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with the
Neutral Buoyancy Lab or the Charlotte Robot in the Virtual Reality Lab which requires expensive facilities and does not eliminate the travel component that VR can minimize. NASA's Charlotte robot is restricted by cables that simulate the microgravity environment and the Virtual Reality Lab only has two machines in their possession. This particular training system requires a virtual glovebox system (GVX) that has been incorporated into training at NASA and the EVA virtual system at the Astronaut Center of China. Using sensors embedded in the fabric, the gloves can sense when the wearer decides to grasp an object or release it, but the technology needs to be further developed to integrate precise user movements into virtual programs. These gloves have been reported to be uncomfortable and only capture limited movements. Full-body motion sensors have also been incorporated into training and tend to be expensive but necessary in order to have effective tactile feedback in response to the astronauts' movements. While virtual reality programs have been developed that do not require full-body sensors, the absence reduces the degree to which a user can interact with the virtual world.
954:, received virtual reality training and performed the 210th spacewalk. The Virtual Reality Laboratory offers astronauts an immersive VR experience for spacewalks before launching into space. The training process combines a graphical rendering program that replicates the ISS and a device called the Charlotte Robot that allows astronauts to visually explore their surroundings while interacting with an object. The Charlotte robot is a simple device with a metal arm attached to the side that allows a user to interact with the device. The user wears haptic feedback gloves with force sensors that send signals to a central computer. In response, the central computer maneuvers the device using a web of cables and calculates how it would act in space through physics. While objects are weightless in space, an astronaut has to be familiar with an object's forces of inertia and understand how the object will respond to simple motions to avoid losing it in space. Training can be completed individually or with a partner. This allows astronauts to learn how to interact with mass and moments of inertia in a microgravity environment.
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961:(NBL) has advantages in simulating a zero-gravity environment and reproducing the sensation of floating in space. The training method is achieved by constructing a low gravity environment through Maintaining the Natural buoyancy in one of the largest pools in the world. The NBL pool used to practice extravehicular activities or spacewalks is 62 meters (203 feet) long, 31 meters (102 feet) wide, and 12 meters (39 feet) deep, with a capacity of 6.2 million gallons. Underwater head-mounted display virtual reality headset is used to provide visual information during the training with a frame rate of 60 fps and screen resolution of 1280 by 1440. The underwater VR training system has a reduced training cost because of the accessibility of the VR applications, and astronauts need less time to complete the assigned practice task.
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be trained and evaluated on performing an EVA (extravehicular activity) with all the necessary equipment and environmental features simulated. This modern technology also allows the scenario to be changed on the go, such as to test emergency protocols. The VR training systems can reduce the effects of the space motion sickness through a process of habituation. Preflight VR training can be a countermeasure for space motion sickness and disorientation due to the weightlessness of the microgravity environment. When the goal is to act as a practice tool, virtual reality is commonly explored in conjunction with robotics and additional hardware to increase the effect of immersion or the engagement of the trainee.
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bungee rope attached to a person's feet, a swing attached to the body, and finally a head mounted VR display. However, from participants in experiments that use this setup to simulate reduced gravity environments, they only experience the feel of moving around in space with the help of VR, but the experience does not resemble a real zero-gravity environment in outer space. Specifically, the pressure from the bungee rope and the swing because of the participantsâ own weight creates an unreal and unpleasant feeling. The current technology may be enough for the general public to experience what moving around in space is like, but it is still far from being formally used as an astronaut training tool.
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the tasks they are performing in space, it does not necessarily give them a full spatial understanding of the station's layout. That's where
Virtual Reality plays an important role. The Virtual Reality Lab uses a system known as the Dynamic Onboard Ubiquitous Graphics program (DOUG) to model the ISS's exterior including decals, fluid lines, and electrical lines, so that the crew can acclimate to their new environment. The level of detail goes beyond the exterior of the station. When a user enters space, they see pure black until their pupil's dilate and the sky fills with stars in an occurrence called the âblooming effectâ.
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tailored, with consideration to the astronaut's particular experience and professional background. There are three different user levels for all on-board equipment (i.e. user level, operator level, and specialist level). A crew member can be a specialist on systems while also only being an operator or user on others, hence why the training program is individually tailored. Increment
Specific Training also includes training to deal with off-nominal situations. Astronauts will also learn how to run the experiments that are specifically scheduled for their assigned missions.
262:. During long-duration missions, astronauts will often experience isolation and confinement. This has been known to limit performance of astronaut crews and hence training aims to prepare astronauts for such challenges. The long-term effects of radiation on crews is still largely unknown. However, it is theorized that astronauts on a trip to Mars will likely receive more than 1000x the radiation dosage of a typical person on Earth. As such, present and future training must incorporate systems and processes for protecting astronauts against radiation.
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230:(ISS)). Training is performed in order to prepare astronauts for events that may pose a hazard to their health, the health of the crew, or the successful completion of the mission. These types of events may be: failure of a critical life support system, capsule depressurization, fire, and other life-threatening events. In addition to the need to train for hazardous events, astronauts will also need to train to ensure the successful completion of their mission. This could be in the form of
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bases. Being in an isolated and confined environment generates stress, interpersonal conflict, and other behavioral and mental problems. However, natural scenery and communication with loved ones has shown to relax and lessen these effects. A Network of Social
Interactions for Bilateral Life Enhancement (ANSIBLE), which provides natural scenery and socialization in a virtual reality environment, is being researched as a solution to behavioral health.
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698:) to develop its own training program. India plans to build an astronaut training facility and biomedical engineering centre 8 to 10 kilometres from Kempegowda International Airport. This facility will be used for future astronaut training, as training for India's first crewed mission will take place in the US or in Russia. The Kempegowda centre will have chambers for radiation regulation, thermal cycling and centrifugal acceleration training.
