914:
1199:, have been referred to using a number of different terms. Apical post-alveolar consonants are often called retroflex, while laminal articulations are sometimes called palato-alveolar; in the Australianist literature, these laminal stops are often described as 'palatal' though they are produced further forward than the palate region typically described as palatal. Because of individual anatomical variation, the precise articulation of palato-alveolar stops (and coronals in general) can vary widely within a speech community.
6497:
1350:(also referred to as plosives) are consonants where the airstream is completely obstructed. Pressure builds up in the mouth during the stricture, which is then released as a small burst of sound when the articulators move apart. The velum is raised so that air cannot flow through the nasal cavity. If the velum is lowered and allows for air to flow through the nose, the result in a nasal stop. However, phoneticians almost always refer to nasal stops as just "nasals".
1598:
7022:
7002:
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6895:
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6837:
6801:
6759:
6723:
6694:
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6607:
6571:
6542:
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121:
25:
1881:, the lips or the tongue (i.e., the buccal or lingual valve) are initially closed and the closed glottis (the laryngeal piston) is raised decreasing the oral cavity volume behind the valve closure and increasing the pressure compared to the volume and pressure at a resting state. When the closed valve is opened, airflow will result from the cavity behind the initial closure outward until intraoral pressure is equal to
2189:(or EPG). In order to collect EPG data, the speaker is fitted with a special prosthetic palate, which contains a number of electrodes. The way in which the electrodes are "contacted" by the tongue during speech provides phoneticians with important information, such as how much of the palate is contacted in different speech sounds, or which regions of the palate are contacted, or what the duration of the contact is.
7054:
6066:
5225:
1047:
Unlike most other articulations, both articulators are made from soft tissue, and so bilabial stops are more likely to be produced with incomplete closures than articulations involving hard surfaces like the teeth or palate. Bilabial stops are also unusual in that an articulator in the upper section of the vocal tract actively moves downwards, as the upper lip shows some active downward movement.
66:
1184:
can occur in several different locations on the roof of the mouth including alveolar, post-alveolar, and palatal regions. If the underside of the tongue tip makes contact with the roof of the mouth, it is sub-apical though apical post-alveolar sounds are also described as retroflex. Typical examples of sub-apical retroflex stops are commonly found in
1021:. These divisions are not sufficient for distinguishing and describing all speech sounds. For example, in English the sounds and are both coronal, but they are produced in different places of the mouth. To account for this, more detailed places of articulation are needed based upon the area of the mouth in which the constriction occurs.
1040:. Ladefoged and Maddieson (1996) propose that linguolabial articulations be considered coronals rather than labials, but make clear this grouping, like all groupings of articulations, is equivocal and not cleanly divided. Linguolabials are included in this section as labials given their use of the lips as a place of articulation.
850:
cavities, the velopharyngeal port, which regulates between the oral and nasal cavities, the tongue, which regulates between the oral cavity and the atmosphere, and the lips, which also regulate between the oral cavity and the atmosphere. Like the pistons, the air valves are also controlled by various muscles.
2181:
is one of the oldest instrumental phonetic techniques used to record data regarding articulators. In traditional, static palatography, a speaker's palate is coated with a dark powder. The speaker then produces a word, usually with a single consonant. The tongue wipes away some of the powder at the
1901:
Sound sources refer to the conversion of aerodynamic energy into acoustic energy. There are two main types of sound sources in the articulatory system: periodic (or more precisely semi-periodic) and aperiodic. A periodic sound source is vocal fold vibration produced at the glottis found in vowels and
1156:
Crosslinguistically, dental consonants and alveolar consonants are frequently contrasted leading to a number of generalizations of crosslinguistic patterns. The different places of articulation tend to also be contrasted in the part of the tongue used to produce them: most languages with dental stops
1088:
are made with the blade of the tongue approaching or contacting the upper lip. Like in bilabial articulations, the upper lip moves slightly towards the more active articulator. Articulations in this group do not have their own symbols in the
International Phonetic Alphabet, rather, they are formed by
858:
To produce any kind of sound, there must be movement of air. To produce sounds that people can interpret as spoken words, the movement of air must pass through the vocal folds, up through the throat and, into the mouth or nose to then leave the body. Different sounds are formed by different positions
1435:
between two articulatory closures, producing a loud 'click' sound when the anterior closure is released. The release of the anterior closure is referred to as the click influx. The release of the posterior closure, which can be velar or uvular, is the click efflux. Clicks are used in several
African
1142:
are made with the tip or blade of the tongue and the upper teeth. They are divided into two groups based upon the part of the tongue used to produce them: apical dental consonants are produced with the tongue tip touching the teeth; interdental consonants are produced with the blade of the tongue as
1383:
are consonants in which the airstream is obstructed along the center of the vocal tract, allowing the airstream to flow freely on one or both sides. Laterals have also been defined as consonants in which the tongue is contracted in such a way that the airstream is greater around the sides than over
1306:
Glottal consonants are those produced using the vocal folds in the larynx. Because the vocal folds are the source of phonation and below the oro-nasal vocal tract, a number of glottal consonants are impossible such as a voiced glottal stop. Three glottal consonants are possible, a voiceless glottal
662:
can be produced by expelling air from the lungs. However, to vary the sound quality in a way useful for speaking, two speech organs normally move towards each other to contact each other to create an obstruction that shapes the air in a particular fashion. The point of maximum obstruction is called
2095:
1405:
gestures where the tongue is thrown against the roof of the mouth, comparable to a very rapid stop. These terms are sometimes used interchangeably, but some phoneticians make a distinction. In a tap, the tongue contacts the roof in a single motion whereas in a flap the tongue moves tangentially to
1183:
have several different definitions depending on whether the position of the tongue or the position on the roof of the mouth is given prominence. In general, they represent a group of articulations in which the tip of the tongue is curled upwards to some degree. In this way, retroflex articulations
1035:
Articulations involving the lips can be made in three different ways: with both lips (bilabial), with one lip and the teeth (labiodental), and with the tongue and the upper lip (linguolabial). Depending on the definition used, some or all of these kinds of articulations may be categorized into the
849:
regulate airflow between cavities. Airflow occurs when an air valve is open and there is a pressure difference between the connecting cavities. When an air valve is closed, there is no airflow. The air valves are the vocal folds (the glottis), which regulate between the supraglottal and subglottal
1115:
Coronal consonants are made with the tip or blade of the tongue and, because of the agility of the front of the tongue, represent a variety not only in place but in the posture of the tongue. The coronal places of articulation represent the areas of the mouth where the tongue contacts or makes a
1046:
are made with both lips. In producing these sounds the lower lip moves farthest to meet the upper lip, which also moves down slightly, though in some cases the force from air moving through the aperture (opening between the lips) may cause the lips to separate faster than they can come together.
1081:
which would require the stop portion of the affricate to be a labiodental stop, though
Ladefoged and Maddieson (1996) raise the possibility that labiodental affricates involve a bilabial closure like "pf" in German. Unlike plosives and affricates, labiodental nasals are common across languages.
1840:
resulting in a subglottal pressure that has increased to a pressure that is greater than atmospheric pressure. If the vocal fold valve is subsequently opened, the previously two separate cavities become one unified cavity although the cavities will still be aerodynamically isolated because the
1238:
with vowels and can be produced as far forward as the hard palate or as far back as the uvula. These variations are typically divided into front, central, and back velars in parallel with the vowel space. They can be hard to distinguish phonetically from palatal consonants, though are produced
2093:
1832:(or negatively correlated) to each other. As applied to a description of the subglottal cavity, when the lung pistons contract the lungs, the volume of the subglottal cavity decreases while the subglottal air pressure increases. Conversely, if the lungs are expanded, the pressure decreases.
1245:
are made by the tongue body contacting or approaching the uvula. They are rare, occurring in an estimated 19 percent of languages, and large regions of the
Americas and Africa have no languages with uvular consonants. In languages with uvular consonants, stops are most frequent followed by
1902:
voiced consonants. A less common periodic sound source is the vibration of an oral articulator like the tongue found in alveolar trills. Aperiodic sound sources are the turbulent noise of fricative consonants and the short-noise burst of plosive releases produced in the oral cavity.
1390:
are consonants in which the tongue or lips are set in motion by the airstream. The stricture is formed in such a way that the airstream causes a repeating pattern of opening and closing of the soft articulator(s). Apical trills typically consist of two or three periods of vibration.
2096:
2094:
2182:
place of articulation. The experimenter can then use a mirror to photograph the entire upper surface of the speaker's mouth. This photograph, in which the place of articulation can be seen as the area where the powder has been removed, is called a palatogram.
1343:
Knowing the place of articulation is not enough to fully describe a consonant, the way in which the stricture happens is equally important. Manners of articulation describe how exactly the active articulator modifies, narrows or closes off the vocal tract.
1835:
A situation can be considered where (1) the vocal fold valve is closed separating the supraglottal cavity from the subglottal cavity, (2) the mouth is open and, therefore, supraglottal air pressure is equal to atmospheric pressure, and (3) the lungs are
1161:(ǃXóõ) is a counterexample to this pattern. If a language has only one of a dental stop or an alveolar stop, it will usually be laminal if it is a dental stop, and the stop will usually be apical if it is an alveolar stop, though for example
1784:
1219:
are made using the tongue body against the hard palate on the roof of the mouth. They are frequently contrasted with velar or uvular consonants, though it is rare for a language to contrast all three simultaneously, with
1845:
states that the pressure within a system must be equal throughout the system. When the subglottal pressure is greater than supraglottal pressure, there is a pressure inequality in the unified cavity. Since pressure is a
1540:
The velum—or soft palate—controls airflow through the nasal cavity. Nasals and nasalized sounds are produced by lowering the velum and allowing air to escape through the nose. Vowels are normally produced with the
1827:
at a later time 2. This means that if there is an increase in the volume of cavity, there will be a corresponding decrease in pressure of that same cavity, and vice versa. In other words, volume and pressure are
1413:, the glottis is closed, trapping a body of air. This allows for the remaining air in the vocal tract to be moved separately. An upward movement of the closed glottis will move this air out, resulting in it an
2092:
1001:
need to be known. In most cases, the active articulators are the lips and tongue. The passive articulator is the surface on which the constriction is created. Constrictions made by the lips are called
1964:. Voiceless sounds are not very prominent unless there is some turbulence, as in the stops, fricatives, and affricates; this is why sonorants in general only occur voiced. The exception is during
3567:
1920:. Voicing is caused by the vocal cords held close by each other, so that air passing through them makes them vibrate. All normally spoken vowels are voiced, as are all other sonorants except
1960:). All the rest are voiceless sounds, with the vocal cords held far enough apart that there is no vibration; however, there is still a certain amount of audible friction, as in the sound
3603:
1870:
found in the subglottal cavity move to the supraglottal cavity. This movement of mass is airflow. The airflow will continue until a pressure equilibrium is reached. Similarly, in an
1679:
1234:. They are incredibly common cross-linguistically; almost all languages have a velar stop. Because both velars and vowels are made using the tongue body, they are highly affected by
1157:
have laminal dentals, while languages with alveolar stops usually have apical stops. Languages rarely have two consonants in the same place with a contrast in laminality, though
835:
are made with this airstream mechanism. The tongue body creates a velaric airstream by changing the pressure within the oral cavity: the tongue body changes the mouth subcavity.
