112:
22:
568:, a chromium-nickel steel, developed between 1903 and 1912. Its most important property is its resistance to corrosion. It contains about 18% chromium and 8-12% nickel. Stainless steel is expensive, so it was used primarily as a nonstructural metal or where there is a high potential for corrosion. One of the most extensive early uses of stainless steel was in the
601:. It also has the added benefit of being a third lighter than steel with comparable strength. Aluminium can also be easily and repeatedly recycled. It has been estimated that of the estimated 900 million tonnes of aluminium produced since 1880, three quarters is still in productive use, 35% of which is in building construction.
545:
was developed in
England in 1856, and the open-hearth process was invented, steel was produced in a quantity that allowed it to be economical. Bridges, railroad companies, and skyscrapers were among the first large-scale uses of structural steel. Although iron and steel are not combustible, they lose
478:
Nickel silver was originally called “German Silver,” until World War I. It has been called “white brass” but probably should be termed “nickel brass,” because it generally contains 75% copper, 20% nickel, and 5% zinc. Different percentages result in a range of colors, including silvery-white, yellow,
329:
in 1837, separately by M. Sorel in France and H. W. Crawford in
England. The methods employed a “hot dipping” process to coat sheet iron with zinc. By 1839 “galvanized” sheet iron roofing was being used in New York City. The Merchant's Exchange in Manhattan was one of the first buildings to have both
521:. Although brittle, it is remarkably strong in compression. It was frequently used for structural purposes, such as columns, building fronts, domes and light courts. Decorative uses have included stairs, elevators, lintels, grilles, verandas, balconies, railings, fences, streetlights, and tombs. The
495:
at Fifth Avenue and 42nd Street was replaced with a Monel metal roof. Its advantages as a roofing material included its ability to be brazed, welded, or soldered in place to provide a watertight, continuous cover. Monel was popular during the Art Deco periods. During World War II large quantities of
432:
The initial cost of copper was traditionally high, but its length of service more than compensated for the price. Copper could also be shaped to the bends and angles around chimneys and at roof edges and dormers. All nails, screws, bolts, and cleats used with sheet copper must be made of copper or a
379:
Architectural grade zinc is 90 to 95% recycled. Replacement costs are negligible with a long lifetime of 80 to 100 years for zinc roofing and 200 to 300 years for wall systems. This long-life durability is a key component in durability. At the end of its service life, zinc building products can be
607:
was unavailable at reasonable cost or in sufficient quantities for general architectural use until after the beginning of the 20th century. Architectural use of aluminum increased in the 1920s, mainly for decorative detailing. It was used for roofing, flashing, gutters, downspouts, wall panels, and
510:
was used for minor structural and decorative elements starting in the 18th century. Until the mid-19th century, the use of wrought iron in buildings was generally limited to small items such as tie rods, straps, nails, and hardware, or to decorative ironwork in balconies, railings fences and gates.
351:
During the early decades of the 20th century, the use of pure zinc roofing and ornament decreased in use in the US. It is now gaining popularity in its pure form (99.95%)for building materials. Typically, architectural grade zinc is 99.995 percent pure zinc with trace amounts of titanium, to reduce
540:
was introduced to the construction industry at the end of the 19th century. The development of structural steel in the mid-19th century allowed construction of tall buildings. Builders and manufacturers turned to steel, which was stronger than cast iron in compression and wrought iron in tension.
333:
Zinc was also cast for sculptures and decorative elements in
Germany and Austria as early as 1832. Decorative architectural elements were frequently cast in zinc, since it molded readily, was inexpensive compared to stone, and could be painted to imitate more expensive metals. Stamped swags,
257:
was also frequently used for window panes in skylights and stained glass. It was also used for small pieces of sculpture and garden ornamentation. Lead was frequently added to paint, with red lead used as an anti-corrosive pigment for iron, and white lead used as paint for wooden houses.
321:
was used for roofing in
Belgium, France and Germany, where it replaced more expensive copper and lead in roofing. Starting in the 1820s, Belgian sheet zinc was imported in America, used by builders in New York City and elsewhere. Pure zinc is subject to creep at ordinary temperatures.
295:
was a type of architectural material consisting of sheet iron or steel coated with tin. “Tin roofs,” a type of tinplate, was originally used for armor but eventually as a roofing material. Tinplate was also used for decoration, such as ornamental windows, door lintels and
511:
Around 1850 its structural use became more widespread as iron mills began to roll rails, bulb-tees, and eventually I-beams. It was also used for decorative purposes, such as ornamental balconies or hardware. Since wrought iron is handmade, no two pieces are identical.