530:, earth observation, and astronomy) basics are introduced, to ensure that all new astronauts have the required base level of knowledge. Training is done on ISS operations and facilities, including an introduction to all major operating systems on board the ISS that are required for its functionality as a crewed space research laboratory. This phase also covers in-depth systems operations for all spacecraft that service the ISS (e.g. Soyuz,
629:, training has increasingly taken place in Japan. With Japan's participation in the ISS, the training of Japanese astronauts follows a similar structure to that of other ISS partners. Astronauts carry out 1.5 years of Basic Training mainly at Tsukuba, followed by 1.5â2 years of Advanced Training at Tsukuba and ISS partner sites. Training for any international ISS astronauts involving the
671:. As well as time spent in the Neutral Buoyancy Facility (NBF), training for EVA takes place in a high vacuum, low temperature chamber that simulates the environmental conditions of space. At all stages of training, astronauts undergo physical conditioning, including time in a human centrifuge located at the ACC, and a program of micro gravity flights, carried out in Russia.
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on the ISS. The
Tsukuba Space Center also includes medical facilities for assessing suitability of candidates, an isolation chamber for simulating some of the mental and emotional stressors of long duration spaceflight, and a hypobaric chamber for training in hull breach or Life Support System failure scenarios resulting in a reduction or loss of air pressure.
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mission. Once on-orbit, communication between astronauts and scientists on the ground can be limited, and time is strictly apportioned between different mission activities. It is vital that astronauts are familiar with their assigned experiments in order to complete them in a timely manner, with as little intervention from the ground as possible.
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While virtual reality prepares astronauts for the unfamiliar tasks they will face in outer space, the training is unable to replicate the psychological and emotional stress that astronauts face on a daily basis. This is because virtual tasks do not hold the same repercussions as the real task and the
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Virtual reality acclimates astronauts to environments in space such as the
International Space Station before leaving earth. While astronauts can familiarize themselves with the ISS during training in the NBL, they are only able to see certain sections of the station. While it prepares astronauts for
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Virtual reality technologies first came to a commercial release in the 1990s. It is not until then did people realize that VR can be used in training astronauts. The earlier VR gears for astronaut training are dedicated to enhance the communication between robot arm operators and the astronaut during
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The
Neutral Buoyancy Lab: (NBL): located in the Johnson Space Center in Houston, TX. Through a combination of weighting and floating effects, the NBL creates a balance between the tendencies to sink and to float, and therefore simulating the experience of weightlessness. In the NBL, several full-size
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The
Precision Air-Bearing Floor (PABF): located in the Johnson Space Center in Houston, TX. Because of the microgravity environment in space, the resulting lack of friction posts difficulties for astronauts to move and stop large objects. The PABF is a âflat floorâ that uses compressed air to suspend
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The final phase is the
Intensive Training. It starts about three months prior to launch, preparing candidates for their assigned mission. Flight-specific integrated simulations are designed to provide a dynamic testing ground for mission rules and flight procedures. The final Intensive Training joint
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Scientific experimentation has historically been an important element of human spaceflight, and is the primary focus of the
International Space Station. Training on how to successfully carry out these experiments is an important part of astronaut training, as it maximizes the scientific return of the
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during the basic training. While 60% to 80% of the astronauts will experience space motion sickness, including pallor, cold sweating, vomiting, and anorexia, the astronaut candidates are expected to overcome the sickness. During the advanced training and the mission specific training, astronauts will
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For China's Shenzhou astronauts, training begins with a year-long program of education in the basics of spaceflight. During this period, candidates are also introduced to human physiology and psychology. The second phase of training, lasting nearly 3 years involves extensive training in piloting the
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Advanced Training is followed by Increment-Specific Training, which, along with any Kibo training, will be carried out at Tsukuba. EVA training for Kibo takes place in the Weightless Environment Test System (WETS). WETS is a Neutral Buoyancy Facility featuring a full-scale mock-up of the Kibo module
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The Japanese human spaceflight program has historically focused on training astronauts for Space Shuttle missions. As such, training previously took place at NASA's Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center, and followed that of NASA astronauts and other international participants in the Space Shuttle program.
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For missions to the ISS, each astronaut is required to become proficient at one hundred or more experiments. During training, the scientists responsible for the experiments do not have direct contact with the astronauts who will be carrying them out. Instead, scientists instruct trainers who in turn
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crews. It is important to ensure the astronautsâ well-being, physical and mental health prior, during, and after the mission period. Proficiency maintenance aims to help the crew members to maintain a minimum level of performance, including topics such as extravehicular activity, robotics, language,
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Stimulating a virtual microgravity environment can be costly due to additional equipment requirements. Unlike commercialized virtual reality, the equipment that NASA uses cannot be produced at a large scale because the systems require supplemental technology. Several VR programs work in combination
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A journey to Mars will require astronauts to remain in the crew capsule for nine months. The monotony and isolation of the journey present new psychological challenges. The long period spent in the crew capsule is comparable to other forms of solitary confinement, such as in submarines or Antarctic
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Space Vehicle Mock-up Facility (SVMF): located in the Johnson Space Center in Houston, TX. The SVMF consists of life-size models of vehicles of the ISS, the Orion, and different other commercial programs. The purpose of SVMF is to provide a unique simulated experience for astronauts to get familiar
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Virtual reality training for astronauts intends to give the astronauts candidates an immersive training experience. Virtual reality has been explored as a technology to artificially expose astronauts to space conditions and procedures prior to going into space. Using virtual reality, astronauts can
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For human experiments, the scientists describe their experiments to the astronauts who then choose whether to participate on board the ISS. For these experiments, the astronauts will be tested before, during, and after the mission to establish a baseline and determine when the astronaut returned to
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Space motion sickness is an event that can occur within minutes of being in changing gravity environments (i.e. from 1g on Earth prior to launch to more than 1g during launch, and then from microgravity in space to hypergravity during re-entry and again to 1g after landing). The symptoms range from
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can help the astronaut maintain physical well-being as part of proficiency maintenance training. Moreover, VR systems are used to ensure the mental health of the crewmembers. The simulations of social scenarios can mitigate the stress and establish the connectedness under the isolated and confined
