads of Departments" has not been precisely defined by the Supreme Court. On the one hand, judicial interpretations of the phrase refer to the heads of
911:
took the position that pre-nomination advice was allowable but not mandatory. The notion that pre-nomination advice is optional has developed into the unification of the "advice" portion of the power with the "consent" portion, although several
Presidents have consulted informally with Senators over
1073:
to be appointed by the USPTO Director. This arrangement was challenged as unconstitutional under the
Appointments Clause because the appointing party was not the head of the department. In order to avoid the crisis that would result from new challenges to many BPAI and TTAB decisions made in that
965:
One chief question recurs under the "by Law" language: Who are "inferior
Officers", not subject to the requirement of advice and consent; and (2) what constitutes a "Department", when Congress seeks to place the appointment power away from the President? As an initial matter, most government
957:
An earlier proposed draft of the
Appointments Clause would have given the President a broader power to "appoint officers in all cases not otherwise provided for by this Constitution", but some delegates of the Philadelphia Constitutional Convention worried that this language would permit the
932:
Congress itself may not exercise the appointment power; its functions are limited to the Senate's role in advice and consent, and to deciding whether to vest a direct appointment power over a given office in the
President, a head of department, or the courts of law. The framers of the U.S.
1045:
decision seems to have reserved the question whether the heads of non-Cabinet executive-branch agencies could be deemed to be "Heads of
Departments" for purposes of the Appointments Clause. Perhaps the phrase "like the Cabinet-level departments" was included in
1074:
period, Congress passed a 2008 amendment to the statute which specifies that the Secretary of Commerce is responsible for such appointments, and permitting the Secretary to retroactively appoint those persons named by the USPTO Director.
3927:
1208:
1020:"at least have some connection with that branch". Under this view, the heads of all agencies and departments exercising executive power under the President would seem to qualify as "Heads of Departments". The Court interpreted in
981:(1988) certain factors as hallmarks of "inferior Officer" status, such as removability by a higher executive branch official other than the President, and limitations on the officer's duties, jurisdiction, and tenure. In
3728:
1401:
1038:
216:
1785:
920:
and block a vote on a nomination unless three-fifths of senators voted to end debate. Under the new rules, a simple majority is all that is needed to end debate. The only exception was for nominations to the
953:
of the Senate, but whose appointment Congress may place instead in the President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. This last group are commonly referred to as "inferior officers".
1724:
393:
1941:: "On the final question to advise and consent to the ratification in the form agreed to, the concurrence of two-thirds of the Senators present shall be necessary to determine it in the affirmative."
2943:
1050:
as an indication that the Court would not necessarily be inflexible about requiring Cabinet status in future cases. If that is so, then "Heads of Departments" would appear to include (as Justice
2633:
1041:(which has been interpreted to refer only to Cabinet departments) and with earlier cases that suggested that only the Cabinet Secretaries qualified as "Heads of Departments". Ultimately, the
2451:
2958:
2388:
2908:
4210:
1265:
2489:
4163:
4155:
4085:
2756:
1667:
1648:
1582:
845:
to nominate political appointees, and the Senate's role is only advisory to the nomination, because the President is not bound to appoint his own nominee even with their advice. As
3763:
2858:
1102:
224:
2628:
1850:
1742:, the authority granted the president by Article II, Section 2, Clause 3, to make appointments which would otherwise require Senate confirmation during a recess of the Senate
3575:
1868:
3590:
2928:
925:, which could still be blocked from going to a vote by a filibuster, until the Senate rules were again changed on April 6, 2017 during Senate debate on the nomination of
4242:
2461:
2345:
2145:
2077:
962:. The requirement that the President can appoint inferior officers only when Congress has "by Law vest" that power in the President sought to preclude that possibility.
2913:
2331:
210:
4010:
3680:
3109:
2316:
2306:
267:
2948:
2326:
2321:
2311:
2301:
4002:
2281:
892:
2291:
2286:
2255:
2250:
4093:
3771:
2296:
2276:
2260:
1691:
1672:
1653:
1630:
1610:
1601:
1587:
1568:
1549:
1530:
1511:
1492:
1473:
1450:
1430:
1410:
1390:
1370:
1350:
1327:
1308:
1289:
1270:
1251:
1232:
1213:
1194:
1175:
1156:
1137:
577:
413:
2012:
2853:
2227:
1118:
1094:
1033:
decision itself seemed unclear what it meant by the phrase "like the Cabinet-level departments", and certainly stepped back from any bright-line test. The
400:
1917:
3104:
2232:
2196:
888:
of the Constitution, which gives international treaty-making power to the President, but attaches to it the proviso of the Senate's advice and consent.
4237:
3508:
2938:
2833:
2201:
2181:
2171:
4179:
2643:
2211:
2206:
2191:
2186:
2176:
2166:
1719:
1705:
3911:
3623:
1170:
432:
1808:
3034:
2135:
2115:
2070:
765:
1892:
3519:
2125:
2120:
177:
2888:
2130:
2110:
2105:
589:
543:
3326:
2378:
678:
172:
4247:
3830:
3039:
2838:
1227:
1022:
2574:
2100:
2063:
685:
565:
109:
2813:
2783:
2569:
2534:
2514:
1066:
1062:
850:
627:
490:
2818:
485:
1874:
4061:
3029:
1506:
732:
639:
594:
584:
560:
548:
468:
406:
65:
3119:
2788:
2666:
853:, "As the President was to nominate, there would be responsibility, and as the Senate was to concur, there would be security".