356:. Over time, zinc develops its distinctive patina, transforming from a shiny silver to a matte bluish-grey. Pre patinated finishes are available from certain manufacturers to expedite the natural patination process. Zinc is still used in alloys such as
529:
Sheet iron can be subject to rapid corrosion, forming rust. Sheet iron was used throughout the 19th century, although it is not clear how widespread sheet iron roofs became. Pressed decorative sheet iron used for ceilings was frequently called a
233:
for centuries, being used for roofing, flashing, gutters, downspouts, and conductor heads. Lead was best suited for low-pitched roofs, as steep roofs experienced creep. Lead roofs in regions with large temperature fluctuations, such as the
486:
Monel metal is an alloy of approximately two-thirds nickel and one-third copper. It is similar to platinum in color. Monel pioneered many of the present uses of stainless steel. The first architectural use of Monel was for roofing the
575:
Copper-bearing steels, containing from .15% to .25% copper, develop increased resistance to atmospheric corrosion, when compared to ordinary steel, by forming a protective oxide coating, having a uniform deep brown color and texture.
525:
is an example of extensive decorative cast iron. Today, cast iron is used for plumbing fixtures and piping in new construction, and its structural and decorative use is used occasionally through historic preservation practices.
352:
coefficient of thermal expansion and improve tensile strength and hardness, and copper to improve workability. Exact alloy composition is subject to manufacturer and is a color determinant in zinc's final
425:. Sheet copper used as roofing is lighter than wooden shingles and much lighter than slate, tile, or lead. Roofing copper can be folded readily into waterproof seams, or shaped over curved frameworks for
348:. They became commercially successful and readily available in America in about 1850 and used widely starting around the 1870s. They had the added benefit of being good rust inhibitors on iron and steel.
308:
shingles or built-up roofs. A well-maintained tinplate roof or ceiling typically lasts several times longer than modern materials, and is more economical when the longer lifespan is taken into account.
304:. Although tinplate is still available today for ceilings, roofing and flashing, it is generally considered expensive since the initial cost is more than that for common modern roofing types such as
496:
nickel and copper were diverted to the war effort, and the supply of Monel was greatly reduced. Following the war, stainless steel and aluminium replaced Monel because of lower production costs.
285:, and the coating of tin on harder metals, such as tinplated iron or steel. Architectural bronzes usually contain about 90% copper and 10% tin, although the content may vary widely. The term “
289:” is a misnomer and early manufacturers did not use the name. However, persons who worked with sheet metal were called tinsmiths, so the term could have sprung from this title.
483:
and
Depression Modern periods. Architects and designers preferred nickel silver because it could take and retain appropriate finishes, and it resisted corrosion.
262:
was one of the most durable materials developed as a protective exterior coating. The use of lead paint has been restricted on most buildings, due to concerns of
612:, where the entire tower portion is aluminum, as well as many decorative features, such as the entrances, elevator doors, ornamental trim, and some 6,000 window
372:
and pure zinc material, usually Double Locked
Standing Seam panels, are used for roofing a variety of buildings. Creep has been reduced by the introduction of
546:
strength in a fire if they are not protected from the heat. Almost all structural steel must be “fireproofed” in some manner, utilizing a cladding of
504:
Iron has become an important architectural building component. It has been used in four common forms: wrought iron, cast iron, sheet iron, and steel.
222:
of lead permitted its use on a wide scale throughout human history. Lead was one of the first to be made into sheet metal for architectural purposes.
277:
is too soft to be used by itself for architectural purposes so it generally falls into two categories: the alloying of tin with other metals such as
680:
238:, experienced deterioration from constant expansion and contraction, called fatigue. Beginning in the 19th century, a roofing material called “
381:
330:
a galvanized roof and galvanized gutters. Some galvanized sheet roofing was pressed with designs, a popular technique in the
Victorian era.
436:
Copper was also used for decorative purposes, including architectural ornaments, siding, ceilings or sculptures. One famous example is the
608:
spandrels. Art Deco designs frequently used aluminum for ornamental features. The first extensive use of aluminum in construction was the
380:
recycled indefinitely without loss to chemical or physical properties. The use of architectural grade zinc can help building qualify for
90:
62:
32:
463:
has been used for plating architectural details. Nickel is most frequently used for building components in the form of alloys:
728:
654:
69:
338:
and acanthus leaves provided popular decorative ornamentation of both exteriors and interiors by the late 19th century.
76:
771:
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in most architectural zinc available in North
America. Galvanized nails and sheet metal ducts are also common.
47:
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copper alloy, otherwise galvanic action between the dissimilar metals would occur, causing deterioration.
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226:
were frequently constructed of lead, until its health hazards were publicised in the late 19th century.
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242:” or “terneplate” was used, consisting of sheet iron or sheet steel coated with a lead-tin
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235:
534:,” which was actually sheets of iron dipped in molten tin to prevent them from rusting.
625:
616:. Today, aluminum is used frequently in construction except major structural members.
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slight blue, green or pink. Nickel silver hardware was popular in the US during the
542:
369:
259:
230:
138:
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472:
198:
558:, was developed in the late 19th century when steel wire was added to concrete.
877:, Washington: U.S. Dept. of the Interior, Heritage Conservation and Recreation.