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Currently a six-month mission to the ISS requires up to five years of astronaut training. This level of training is to be expected and likely to be expanded upon for future space exploration missions. It may also include in-flight training aspects. It may be possible that the ISS will be used as a
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falls into three phases: General Space Training, Group Training, and Crew Training. General Space Training lasts about two years and consists of classes, survival training, and a final exam which determines whether a cosmonaut will be a test or research cosmonaut. The next year is devoted to Group
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For all ESA selected astronauts, Basic Training begins at the EAC headquarters. This section of the training cycle has four separate training blocks that last 16 months. Astronauts will receive an orientation on the major spacefaring nations, their space agencies, and all major crewed and uncrewed
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Cardiovascular events and changes occurring during spaceflight: these are due to body fluids shift and redistribution, heart rhythm disturbances and decrease in maximal exercise capacity in the micro gravity environment. These effects can potentially lead the crew to be severely incapacitated upon
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The selection and training of astronauts are integrated processes to ensure the crew members are qualified for space missions. The training is categorized into five objectives to train the astronauts on the general and specific aspects: basic training, advanced training, mission-specific training,
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The primary focus of future research on virtual reality technologies in space exploration is to develop a method of simulating a microgravity environment. Although it has been a goal since the beginning of VR being used in astronaut training, minor progress has been made. The current setup uses a
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Visual reorientation is a phenomenon that happens when the perception of an object changes because of the changing visual field and cues. This illusion will alter the astronaut's perception of the orienting force of gravity and then lose spatial direction. The astronauts must develop good spatial
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In 1993, astronauts were trained and evaluated on working on the Hubble Space Telescope through a virtual reality training tool, Research in Human Factors Aspects of Enhanced Virtual Environments for EVA Training and Simulation (RAVEN). However, the aim of RAVEN was not to train astronauts but to
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Researchers are looking into how current mental health tools can be adjusted to help the crew face stressors that will arise in an isolated, confined environment (ICE) during extended missions. The International Space Station uses a behavioral conflict management system known as the Virtual Space
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while it was still operational and is done through simulation mock-ups. The shuttle training aircraft was exclusively used by the commander and pilot astronauts for landing practices until the retirement of the Shuttle, while advanced simulation system facilities are used by all the candidates to
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Virtual reality training utilizes the mix-realistic interaction devices, such as cockpits in flight simulators can reduce the simulation sickness and increase user movement. Compared to traditional training, VR training performs better to minimize the effects of space motion sickness and spatial
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which has to be thoroughly understood and practised to develop a harmonious relationship between astronauts and robots. These robots would aid the astronauts from being their personal assistants to next generation of extreme environment explorers. Currently there is a robot on the ISS aiding the
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Increment-Specific Training starts only after an astronaut has been assigned to a flight. This phase lasts 18 months and prepares them for their role on their assigned mission. During this phase crew members as well as backup crews will train together. The crew tasks on the ISS are individually
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Advanced Training includes a much more in-depth look into the ISS, including learning how to service and operate all systems. Enhanced science training is also implemented at this time to ensure all astronauts can perform science experiments on board the ISS. This phase takes around one year to
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At NASA, following the selection phase, the so-called "AsCans" (Astronaut candidates) have to undergo up to two years of training to become fully qualified astronauts. Initially, all AsCans must go through basic training to learn both technical and soft skills. There are 16 different technical
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Virtual and physical training facilities have been integrated to familiarize astronauts with the conditions they will encounter during all phases of flight and prepare astronauts for a microgravity environment. Special considerations must be made during training to ensure a safe and successful
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These efforts of simulating micro-gravity serve a similar purpose of creating an increasingly immersive environment for astronaut training. In fact, this is a developing trend for the entire VR industry. The ultimate scene VR experience that we are imagining will eventually be marked by the
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Astronauts are trained in preparation for the conditions of launch as well as the harsh environment of space. This training aims to prepare the crew for events falling under two broad categories: events relating to operation of the spacecraft (internal events), and events relating to the
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in nominal and emergency modes. The third and final stage of training is mission specific training, and lasts approximately 10 months. During this phase of training, astronauts are trained in the high fidelity Shenzhou trainer, as well as the Neutral Buoyancy Facility located at the
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with their tasks in space vehicles. Potential training projects include preparation of emergency, on-orbit intra-vehicular maintenance, and airlock operations. The facility also provides experiences for astronauts in real-time communications with the ground team for mission support.
743:âneed to carry out multiple tasks and duties, because on such missions the astronauts will need to function largely autonomously, and will need to be proficient in many different areas. For these types of missions, the training to prepare astronauts will likely include training as
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Unlike the early days of spaceflight, when piloting skill was what mattered, twenty-first-century astronauts are chosen for our ability to perform a lot of different jobs and to get along well with others, especially in stressful and cramped circumstances for long periods of
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This phase is where candidates will undergo mission specific operational training, as well as experience with their assigned experiments. Crew medical officer training is also included to effectively intervene with proactive and reactive actions in case of medical issues.
825:. Factors like crew dynamics, crew size, and crew activities play a crucial role as these missions would last from one year to Moon to three years on Mars. The training required for such missions has to be versatile and easy to learn, adapt, and improvise.
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from the Chinese air force and must be between 25 and 30 years of age, with a minimum of 800 hours flying time, and a degree-level education. Candidates must be between 160 cm and 172 cm in height, and between 50 kg and 70 kg in weight.
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Extravehicular Activities (EVA). It brings EVA crew members and robot arm operators together, in live, even when they are on board a spacecraft. It is also used to replace some of the oversized models that cannot fit in the Neutral Buoyancy Lab (NBL).
477:, which has served to simulate reduced or microgravity environments for NASA astronauts since 1994. The âroller coasterâ maneuvers that the plane is capable of doing provide people as well as equipment on board about 20â25 seconds of weightlessness.
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Station (VSS) to minimize conflict between crew members and address psychological challenges. The program has modules that focus on relationship management, stress and depression that guide astronaut's through a virtual therapy session in space.