1325:
of the following vowel in this language. Glottal stops, especially between vowels, do usually not form a complete closure. True glottal stops normally occur only when they are
3577:
1192:
the contrastive difference between dental and alveolar stops is a slight retroflexion of the alveolar stop. Acoustically, retroflexion tends to affect the higher formants.
2284:
Although sound is just air pressure variations, the variations must be at a high enough rate to be perceived as sound. If the variation is too slow, it will be inaudible.
1464:(i.e. the vocal folds are vibrating). Except in some marginal cases, the vocal tract is open, so that the airstream is able to escape without generating fricative noise.
3587:
3572:
1370:(sometimes referred to as nasal stops) are consonants in which there's a closure in the oral cavity and the velum is lowered, allowing air to flow through the nose.
783:
external to the articulatory stem may also be considered an air cavity whose potential connecting points with respect to the body are the nostrils and the lips.
3557:
887:(into the vocal tract). In pulmonic sounds, the airstream is produced by the lungs in the subglottal system and passes through the larynx and vocal tract.
805:
refers to the change. Since changes in air pressures between connected cavities lead to airflow between the cavities, initiation is also referred to as an
1687:
875:
exhaled from the lungs. The respiratory organs used to create and modify airflow are divided into three regions: the vocal tract (supralaryngeal), the
3534:
3524:
827:
airstream mechanism by changing the volume of the supraglottal and subglottal cavities via vertical movement of the larynx (with a closed glottis).
1557:
The tongue is a highly flexible organ that is capable of being moved in many different ways. For vowel articulation the principal variations are
743:. The main air cavities present in the articulatory system are the supraglottal cavity and the subglottal cavity. They are so-named because the
3519:
1089:
combining an apical symbol with a diacritic implicitly placing them in the coronal category. They exist in a number of languages indigenous to
6426:
4472:
4218:
1169:
do not follow this pattern. If a language has both an apical and laminal stop, then the laminal stop is more likely to be affricated like in
1005:. Constrictions can be made in several parts of the vocal tract, broadly classified into coronal, dorsal and radical places of articulation.
4486:
4479:
4225:
4700:
4458:
4204:
1885:. That is, air will flow from a cavity of higher pressure to a cavity of lower pressure until the equilibrium point; the pressure as
1364:
are a special type of fricative where the turbulent airstream is directed towards the teeth, creating a high-pitched hissing sound.
3469:
6215:
4493:
4190:
1317:, are notably common in the world's languages. While many languages use them to demarcate phrase boundaries, some languages like
1153:
are made with the tip or blade of the tongue at the alveolar ridge just behind the teeth and can similarly be apical or laminal.
38:
6388:
6318:
6254:
6177:
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4211:
1569:. A less common variation in vowel quality can be produced by a change in the shape of the front of the tongue, resulting in a
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the tip of the tongue sticks out in front of the teeth. No language is known to use both contrastively though they may exist
1360:
are consonants where the airstream is made turbulent by partially, but not completely, obstructing part of the vocal tract.
1116:
constriction, and include dental, alveolar, and post-alveolar locations. Tongue postures using the tip of the tongue can be
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that studies articulation and ways that humans produce speech. Articulatory phoneticians explain how humans produce speech
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Consonants are pronounced in the vocal tract, usually in the mouth. In order to describe the place of articulation, the
683:. The lips then release suddenly, causing a burst of sound. The place of articulation of this sound is therefore called
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5532:
5518:
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5446:
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Fujimura, Osamu (1961). "Bilabial stop and nasal consonants: A motion picture study and its acoustical implications".
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3020:"Real-time MRI of Speaking at a Resolution of 33 ms: Undersampled Radial FLASH with Nonlinear Inverse Reconstruction"
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body, and the physiological structures used to manipulate lung volume (in particular, the floor and the walls of the
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168:
102:
52:
1128:
if the tongue tip is curled back and the bottom of the tongue is used. Coronals are unique as a group in that every
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The lips play a major role in vowel articulation. It is generally believed that two major variables are in effect:
1097:, though early descriptions referred to them as apical-labial consonants. The name "linguolabial" was suggested by
7108:
6922:
6701:
6656:
6221:
6203:
5148:
4416:
4172:
3478:
2229:
2029:
1532:. There is discussion of whether this vowel feature (ATR) is different from the Tense/Lax distinction in vowels.
1488:. Its position creates different vibration patterns to distinguish voiced and voiceless sounds. In addition, the
1061:
occur in any natural language, though a number of languages are reported to have labiodental plosives including
6873:
6828:
6714:
6131:
6070:
6065:
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5229:
5224:
5030:
4937:
4583:
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3945:
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are well known for the large number of coronal contrasts exhibited within and across languages in the region.
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5881:
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6421:
6117:
6012:
6001:
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5155:
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4158:
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3562:
3462:
3427:
6902:
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5182:
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4236:
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2199:
143:
44:
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4735:
4622:
4528:
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2128:
1057:
while labiodental nasals are also typologically common. There is debate as to whether true labiodental
1508:
The pharynx is the region of the vocal tract below the velum and above the larynx. Vowels may be made
1284:
are made with the epiglottis and the back wall of the pharynx. Epiglottal stops have been recorded in
7013:
6750:
6520:
6416:
6035:
5955:
5944:
5546:
5504:
5474:
5432:
4806:
4514:
4409:
4332:
4250:
4165:
4088:
3995:
3846:
3817:
2146:
1377:, the articulators come close together, but not to such an extent that allows a turbulent airstream.
859:
of the mouth—or, as linguists call it, "the oral cavity" (to distinguish it from the nasal cavity).
6980:
6792:
6578:
6093:
5971:
5539:
5467:
5191:
4788:
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4711:
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refers to the fact that they are used to initiate a change in the volumes of air cavities, and, by
520:
139:
1427:
are stops in which tongue movement causes air to be sucked in the mouth, this is referred to as a
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Forschungberichte des
Intituts für Phonetik und Sprachliche Kommunikation der Universität München
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581:
298:
1213:
Dorsal consonants are those consonants made using the tongue body rather than the tip or blade.
755:, separates the two cavities. The supraglottal cavity or the orinasal cavity is divided into an
6808:
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5361:
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3729:
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2234:
2204:
1829:
1610:
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the center of the tongue. The first definition does not allow for air to flow over the tongue.
1338:
1129:
1085:
671:
510:
269:
3353:
Maddieson, Ian (1993). "Investigating Ewe articulations with electromagnetic articulography".
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Seeing Speech – with reference examples of IPA sounds using MRI and ultrasound tongue imaging
3407:
3173:
Keating, Patricia; Lahiri, Aditi (1993). "Fronted Velars, Palatalized Velars, and
Palatals".
2254:
2214:
2209:
2041:
1810:
1417:. Alternatively, the glottis can lower, sucking more air into the mouth, which results in an
1374:
1278:. Due to production difficulties, only fricatives and approximants can be produced this way.
1050:
908:
679:
sound, the lips come together tightly, blocking the air momentarily and causing a buildup of
665:
525:
418:
245:
867:
Consonants are speech sounds that are articulated with a complete or partial closure of the
6267:
5793:
5773:
5751:
5689:
5402:
5341:
4664:
4016:
3867:
3769:
2123:
2058:
1882:
1586:
1281:
1271:
1133:
1053:
are made by the lower lip rising to the upper teeth. Labiodental consonants are most often
891:
sounds use an airstream created by movements of the larynx without airflow from the lungs.
380:
201:
3447:
1467:
Variation in vowel quality is produced by means of the following articulatory structures:
8:
7068:
6331:
5935:
5822:
5813:
5722:
5660:
5409:
5395:
5313:
4835:
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2239:
2186:
2047:
2018:
1878:
1418:
1357:
1351:
1185:
1180:
1125:
888:
872:
807:
438:
370:
356:
289:
135:
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as a result of lowering the soft palate. Many languages use nasalization contrastively.
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6354:
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5278:
4037:
3881:
3739:
3719:
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3268:
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In order to understand how sounds are made, experimental procedures are often adopted.
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225:
215:
185:
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structures. Generally, articulatory phonetics is concerned with the transformation of
6779:
6310:
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5320:
5247:
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3696:
3582:
3386:
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3252:
3248:
3190:
3134:
3041:
2954:
2118:
2070:
2013:
2008:
1908:
is a common period sound source in spoken language and is related to how closely the
1905:
1509:
1461:
1437:
1428:
1380:
1301:
1288:. Voiced epiglottal consonants are not deemed possible due to the cavity between the
1259:
1242:
1208:
1121:
1030:
1014:
1006:
756:
648:
airflow. Acoustic energy is variation in the air pressure that can be represented as
487:
408:
342:
274:
264:
234:
3053:
6589:
5643:
5334:
5292:
3764:
3734:
3701:
3691:
3219:
3202:
3182:
3126:
3031:
2113:
2076:
2023:
1886:
1779:{\displaystyle {\frac {V_{1}}{(V_{1}+\Delta V)}}={\frac {(P_{1}+\Delta P)}{P_{1}}}}
1570:
1402:
1322:
1227:
1139:
1117:
1037:
1010:
884:
633:
337:
284:
259:
254:
1321:
have them as contrastive phonemes. Additionally, glottal stops can be realized as
1274:
are made by retracting the root of the tongue far enough to touch the wall of the
899:
of air using the tongue, followed by releasing the forward closure of the tongue.
6913:
6647:
6104:
5634:
5327:
4756:
3759:
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2166:
2108:
1842:
1441:
1424:
1387:
1367:
1318:
1285:
1174:
1098:
1094:
1078:
892:
880:
836:
653:
546:
375:
327:
279:
6819:
1890:
1614:
1398:
1394:
1347:
1235:
1170:
1162:
1101:
given that they are produced with the blade rather than the tip of the tongue.
1070:
794:
691:
641:
2451:
7102:
6478:
5995:
5837:
5251:
2136:
2101:
1866:, the pressure inequality will be resolved by having part of the mass in air
1489:
1062:
823:
airstream (found in all human languages). The larynx is used to initiate the
767:(the cavity from the velopharyngeal port, which can be closed by raising the
614:
500:
474:
448:
428:
1307:
stop and two glottal fricatives, and all are attested in natural languages.
6324:
4046:
3138:
3045:
3018:
Niebergall, A; Zhang, S; Kunay, E; Keydana, G; Job, M; et al. (2010).
2178:
1859:
1851:
1310:
811:. The three pistons present in the articulatory system are the larynx, the
764:
680:
637:
469:
433:
3194:
3130:
7076:
6490:
6473:
6247:
5767:
4571:
3640:
3618:
3443:
Interactive Flash website for
American English, Spanish and German sounds
2264:
2244:
2141:
1606:
1582:
1566:
1546:
1542:
1493:
1457:
1432:
1314:
1231:
913:
896:
868:
768:
748:
728:
710:
649:
629:
618:
464:
332:
6955:
6483:
3781:
3635:
2053:
1965:
1909:
1545:
raised so that no air escapes through the nose. However, vowels may be
1326:
1265:
1247:
1002:
839:
use the velaric airstream mechanism. Pistons are controlled by various
780:
3231:
3186:
3036:
3019:
2570:
2522:
1562:
1492:
of the vowel is changed by altering the frequency of vibration of the
6741:
6243:
5484:
5417:
4303:
4059:
3663:
2904:
2868:
2390:
2388:
2249:
2224:
2161:
2156:
1875:
1597:
1497:
1177:
show the opposite pattern with alveolar stops being more affricated.