2803:
53:
4257:
3341:
2431:
2426:
2353:
1844:
497:
426:
260:
3616:
3554:
3074:
2868:
700:
673:
644:
531:
480:
473:
241:
154:
144:
1971:
1037:
decision sought to harmonize its analysis with the interpretation given the different term "executive Departments" in the
3450:
3069:
2661:
758:
634:
388:
383:
2706:
922:
668:
526:
502:
3049:
2411:
2086:
606:
514:
114:
1777:
3549:
2893:
1070:
992:
818:
invest the appointment of "inferior" officers to the President alone, or to courts of law or heads of departments.
555:
28:
865:
to the President to nominate, and confers plenary power to the Senate to reject or confirm a nominee, through its
4171:
3609:
2898:
2883:
2008:
1759:
1686:
707:
572:
538:
376:
916:
on a presidential nomination and bring it to a vote. Before that date, a minority of senators could engage in a
3838:
3305:
1921:
1441:
787:
751:
712:
611:
324:
310:
119:
4252:
3704:
3688:
3079:
3019:
2608:
1953:: "the final question on every nomination shall be, 'Will the Senate advise and consent to this nomination?'"
651:
440:
129:
58:
3696:
3569:
3367:
2798:
2671:
2476:
2358:
2158:
942:
807:
695:
690:
104:
949:
of the Senate; and those who may be specified by acts of Congress, some of whom may be appointed with the
3994:
3583:
3487:
3445:
3440:
2843:
2529:
2494:
1734:
1730:
1058:) the heads of the Cabinet Departments and also the heads of "all independent executive establishments".
622:
458:
78:
4018:
3903:
3537:
2984:
2953:
2676:
2441:
2436:
1855:
Madison, Jefferson, and Jay all advised Washington not to consult the Senate before making nominations.
1468:
1151:
1005:
are inferior officers within the meaning of the Appointments Clause of the United States Constitution.
783:
509:
134:
3986:
3798:
3747:
3664:
3285:
3165:
2964:
2696:
2519:
2396:
2242:
1900:
1113:
1089:
1002:
946:
873:
provisions in the Constitution, the wording here seeks to ensure accountability and preempt tyranny.
187:
1965:"Presidential Appointee Positions Requiring Senate Confirmation and Committees Handling Nominations"
4045:
4037:
3712:
3672:
3254:
3124:
2988:
2848:
2767:
2613:
2603:
2471:
1341:
959:
737:
656:
618:
521:
463:
419:
294:
149:
124:
70:
4069:
3822:
3814:
3779:
3044:
2992:
2918:
2746:
2623:
2618:
2554:
2524:
2466:
1525:
1303:
983:
661:
601:
366:
351:
139:
4053:
3978:
3935:
3876:
3755:
3720:
3207:
2726:
2651:
2598:
2549:
2373:
1487:
1381:
1284:
1246:
289:
3601:
3414:
2793:
2761:
2592:
2421:
2368:
1695:
1676:
1657:
1634:
1614:
1591:
1572:
1553:
1534:
1515:
1496:
1477:
1454:
1434:
1414:
1394:
1374:
1354:
1331:
1312:
1293:
1274:
1255:
1236:
1217:
1198:
1179:
1160:
1141:
1122:
1098:
318:
299:
191:
1209:
Metropolitan Washington Airports Authority v. Citizens for Abatement of Aircraft Noise, Inc.
36:
3857:
3559:
3114:
2828:
2823:
2778:
2751:
2701:
2446:
1446:
1426:
1406:
1386:
1346:
1322:
870:
795:
358:
1626:
1366:
8:
3542:
3331:
3059:
2923:
2711:
2559:
2416:
281:
1606:
3656:
3244:
3228:
3089:
2903:
2878:
2863:
2773:
2741:
2731:
2691:
2681:
1739:
1679:
1660:
1594:
1575:
1556:
1537:
1518:
1480:
1334:
1315:
1296:
1258:
1239:
1220:
1182:
1163:
1144:
950:
874:
791:
371:
254:
24:
1499:
1277:
1125:
1106:
4101:
4077:
3564:
3310:
3295:
3275:
3149:
3024:
3003:
2975:
2579:
2406:
1840:
1698:
1621:
1563:
1201:
977:
908:
878:
846:
274:
249:
2055:
1402:
Financial Oversight and Management Board for Puerto Rico v. Aurelius Investment, LLC
4120:
3919:
3806:
3186:
2933:
2808:
2736:
2721:
2456:
2401:
2363:
1950:
1938:
1544:
1189:
1132:
1016:
968:
966:
employees are not officers and thus are not subject to the Appointments Clause. In
85:
3970:
3471:
3419:
3300:
3259:
3170:
3094:
2998:
2980:
2716:
2686:
2544:
815:
232:
182:
3409:
3388:
3372:
3336:
3280:
3249:
3064:
2049:
1051:
4231:
3514:
3435:
3393:
3362:
3290:
3212:
3084:
3054:
2970:
2873:
2584:
2539:
1725:
List of positions filled by presidential appointment with Senate confirmation
900:
885:
862:
842:
811:
2052:, a 2007 Memorandum Opinion for the General Councils of the Executive Branch
3884:
2050:
Officers of the United States Within the Meaning of the Appointments Clause
1964:
1421:
1361:
997:
926:
16:
U.S. President appoints senior officials with senatorial advice and consent
895:
explained that the required role of the Senate is to advise the President
3466:
3346:
1905:... their advice may enable him to make such judicious appointments.