27:. This position meant that a person's legs experienced only one sixth of their weight, which was the equivalent of being on the lunar surface. The purpose of this simulator was to study the subject while walking, jumping or running. (1963)
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Training where cosmonauts specialize in the Soyuz or ISS as well as professional skills. The final phases, the Crew Training phase, lasts a year and a half and is dedicated to detailed vehicle operations procedures, ISS training, and the
794:) have been trained for future missions to asteroids. The use of virtual reality will also continue to be used as a means of training astronauts in a cost-effective manner, particularly for operations such as extra-vehicular activity (
363:. Furthermore, because modern space exploration is done by a consortium of different countries and is a very publicly visible area, astronauts received professional and cultural training, as well as language courses (specifically in
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About three-fourths of astronauts experience space motion sickness, with effects rarely exceeding two days. There is a risk for post-flight motion sickness, however this is only significant following long-duration space missions.
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to train astronauts to transport between the Earth and the ISS. The VR training system can simulate high-speed situations and emergency scenarios, for instance, launching, entering the space, and landing at an unexpected location.
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It can take up to two years for an AsCan to become formally qualified as an astronaut. Usually, the training process are completed with various training facilities available in NASA: Space training facilities try to replicate or
54:(EVA) training, wilderness survival training , water survival training , robotics training , procedure training, rehabilitation process, as well as training on experiments they will accomplish during their stay in space.
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Following completion of Basic Training candidates proceed to NASA's Advanced Training. AsCans are trained on life-sized models to get a feel of what they will be doing in space. This was done both through the use of the
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Rönkkö, Jukka; Markkanen, Jussi; Launonen, Raimo; Ferrino, Marinella; Gaia, Enrico; Basso, Valter; Patel, Harshada; DâCruz, Mirabelle; Laukkanen, Seppo (March 2006). "Multimodal astronaut virtual training prototype".
931:. Similar training systems originated from the Apollo and Gemini training. Virtual reality enhances an astronaut's senses during training modules like fluid quick disconnect operations, spacewalks, and the orbiter's
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Olbrich, Manuel; Graf, Holger; Keil, Jens; Gad, RĂŒdiger; Bamfaste, Steffen; Nicolini, Frank (2018). "Virtual Reality Based Space Operations â A Study of ESA's Potential for VR Based Training and Simulation".
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An internal view of ESA's Columbus module training mockup, located at the European Astronaut Centre in Cologne, Germany. Astronauts must familiarize themselves with all the spacecraft components during their
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learn how to work and successfully fulfill their tasks in the space environment. Simulators and EVA training facilities help candidates to best prepare for their different mission operations. In particular,
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Anderson, Allison P.; Fellows, Abigail M.; Binsted, Kim A.; Hegel, Mark T.; Buckey, Jay C. (November 2016). "Autonomous, Computer-Based Behavioral Health Countermeasure Evaluation at HI-SEAS Mars Analog".
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onboard training, and proficiency maintenance training. The trainees must learn medicine, language, robotics and piloting, space system engineering, the organization of space systems, and the acronyms in
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learn about the operation of specific systems and skills required associated with their assigned positions in a space mission. The mission specific training typically requires 18 months to complete for
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942:(SAFER) as simplified aid. The VR training offers a graphical 3-dimensional simulation of the International Space Station (ISS) with a headset, haptic feedback gloves, and motion tracker. In 2018, two
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Virtual reality has also been adopted to a much wider range of fields in space exploration throughout the history of technology renovation. The newer applications of VR include but are not limited to:
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Despite the NASA training modules, commercial spaceflight training also uses virtual reality technology to improve their training systems. Boeing's virtual reality team develops a training system for
694:) and through India's international co-operation with NASA and Roscosmos. India may proceed with its human spaceflight program on its own, which would require the Indian Space Research Organisation (
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Through the years of technological development in VR, the hardware for the VR Lab in NASA has also significantly improved. Both the material and the resolution of the display are being renovated:
598:. The center facilities have full size mockups of all major Soviet and Russian spacecraft including the ISS. As with the ISS astronauts, cosmonauts train in the US, Germany, Japan, and
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Sinnott, Christian; Liu, James; Matera, Courtney; Halow, Savannah; Jones, Ann; Moroz, Matthew; Mulligan, Jeffrey; Crognale, Michael; Folmer, Eelke; MacNeilage, Paul (November 2019).
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complete and training is completed across the ISS partner network, no longer only at the EAC. It is only upon completion of this phase that astronauts are assigned to a spaceflight.
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typical hardware or mock-ups that astronauts may encounter in space above the ground. It is used to simulate low-friction environments for astronauts to learn to move large objects.
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models of the space vehicles are present in a large âwater tankâ. Unlike the SVMF, the NBL helps astronauts train on projects such as maintenance, but outside of the space vehicle.
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Salamon, Nick; Grimm, Jonathan M.; Horack, John M.; Newton, Elizabeth K. (May 2018). "Application of virtual reality for crew mental health in extended-duration space missions".
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which are small calcareous concretions that sense body postures and are responsible for ensuring proper balance. In most cases, this leads to some postflight postural illusions.
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Moore, Sandra K.; Gast, Matthew A. (October 2010). "21st Century extravehicular activities: Synergizing past and present training methods for future spacewalking success".
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Cater, John P.; Huffman, Stephen D. (1995-01-01). "Use of the Remote Access Virtual Environment Network (RAVEN) for Coordinated IVAâEVA Astronaut Training and Evaluation".
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trains the astronaut by simulating a microgravity environment through a centrifuge. In contrast, VR training requires less gear, training the astronauts more economically.
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The Crew of STS-135 practices rendezvous and docking with the ISS in the Systems Engineering Simulator at the Johnson Space Center on June 28, 2011, in Houston, Texas.
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KC-135 Stratotanker: the KC-135 is an air-refueling plane designed by Boeing. Known as the âWeightless Wonderâ or the âVomit Cometâ, this plane is the most famous of
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The Indian human space flight program still awaits a formal go ahead. Once cleared, the mission is expected to take two Indians in a Soyuz-type orbital vehicle into
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Wang, Lan; Lin, Lingjie; Chang, Ying; Song, Da (December 2020). "Velocity Planning for Astronaut Virtual Training Robot with High-Order Dynamic Constraints".