1144:
1074:
1054:
832:
824:
625:
606:
404:
393:
322:
317:
307:
193:
1558:
1496:. In some languages there are contrasts among vowels with different
1195:
Articulations taking place just behind the alveolar ridge, known as
7047:
6378:
6300:
6294:
6059:
5218:
4056:
3223:
2713:
2711:
2698:
2696:
2633:
2587:
2585:
2510:
2500:
2498:
2483:
2473:
2471:
2405:
2403:
1912:
are placed together. In
English there are only two possibilities,
1867:
1790:
1361:
1354:
are a sequence of stops followed by a fricative in the same place.
828:
820:
798:
732:
3163:
3154:
2834:
2832:
2597:
2558:
2462:
2385:
2373:
6151:
5355:
3911:
3613:
3422:
2856:
2844:
2817:
2805:
2795:
2793:
2791:
2776:
2754:
2752:
2750:
1841:
glottic valve between them is relatively small and constrictive.
1813:
of these two values will be equal to the product of the pressure
1481:
1289:
1275:
1090:
1058:
1018:
744:
697:
515:
505:
423:
312:
2892:
2735:
2723:
2708:
2693:
2669:
2621:
2609:
2582:
2546:
2495:
2468:
2400:
2880:
2829:
2337:
2325:
2002:
1800:
1485:
1453:
1221:
876:
840:
812:
786:
752:
736:
621:
3376:. Leipzig: Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
3072:(3rd ed.). Harcourt Brace College Publishers. p. 60.
2788:
2764:
2747:
2313:
6454:
3608:
3418:
QMU's CASL Research Centre site for ultrasound tongue imaging
3367:
3210:
Ladefoged, Peter (1960). "The Value of
Phonetic Statements".
3112:. Bantu Studies. Johannesburg: Wiwatersrand University Press.
2219:
1987:
Lower limit: 70–80 Hz modal (bass), 30–40 Hz creaky
1978:
1847:
1239:
slightly behind the area of prototypical palatal consonants.
846:
816:
628:
energy. Aerodynamic energy refers to the airflow through the
610:
347:
1264:
Radical consonants either use the root of the tongue or the
3477:
3017:
2645:
1855:
776:
740:
1789:
What the above equations express is that given an initial
2132:
1158:
879:, and the subglottal system. The airstream can be either
760:
2303:
2301:
1617:
can usefully be written as the following two equations.
1013:
articulations are made with the back of the tongue, and
871:. They are generally produced by the modification of an
669:, and the way the obstruction forms and releases is the
2044:(medial compression/fold stiffening, internal to folds)
16:
A branch of linguistics studying how humans make sounds
3338:. New York: Continuum International Publishing Group.
1484:
is the opening between the vocal folds located in the
1452:
Vowels are produced by the passage of air through the
2657:
2534:
2427:
2298:
1690:
1626:
1009:
articulations are made with the front of the tongue,
709:
The vocal tract can be viewed through an aerodynamic-
5256:
Shaded areas denote articulations judged impossible.
2439:
2349:
3370:. In Dryer, Matthew S.; Haspelmath, Martin (eds.).
2681:
2361:
1190:
languages indigenous to the southwest United States
3314:
3267:
3240:
3157:Handbook of the International Phonetic Association
2910:
2898:
2874:
2862:
2850:
2823:
2811:
2782:
2741:
2729:
2717:
2702:
2675:
2639:
2627:
2615:
2603:
2591:
2576:
2564:
2552:
2528:
2516:
2504:
2489:
2477:
2409:
2394:
2379:
2343:
2331:
2319:
1778:
1673:
1292:and epiglottis being too small to permit voicing.
130:may lack focus or may be about more than one topic
7100:
3292:
2886:
2838:
2799:
2770:
2758:
2415:
2969:Stated in a less abbreviatory fashion: pressure
1406:the roof of the mouth, striking it in passing.
1224:as a possible example of a three-way contrast.
917:Passive and active places of articulation: (1)
3011:
3005:and the change in pressure divided by pressure
134:Please help improve this article, possibly by
6427:Voiceless bilabially post-trilled dental stop
3463:
3373:The World Atlas of Language Structures Online
3172:
2651:
582:
3408:Interactive place and manner of articulation
1968:, when all sounds pronounced are voiceless.
1854:by definition and a force is the product of
3164:International Phonetic Association (2015).
3155:International Phonetic Association (1999).
1924:, as well as some of the remaining sounds (
1230:are made using the tongue body against the
819:). The lung pistons are used to initiate a
713:model that includes three main components:
53:Learn how and when to remove these messages
3470:
3456:
2085:
589:
575:
3525:Extensions for disordered speech (extIPA)
3365:
3352:
3315:Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996).
3265:
3238:
3209:
3148:The classification of the Bantu languages
3067:
3035:
2663:
2355:
2307:
1670:
1332:
1124:if made with the blade of the tongue, or
771:). The subglottal cavity consists of the
169:Learn how and when to remove this message
103:Learn how and when to remove this message
3116:
3098:
2921:
2919:
2445:
2367:
2089:
1596:
912:
902:
652:, which are then perceived by the human
3383:A reference grammar of modern Bulgarian
3380:
3145:
3103:. Pretoria: University of South Africa.
2945:
2943:
2941:
2939:
2937:
2935:
2540:
2463:International Phonetic Association 2015
2433:
1996:
1674:{\displaystyle P_{1}V_{1}=P_{2}V_{2}\,}
895:consonants are articulated through the
7101:
3695:
3119:Journal of Speech and Hearing Research
3001:and change in volume = sum of pressure
1528:. Vowels may also be articulated with
6452:
5934:
5633:
5349:
3773:
3768:
3763:
3758:
3753:
3748:
3743:
3738:
3733:
3728:
3723:
3718:
3705:
3700:
3690:
3661:
3496:
3451:
3333:
3168:. International Phonetic Association.
2916:
2687:
1295:
1253:
1104:
6463:
6404:
6097:
5307:
5268:
3677:
3336:A Critical Introduction to Phonetics
3107:
2932:
2421:
1889:is, thus, converted into airflow as
1431:. During the click, the air becomes
1202:
1120:if using the top of the tongue tip,
1024:
759:(the cavity from the glottis to the
138:the article and/or by introducing a
114:
59:
18:
6432:Voiceless nasal glottal approximant
5286:
5246:Symbols to the right in a cell are
3428:UCLA Electromagnetic articulography
3317:The Sounds of the World's Languages
2951:The Sounds of the World's Languages
2949:"Peter Ladefoged and Ian Maddieson
2185:Technology has since made possible
1990:Upper limit: 1170 Hz (soprano)
1971:
13:
5342:
3515:International Phonetic Association
3150:. London: Oxford University Press.
3110:The Phonetics of the Zulu Language
2929:, 1994, Cambridge University Press
1754:
1720:
1613:in the articulatory system. Thus,
763:excluding the nasal cavity) and a
75:tone or style may not reflect the
14:
7125:
7028:
7012:
6992:
6979:
6963:
6941:
6921:
6901:
6885:
6872:
6856:
6843:
6827:
6807:
6791:
6778:
6765:
6749:
6729:
6713:
6700:
6684:
6671:
6655:
6635:
6613:
6597:
6577:
6561:
6548:
6532:
6519:
6503:
6359:
6344:
6337:
6317:
6293:
6281:
6274:
6260:
6253:
6227:
6214:
6202:
6195:
6183:
6176:
6164:
6157:
6138:
6124:
6110:
6041:
6034:
6027:
6020:
6011:
6000:
5984:
5977:
5970:
5963:
5954:
5943:
5912:
5880:
5848:
5821:
5812:
5803:
5792:
5783:
5772:
5750:
5741:
5730:
5721:
5710:
5688:
5679:
5668:
5659:
5648:
5613:
5593:
5586:
5579:
5568:
5545:
5538:
5531:
5524:
5517:
5510:
5503:
5496:
5489:
5473:
5466:
5459:
5452:
5445:
5438:
5431:
5424:
5408:
5401:
5394:
5387:
5380:
5371:
5360:
5314:
5190:
5181:
5172:
5165:
5154:
5147:
5111:
5102:
5093:
5084:
5071:
5029:
5022:
5015:
5008:
5001:
4994:
4983:
4976:
4936:
4929:
4922:
4915:
4908:
4901:
4890:
4883:
4848:
4841:
4834:
4827:
4812:
4805:
4794:
4787:
4768:
4761:
4743:
4734:
4717:
4710:
4699:
4692:
4681:
4672:
4663:
4647:
4630:
4621:
4612:
4599:
4582:
4562:
4555:
4548:
4541:
4534:
4527:
4520:
4513:
4506:
4499:
4492:
4485:
4478:
4471:
4464:
4457:
4450:
4443:
4436:
4429:
4422:
4415:
4408:
4401:
4373:
4366:
4359:
4352:
4345:
4338:
4331:
4324:
4291:
4284:
4277:
4270:
4263:
4256:
4249:
4242:
4235:
4224:
4217:
4210:
4203:
4196:
4189:
4178:
4171:
4164:
4157:
4129:
4122:
4115:
4108:
4101:
4094:
4087:
4080:
4045:
4036:
4029:
4022:
4015:
4008:
4001:
3994:
3987:
3980:
3969:
3962:
3951:
3944:
3937:
3930:
3923:
3916:
3894:
3887:
3880:
3873:
3866:
3859:
3852:
3845:
3834:
3827:
3816:
3807:
3800:
3793:
3786:
3770:Pharyngeal/epiglottal
3401:
747:, the openable space between the
613:via the interaction of different
34:This article has multiple issues.
7052:
7020:
7000:
6971:
6929:
6893:
6864:
6835:
6799:
6757:
6721:
6692:
6663:
6627:
6605:
6569:
6540:
6511:
6495:
6064:
5300:
5279:
5223:
3568:Obsolete and nonstandard symbols
1977:Non-vocal fold vibration: 20–40
1896:
119:
85:guide to writing better articles
64:
23:
5321:
3479:International Phonetic Alphabet
3166:International Phonetic Alphabet
3076:
3061:
2987:
2963:
2230:International Phonetic Alphabet
2172:
2030:posterior cricoarytenoid muscle
1470:
1436:language families, such as the
142:, or discuss this issue on the
42:or discuss these issues on the
6412:Nasal labial–velar approximant
5335:
5293:
3662:
3588:IPA chart for English dialects
3497:
2911:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2899:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2875:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2863:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2851:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2824:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2812:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2783:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2742:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2730:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2718:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2703:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2640:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2628:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2616:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2604:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2592:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2577:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2565:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2553:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2529:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2517:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2505:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2490:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2478:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2410:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2395:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2380:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2344:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2332:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2320:Ladefoged & Maddieson 1996
2278:
2152:Electromagnetic articulography
1760:
1738:
1726:
1704:
1017:articulations are made in the
999:active and passive articulator
1:
5328:
3159:. Cambridge University Press.
2291:
2036:lateral cricoarytenoid muscle
1864:Newton's Second Law of Motion
1526:retraction of the tongue root
1411:glottalic airstream mechanism
862:
853:
704:
675:. For example, when making a
534:Theories of speech perception
6422:Voiceless bidental fricative
3530:Voice Quality Symbols (VoQS)
3091:
2887:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011
2839:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011
2800:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011
2771:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011
2759:Ladefoged & Johnson 2011
2038:(fold shortening/stiffening)
1605:For all practical purposes,
883:(out of the vocal tract) or
7:
3631:Phonetic symbols in Unicode
3413:Observing your articulators
3300:(6th ed.). Wadsworth.