802:. Although the Senate must confirm certain principal officers (including
3191:
958:
President to create offices as well as to fill them, a classic case of
917:
803:
3099:
799:
304:
1809:"The Senate Must Consider Supreme Court Nominations in Due Course"
1014:
departments that are within the executive branch, or according to
3134:
2564:
1668:
Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board
1583:
Free Enterprise Fund v. Public Company Accounting Oversight Board
3631:
1879:
In the act of nomination his judgment alone will be exercised.
1836:
The Constitution in Congress: The Federalist Period, 1789–1801
2009:"The Heritage Guide to the Constitution: Inferior Officers"
1061:
From 1999 to 2008, a change in the statute governing the
877:
defended the use of a public confirmation of officers in
1920:. United States Senate Historical Office. Archived from
907:
nomination could still be helpful. Likewise, President
1008:
2085:
1602:
Seila Law LLC v. Consumer Financial Protection Bureau
936:
4243:Legislative branch of the United States government
3509:Notes of Debates in the Federal Convention of 1787
4180:Axon Enterprise, Inc. v. Federal Trade Commission
2002:
2000:
1998:
1996:
1994:
1992:
1720:List of clauses of the United States Constitution
1706:Axon Enterprise, Inc. v. Federal Trade Commission
4229:
3912:Springer v. Government of the Philippine Islands
1171:Springer v. Government of the Philippine Islands
1077:
899:the nomination has been made by the President.
3520:Bibliography of the United States Constitution
1989:
941:The Appointments Clause distinguishes between
831:
3617:
2071:
759:
1813:Marquette University Law School Faculty Blog
1065:(USPTO) permitted a number of judges of the
1001:, 585 U.S. 237 (2018), the Court held that
173:Office of Information and Regulatory Affairs
3645:
1839:. University of Chicago Press. p. 25.
1778:"Essays on Article II: Appointments Clause"
1228:Freytag v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue
1023:Freytag v. Commissioner of Internal Revenue
4144:
3624:
3610:
2078:
2064:
766:
752:
4238:Clauses of the United States Constitution
1853:on May 6, 2016 – via Google Books.
1641:
1067:Board of Patent Appeals and Interferences
1063:United States Patent and Trademark Office
3576:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution
1963:Davis, Christopher M.; Greene, Michael.
1866:
1807:Fallone, Edward A. (February 23, 2016).
3959:
1962:
1890:
1806:
4230:
1977:from the original on November 11, 2016
1832:
1782:The Heritage Guide to the Constitution
1771:
1769:
1767:
4198:
4143:
3958:
3644:
3605:
2059:
856:
4062:Humphrey's Executor v. United States
3555:Constitution Day and Citizenship Day
2034:Translogic Technology, Inc. v. Dudas
1918:"Nominations: A Historical Overview"
1788:from the original on August 22, 2020
1775:
1507:Humphrey's Executor v. United States
1009:Appointments by heads of departments
3543:Rotunda for the Charters of Freedom
3070:Incorporation of the Bill of Rights
1764:
13:
4248:Legal history of the United States
3729:FOMBPR v. Aurelius Investment, LLC
2634:Drafting and ratification timeline
2379:District of Columbia Voting Rights
2015:from the original on July 24, 2017
1970:. Congressional Research Service.
923:Supreme Court of the United States
35:
14:
4269:
4211:FEC v. NRA Political Victory Fund
3633:United States Appointments Clause
2087:Constitution of the United States
2043:
1266:FEC v. NRA Political Victory Fund
115:National Environmental Policy Act
4199:
2490:Convention to propose amendments
1071:Trademark Trial and Appeal Board
993:Ethics in Government Act of 1978
937:Appointment of inferior officers
893:framers of the U.S. Constitution
861:The Appointments Clause confers
205:Judicial review of agency action
4172:Elgin v. Department of Treasury
4156:Thunder Basin Coal Co. v. Reich
2027:
2006:
1956:
1760:Article II, Section 2, Clause 2
1687:Elgin v. Department of Treasury
1649:Thunder Basin Coal Co. v. Reich
945:who must be appointed with the
453:Regulated fields (and agencies)
3839:United States v. Arthrex, Inc.
3105:Separation of church and state
1944:
1932:
1910:
1884:
1860:
1826:
1800:
1753:
1442:United States v. Arthrex, Inc.