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Tamaddon, Kiarash; Stiefs, Dirk (2017). "Embodied experiment of levitation in microgravity in a simulated virtual reality environment for science learning".
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astronauts in their mammoth tasks with a human touch. Intercultural and human robot interaction training is the need of the hour for long duration missions.
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Astronauts Tom Marshburn, left, and Dave Wolf train for a spacewalk in the Integrated EVA-RMS Virtual Reality Simulator Facility at Johnson Space Center
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open water scuba diving course. This scuba course provides basic EVA training at ESA's NBF before moving on to the larger NASA training facility at the
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External events refer more broadly to the ability to live and work in the extreme environment of space. This includes adaptation to microgravity (or
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A powerful tool for astronaut training will be the continuing use of analog environments, including NASA Extreme Environment Mission Operations (
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Sgobba, Tommaso; Landon, Lauren B.; Marciacq, Jean-Bruno; Groen, Eric; Tikhonov, Nikolai; Torchia, Francesco (2018). "Selection and training".
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Menon, Anil S.; Barnes, Bobby; Mills, Rose; Bruyns, Cynthia D.; Twombly, Alexander; Smith, Jeff; Montgomery, Kevin; Boyle, Richard (2003).
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space programs. Training in this phase also looks into applicable laws and policies of the space sector. Technical (including engineering,
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in regions around the world for their space missions before, during and after the flight, which includes medical tests, physical training,
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Kale, Sneha R; Master, Hiral S; Verma, Chhaya V; Shetye, Jaimala; Surkar, Swati; Mehta, Amita (2013). "Exercise Training for Astronauts".
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While the first generation of non-government spaceflight astronauts will likely perform suborbital trajectories, currently companies like
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Using registration, calibration, and robotics to build a more accurate virtual reality simulation for astronaut training and telemedicine
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While the extravehicular activities (EVAs) training facility can simulate the space conditions, including pressure and lighting, the
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2744:"Development of microgravity, full body functional reach envelope using 3-D computer graphic models and virtual reality technology"
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MOSKOWITZ, Clara. 2011. Astronauts Set to Become Aquanauts for Undersea 'Asteroid' Mission. . . Available from World Wide Web: <
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Soyuz capsule simulator located at the EAC in Cologne, Germany. ESA astronauts will simulate operations in the capsule at the EAC.
359:, and ISS systems, flight safety and operations, as well as land and water survival. Pilot AsCans will receive training on NASA's
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The SVMF uses the Partial Gravity Simulator (PGS) and air bearing floor (PABF) to simulate the zero-gravity and the effects of
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DURANTE, M and FA CUCINOTTA. 2008. Heavy Ion Carcinogenesis and Human Space Exploration. Nature Rev Cancer, 2 May, pp.465-472.
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disorientation. Astronauts who received VR training can perform the task 12% faster, with a 53% decrease in nausea symptoms.
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226:. This training is particularly important for missions when an astronaut will encounter multiple systems (for example on the
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Wu, Peggy; Morie, Jacquelyn; Chance, Eric; Haynes, Kip; Hamell, Joshua; Wall, Peter; Ladwig, Jack; Ott, Tammy (2015-04-12).
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The effects of launching and landing have various effects on astronauts, with the most significant effects that occur being
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technology does not produce strong psychological effects, like claustrophobia, that often occurs in enclosed environments.
763:. In addition there will be a focus on the psychological aspects of long-duration missions where crew is largely isolated.
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Thuot, Pierre J.; Harbaugh, Gregory J. (July 1995). "Extravehicular activity training and hardware design consideration".
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awareness and orientation to overcome visual reorientation. In the traditional disorientation training, for instance, the
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prepare the astronauts for carrying out the experiment. Much of this training is done at the European Astronaut Center.
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during astronaut selection, but if they are present in an astronaut they can worsen over the course of the spaceflight.
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Heer, Martina; Paloski, William H. (October 2006). "Space motion sickness: Incidence, etiology, and countermeasures".
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Cardiovascular events represent important factors during the three phases of a space mission. They can be divided in:
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While VR is used in astronaut training on the ground, immersive technology also contributes to on-orbit training. VR
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Oddsson, Lars IE; Karlsson, Robin; Konrad, Janusz; Ince, Serdar; Williams, Steve R; Zemkova, Erika (December 2007).
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2921:
809:
These missions are not completely independent without the presence of robots. This opens up a new avenue towards
3612:
3474:
3057:
555:
542:)), as well as ground control and launch facility training. This training phase also focuses on skills such as
126:
drowsiness and headaches, to nausea and vomiting. There are three general categories of space motion sickness:
66:
and why research is being conducted on best practices for future extended missions, such as the trip to Mars.
2763:
2017 IEEE Virtual Reality Workshop on K-12 Embodied Learning through Virtual & Augmented Reality (KELVAR)
939:
917:
320:
1897:
3808:
3178:
1790:
1955:
Anderson, Allison; Mayer, Michael; Fellows, Abigail; Cowan, Devin; Hegel, Mark; Buckey, Jay (2017-06-01).
1771:
506:. European training has three phases: Basic training, Advanced training, and Increment Specific Training.
39:
on a nighttime simulated moonwalk in the San Francisco Volcanic Field in Northern Arizona on May 16, 2024.
31:
3590:
3426:
3173:
3020:
958:
921:
227:
98:
2448:
1931:
1512:(1st ed.). Berlin : Chichester, UK: Springer ; Published in association with Praxis Pub.