2200:Index of phonetics articles
2192:
2100:Articulation visualized by
1401:are single, rapid, usually
689:, and the manner is called
10:
7130:
6453:
3099:Baumbach, E. J. M (1987).
2129:Magnetic resonance imaging
1601:Larynx, anterolateral view
1592:
1503:
1475:
1336:
1313:, produced by closing the
1299:
1257:
1206:
1108:
1028:
906:
6954:
6912:
6818:
6740:
6646:
6588:
6489:
6482:
6477:
6472:
6461:
6448:
6417:Nasal palatal approximant
6094:Co-articulated consonants
5994:
5939:
5902:
5870:
5835:
5766:
5704:
5642:
5603:
5555:
5483:
5416:
5354:
5340:
5333:
5326:
5319:
5312:
5305:
5298:
5291:
5284:
5277:
5275:
5127:
5049:
4956:
4860:
4755:
4655:
4570:
4397:
4301:
4153:
4055:
3910:
3780:
3712:
3684:
3670:
3657:
3596:
3550:
3507:
3503:
3492:
3438:UCLA Electrolaryngography
3296:; Johnson, Keith (2011).
3266:Ladefoged, Peter (2005).
3239:Ladefoged, Peter (2001).
3146:Guthrie, Malcolm (1948).
3101:Analytical Tsonga Grammar
3068:Ladefoged, Peter (1993).
2652:Keating & Lahiri 1993
2147:Ultrasound tongue imaging
1552:
1447:
789:are initiators. The term
3381:Scatton, Ernest (1984).
3274:(5th ed.). Boston:
3247:(4th ed.). Boston:
3108:Doke, Clement M (1926).
2997:divided by sum of volume
2271:
1535:
1197:post-alveolar consonants
801:of the cavity. The term
797:, the corresponding air
521:Neural encoding of sound
5266:Non-pulmonic consonants
4398:Non-sibilant fricative
4154:Non-sibilant affricate
3520:History of the alphabet
3366:Maddieson, Ian (2013).
2927:Principles of Phonetics
2086:Experimental techniques
1585:(or labialization) and
1576:
1086:Linguolabial consonants
299:Manners of articulation
7109:Articulatory phonetics
3578:Sinological extensions
2235:Articulatory phonology
2205:Manner of articulation
2104:
2024:interarytenoid muscles
1830:inversely proportional
1780:
1675:
1602:
1339:Manner of articulation
1333:Manner of articulation
1130:manner of articulation
1051:Labiodental consonants
994:
731:are containers of air
672:manner of articulation
603:articulatory phonetics
511:Categorical perception
246:Places of articulation
3319:. Oxford: Blackwell.
3298:A Course in Phonetics
3270:A Course in Phonetics
3243:A Course in Phonetics
3131:10.1044/jshr.0403.233
3070:A Course In Phonetics
2676:Ladefoged et al. 1996
2255:Relative articulation
2215:Basis of articulation
2210:Place of articulation
2099:
2042:thyroarytenoid muscle
1984:Vocal fold vibration
1781:
1676:
1600:
1573:or rhotacized vowel.
1561:and the dimension of
1282:Epiglottal consonants
1272:Pharyngeal consonants
916:
909:Place of articulation
903:Place of articulation
666:place of articulation
419:Fundamental frequency
5050:Lateral approximant
2579:, pp. 25, 27–8.
2531:, pp. 20, 40–1.
2124:Electrolaryngography
2059:sternothyroid muscle
1997:Vocal fold vibration
1883:atmospheric pressure
1688:
1624:
1530:advanced tongue root
1250:(including nasals).
1181:Retroflex consonants
1134:Australian languages
1038:labial articulations
439:Source–filter theory
357:Airstream mechanisms
3674:Pulmonic consonants
3368:"Uvular Consonants"
3334:Lodge, Ken (2009).
2953:, 1996, Blackwell;
2260:Source–filter model
2240:Airstream mechanism
2187:electropalatography
2048:cricothyroid muscle
2019:arytenoid cartilage
1981:(cycles per second)
1879:airstream mechanism
1419:implosive consonant
1268:during production.
1186:Dravidian languages
1151:Alveolar consonants
1044:Bilabial consonants
808:airstream mechanism
644:form is the actual
140:disambiguation page
5604:Lateral fricative
5250:, to the left are
4957:Lateral fricative
3745:Postalveolar
3730:Linguolabial
3573:Naming conventions
3536:Journal of the IPA
2913:, p. 246-247.
2877:, p. 230-231.
2105:
2065:sternohyoid muscle
2050:(fold lengthening)
1872:ejective consonant
1776:
1671:
1609:can be treated as
1603:
1460:. Most vowels are
1415:ejective consonant
1296:Glottal consonants
1254:Radical consonants
1217:Palatal consonants
1111:Coronal consonants
1105:Coronal consonants
995:
660:Respiratory sounds
565:Linguistics portal
542:Acoustic landmarks
202:Linguistics Series
7096:
7095:
7092:
7091:
7087:
7086:
7039:
7038:
6444:
6443:
6440:
6439:
6397:
6396:
6222:Uvular–epiglottal
6089:
6088:
6051:
6050:
5262:
5261:
5210:
5209:
5128:Lateral tap/flap
3725:Labiodental
3653:
3652:
3649:
3648:
3583:World Orthography
3345:978-0-8264-8873-2
3326:978-0-631-19815-4
3285:978-1-413-00688-9
3276:Thomson/Wadsworth
3258:978-1-413-00688-9
3249:Thomson/Wadsworth
3187:10.1159/000261928
3037:10.1002/mrm.24276
2642:, pp. 33–34.
2519:, pp. 19–25.
2492:, pp. 19–31.
2397:, pp. 17–18.
2382:, pp. 16–17.
2119:Photoglottography
2097:
2071:stylohyoid muscle
2014:thyroid cartilage
2009:cricoid cartilage
1774:
1730:
1429:velaric airstream
1302:Glottal consonant
1260:Radical consonant
1243:Uvular consonants
1209:Dorsal consonants
1203:Dorsal consonants
1140:Dental consonants
1031:Labial consonants
1025:Labial consonants
695:(also known as a
605:is a subfield of
599:
598:
559:
558:
482:
481:
388:
387:
179:
178:
171:
161:
160:
113:
112:
105:
79:used on Knowledge
77:encyclopedic tone
57:
7121:
7080:
7056:
7033:
7032:
7024:
7023:
7017:
7016:
7004:
7003:
6997:
6996:
6984:
6983:
6975:
6974:
6968:
6967:
6946:
6945:
6933:
6932:
6926:
6925:
6906:
6905:
6897:
6896:
6890:
6889:
6877:
6876:
6868:
6867:
6861:
6860:
6848:
6847:
6839:
6838:
6832:
6831:
6812:
6811:
6803:
6802:
6796:
6795:
6783:
6782:
6770:
6769:
6761:
6760:
6754:
6753:
6734:
6733:
6725:
6724:
6718:
6717:
6705:
6704:
6696:
6695:
6689:
6688:
6676:
6675:
6667:
6666:
6660:
6659:
6640:
6639:
6631:
6630:
6618:
6617:
6609:
6608:
6602:
6601:
6582:
6581:
6573:
6572:
6566:
6565:
6553:
6552:
6544:
6543:
6537:
6536:
6524:
6523:
6515:
6514:
6508:
6507:
6499:
6498:
6468:
6467:
6464:
6450:
6449:
6402:
6401:
6363:
6348:
6341:
6321:
6297:
6285:
6278:
6264:
6257:
6231:
6218:
6206:
6199:
6190:Labial–retroflex
6187:
6180:
6168:
6161:
6142:
6132:Labial–retroflex
6128:
6114:
6098:
6068:
6045:
6038:
6031:
6024:
6015:
6004:
5988:
5981:
5974:
5967:
5958:
5947:
5918:
5886:
5854:
5825:
5818:
5809:
5798:
5789:
5778:
5756:
5747:
5736:
5727:
5716:
5694:
5685:
5674:
5665:
5654:
5640:bottom: uvular)
5617:
5597:
5590:
5583:
5572:
5549:
5542:
5535:
5528:
5521:
5514:
5507:
5500:
5493:
5477:
5470:
5463:
5456:
5449:
5442:
5435:
5428:
5412:
5405:
5398:
5391:
5384:
5375:
5364:
5344:
5337:
5330:
5323:
5316:
5309:
5302:
5295:
5288:
5281:
5273:
5272:
5269:
5257:
5227:
5194:
5185:
5176:
5169:
5158:
5151:
5115:
5106:
5097:
5088:
5075:
5033:
5026:
5019:
5012:
5005:
4998:
4987:
4980:
4940:
4933:
4926:
4919:
4912:
4905:
4894:
4887:
4852:
4845:
4838:
4831:
4816:
4809:
4798:
4791:
4772:
4765:
4747:
4738:
4721:
4714:
4703:
4696:
4685:
4676:
4667:
4651:
4634:
4625:
4616:
4603:
4586:
4566:
4559:
4552:
4545:
4538:
4531:
4524:
4517:
4510:
4503:
4496:
4489:
4482:
4475:
4468:
4461:
4454:
4447:
4440:
4433:
4426:
4419:
4412:
4405:
4377:
4370:
4363:
4356:
4349:
4342:
4335:
4328:
4295:
4288:
4281:
4274:
4267:
4260:
4253:
4246:
4239:
4228:
4221:
4214:
4207:
4200:
4193:
4182:
4175:
4168:
4161:
4133:
4126:
4119:
4112:
4105:
4098:
4091:
4084:
4049:
4040:
4033:
4026:
4019:
4012:
4005:
3998:
3991:
3984:
3973:
3966:
3955:
3948:
3941:
3934:
3927:
3920:
3898:
3891:
3884:
3877:
3870:
3863:
3856:
3849:
3838:
3831:
3820:
3811:
3804:
3797:
3790:
3682:
3681:
3678:
3659:
3658:
3505:
3504:
3494:
3493:
3487:
3472:
3465:
3458:
3449:
3448:
3396:
3377:
3362:
3349:
3330:
3311:
3307:978-1-42823126-9
3294:Ladefoged, Peter
3289:
3273:
3262:
3246:
3235:
3206:
3169:
3160:
3151:
3142:
3113:
3104:
3085:
3080:
3074:
3073:
3065:
3059:
3057:
3039:
3024:Magn. Reson. Med
3015:
3009:
2991:
2985:
2967:
2961:
2947:
2930:
2923:
2914:
2908:
2902:
2896:
2890:
2884:
2878:
2872:
2866:
2860:
2854:
2848:
2842:
2836:
2827:
2821:
2815:
2809:
2803:
2797:
2786:
2780:
2774:
2768:
2762:
2756:
2745:
2739:
2733:
2727:
2721:
2715:
2706:
2700:
2691:
2685:
2679:
2673:
2667:
2661:
2655:
2649:
2643:
2637:
2631:
2625:
2619:
2613:
2607:
2606:, pp. 27–8.
2601:
2595:
2589:
2580:
2574:
2568:
2567:, pp. 23–5.