1082:
1054:reasons in his concurrence in
788:President of the United States
250:Committed to agency discretion
120:Government in the Sunshine Act
1:
4164:Free Enterprise Fund v. PCAOB
4086:Free Enterprise Fund v. PCAOB
2609:Virginia Ratifying Convention
2036:, U.S., No. 07-1303, 10/6/08.
1746:
1729:The Tenure of Office Acts of
987:(1997) the Court stated that
943:officers of the United States
836:
59:Notice of proposed rulemaking
4258:Appointments Clause case law
3697:Quackenbush v. United States
3570:National Constitution Center
3368:Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer
2667:Assemble and Petition Clause
1891:Sherman, Roger (July 1789).
1867:Hamilton, Alexander (1788).
1078:Relevant federal court cases
155:Federal Vacancies Reform Act
145:Unfunded Mandates Reform Act
105:Administrative Procedure Act
7:
3995:McAllister v. United States
3441:Charles Cotesworth Pinckney
2495:State ratifying conventions
2432:Equal Opportunity to Govern
2427:Electoral College abolition
2354:Congressional Apportionment
2011:. The Heritage Foundation.
1784:. The Heritage Foundation.
1713:
832:Appointments Clause aspects
79:Code of Federal Regulations
10:
4274:
4019:Shurtleff v. United States
3904:Shoemaker v. United States
3869:Challenges to Appointments
1897:The Founders' Constitution
1469:Shurtleff v. United States
1461:
1152:Shoemaker v. United States
912:nominations and treaties.
790:to nominate and, with the
784:United States Constitution
135:Regulatory Flexibility Act
110:Freedom of Information Act
4205:
4194:
4150:
4139:
4112:
4029:
3987:Crenshaw v. United States
3965:
3954:
3895:
3868:
3849:
3799:United States v. Germaine
3790:
3748:United States v. Hartwell
3739:
3665:United States v. Le Baron
3651:
3640:
3528:
3500:
3480:
3459:
3428:
3402:
3381:
3355:
3319:
3268:
3237:
3221:
3200:
3179:
3158:
3142:
3133:
3012:
2894:Privileges and Immunities
2707:Congressional enforcement
2642:
2629:Rhode Island ratification
2520:Articles of Confederation
2507:
2485:
2462:Parental Rights amendment
2387:
2344:
2269:
2241:
2220:
2157:
2153:
2144:
2093:
1114:United States v. Germaine
1090:United States v. Hartwell
1003:administrative law judges
869:provision. As with other
851:Constitutional Convention
459:Antitrust and competition
178:Administrative Conference
4046:Parsons v. United States
4038:United States v. Perkins
3896:Appointments by Congress
3713:NLRB v. SW General, Inc.
3673:Mimmack v. United States
3125:Unitary executive theory
2899:Privileges or Immunities
2614:New York Circular Letter
2604:Massachusetts Compromise
1342:NLRB v. SW General, Inc.
960:institutional corruption
738:Statutory interpretation
420:Unitary executive theory
211:Arbitrary and capricious
150:Congressional Review Act
125:National Emergencies Act
71:Administrative law judge
4070:Wiener v. United States
4030:Limits on Removal Power
4011:Reagan v. United States
3823:Edmond v. United States
3815:Freytag v. Commissioner
3780:Burnap v. United States
3681:United States v. Corson
3646:Appointment of Officers
3045:Dormant Commerce Clause
2889:Presidential succession
2624:Fayetteville Convention
2619:Hillsborough Convention
2555:Three-fifths Compromise
2535:Philadelphia Convention
2525:Mount Vernon Conference
2412:Campaign finance reform
1526:Wiener v. United States
1304:Edmond v. United States
1029:On the other hand, the
984:Edmond v. United States
821:
367:Congressional oversight
167:Regulatory coordination
140:Paperwork Reduction Act
4145:Jurisdiction stripping
4054:Myers v. United States
3979:Blake v. United States
3936:Weiss v. United States
3877:Ryder v. United States
3764:United States v. Smith
3756:United States v. Mouat
3740:Officers vs. Employees
3721:Ortiz v. United States
3705:United States v. Smith
3689:United States v. Eaton
3208:William Samuel Johnson
3080:Nondelegation doctrine
2652:Admission to the Union
2599:Anti-Federalist Papers
2550:Connecticut Compromise
1893:"Letter to John Adams"
1833:Currie, David (1997).
1642:Jurisdiction stripping
1488:Myers v. United States
1382:Ortiz v. United States
1285:Ryder v. United States
1247:Weiss v. United States
929:to the Supreme Court.
829:
794:(confirmation) of the
40:
4003:Keim v. United States
3415:Richard Dobbs Spaight
2884:Presidential Electors
2859:Original Jurisdiction
2799:Full Faith and Credit
2672:Assistance of Counsel
2593:The Federalist Papers
2422:Crittenden Compromise
1903:on January 19, 2017.