1411:
Virtual, Augmented and Mixed Reality: Interaction, Navigation, Visualization, Embodiment, and Simulation
3803:
3662:
3431:
3104:
928:
535:
385:
235:
207:
1616:
683:. The training for these astronauts should be based on the lessons learned from training India's only
202:
During training, astronauts are familiarized with the engineering systems of the spacecraft including
74:
3585:
3467:
3205:
2970:
1640:
1447:"Preflight Virtual Reality Training as a Countermeasure for Space Motion Sickness and Disorientation"
664:
495:
372:
59:
148:, located in the inner ear is disrupted because of the microgravity-induced unresponsiveness of the
3700:
3200:
3188:
3160:
2109:"NASA shows the world its 20-year virtual reality experiment to train astronauts: The inside story"
795:
474:
51:
413:
3704:
3640:
3419:
3321:
3232:
3136:
3109:
3010:
1863:
1816:"How SpaceX, Virgin Galactic, Blue Origin and others compete in the growing space tourism market"
810:
115:
167:
return to a gravitational environment and thus unable to egress a spacecraft without assistance.
19:
3752:
3714:
3148:
3067:
3005:
1872:. With Margaret Lazarus Dean. Alfred A. Knopf, a division of Penguin Random House. p. 50.
1063:
343:
Astronauts train in the Neutral Buoyancy Facility at the Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas
255:
1711:
3602:
3409:
3047:
2647:
2449:"Underwater Virtual Reality System for Neutral Buoyancy Training: Development and Evaluation"
2188:
1038:
822:
790:), or even the ISS (in-flight). In fact, at NEEMO a total of 15 mission astronauts (known as
787:
659:
539:
531:
203:
119:
111:
89:
2707:
727:
3771:
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2963:
2913:
2703:
2586:
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2215:
1741:
1130:
1053:
990:
913:
851:
evaluate the efficacy of training using virtual reality versus underwater and other setup.
626:
396:
is also becoming increasingly used as a tool to immerse AsCans into the space environment.
1386:
8:
3667:
3645:
3580:
3299:
3143:
2940:
2812:
2716:
2691:
905:
421:
389:
360:
211:
2590:
2265:
2219:
1183:"A rehabilitation tool for functional balance using altered gravity and virtual reality"
912:
is utilized during EVA training to increase the immersion of the training process. NASA
3782:
3565:
3491:
3346:
3242:
3094:
2784:
2721:
2521:
2494:
2426:
2157:
2021:
1910:
1368:
1316:
1274:
1209:
1182:
465:; and devices used by scientists to study the physics and environment of outer space.
286:
A researcher using VR headset to investigate ideas for controlling rovers on a planet.
3813:
3778:
3737:
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3272:
3247:
3193:
3183:
3000:
2878:
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2838:
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2774:
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2149:
2062:
2011:
1995:
1976:
1956:
1873:
1513:
1483:
1458:
1422:
1360:
1320:
1278:
1245:
1214:
1104:
1084:
1043:
951:
947:
219:
215:
187:
145:
2788:
2598:
2323:"Virtual Reality Training and Global Robotics Work Before Spacewalk â Space Station"
2273:
2161:
2025:
509:
193:
3650:
3479:
3436:
3402:
3367:
3304:
3257:
3099:
2766:
2711:
2594:
2554:
2516:
2506:
2418:
2277:
2269:
2223:
2141:
2054:
2003:
1968:
1761:
MORRING, F. 2009. Astronaut Training. Aviation Week and Space Technology, pp.48-49.
1414:
1372:
1352:
1312:
1270:
1237:
1204:
1194:
1163:
1096:
965:
646:
588:
547:
523:
381:
364:
347:
329:
2000:
Proceedings of the 2015 Virtual Reality International Conference on ZZZ - VRIC '15
3695:
3595:
3548:
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3372:
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3309:
3215:
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909:
712:
680:
393:
356:
339:
36:
2770:
2558:
2192:
1686:
1167:
136:
Severe: Several symptoms of persistent nature, significant impact on performance
3742:
3729:
3622:
3553:
3543:
3528:
3506:
3496:
3392:
3382:
3331:
3252:
1241:
1100:
1058:
716:
462:
417:
377:
333:
247:
2422:
2145:
1791:"Virgin Galactic plans new astronaut training facility near Spaceport America"
1665:
621:
outside the Tsukuba Space Center where training of JAXA astronauts takes place
254:. The difficulties associated with living and working in microgravity include
3797:
3690:
3607:
3538:
3501:
3341:
3262:
3126:
3121:
2495:"The Use of Virtual Reality in Psychology: A Case Study in Visual Perception"
1738:"Chinese Space Program | Chinese Astronaut Corps | SinoDefence.com"
1048:
943:
684:
519:
94:
63:
2282:
2007:
78:
NASA astronaut tests spacesuit designs and practice spacewalks in water tank
3747:
3682:
3351:
3336:
3037:
3032:
2908:
2903:
2530:
2235:
2153:
2066:
2058:
1980:
1972:
1462:
1364:
1218:
1199:
1108:
938:
NASA Virtual Reality Laboratory utilizes virtual reality to supplement the
818:
133:
Moderate: Several symptoms of persistent nature, minimal operational impact
2511:
1957:"Relaxation with Immersive Natural Scenes Presented Using Virtual Reality"
1477:
614:
550:, Russian language courses, human behavior and performance, and finally a
282:
3575:
3441:
3131:
3114:
2986:
2667:"Ars tests NASA's first Vive VR experiments: ISS, lunar rover simulators"
1898:
http://www.space.com/13007-nasa-astronauts-undersea-asteroid-mission.html
1085:"Exclusive: How NASA astronauts are training to walk on the Moon in 2026"
775:
752:
630:
618:
438:
170:
Orthostatic intolerance leading to syncope during post-flight stand test.
1413:. Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Vol. 10909. pp. 438â451.
1307:
Marciacq, Jean-Bruno; Bessone, Loredana (2009). "Crew Training Safety".
801:
3709:
3617:
3560:
3520:
3314:
3015:
2644:
Evaluation of Virtual and Hybrid Reality Systems for Astronaut Training
1385:
NASA. Long Duration Psychology. . . Available from World Wide Web: <
760:
748:
442:
434:
47:
2918:
2469:
1445:
Stroud, Kenneth J.; Harm, Deborah L.; Klaus, David M. (1 April 2005).
649:
are not available, what is known is that candidates are chosen by the
355:
AsCans initially go through Basic Training, where they are trained on
3719:
3570:
3287:
3168:
3089:
3072:
2355:"The NASA Playground That Takes Virtual Reality To a Whole New Level"
791:
744:
583:
458:
450:
425:
251:
223:
719:
are developing proprietary suborbital astronaut training programs.