2562:
2556:
2550:
2544:
2538:
2532:
2526:
2520:
2514:
2508:
2502:
2493:
2487:
2481:
2475:
2466:
2460:
2449:
2443:
2437:
2431:
2425:
2419:
2413:
2407:
2398:
2392:
2383:
2377:
2371:
2365:
2359:
2353:
2347:
2341:
2335:
2329:
2323:
2317:
2311:
2305:
2285:
2282:
2114:Electromyography
2098:
2077:digastric muscle
2061:(lowers thyroid)
2032:(fold abduction)
2026:(fold adduction)
1972:Periodic sources
1887:potential energy
1785:
1783:
1782:
1777:
1775:
1773:
1772:
1763:
1750:
1749:
1736:
1731:
1729:
1716:
1715:
1702:
1701:
1692:
1680:
1678:
1677:
1672:
1669:
1668:
1659:
1658:
1646:
1645:
1636:
1635:
1524:) by means of a
1323:laryngealization
1228:Velar consonants
1077:are reported in
837:Click consonants
751:internal to the
591:
584:
577:
495:
494:
401:
400:
242:
241:
181:
180:
174:
167:
156:
153:
147:
123:
122:
115:
108:
101:
97:
94:
88:
87:for suggestions.
83:See Knowledge's
68:
67:
60:
49:
27:
26:
19:
7129:
7128:
7124:
7123:
7122:
7120:
7119:
7118:
7099:
7098:
7097:
7088:
7078:
7077:unrounded
7073:
7035:
7034:
7027:
7025:
7021:
7018:
7011:
7006:
7005:
7001:
6998:
6991:
6986:
6985:
6978:
6976:
6972:
6969:
6962:
6948:
6947:
6940:
6935:
6934:
6930:
6927:
6920:
6908:
6907:
6900:
6898:
6894:
6891:
6884:
6879:
6878:
6871:
6869:
6865:
6862:
6855:
6850:
6849:
6842:
6840:
6836:
6833:
6826:
6814:
6813:
6806:
6804:
6800:
6797:
6790:
6785:
6784:
6777:
6772:
6771:
6764:
6762:
6758:
6755:
6748:
6736:
6735:
6728:
6726:
6722:
6719:
6712:
6707:
6706:
6699:
6697:
6693:
6690:
6683:
6678:
6677:
6670:
6668:
6664:
6661:
6654:
6642:
6641:
6634:
6632:
6628:
6620:
6619:
6612:
6610:
6606:
6603:
6596:
6584:
6583:
6576:
6574:
6570:
6567:
6560:
6555:
6554:
6547:
6545:
6541:
6538:
6531:
6526:
6525:
6518:
6516:
6512:
6509:
6502:
6496:
6457:
6436:
6400:
6399:
6398:
6393:
6370:
6369:
6368:
6367:
6366:Labial–alveolar
6364:
6357:
6352:
6349:
6342:
6334:
6329:
6328:
6322:
6314:
6308:
6307:
6298:
6290:
6289:
6286:
6279:
6271:
6270:
6265:
6258:
6250:
6240:
6239:
6238:
6237:
6232:
6224:
6219:
6211:
6210:
6207:
6200:
6192:
6191:
6188:
6181:
6173:
6172:
6171:Labial–alveolar
6169:
6162:
6154:
6149:
6148:
6143:
6135:
6134:
6129:
6121:
6120:
6118:Labial–alveolar
6115:
6107:
6090:
6085:
5915:
5883:
5871:Voiced lateral
5851:
5826:
5815:
5806:
5795:
5786:
5775:
5753:
5744:
5733:
5724:
5713:
5691:
5682:
5671:
5662:
5651:
5639:
5637:
5255:
5244:
3750:Retroflex
3666:
3645:
3604:ASCII encodings
3592:
3546:
3499:
3488:
3481:
3476:
3404:
3399:
3393:
3346:
3327:
3308:
3286:
3259:
3094:
3089:
3088:
3081:
3077:
3066:
3062:
3016:
3012:
3008:
3004:
3000:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2984:
2980:
2976:
2972:
2968:
2964:
2948:
2933:
2924:
2917:
2909:
2905:
2897:
2893:
2885:
2881:
2873:
2869:
2861:
2857:
2849:
2845:
2837:
2830:
2822:
2818:
2810:
2806:
2798:
2789:
2781:
2777:
2769:
2765:
2757:
2748:
2740:
2736:
2728:
2724:
2716:
2709:
2701:
2694:
2686:
2682:
2674:
2670:
2662:
2658:
2650:
2646:
2638:
2634:
2626:
2622:
2614:
2610:
2602:
2598:
2590:
2583:
2575:
2571:
2563:
2559:
2551:
2547:
2539:
2535:
2527:
2523:
2515:
2511:
2503:
2496:
2488:
2484:
2476:
2469:
2461:
2452:
2444:
2440:
2432:
2428:
2420:
2416:
2408:
2401:
2393:
2386:
2378:
2374:
2366:
2362:
2354:
2350:
2342:
2338:
2330:
2326:
2318:
2314:
2306:
2299:
2294:
2289:
2288:
2283:
2279:
2274:
2269:
2195:
2175:
2167:Videokymography
2109:Plethysmography
2090:
2088:
1999:
1974:
1899:
1826:
1819:
1808:
1798:
1768:
1764:
1745:
1741:
1737:
1735:
1711:
1707:
1703:
1697:
1693:
1691:
1689:
1686:
1685:
1664:
1660:
1654:
1650:
1641:
1637:
1631:
1627:
1625:
1622:
1621:
1595:
1579:
1555:
1538:
1506:
1478:
1473:
1450:
1341:
1335:
1304:
1298:
1262:
1256:
1211:
1205:
1113:
1107:
1099:Floyd Lounsbury
1033:
1027:
911:
905:
865:
856:
765:nasal subcavity
707:
654:auditory system
595:
547:Exemplar theory
457:Phonation types
175:
164:
163:
162:
157:
151:
148:
133:
124:
120:
109:
98:
92:
89:
82:
73:This article's
69:
65:
28:
24:
17:
12:
11:
5:
7127:
7117:
7116:
7111:
7094:
7093:
7090:
7089:
7085:
7084:
7072:
7071:
7066:
7061:
7050:
7044:
7041:
7040:
7037:
7036:
7026:
7019:
7010:
7009:
7007:
6999:
6990:
6989:
6987:
6977:
6970:
6961:
6960:
6958:
6952:
6951:
6949:
6939:
6938:
6936:
6928:
6919:
6918:
6916:
6910:
6909:
6899:
6892:
6883:
6882:
6880:
6870:
6863:
6854:
6853:
6851:
6841:
6834:
6825:
6824:
6822:
6816:
6815:
6805:
6798:
6789:
6788:
6786:
6776:
6775:
6773:
6763:
6756:
6747:
6746:
6744:
6738:
6737:
6727:
6720:
6711:
6710:
6708:
6698:
6691:
6682:
6681:
6679:
6669:
6662:
6653:
6652:
6650:
6644:
6643:
6633:
6626:
6625:
6623:
6621:
6611:
6604:
6595:
6594:
6592:
6586:
6585:
6575:
6568:
6559:
6558:
6556:
6546:
6539:
6530:
6529:
6527:
6517:
6510:
6501:
6500:
6493:
6487:
6486:
6481:
6476:
6471:
6462:
6459:
6458:
6446:
6445:
6442:
6441:
6438:
6437:
6435:
6434:
6429:
6424:
6419:
6414:
6408:
6406:
6395:
6394:
6392:
6391:
6386:
6381:
6375:
6372:
6371:
6365:
6358:
6353:
6350:
6343:
6336:
6335:
6330:
6323:
6316:
6315:
6309:
6299:
6292:
6291:
6287:
6280:
6273:
6272:
6268:Labial–palatal
6266:
6259:
6252:
6251:
6242:
6241:
6233:
6226:
6225:
6220:
6213:
6212:
6208:
6201:
6194:
6193:
6189:
6182:
6175:
6174:
6170:
6163:
6156:
6155:
6150:
6144:
6137:
6136:
6130:
6123:
6122:
6116:
6109:
6108:
6103:
6102:
6101:
6091:
6087:
6086:
6084:
6083:
6078:
6073:
6062:
6056:
6053:
6052:
6049:
6048:
6046:
6039:
6032:
6025:
6018:
6016:
6009:
6007:
6005:
5998:
5992:
5991:
5989:
5982:
5975:
5968:
5961:
5959:
5952:
5950:
5948:
5941:
5938:
5932:
5931:
5929:
5927:
5925:
5923:
5921:
5919:
5910:
5908:
5906:
5904:
5903:Nasal lateral
5900:
5899:
5897:
5895:
5893:
5891:
5889:
5887:
5878:
5876:
5874:
5872:
5868:
5867:
5865:
5863:
5861:
5859:
5857:
5855:
5846:
5844:
5842:
5840:
5833:
5832:
5830:
5828:
5819:
5810:
5801:
5799:
5790:
5781:
5779:
5770:
5764:
5763:
5761:
5759:
5757:
5748:
5739:
5737:
5728:
5719:
5717:
5708:
5702:
5701:
5699:
5697:
5695:
5686:
5677:
5675:
5666:
5657:
5655:
5646:
5641:
5631:
5630:
5628:
5626:
5624:
5622:
5620:
5618:
5611:
5609:
5607:
5605:
5601:
5600:
5598:
5591:
5584:
5577:
5575:
5573:
5566:
5564:
5562:
5560:
5553:
5552:
5550:
5543:
5536:
5529:
5522:
5515:
5508:
5501:
5494:
5487:
5481:
5480:
5478:
5471:
5464:
5457:
5450:
5443:
5436:
5429:
5422:
5420:
5414:
5413:
5406:
5399:
5392:
5385:
5378:
5376:
5369:
5367:
5365:
5358:
5353:
5347:
5346:
5339:
5332:
5325:
5318:
5311:
5304:
5297:
5290:
5283:
5276:
5264:
5263:
5260:
5259:
5243:
5242:
5237:
5232:
5221:
5215:
5212:
5211:
5208:
5207:
5205:
5203:
5201:
5199:
5197:
5195:
5188:
5186:
5179:
5177:
5170:
5163:
5161:
5159:
5152:
5145:
5143:
5141:
5139:
5137:
5135:
5133:
5131:
5129:
5125:
5124:
5122:
5120:
5118:
5116:
5109:
5107:
5100:
5098:
5091:
5089:
5082:
5080:
5078:
5076:
5069:
5067:
5065:
5063:
5061:
5059:
5057:
5055:
5053:
5051:
5047:
5046:
5044:
5042:
5040:
5038:
5036:
5034:
5027:
5020:
5013:
5006:
4999:
4992:
4990:
4988:
4981:
4974:
4972:
4970:
4968:
4966:
4964:
4962:
4960:
4958:
4954:
4953:
4951:
4949:
4947:
4945:
4943:
4941:
4934:
4927:
4920:
4913:
4906:
4899:
4897:
4895:
4888:
4881:
4879:
4877:
4875:
4873:
4871:
4869:
4867:
4865:
4858:
4857:
4855:
4853:
4846:
4839:
4832:
4825:
4823:
4821:
4819:
4817:
4810:
4803:
4801:
4799:
4792:
4785:
4783:
4781:
4779:
4777:
4775:
4773:
4766:
4759:
4753:
4752:
4750:
4748:
4741:
4739:
4732:
4730:
4728:
4726:
4724:
4722:
4715:
4708:
4706:
4704:
4697:
4690:
4688:
4686:
4679:
4677:
4670:
4668:
4661:
4659:
4653:
4652:
4645:
4643:
4641:
4639:
4637:
4635:
4628:
4626:
4619:
4617:
4610:
4608:
4606:
4604:
4597:
4595:
4593:
4591:
4589:
4587:
4580:
4578:
4576:
4574:
4568:
4567:
4560:
4553:
4546:
4539:
4532:
4525:
4518:
4511:
4504:
4497:
4490:
4483:
4476:
4469:
4462:
4455:
4448:
4441:
4434:
4427:
4420:
4413:
4406:
4399:
4395:
4394:
4392:
4390:
4388:
4386:
4384:
4382:
4380:
4378:
4371:
4364:
4357:
4350:
4343:
4336:
4329:
4322:
4320:
4318:
4316:
4314:
4312:
4310:
4308:
4306:
4299:
4298:
4296:
4289:
4282:
4275:
4268:
4261:
4254:
4247:
4240:
4233:
4231:
4229:
4222:
4215:
4208:
4201:
4194:
4187:
4185:
4183:
4176:
4169:
4162:
4155:
4151:
4150:
4148:
4146:
4144:
4142:
4140:
4138:
4136:
4134:
4127:
4120:
4113:
4106:
4099:
4092:
4085:
4078:
4076:
4074:
4072:
4070:
4068:
4066:
4064:
4062:
4053:
4052:
4050:
4043:
4041:
4034:
4027:
4020:
4013:
4006:
3999:
3992:
3985:
3978:
3976:
3974:
3967:
3960:
3958:
3956:
3949:
3942:
3935:
3928:
3921:
3914:
3908:
3907:
3905:
3903:
3901:
3899:
3892:
3885:
3878:
3871:
3864:
3857:
3850:
3843:
3841:
3839:
3832:
3825:
3823:
3821:
3814:
3812:
3805:
3798:
3791:
3784:
3778:
3777:
3772:
3767:
3762:
3757:
3752:
3747:
3742:
3737:
3732:
3727:
3722:
3720:Bilabial
3717:
3710:
3709:
3704:
3699:
3694:
3689:
3671:
3668:
3667:
3655:
3654:
3651:
3650:
3647:
3646:
3644:
3643:
3638:
3633:
3628:
3623:
3622:
3621:
3616:
3611:
3600:
3598:
3594:
3593:
3591:
3590:
3585:
3580:
3575:
3570:
3565:
3560:
3554:
3552:
3551:Special topics
3548:
3547:
3545:
3544:
3532:
3527:
3522:
3517:
3511:
3509:
3501:
3500:
3490:
3489:
3475:
3474:
3467:
3460:
3452:
3446:
3445:
3440:
3435:
3433:UCLA Aerometry
3430:
3425:
3420:
3415:
3410:
3403:
3402:External links
3400:
3398:
3397:
3392:978-0893571238
3391:
3378:
3363:
3350:
3344:
3331:
3325:
3312:
3306:
3290:
3284:
3263:
3257:
3236:
3224:10.2307/410966
3207:
3170:
3161:
3152:
3143:
3114:
3105:
3095:
3093:
3090:
3087:
3086:
3075:
3060:
3030:(2): 477–485.