903:believed that advice
825:
300:Nationwide injunction
192:Executive Order 12866
188:Cost–benefit analysis
130:Inspector General Act
39:
4253:United States Senate
3858:NLRB v. Noel Canning
3584:A More Perfect Union
3560:Constitution Gardens
3481:Convention Secretary
3143:Convention President
3115:Symmetric federalism
3110:Separation of powers
2844:Necessary and Proper
2839:Natural-born citizen
2784:Freedom of the Press
2722:Copyright and Patent
2712:Contingent Elections
2530:Annapolis Convention
1323:NLRB v. Noel Canning
975:The Court listed in
871:separation of powers
796:United States Senate
401:Independent agencies
340:Separation of powers
4113:Removal by Congress
3960:Removal of Officers
3850:Recess Appointments
3772:Auffmordt v. Hedden
3591:Worldwide influence
3332:Gunning Bedford Jr.
3060:Executive privilege
3040:Criminal sentencing
2963:Title of Nobility (
2954:Taxing and Spending
2854:Oath or Affirmation
2814:House Apportionment
2677:Case or Controversy
2560:Committee of Detail
2452:"Liberty" amendment
2417:Christian amendment
1951:U.S. Senate Rule 31
1939:U.S. Senate Rule 30
1877:on April 22, 2016.
814:), Congress may by
780:Appointments Clause
407:Humphrey's Executor
394:Senate confirmation
346:Appointments Clause
99:Statutory framework
3657:Marbury v. Madison
3245:William Livingston
3229:Alexander Hamilton
3035:Criminal procedure
3030:Constitutional law
2965:Foreign Emoluments
2929:State of the Union
2914:Self-Incrimination
2904:Recess appointment
2697:Compulsory Process
2359:Titles of Nobility
1924:on April 7, 2019.
1776:McGinnis, John O.
1740:Recess appointment
951:advice and consent
947:advice and consent
875:Alexander Hamilton
867:advice and consent
857:Advice and consent
841:The President has
792:advice and consent
733:Constitutional law
41:
25:Administrative law
4225:
4224:
4221:
4220:
4190:
4189:
4135:
4134:
4131:
4130:
4102:Collins v. Yellen
4094:Selia Law v. CFPB
4078:Morrison v. Olson
3950:
3949:
3946:
3945:
3791:Inferior Officers
3599:
3598:
3565:Constitution Week
3550:Independence Mall
3538:National Archives
3496:
3495:
3311:Gouverneur Morris
3296:Thomas Fitzsimons
3276:Benjamin Franklin
3150:George Washington
3050:Enumerated powers
3025:Concurrent powers
3020:Balance of powers
2849:No Religious Test
2789:Freedom of Speech
2580:Independence Hall
2503:
2502:
2407:Bricker amendment
2340:
2339:
1870:Federalist No. 76
1846:978-0-226-13114-6
1622:Collins v. Yellen
1564:Morrison v. Olson
978:Morrison v. Olson
909:George Washington
847:Gouverneur Morris
810:secretaries, and
798:, appoint public
776:
775:
4265:
4196:
4195:
4141:
4140:
4121:Bowsher v. Synar
4027:
4026:
3956:
3955:
3920:Buckley v. Valeo
3807:Ex parte Siebold
3737:
3736:
3642:
3641:
3626:
3619:
3612:
3603:
3602:
3446:Charles Pinckney
3255:William Paterson
3187:Nathaniel Gorham
3140:
3139:
2919:Speech or Debate
2747:Equal Protection
2457:Ludlow amendment
2442:Flag Desecration
2437:Federal Marriage
2402:Blaine amendment
2364:Corwin Amendment
2155:
2154:
2151:
2150:
2080:
2073:
2066:
2057:
2056:
2037:
2031:
2025:
2024:
2022:
2020:
2004:
1987:
1986:
1984:
1982:
1976:
1969:
1960:
1954:
1948:
1942:
1936:
1930:
1929:
1914:
1908:
1907:
1899:. Archived from
1888:
1882:
1881:
1873:. Archived from
1864:
1858:
1857:
1849:. Archived from
1830:
1824:
1823:
1821:
1819:
1804:
1798:
1797:
1795:
1793:
1773:
1762:
1757:
1545:Bowsher v. Synar
1190:Buckley v. Valeo
1133:Ex parte Siebold
1017:Buckley v. Valeo
990:
969:Buckley v. Valeo
768:
761:
754:
427:Legislative veto
183:Executive orders
86:Federal Register
21:
20:
4273:
4272:
4268:
4267:
4266:
4264:
4263:
4262:
4228:
4227:
4226:
4217:
4201:
4186:
4146:
4127:
4108:
4025:
3971:Ex parte Hennen
3961:
3942:
3891:
3864:
3845:
3786:
3735:
3647:
3636:
3630:
3600:
3595:
3530:
3524:
3492:
3488:William Jackson
3476:
3472:Abraham Baldwin
3455:
3424:
3420:Hugh Williamson
3398:
3377:
3351:
3342:Richard Bassett
3315:
3301:Jared Ingersoll
3264:
3260:Jonathan Dayton
3233:
3217:
3196:
3175:
3171:Nicholas Gilman
3154:
3129:
3095:Reserved powers
3075:Judicial review
3008:
2804:General Welfare
2727:Double Jeopardy
2638:
2565:List of Framers
2545:New Jersey Plan
2499:
2481:
2477:Victims' Rights
2397:Balanced budget
2383:
2336:
2265:
2237:
2216:
2140:
2089:
2084:
2046:
2041:
2040:
2032:
2028:
2018:
2016:
2005:
1990:
1980:
1978:
1974:
1967:
1961:
1957:
1949:
1945:
1937:
1933:
1916:
1915:
1911:
1889:
1885:
1865:
1861:
1847:
1831:
1827:
1817:
1815:
1805:
1801:
1791:
1789:
1774:
1765:
1758:
1754:
1749:
1716:
1644:
1464:
1085:
1080:
1011:
988:
939:
859:
839:
834:
824:
772:
743:
742:
728:
720:
719:
708:Social Security
454:
446:
445:
377:Organic statute
341:
333:
332:
295:Major questions
206:
198:
197:
168:
160:
159:
100:
92:
91:
49:
17:
12:
11:
5:
4271:
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4260:
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3991:
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3457:
3456:
3454:
3453:
3448:
3443:
3438:
3432:
3430:
3429:South Carolina
3426:
3425:
3423:
3422:
3417:
3412:
3410:William Blount
3406:
3404:
3403:North Carolina
3400:
3399:
3397:
3396:
3391:
3385:
3383:
3379:
3378:
3376:
3375:
3373:Daniel Carroll
3370:
3365:
3359:
3357:
3353:
3352:
3350:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3337:John Dickinson
3334:
3329:
3323:
3321:
3317:
3316:
3314:
3313:
3308:
3303:
3298:
3293:
3288:
3283:
3281:Thomas Mifflin
3278:
3272:
3270:
3266:
3265:
3263:
3262:
3257:
3252:
3250:David Brearley
3247:
3241:
3239:
3235:
3234:
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3231:
3225:
3223:
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3144:
3137:
3131:
3130:
3128:
3127:
3122:
3120:Taxation power
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3092:
3087:
3082:
3077:
3072:
3067:
3065:Implied powers
3062:
3057:
3052:
3047:
3042:
3037:
3032:
3027:
3022:
3016:
3014:
3013:Interpretation
3010:
3009:
3007:
3006:
3001:
2996:
2978:
2973:
2968:
2961:
2956:
2951:
2946:
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2926:
2921:
2916:
2911:
2909:Recommendation
2906:
2901:
2896:
2891:
2886:
2881:
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2871:
2866:
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2856:
2851:
2846:
2841:
2836:
2831:
2826:
2821:
2816:
2811:
2806:
2801:
2796:
2794:Fugitive Slave
2791:
2786:
2781:
2776:
2771:
2764:
2762:Excessive Bail
2759:
2754:
2749:
2744:
2739:
2734:
2729:
2724:
2719:
2714:
2709:
2704:
2699:
2694:
2689:
2684:
2679:
2674:
2669:
2664:
2662:Appropriations
2659:
2654:
2648:
2646:
2640:
2639:
2637:
2636:
2631:
2626:
2621:
2616:
2611:
2606:
2601:
2596:
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2517:
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2504:
2501:
2500:
2498:
2497:
2492:
2486:
2483:
2482:
2480:
2479:
2474:
2472:Single subject
2469:
2464:
2459:
2454:
2449:
2444:
2439:
2434:
2429:
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2419:
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2245:
2243:Reconstruction
2239:
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2214:
2209:
2204:
2199:
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2189:
2184:
2179:
2174:
2169:
2163:
2161:
2159:Bill of Rights
2148:
2142:
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2123:
2118:
2113:
2108:
2103:
2097:
2095:
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2090:
2083:
2082:
2075:
2068:
2060:
2054:
2053:
2045:
2044:External links
2042:
2039:
2038:
2026:
2007:Cox, Douglas.