690:
543:
454:
2898:
445:
as closely and realistically as possible. This includes full-size
1641:"Sonny Carter Training Facility: The Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory"
779:
756:
668:
527:
522:, propulsion, orbital mechanics, etc.) and scientific (including
503:
499:
259:
149:
1687:"Basic Training for International Space Station Crew Candidates"
400:
crew/flight controller training is carried out in parallel with
3533:
3397:
2470:"Varjo & Boeing Starliner: A New Era in Astronaut Training"
864:
2005: Micro Organic Light-Emitting Diode (micro-OLED) - 800x600
599:
446:
2955:
2692:"The Application of Leap Motion in Astronaut Virtual Training"
2543:
1996:"Maintaining Psycho-Social Health on the Way to Mars and Back"
1131:"Medical Examination Requirements (MER) for Former Astronauts"
908:
cannot be fully reconstructed in the Earth's 1-G environment.
130:
Mild: One to several transient symptoms, no operational impact
771:
722:
625:
Since the development of domestic training facilities at the
1001:
2043:
740:
736:
645:
Although official details of the selection process for the
2493:
Wilson, Christopher J.; Soranzo, Alessandro (2015-08-03).
159:
Pre-existing cardiovascular diseases: these are typically
3414:
1954:
1264:
1180:
972:
767:
long-duration astronaut training facility in the future.
2696:
IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering
2576:
1156:
Indian Journal of Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy
1387:
https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4225/long-duration/long.htm
735:
Astronauts for long-term missionsâsuch as those to the
574:
2081:"Can Virtual Reality Help Astronauts Keep Their Cool?"
1475:
290:
214:. In addition to this, astronauts receive training in
2446:
1153:
836:
578:
The grounds of the Gagarin Cosmonauts Training Center
144:
Post-flight, following exposure to microgravity, the
2613:"NASA trains astronauts with zero-G virtual reality"
1024:
elimination between the real and the virtual world.
2385:"NASA is Using Virtual Reality to Train Astronauts"
2298:"NASA is Using Virtual Reality to Train Astronauts"
1993:
1869:
Endurance: A Year in Space, a Lifetime of Discovery
899:
494:Astronaut training in Europe is carried out by the
2931:List of experiments in International Space Station
2871:Prepare for Launch: The Astronaut Training Process
2499:Computational and Mathematical Methods in Medicine
1772:"India says it will send a human to space by 2022"
1510:Prepare for launch: the astronaut training process
1407:
774:), NASA's Desert Research and Technology Studies (
633:will also be carried out at Tsukuba Space Center.
602:for specific training in the various ISS modules.
23:A test subject being suited up for studies on the
1503:
1501:
1499:
3795:
2809:Principles of Clinical Medicine for Space Flight
2689:
2408:
2177:"Astronauts to board virtual reality video game"
2134:Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments
1730:
706:
388:(NBF) allow candidates to get acclimated to the
62:received training for geology field work on the
2868:
2828:
2806:
2547:International Journal of Human-Computer Studies
1444:
1306:
2760:
1890:
1496:
1187:Journal of NeuroEngineering and Rehabilitation
920:(SVMF), Virtual Reality Laboratory (VRL), and
408:
2971:
2492:
2205:
2690:Qingchao, Xie; Jiangang, Chao (March 2017).
2131:
1755:
1662:"Cosmonaut training overview | RuSpace"
1392:
858:1991: Liquid-Crystal Display (LCD) - 320x420
2850:
1617:"NASA - Zero-Gravity Plane on Final Flight"
1451:Aviation, Space, and Environmental Medicine
1342:
1232:"NASA, Space Science, and Western Europe".
817:Training also has to be evolved for future
46:describes the complex process of preparing
2978:
2964:
2664:
2174:
723:Long-duration missions to the Moon or Mars
2875:Springer Praxis Books / Space Exploration
2715:
2520:
2510:
2281:
2251:
1704:
1679:
1526:
1507:
1208:
1198:
1002:Disadvantages of virtual reality training
731:Astronaut during virtual reality training
2641:
2047:Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance
1961:Aerospace Medicine and Human Performance
890:
861:1992: Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) - 1280x1024
800:
726:
613:
573:
508:
453:rams and controlled by state of the art
412:
346:
338:
281:
192:
73:
30:
18:
3463:Effect of spaceflight on the human body
2741:
2175:Sternstein, Aliya (11 September 2006).
2039:
2037:
2035:
1932:"How Long Does It Take to Get to Mars?"
1788:
1654:
1561:
1559:
1034:Effect of spaceflight on the human body
933:Space Shuttle thermal protection system
181:Effect of spaceflight on the human body
16:Preparing astronauts for space missions
3796:
3485:Psychological and sociological effects
2637:
2635:
2633:
2379:
2377:
2375:
2349:
2347:
2345:
2343:
2106:
1813:
1595:"Space Vehicle Mockup Facility (SVMF)"
1440:
1438:
1338:
1336:
980:Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center
973:Advantages of virtual reality training
685:Cosmonaut Wing Commander Rakesh Sharma
596:Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center
594:Training primarily takes place at the
265:
174:
69:
2959:
2737:
2735:
2572:
2570:
2568:
2442:
2440:
2247:
2245:
2102:
2100:
1862:
1614:
1589:
1587:
1302:
1300:
1298:
1296:
1294:
1128:
1082:
881:Cooperative and interactive designing
651:Chinese National Space Administration
299:
105:
2946:NASA: How to become an astronaut 101
2742:Lindsey, Patrica F. (October 1994).
2032:
1929:
1556:
2630:
2372:
2340:
2107:Carson, Erin (September 17, 2015).
1435:
1379:
1333:
392:environment, particularly for EVA.