365:
300:. Ornamental stamped metal made from tinplate was an affordable alternative to
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577:
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361:
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681:"Historic Decorative Metal Ceilings and Walls: Use, Repair, and Replacement"
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Metals in
America's Historic Buildings: Uses and Preservation Treatments
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410:
341:
721:
Cheap, Quick, & Easy: Imitative
Architectural Materials, 1870-1930
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Cheap, Quick, & Easy: Imitative Architectural Materials, 1870-1930
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Terminal in New York City in 1909. In 1936, the copper roof on the
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certification due to its high recycled content and sustainability.
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161:, in a range of applications including roofing and decoration; and
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723:. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. p. 35.
649:. Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press. p. 31.
165:, which has structural and other uses in the form of
229:Lead is not subject to rust and has been a popular
517:was a major 19th century building material of the
882:
197:, mainly consisting of nickel and copper; and
561:Decorative steels used in buildings include:
48:introducing citations to additional sources
443:Copper alloys used in architecture include
201:, with important components of nickel and
873:Gayle, Margot and Waite, John G. (1980),
746:"Architectural Zinc: From Gray to Green"
454:
387:
115:Copper belfry of St. Laurentius church,
110:
38:Relevant discussion may be found on the
718:
644:
883:
719:Simpson, Pamela H. (28 January 2015).
580:experimented with the material in the
499:
401:is a very durable metal, withstanding
344:paints were nontoxic and resistant to
678:
15:
860:Gayle & Waite (1980), pp 84-88.
827:Gayle & Waite (1980), pp 42-83.
818:Gayle & Waite (1980), pp 35-40.
800:Gayle & Waite (1980), pp 22-34.
709:Gayle & Waite (1980), pp 15-21.
700:Gayle & Waite (1980), pp 12-13.
13:
669:Gayle & Waite (1980), pp 8-11.
447:, an alloy of copper and tin, and
14:
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743:
409:that variably consists of copper
246:. It is frequently confused with
842:Aluminium for Future Generations
31:relies largely or entirely on a
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854:
830:
821:
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809:Gayle & Waite (1980), p 35.
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451:, an alloy of copper and zinc.
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554:. Ferro concrete, also called
325:Zinc-coated metals were first
208:
1:
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588:
493:New York City Public Library
405:when forming a bluish-green
7:
645:Simpson, Pamela H. (1999).
619:
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927:
867:
752:. McGraw Hill Construction
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368:of steel as well. Today,
185:(mainly copper and tin);
181:used in building include
459:Although somewhat rare,
597:is highly resistant to
312:
213:
394:Copper in architecture
269:
119:
117:Bad Neuenahr-Ahrweiler
59:"Architectural metals"
891:Architectural history
776:www.metaltech-usa.com
679:Staveteig, Kaaren R.
610:Empire State Building
519:Industrial Revolution
489:Pennsylvania Railroad
455:Nickel and its alloys
388:Copper and its alloys
114:
44:improve this article
911:Sculpture materials
838:"Global Metal Flow"
688:Preservation Briefs
556:reinforced concrete
500:Iron and its alloys
236:mid-Atlantic states
189:(copper and zinc);
896:Building materials
782:on 11 October 2014
626:Building materials
593:Much like copper,
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730:978-1-62190-157-0
656:978-1-62190-157-0
584:building in 1964.
570:Chrysler Building
523:Bradbury Building
438:Statue of Liberty
129:purposes include
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141:, and windows;
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55:Find sources:
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33:single source
29:This article
27:
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906:Metalworking
901:Construction
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845:. Retrieved
841:
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814:
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784:. Retrieved
780:the original
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508:Wrought iron
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171:wrought iron
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548:terra-cotta
532:tin ceiling
469:Monel metal
429:and domes.
302:plasterwork
287:tin ceiling
224:Water pipes
209:Metal types
191:monel metal
135:water pipes
885:Categories
847:2014-08-15
632:References
582:John Deere
552:insulation
411:carbonates
342:Zinc oxide
334:rosettes,
100:April 2014
70:newspapers
786:20 August
756:20 August
614:spandrels
605:Aluminium
599:corrosion
595:Aluminium
589:Aluminium
541:When the
515:Cast iron
423:chlorides
403:corrosion
346:pollution
167:cast iron
159:aluminium
125:used for
40:talk page
690:(49): 1.
620:See also
481:Art Deco
419:sulfides
415:sulfates
374:titanium
327:patented
293:Tinplate
281:to form
248:tinplate
218:The low
203:chromium
177:. Metal
147:tinplate
868:Sources
427:cupolas
306:asphalt
139:roofing
84:scholar
772:"Zinc"
727:
653:
471:, and
461:nickel
445:bronze
421:, and
407:patina
399:Copper
354:patina
283:bronze
279:copper
183:bronze
179:alloys
155:copper
133:, for
123:Metals
86:
79:
72:
65:
57:
684:(PDF)
538:Steel
449:brass
358:brass
317:Pure
253:Lead
244:alloy
240:terne
187:brass
175:steel
91:JSTOR
77:books
788:2014
758:2014
725:ISBN
651:ISBN
382:LEED
360:and
319:zinc
313:Zinc
255:came
214:Lead
193:and
163:iron
157:and
151:zinc
131:lead
63:news
275:Tin
270:Tin
169:or
143:tin
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