1988:
1955:
1943:
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1909:
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1052:Antonin Scalia
1039:Opinion Clause
1010:
1007:
938:
935:
858:
855:
849:stated in the
838:
835:
833:
830:
823:
820:
812:federal judges
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727:Related topics
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686:Transportation
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3451:Pierce Butler
3449:
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3436:John Rutledge
3434:
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3407:
3405:
3401:
3395:
3394:James Madison
3392:
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3363:James McHenry
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3240:
3236:
3230:
3227:
3226:
3224:
3220:
3214:
3213:Roger Sherman
3211:
3209:
3206:
3205:
3203:
3199:
3193:
3190:
3188:
3185:
3184:
3182:
3180:Massachusetts
3178:
3172:
3169:
3167:
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3159:New Hampshire
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3141:
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3126:
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3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
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3091:
3088:
3086:
3085:Plenary power
3083:
3081:
3078:
3076:
3073:
3071:
3068:
3066:
3063:
3061:
3058:
3056:
3055:Equal footing
3053:
3051:
3048:
3046:
3043:
3041:
3038:
3036:
3033:
3031:
3028:
3026:
3023:
3021:
3018:
3017:
3015:
3011:
3005:
3002:
3000:
2997:
2994:
2990:
2986:
2982:
2979:
2977:
2976:Trial by Jury
2974:
2972:
2969:
2966:
2962:
2960:
2957:
2955:
2952:
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2947:
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2942:
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2900:
2897:
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2877:
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2872:
2870:
2867:
2865:
2862:
2860:
2857:
2855:
2852:
2850:
2847:
2845:
2842:
2840:
2837:
2835:
2832:
2830:
2829:Ineligibility
2827:
2825:
2824:Import-Export
2822:
2820:
2817:
2815:
2812:
2810:
2807:
2805:
2802:
2800:
2797:
2795:
2792:
2790:
2787:
2785:
2782:
2780:
2779:Free Exercise
2777:
2775:
2772:
2770:
2769:
2768:Ex Post Facto
2765:
2763:
2760:
2758:
2755:
2753:
2752:Establishment
2750:
2748:
2745:
2743:
2740:
2738:
2735:
2733:
2730:
2728:
2725:
2723:
2720:
2718:
2715:
2713:
2710:
2708:
2705:
2703:
2702:Confrontation
2700:
2698:
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2690:
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2594:
2590:
2586:
2585:Syng inkstand
2583:
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2568:
2566:
2563:
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2558:
2556:
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2548:
2546:
2543:
2541:
2540:Virginia Plan
2538:
2537:
2536:
2533:
2531:
2528:
2526:
2523:
2521:
2518:
2516:
2513:
2512:
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2496:
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2467:School Prayer
2465:
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2240:
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2200:
2198:
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2185:
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2180:
2178:
2175:
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2109:
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2076:
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2069:
2067:
2062:
2061:
2058:
2051:
2048:
2047:
2035:
2030:
2014:
2010:
2003:
2001:
1999:
1997:
1995:
1993:
1973:
1966:
1959:
1952:
1947:
1940:
1935:
1928:
1923:
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901:Roger Sherman
898:
894:
889:
887:
886:Treaty Clause
883:
881:
876:
872:
868:
864:
863:plenary power
854:
852:
848:
844:
843:plenary power
828:
819:
817:
813:
809:
805:
801:
797:
793:
789:
786:empowers the
785:
781:
769:
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510:Communication
508:
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441:Nondelegation
439:
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430:
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418:
416:
415:
411:
409:
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404:
403:
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399:
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387:
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384:Appropriation
382:
378:
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372:Authorization
370:
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365:
361:
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96:
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64:
60:
57:
56:
55:
52:
51:
45:
44:
38:
34:
33:
30:
29:United States
26:
23:
22:
19:
4209:
4200:Ratification
4178:
4170:
4162:
4154:
4119:
4100:
4092:
4084:
4076:
4068:
4060:
4052:
4044:
4036:
4017:
4009:
4001:
3993:
3985:
3977:
3969:
3934:
3928:MWAA v. CAAN
3926:
3918:
3910:
3902:
3885:Carr v. Saul
3883:
3875:
3856:
3837:
3831:Lucia v. SEC
3829:
3821:
3813:
3805:
3797:
3778:
3770:
3762:
3754:
3746:
3727:
3719:
3711:
3703:
3695:
3687:
3679:
3671:
3663:
3655:
3632:
3582:
3574:
3507:
3306:James Wilson
3269:Pennsylvania
3166:John Langdon
2924:Speedy Trial
2766:
2657:Appointments
2656:
2591:
2374:Equal Rights
2270:20th century
2033:
2029:
2017:. Retrieved
1981:December 10,
1979:. Retrieved
1958:
1946:
1934:
1925:
1922:the original
1912:
1904:
1901:the original
1896:
1886:
1878:
1875:the original
1869:
1862:
1854:
1851:the original
1835:
1828:
1818:February 20,
1816:. Retrieved
1812:
1802:
1792:February 10,
1790:. Retrieved
1781:
1755:
1704:
1685:
1666:
1647:
1620:
1600:
1581:
1562:
1543:
1524:
1505:
1486:
1467:
1440:
1422:Carr v. Saul
1420:
1400:
1380:
1362:Lucia v. SEC
1360:
1340:
1321:
1302:
1283:
1264:
1245:
1226:
1207:
1188:
1169:
1150:
1131:
1112:
1088:
1060:
1055:
1047:
1042:
1034:
1030:
1028:
1021:
1015:
1012:
998:Lucia v. SEC
996:
982:
976:
974:
967:
964:
956:
940:
931:
927:Neil Gorsuch
914:
904:
896:
890:
879:
866:
860:
840:
826:
779:
777:
431:
412:
405:
359:Noel Canning
357:
350:
345:
323:
309:
280:
273:
266:
259:
242:Loper Bright
240:
233:
225:
215:
84:
77:
66:Adjudication
18:
3467:William Few
3347:Jacob Broom
3327:George Read
3201:Connecticut
3135:Signatories
2985:Legislative
2959:Territorial
2879:Presentment
2864:Origination
2819:Impeachment
2774:Extradition
2742:Engagements
2732:Due Process
2682:Citizenship
2369:Child Labor
2019:October 27,
1701: (2012)
1682: (2010)
1663: (1994)
1597: (2010)
1578: (1988)
1559: (1986)
1540: (1958)
1521: (1935)
1502: (1926)
1483: (1903)
1337: (2014)
1318: (1997)
1299: (1995)
1280: (1994)
1261: (1994)
1242: (1991)
1223: (1991)
1204: (1976)
1185: (1928)
1166: (1893)
1147: (1879)
1128: (1878)
1109: (1868)
1083:Appointment
804:ambassadors
585:Immigration
573:Health care
539:Environment
311:Abbott Labs
268:Bi-Metallic
255:Due process
4232:Categories
3579:(painting)
3531:and legacy
3389:John Blair
3238:New Jersey
3192:Rufus King
3090:Preemption
3004:War Powers
2939:Suspension
2757:Exceptions
2447:Human Life
2346:Unratified
2146:Amendments
1747:References
918:filibuster
880:Federalist
837:Nomination
635:Securities
290:Exhaustion
217:State Farm
54:Rulemaking
3100:Saxbe fix
2989:Executive
2944:Take Care
2934:Supremacy
2809:Guarantee
2737:Elections
2508:Formation
2221:1795–1804
1927:was made.