3010:
3006:
3002:
2998:
2994:
2986:
2982:
2978:
2974:
2970:
2962:
2931:
2915:
2903:
2891:
2889:, p. 137.
2879:
2867:
2865:, p. 218.
2855:
2853:, p. 217.
2843:
2841:, p. 175.
2828:
2826:, p. 182.
2816:
2814:, p. 102.
2804:
2787:
2785:, p. 145.
2775:
2763:
2746:
2734:
2722:
2707:
2692:
2680:
2668:
2664:Maddieson 2013
2656:
2644:
2632:
2620:
2608:
2596:
2581:
2569:
2557:
2545:
2533:
2521:
2509:
2494:
2482:
2467:
2450:
2438:
2426:
2414:
2399:
2384:
2372:
2360:
2356:Maddieson 1993
2348:
2336:
2324:
2312:
2308:Ladefoged 2001
2296:
2295:
2293:
2290:
2287:
2286:
2276:
2275:
2273:
2270:
2268:
2267:
2262:
2257:
2252:
2247:
2242:
2237:
2232:
2227:
2222:
2217:
2212:
2207:
2202:
2196:
2194:
2191:
2174:
2171:
2170:
2169:
2164:
2159:
2154:
2149:
2144:
2139:
2126:
2121:
2116:
2111:
2087:
2084:
2083:
2082:
2081:
2080:
2079:(raises hyoid)
2074:
2073:(raises hyoid)
2068:
2067:(lowers hyoid)
2062:
2056:
2051:
2045:
2039:
2033:
2027:
2021:
2016:
2011:
1998:
1995:
1994:
1993:
1992:
1991:
1988:
1982:
1973:
1970:
1898:
1895:
1891:kinetic energy
1824:
1817:
1809:at time 1 the
1806:
1796:
1787:
1786:
1771:
1767:
1762:
1759:
1756:
1753:
1748:
1744:
1740:
1734:
1728:
1725:
1722:
1719:
1714:
1710:
1706:
1700:
1696:
1682:
1681:
1667:
1663:
1657:
1653:
1649:
1644:
1640:
1634:
1630:
1594:
1591:
1587:lip protrusion
1578:
1575:
1554:
1551:
1537:
1534:
1514:epiglottalized
1510:pharyngealized
1505:
1502:
1477:
1474:
1472:
1469:
1449:
1446:
1337:Main article:
1334:
1331:
1319:Huatla Mazatec
1300:Main article:
1297:
1294:
1258:Main article:
1255:
1252:
1236:coarticulation
1207:Main article:
1204:
1201:
1188:, and in some
1145:allophonically
1109:Main article:
1106:
1103:
1073:. Labiodental
1029:Main article:
1026:
1023:
971:Postero-dorsal
907:Main article:
904:
901:
864:
861:
855:
852:
757:oral subcavity
725:
724:
721:
718:
706:
703:
597:
596:
594:
593:
586:
579:
571:
568:
567:
561:
560:
557:
556:
555:
554:
549:
544:
536:
535:
531:
530:
529:
528:
523:
518:
513:
508:
503:
491:
490:
484:
483:
480:
479:
478:
477:
472:
467:
459:
458:
454:
453:
452:
451:
446:
441:
436:
431:
426:
421:
413:
412:
397:
396:
390:
389:
386:
385:
384:
383:
378:
373:
368:
360:
359:
353:
352:
351:
350:
345:
340:
335:
330:
325:
320:
315:
310:
302:
301:
295:
294:
293:
292:
287:
282:
277:
272:
267:
262:
257:
249:
248:
238:
237:
231:
230:
229:
228:
223:
218:
210:
209:
208:Subdisciplines
205:
204:
197:
196:
190:
189:
177:
176:
159:
158:
127:
125:
118:
111:
110:
72:
70:
63:
58:
32:
31:
29:
22:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
7126:
7115:
7112:
7110:
7107:
7106:
7104:
7083:
7082:
7081: rounded
7070:
7067:
7065:
7062:
7060:
7055:
7051:
7049:
7046:
7045:
7043:
7042:
7031:
7015:
7008:
6995:
6988:
6982:
6966:
6959:
6957:
6953:
6950:
6944:
6937:
6924:
6917:
6915:
6911:
6904:
6888:
6881:
6875:
6859:
6852:
6846:
6830:
6823:
6821:
6817:
6810:
6794:
6787:
6781:
6774:
6768:
6752:
6745:
6743:
6739:
6732:
6716:
6709:
6703:
6687:
6680:
6674:
6658:
6651:
6649:
6645:
6638:
6624:
6622:
6616:
6600:
6593:
6591:
6587:
6580:
6564:
6557:
6551:
6535:
6528:
6522:
6506:
6494:
6492:
6488:
6485:
6480:
6475:
6470:
6469:
6466:
6465:
6460:
6456:
6451:
6447:
6433:
6430:
6428:
6425:
6423:
6420:
6418:
6415:
6413:
6410:
6409:
6407:
6403:
6390:
6387:
6385:
6382:
6380:
6377:
6376:
6374:
6373:
6362:
6356:
6347:
6340:
6333:
6326:
6320:
6312:
6305:
6303:
6296:
6284:
6277:
6269:
6263:
6256:
6249:
6245:
6236:
6235:Labial–uvular
6230:
6223:
6217:
6205:
6198:
6186:
6179:
6167:
6160:
6153:
6147:
6141:
6133:
6127:
6119:
6113:
6106:
6100:
6099:
6096:
6095:
6082:
6079:
6077:
6074:
6072:
6067:
6063:
6061:
6058:
6057:
6055:
6054:
6047:
6044:
6040:
6037:
6033:
6030:
6026:
6023:
6019:
6017:
6014:
6010:
6008:
6006:
6003:
5999:
5997:
5993:
5990:
5987:
5983:
5980:
5976:
5973:
5969:
5966:
5962:
5960:
5957:
5953:
5951:
5949:
5946:
5942:
5937:
5933:
5930:
5928:
5926:
5924:
5922:
5920:
5917:
5911:
5909:
5907:
5905:
5901:
5898:
5896:
5894:
5892:
5890:
5888:
5885:
5879:
5877:
5875:
5873:
5869:
5866:
5864:
5862:
5860:
5858:
5856:
5853:
5847:
5845:
5843:
5841:
5839:
5834:
5831:
5829:
5824:
5820:
5817:
5811:
5808:
5802:
5800:
5797:
5791:
5788:
5782:
5780:
5777:
5771:
5769:
5765:
5762:
5760:
5758:
5755:
5749:
5746:
5740:
5738:
5735:
5729:
5726:
5720:
5718:
5715:
5709:
5707:
5703:
5700:
5698:
5696:
5693:
5687:
5684:
5678:
5676:
5673:
5667:
5664:
5658:
5656:
5653:
5647:
5645:
5636:
5632:
5629:
5627:
5625:
5623:
5621:
5619:
5616:
5612:
5610:
5608:
5606:
5602:
5599:
5596:
5592:
5589:
5585:
5582:
5578:
5576:
5574:
5571:
5567:
5565:
5563:
5561:
5558:
5554:
5551:
5548:
5544:
5541:
5537:
5534:
5530:
5527:
5523:
5520:
5516:
5513:
5509:
5506:
5502:
5499:
5495:
5492:
5488:
5486:
5482:
5479:
5476:
5472:
5469:
5465:
5462:
5458:
5455:
5451:
5448:
5444:
5441:
5437:
5434:
5430:
5427:
5423:
5421:
5419:
5415:
5411:
5407:
5404:
5400:
5397:
5393:
5390:
5386:
5383:
5379:
5377:
5374:
5370:
5368:
5366:
5363:
5359:
5357:
5352:
5348:
5345:
5338:
5331:
5324:
5317:
5310:
5303:
5296:
5289:
5282:
5274:
5271:
5270:
5267:
5258:
5253:
5249:
5241:
5238:
5236:
5233:
5231:
5226:
5222:
5220:
5217:
5216:
5214:
5213:
5206:
5204:
5202:
5200:
5198:
5196:
5193:
5189:
5187:
5184:
5180:
5178:
5175:
5171:
5168:
5164:
5162:
5160:
5157:
5153:
5150:
5146:
5144:
5142:
5140:
5138:
5136:
5134:
5132:
5130:
5126:
5123:
5121:
5119:
5117:
5114:
5110:
5108:
5105:
5101:
5099:
5096:
5092:
5090:
5087:
5083:
5081:
5079:
5077:
5074:
5070:
5068:
5066:
5064:
5062:
5060:
5058:
5056:
5054:
5052:
5048:
5045:
5043:
5041:
5039:
5037:
5035:
5032:
5028:
5025:
5021:
5018:
5014:
5011:
5007:
5004:
5000:
4997:
4993:
4991:
4989:
4986:
4982:
4979:
4975:
4973:
4971:
4969:
4967:
4965:
4963:
4961:
4959:
4955:
4952:
4950:
4948:
4946:
4944:
4942:
4939:
4935:
4932:
4928:
4925:
4921:
4918:
4914:
4911:
4907:
4904:
4900:
4898:
4896:
4893:
4889:
4886:
4882:
4880:
4878:
4876:
4874:
4872:
4870:
4868:
4866:
4863:
4859:
4856:
4854:
4851:
4847:
4844:
4840:
4837:
4833:
4830:
4826:
4824:
4822:
4820:
4818:
4815:
4811:
4808:
4804:
4802:
4800:
4797:
4793:
4790:
4786:
4784:
4782:
4780:
4778:
4776:
4774:
4771:
4767:
4764:
4760:
4758:
4754:
4751:
4749:
4746:
4742:
4740:
4737:
4733:
4731:
4729:
4727:
4725:
4723:
4720:
4716:
4713:
4709:
4707:
4705:
4702:
4698:
4695:
4691:
4689:
4687:
4684:
4680:
4678:
4675:
4671:
4669:
4666:
4662:
4660:
4658:
4654:
4650:
4646:
4644:
4642:
4640:
4638:
4636:
4633:
4629:
4627:
4624:
4620:
4618:
4615:
4611:
4609:
4607:
4605:
4602:
4598:
4596:
4594:
4592:
4590:
4588:
4585:
4581:
4579:
4577:
4575:
4573:
4569:
4565:
4561:
4558:
4554:
4551:
4547:
4544:
4540:
4537:
4533:
4530:
4526:
4523:
4519:
4516:
4512:
4509:
4505:
4502:
4498:
4495:
4491:
4488:
4484:
4481:
4477:
4474:
4470:
4467:
4463:
4460:
4456:
4453:
4449:
4446:
4442:
4439:
4435:
4432:
4428:
4425:
4421:
4418:
4414:
4411:
4407:
4404:
4400:
4396:
4393:
4391:
4389:
4387:
4385:
4383:
4381:
4379:
4376:
4372:
4369:
4365:
4362:
4358:
4355:
4351:
4348:
4344:
4341:
4337:
4334:
4330:
4327:
4323:
4321:
4319:
4317:
4315:
4313:
4311:
4309:
4307:
4305:
4300:
4297:
4294:
4290:
4287:
4283:
4280:
4276:
4273:
4269:
4266:
4262:
4259:
4255:
4252:
4248:
4245:
4241:
4238:
4234:
4232:
4230:
4227:
4223:
4220:
4216:
4213:
4209:
4206:
4202:
4199:
4195:
4192:
4188:
4186:
4184:
4181:
4177:
4174:
4170:
4167:
4163:
4160:
4156:
4152:
4149:
4147:
4145:
4143:
4141:
4139:
4137:
4135:
4132:
4128:
4125:
4121:
4118:
4114:
4111:
4107:
4104:
4100:
4097:
4093:
4090:
4086:
4083:
4079:
4077:
4075:
4073:
4071:
4069:
4067:
4065:
4063:
4061:
4058:
4054:
4051:
4048:
4044:
4042:
4039:
4035:
4032:
4028:
4025:
4021:
4018:
4014:
4011:
4007:
4004:
4000:
3997:
3993:
3990:
3986:
3983:
3979:
3977:
3975:
3972:
3968:
3965:
3961:
3959:
3957:
3954:
3950:
3947:
3943:
3940:
3936:
3933:
3929:
3926:
3922:
3919:
3915:
3913:
3909:
3906:
3904:
3902:
3900:
3897:
3893:
3890:
3886:
3883:
3879:
3876:
3872:
3869:
3865:
3862:
3858:
3855:
3851:
3848:
3844:
3842:
3840:
3837:
3833:
3830:
3826:
3824:
3822:
3819:
3815:
3813:
3810:
3806:
3803:
3799:
3796:
3792:
3789:
3785:
3783:
3779:
3776:
3771:
3766:
3761:
3756:
3751:
3746:
3741:
3736:
3731:
3726:
3721:
3715:
3711:
3708:
3703:
3698:
3693:
3687:
3683:
3680:
3679:
3676:
3675:
3669:
3665:
3660:
3656:
3642:
3639:
3637:
3634:
3632:
3629:
3627:
3624:
3620:
3617:
3615:
3612:
3610:
3607:
3606:
3605:
3602:
3601:
3599:
3595:
3589:
3586:
3584:
3581:
3579:
3576:
3574:
3571:
3569:
3566:
3564:
3563:Case variants
3561:
3559:
3558:Cursive forms
3556:
3555:
3553:
3549:
3543:
3541:
3537:
3533:
3531:
3528:
3526:
3523:
3521:
3518:
3516:
3513:
3512:
3510:
3506:
3502:
3495:
3491:
3485:
3480:
3473:
3468:
3466:
3461:
3459:
3454:
3453:
3450:
3444:
3441:
3439:
3436:
3434:
3431:
3429:
3426:
3424:
3421:
3419:
3416:
3414:
3411:
3409:
3406:
3405:
3394:
3388:
3384:
3379:
3375:
3374:
3369:
3364:
3360:
3356:
3351:
3347:
3341:
3337:
3332:
3328:
3322:
3318:
3313:
3309:
3303:
3299:
3295:
3291:
3287:
3281:
3277:
3272:
3271:
3264:
3260:
3254:
3250:
3245:
3244:
3237:
3233:
3229:
3225:
3221:
3218:(3): 387–96.
3217:
3213:
3208:
3204:
3200:
3196:
3192:
3188:
3184:
3181:(2): 73–101.
3180:
3176:
3171:
3167:
3162:
3158:
3153:
3149:
3144:
3140:
3136:
3132:
3128:
3125:(3): 233–47.
3124:
3120:
3115:
3111:
3106:
3102:
3097:
3096:
3084:
3079:
3071:
3064:
3055:
3051:
3047:
3043:
3038:
3033:
3029:
3025:
3021:
3014:
2990:
2966:
2960:
2959:0-631-19815-6
2956:
2952:
2946:
2944:
2942:
2940:
2938:
2936:
2928:
2925:"Laver, John
2922:
2920:
2912:
2907:
2901:, p. 78.
2900:
2895:
2888:
2883:
2876:
2871:
2864:
2859:
2852:
2847:
2840:
2835:
2833:
2825:
2820:
2813:
2808:
2802:, p. 15.
2801:
2796:
2794:
2792:
2784:
2779:
2773:, p. 67.
2772:
2767:
2761:, p. 14.
2760:
2755:
2753:
2751:
2744:, p. 75.
2743:
2738:
2732:, p. 74.
2731:
2726:
2720:, p. 38.
2719:
2714:
2712:
2705:, p. 37.
2704:
2699:
2697:
2690:, p. 33.
2689:
2684:
2678:, p. 11.
2677:
2672:
2665:
2660:
2654:, p. 89.
2653:
2648:
2641:
2636:
2630:, p. 35.
2629:
2624:
2618:, p. 32.
2617:
2612:
2605:
2600:
2594:, p. 27.
2593:
2588:
2586:
2578:
2573:
2566:
2561:
2555:, p. 23.
2554:
2549:
2543:, p. 60.
2542:
2537:
2530:
2525:
2518:
2513:
2507:, p. 28.
2506:
2501:
2499:
2491:
2486:
2480:, p. 18.
2479:
2474:
2472:
2464:
2459:
2457:
2455:
2447:
2446:Baumbach 1987
2442:
2436:, p. 61.
2435:
2430:
2423:
2418:
2412:, p. 17.
2411:
2406:
2404:
2396:
2391:
2389:
2381:
2376:
2369:
2368:Fujimura 1961
2364:
2357:
2352:
2346:, p. 43.
2345:
2340:
2334:, p. 16.
2333:
2328:
2321:
2316:
2309:
2304:
2302:
2297:
2281:
2277:
2266:
2263:
2261:
2258:
2256:
2253:
2251:
2248:
2246:
2243:
2241:
2238:
2236:
2233:
2231:
2228:
2226:
2223:
2221:
2218:
2216:
2213:
2211:
2208:
2206:
2203:
2201:
2198:
2197:
2190:
2188:
2183:
2180:
2168:
2165:
2163:
2160:
2158:
2155:
2153:
2150:
2148:
2145:
2143:
2140:
2138:
2137:Real-time MRI
2134:
2130:
2127:
2125:
2122:
2120:
2117:
2115:
2112:
2110:
2107:
2106:
2103:
2102:Real-time MRI
2078:
2075:
2072:
2069:
2066:
2063:
2060:
2057:
2055:
2052:
2049:
2046:
2043:
2040:
2037:
2034:
2031:
2028:
2025:
2022:
2020:
2017:
2015:
2012:
2010:
2007:
2006:
2004:
2001:
2000:
1989:
1986:
1985:
1983:
1980:
1976:
1975:
1969:
1967:
1963:
1959:
1955:
1951:
1947:
1943:
1939:
1935:
1931:
1927:
1923:
1919:
1915:
1911:
1907:
1903:
1897:Sound sources
1894:
1892:
1888:
1884:
1880:
1877:
1873:
1869:
1865:
1862:according to
1861:
1857:
1853:
1850:applied to a
1849:
1844:
1839:
1833:
1831:
1823:
1816:
1812:
1805:
1802:
1795:
1792:
1769:
1765:
1757:
1751:
1746:
1742:
1732:
1723:
1717:
1712:
1708:
1698:
1694:
1684:
1683:
1665:
1661:
1655:
1651:
1647:
1642:
1638:
1632:
1628:
1620:
1619:
1618:
1616:
1612:
1608:
1599:
1590:
1588:
1584:
1574:
1572:
1568:
1564:
1560:
1550:
1548:
1544:
1533:
1531:
1527:
1523:
1519:
1515:
1511:
1501:
1499:
1495:
1491:
1487:
1483:
1468:
1465:
1463:
1459:
1455:
1445:
1443:
1439:
1434:
1430:
1426:
1422:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1407:
1404:
1400:
1396:
1392:
1389:
1385:
1382:
1378:
1376:
1371:
1369:
1365:
1363:
1359:
1355:
1353:
1349:
1345:
1340:
1330:
1328:
1324:
1320:
1316:
1312:
1311:Glottal stops
1308:
1303:
1293:
1291:
1287:
1283:
1279:
1277:
1273:
1269:
1267:
1261:
1251:
1249:
1244:
1240:
1237:
1233:
1229:
1225:
1223:
1218:
1214:
1210:
1200:
1198:
1193:
1191:
1187:
1182:
1178:
1176:
1172:
1168:
1164:
1160:
1154:
1152:
1148:
1146:
1141:
1137:
1135:
1132:is attested.