1709:(pending)
800:officials
623:trademark
414:Seila Law
236:deference
228:deference
3635:case law
3382:Virginia
3356:Maryland
3320:Delaware
3222:New York
2999:Vicinage
2993:Judicial
2717:Contract
2687:Commerce
2575:Printing
2389:Proposed
2101:Preamble
2094:Articles
2013:Archived
1972:Archived
1786:Archived
1714:See also
1069:and the
891:Several
652:Taxation
486:Treasury
389:Hearings
319:Standing
305:Ripeness
275:Goldberg
261:Londoner
3529:Display
3501:Related
3460:Georgia
2981:Vesting
2949:Takings
2834:Militia
2692:Compact
2644:Clauses
2570:Signing
2515:History
1462:Removal
1447:19-1434
1427:19-1442
1407:18-1334
1387:16-1423
1347:15-1251
1056:Freytag
1048:Freytag
1043:Freytag
1035:Freytag
1031:Freytag
808:Cabinet
782:of the
481:Banking
352:Freytag
282:Mathews
226:Chevron
48:General
27:of the
4214:(1994)
4183:(2023)
4175:(2012)
4167:(2010)
4159:(1994)
4124:(1986)
4105:(2021)
4097:(2020)
4089:(2010)
4081:(1988)
4073:(1958)
4065:(1936)
4057:(1926)
4049:(1897)
4041:(1886)
4022:(1903)
4014:(1901)
4006:(1900)
3998:(1891)
3990:(1890)
3982:(1880)
3974:(1839)
3939:(1994)
3931:(1991)
3923:(1976)
3915:(1928)
3907:(1893)
3888:(2021)
3880:(1995)
3861:(2014)
3842:(2021)
3834:(2018)
3826:(1997)
3818:(1991)
3810:(1879)
3802:(1878)
3783:(1920)
3775:(1890)
3767:(1888)
3759:(1888)
3751:(1867)
3732:(2020)
3724:(2018)
3716:(2017)
3708:(1932)
3700:(1900)
3692:(1898)
3684:(1885)
3676:(1878)
3668:(1856)
3660:(1803)
3587:(film)
2971:Treaty
2874:Postal
2869:Pardon
1843:
1629:,
1627:19-422
1625:, No.
1609:,
1605:, No.
1449:,
1445:, No.
1429:,
1425:, No.
1409:,
1405:, No.
1389:,
1385:, No.
1369:,
1367:17-130
1365:, No.
1349:,
1345:, No.
1105:)
905:before
882:No. 77
619:Patent
522:Energy
433:Chadha
1975:(PDF)
1968:(PDF)
1694:
1675:
1656:
1633:
1613:
1590:
1571:
1552:
1533:
1514:
1495:
1476:
1453:
1433:
1413:
1393:
1373:
1353:
1330:
1311:
1292:
1273:
1254:
1235:
1216:
1197:
1178:
1159:
1140:
1121:
1103:Wall.
1097:
995:. In
897:after
669:Trade
602:Labor
325:Lujan
2021:2012
1983:2016
1841:ISBN
1820:2023
1794:2018
1735:1867
1733:and
1731:1820
1696:U.S.
1677:U.S.
1658:U.S.
1635:U.S.
1615:U.S.
1607:19-7
1592:U.S.
1573:U.S.
1554:U.S.
1535:U.S.
1516:U.S.
1497:U.S.
1478:U.S.
1455:U.S.
1435:U.S.
1415:U.S.
1395:U.S.
1375:U.S.
1355:U.S.
1332:U.S.
1313:U.S.
1294:U.S.
1275:U.S.
1256:U.S.
1237:U.S.
1218:U.S.
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556:Food
532:FERC
498:FDIC
474:CFPB
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628:PTO
607:DOL
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578:HHS
566:CDC
561:FDA
549:FWS
544:EPA
527:DOE
515:FCC
503:FRB
491:OCC
464:FTC
4234::
2991:/
2987:/
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1991:^
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