1131:
1127:
1123:
1119:
1112:
1102:
1100:
1096:
1092:
1087:
1083:
1080:
1076:
1072:
1068:
1064:
1060:
1056:
1052:
1048:
1045:
1041:
1039:
1032:
1022:
1020:
1016:
1012:
1008:
1004:
1000:
992:
988:
984:
980:
976:
975:Antero-dorsal
972:
968:
964:
960:
956:
952:
948:
944:
940:
936:
935:Post-alveolar
932:
928:
924:
920:
915:
910:
900:
898:
894:
890:
886:
882:
878:
874:
870:
860:
851:
848:
844:
842:
838:
834:
830:
826:
822:
818:
814:
810:
809:
804:
800:
796:
792:
788:
784:
782:
778:
774:
770:
766:
762:
758:
754:
750:
746:
742:
738:
734:
730:
722:
719:
716:
715:
714:
712:
702:
700:
699:
694:
693:
688:
687:
682:
678:
674:
673:
668:
667:
661:
657:
655:
651:
647:
643:
639:
635:
631:
627:
623:
620:
616:
615:physiological
612:
608:
604:
601:The field of
592:
587:
585:
580:
578:
573:
572:
570:
569:
566:
563:
562:
553:
550:
548:
545:
543:
540:
539:
538:
537:
533:
532:
527:
524:
522:
519:
517:
514:
512:
509:
507:
504:
502:
501:Acoustic cues
499:
498:
497:
496:
493:
492:
489:
486:
485:
476:
473:
471:
468:
466:
463:
462:
461:
460:
456:
455:
450:
449:Voicelessness
447:
445:
442:
440:
437:
435:
432:
430:
427:
425:
422:
420:
417:
416:
415:
414:
410:
406:
403:
402:
399:
398:
395:
392:
391:
382:
379:
377:
374:
372:
369:
367:
364:
363:
362:
361:
358:
355:
354:
349:
346:
344:
341:
339:
336:
334:
331:
329:
326:
324:
321:
319:
316:
314:
311:
309:
306:
305:
304:
303:
300:
297:
296:
291:
288:
286:
283:
281:
278:
276:
273:
271:
268:
266:
263:
261:
258:
256:
253:
252:
251:
250:
247:
244:
243:
240:
239:
236:
233:
232:
227:
224:
222:
219:
217:
214:
213:
212:
211:
207:
206:
203:
199:
198:
195:
192:
191:
187:
183:
182:
173:
170:
155:
145:
141:
137:
131:
128:This article
126:
117:
116:
107:
104:
96:
86:
80:
78:
71:
62:
61:
56:
54:
47:
46:
41:
40:
35:
30:
21:
20:
7074:
6351:Labial–velar
6301:
6288:Labial–velar
6209:Labial–velar
6146:Labial–velar
6092:
5638:(top: velar;
5265:
5245:
3672:
3539:
3535:
3382:
3372:
3358:
3354:
3335:
3316:
3297:
3269:
3242:
3215:
3211:
3178:
3174:
3165:
3156:
3147:
3122:
3118:
3109:
3100:
3083:Palatography
3078:
3069:
3063:
3027:
3023:
3013:
2989:
2965:
2950:
2926:
2906:
2894:
2882:
2870:
2858:
2846:
2819:
2807:
2778:
2766:
2737:
2725:
2683:
2671:
2659:
2647:
2635:
2623:
2611:
2599:
2572:
2560:
2548:
2541:Scatton 1984
2536:
2524:
2512:
2485:
2441:
2434:Guthrie 1948
2429:
2417:
2375:
2363:
2351:
2339:
2327:
2322:, p. 9.
2315:
2310:, p. 5.
2280:
2184:
2179:Palatography
2176:
2173:Palatography
1961:
1957:
1953:
1949:
1945:
1941:
1937:
1933:
1929:
1925:
1921:
1917:
1913:
1904:
1900:
1860:acceleration
1852:surface area
1843:Pascal's Law
1834:
1821:
1814:
1803:
1793:
1788:
1604:
1583:lip-rounding
1580:
1559:vowel Height
1556:
1539:
1521:
1517:
1513:
1507:
1479:
1471:Articulators
1466:
1451:
1423:
1408:
1393:
1386:
1379:
1372:
1366:
1356:
1346:
1342:
1309:
1305:
1280:
1270:
1263:
1241:
1226:
1215:
1212:
1194:
1179:
1155:
1149:
1138:
1114:
1084:
1049:
1042:
1034:
996:
990:
986:
982:
978:
974:
970:
966:
962:
958:
954:
950:
946:
942:
938:
934:
930:
926:
922:
918:
866:
857:
845:
806:
802:
790:
785:
735:of specific
726:
717:air cavities
708:
696:
690:
684:
681:air pressure
676:
670:
664:
658:
638:air pressure
602:
600:
552:Motor theory
434:Pitch accent
270:Postalveolar
235:Articulation
221:Articulatory
220:
200:Part of the
165:
149:
129:
99:
90:
74:
50:
43:
37:
36:Please help
33:
6313:approximant
6248:approximant
4572:Approximant
3641:IPA Braille
3619:Kirshenbaum
3385:. Slavica.
2265:Vocal tract
2245:Human voice
2142:Radiography
1910:vocal cords
1820:and volume
1615:Boyle's Law
1607:temperature
1543:soft palate
1518:sphincteric
1494:vocal folds
1458:vocal tract
1444:languages.
1375:approximant
1315:vocal folds
1248:continuants
991:sub-laminal
939:Pre-palatal
923:Endo-labial
897:rarefaction
869:vocal tract
795:Boyle's Law
749:vocal folds
711:biomechanic
650:sound waves
630:vocal tract
619:aerodynamic
333:Approximant
7103:Categories
7064:full chart
6590:Near-close
6384:full chart
6306:(variable)
6076:full chart
5559:affricate
5235:full chart
4864:affricate
3664:Consonants
3636:IPA number
3498:IPA topics
3361:: 181–214.
2977:= pressure
2688:Lodge 2009
2292:References
2054:hyoid bone
1966:whispering
1952:, and the
1838:contracted
1358:Fricatives
1352:Affricates
1266:epiglottis
1126:sub-apical
1075:affricates
1055:fricatives
987:Sub-apical
963:Epiglottal
955:Pharyngeal
919:Exo-labial
885:ingressive
863:Consonants
854:Initiation
833:implosives
803:initiation
781:atmosphere
723:air valves
705:Components
656:as sound.
488:Perception
381:Percussive
152:April 2020
93:April 2020
39:improve it
7114:Phonetics
6914:Near-open
6648:Close-mid
6332:Implosive
6325:Velarized
6244:Fricative
5996:Voiceless
5936:Implosive
5485:Fricative
5418:Affricate
5252:voiceless
4304:fricative
4302:Sibilant
4060:affricate
3707:Laryngeal
3597:Encodings
3175:Phonetica
3092:Citations
2422:Doke 1926
2250:Phonation
2225:Consonant
2162:Endoscopy
2157:Aerometry
1956:sound in
1876:glottalic
1868:molecules
1755:Δ
1721:Δ
1567:frontness
1547:nasalized
1498:phonation
1409:During a
1362:Sibilants
1327:geminated
1173:, though
1167:Bulgarian
1036:class of
889:Glottalic
881:egressive
873:airstream
829:Ejectives
825:glottalic
791:initiator
733:molecules
634:potential
607:phonetics
405:Phonation
394:Acoustics
371:Glottalic
323:Fricative
318:Affricate
308:Consonant
290:Laryngeal
194:Phonetics
144:talk page
136:splitting
45:talk page
7075:Legend:
7069:template
7048:IPA help
6820:Open-mid
6389:template
6379:IPA help
6355:Ejective
6327:alveolar
6081:template
6060:IPA help
5351:Ejective
5240:template
5219:IPA help
4657:Tap/flap
4057:Sibilant
3740:Alveolar
3212:Language
3139:13702471
3054:21057863
3046:22498911
2981:× volume
2973:× volume
2193:See also
1918:unvoiced
1791:pressure
1611:constant
1563:Backness
1522:strident
1456:and the
1433:rarefied
1381:Laterals
1093:such as
1059:plosives
931:Alveolar
821:pulmonic
799:pressure
775:and the
729:cavities
686:bilabial
636:form is
626:acoustic
366:Pulmonic
265:Alveolar
226:Auditory
216:Acoustic
186:a series
184:Part of
7079:•
6479:Central
6311:Lateral
6152:Plosive
5940:Voiced
5838:lateral
5836:Tenuis
5827:
5557:Lateral
4862:Lateral
3912:Plosive
3775:Glottal
3755:Palatal
3697:Coronal
3614:X-SAMPA
3203:3272781
3195:8316582
1906:Voicing
1874:with a
1811:product
1593:Airflow
1504:Pharynx
1500:types.
1482:glottis
1476:Glottis
1438:Khoisan
1290:glottis
1276:pharynx
1122:laminal
1091:Vanuatu
1019:pharynx
1015:radical
1007:Coronal
1003:labials
985:; (18)
981:; (17)
979:Laminal
977:; (16)
973:; (15)
969:; (14)
967:Radical
965:; (13)
961:; (12)
959:Glottal
957:; (11)
953:; (10)
943:Palatal
841:muscles
787:Pistons
773:trachea
745:glottis
737:volumes
720:pistons
698:plosive
646:dynamic
642:kinetic
526:Prosody
516:Hearing
506:Aphasia
475:Breathy
424:Glottis
409:Voicing
376:Lingual
343:Lateral
313:Plosive
275:Palatal
7057:
6455:Vowels
6304:-sound
6069:
5706:Voiced
5644:Tenuis
5248:voiced
5228:
4219:t̠ɹ̠̊˔
3765:Uvular
3735:Dental
3714:Manner
3702:Dorsal
3692:Labial
3389:
3342:
3323:
3304:
3282:
3255:
3232:410966
3230:
3201:
3193:
3137:
3052:
3044:
2993:volume
2957:
2003:larynx
1914:voiced
1801:volume
1571:rhotic
1553:Tongue
1512:(also
1486:larynx
1462:voiced
1454:larynx
1448:Vowels
1425:Clicks
1403:apical
1388:Trills
1373:In an
1368:Nasals
1286:Dahalo
1222:Jaqaru
1175:Dahalo
1118:apical
1095:Tangoa
1079:Tsonga
1069:, and
1011:dorsal
983:Apical
951:Uvular
949:; (9)
945:; (8)
941:; (7)
937:; (6)
933:; (5)
929:; (4)
927:Dental
925:; (3)
921:; (2)
877:larynx
847:Valves
813:tongue
779:. The
753:larynx
741:masses
640:; its
632:. Its
622:energy
611:sounds
470:Creaky
338:Liquid
285:Uvular
260:Dental
255:Labial
7059:audio
6491:Close
6474:Front
6405:Other
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6105:Nasal
6071:audio
5768:Nasal
5635:Click
5230:audio
4757:Trill
4226:d̠ɹ̠˔
3782:Nasal
3760:Velar
3686:Place
3609:SAMPA
3484:chart
3228:JSTOR
3199:S2CID
3050:S2CID
2272:Notes
2220:Vowel
1979:hertz
1848:force
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1399:flaps
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1171:Isoko
1163:Temne
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624:into
465:Modal
429:Pitch
348:Vowel
328:Nasal
280:Velar
6956:Open
6484:Back
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