291:Purpose of virtual-reality training
13:
3194:Weather and environment monitoring
2869:Seedhouse, Erik (April 13, 2010),
2851:Kanas, Nick (September 30, 2003),
2829:Clément, Gilles (April 25, 2005),
2799:
2732:
2565:
2437:
2242:
2097:
1584:
1317:10.1016/B978-0-7506-8580-1.00025-7
1291:
1275:10.1016/B978-0-08-101869-9.00016-9
1267:Space Safety and Human Performance
1225:
1174:
1147:
1122:
837:Virtual reality astronaut training
701:
538:), and the H-II Transfer Vehicle (
241:
14:
3825:
2892:
1844:Commercial Spaceflight Federation
1565:
234:, scientific experimentation, or
25:Reduced Gravity Walking Simulator
3777:
3767:
3766:
1482:. UNION Agency. pp. 87â94.
1083:Witze, Alexandra (29 May 2024).
900:Current virtual reality training
304:
82:
3238:Space launch market competition
2985:
2853:Space Psychology and Psychiatry
2807:Baratt, Michael (May 1, 2008),
2754:
2683:
2658:
2605:
2599:10.1016/j.actaastro.2018.02.034
2537:
2486:
2462:
2402:
2315:
2290:
2274:10.1016/j.actaastro.2010.06.016
2199:
2168:
2125:
2073:
1987:
1948:
1930:Redd, Nola (14 November 2017).
1923:
1903:
1856:
1832:
1807:
1782:
1764:
1633:
1608:
1568:"NASA - Astronauts in Training"
1534:"NASA - Astronauts in Training"
1469:
1401:
1309:Safety Design for Space Systems
250:), isolation, confinement, and
3475:Health threat from cosmic rays
2831:Fundamentals of Space Medicine
2717:10.1088/1757-899x/187/1/012015
2665:Machkovech, Sam (2016-03-13).
1814:Sheetz, Michael (2020-09-26).
1540:. 4 March 2018. Archived from
1258:
1076:
556:Lyndon B. Johnson Space Center
534:, Automatic Transfer Vehicle (
218:, scientific experimentation,
1:
1789:Tingley, Brett (2022-08-02).
1069:
940:Simplified Aid For EVA Rescue
918:Space Vehicle Mockup Facility
707:Suborbital astronaut training
102:diving, and flight training.
2855:, Space Technology Library,
2228:10.1016/0094-5765(95)00035-X
1419:10.1007/978-3-319-91581-4_33
1357:10.1016/j.autneu.2006.07.014
1236:. Palgrave Macmillan. 2013.
1129:Lewis, Robert (2017-12-08).
7:
3591:Self-replicating spacecraft
3427:International Space Station
2771:10.1109/KELVAR.2017.7961560
2559:10.1016/j.ijhcs.2005.08.004
1168:10.5958/j.0973-5674.7.2.017
1027:
959:Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory
922:Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory
916:has facilities such as the
884:Engineering problem-solving
784:Flight Analog Research Unit
409:Notable training facilities
386:neutral buoyancy facilities
228:International Space Station
99:International Space Station
10:
3830:
3105:Space Liability Convention
1242:10.1057/9781137340931.0010
1101:10.1038/d41586-024-01533-3
841:
208:spacecraft thermal control
178:
58:mission, which is why the
3761:
3728:
3681:
3633:
3519:
3468:Space adaptation syndrome
3455:
3360:
3280:
3271:
3159:
2993:
2423:10.1017/S0263574719001863
2146:10.1162/pres.1995.4.2.103
1983:– via ResearchGate.
1014:
786:, Haughton-Mars Project (
665:Astronaut Center of China
569:
496:European Astronaut Centre
489:
373:Shuttle Training Aircraft
3201:Communications satellite
2835:Space Technology Library
1508:Seedhouse, Erik (2010).
674:
640:
605:
498:(EAC), headquartered in
52:extra-vehicular activity
3705:reusable launch systems
3322:Extravehicular activity
3233:Commercial use of space
3137:Militarisation of space
3110:Registration Convention
3026:Accidents and incidents
2951:Train Like An Astronaut
2936:CNSA Manned Spaceflight
2708:2017MS&E..187a2015Q
2642:Baughman, Alex (2020).
2008:10.1145/2806173.2806174
1911:"Humans to Mars - NASA"
929:Newton's laws of motion
811:Human-Robot Interaction
426:his journey to the Moon
258:, motion sickness, and
116:orthostatic intolerance
3753:Mission control center
3715:Non-rocket spacelaunch
3149:Billionaire space race
2941:ISRO Human Spaceflight
2748:NASA Technical Reports
2059:10.3357/AMHP.4676.2016
1973:10.3357/AMHP.4747.2017
1718:. ESA - Space for Kids
1712:"Wanted...astronauts!"
1345:Autonomic Neuroscience
1200:10.1186/1743-0003-4-25
1064:The Astronaut Monument
896:
870:2015: OLED - 1920x1080
806:
732:
622:
579:
548:rendezvous and docking
514:
457:technology; elaborate
429:
352:
344:
287:
256:spatial disorientation
199:
79:
40:
28:
3603:Spacecraft propulsion
3053:European Space Agency
2181:Federal Computer Week
1776:The Planetary Society
1650:. FS-2006-11-026-JSC.
1604:. FS-2013-05-011-JSC.
1039:Human analog missions
894:
823:human mission to Mars
805:Robonaut2 onboard ISS
804:
730:
617:
577:
512:
416:
350:
342:
285:
204:spacecraft propulsion
196:
179:Further information:
120:cardiovascular events
112:space motion sickness
90:aerospace engineering
77:
34:
22:
3228:Satellite navigation
1311:. pp. 745â815.
1269:. pp. 721â793.
1054:NASA Astronaut Corps
991:head-mounted display
914:Johnson Space Center
867:2012: LCD - 1280x720
627:Tsukuba Space Center
314:Life support systems
212:life support systems
3809:Science occupations
3613:Electric propulsion
3300:Life-support system
3184:Imagery and mapping
3144:Private spaceflight
2591:2018AcAau.146..117S
2512:10.1155/2015/151702
2266:2010AcAau..67..739M
2220:1995AcAau..36...13T
994:environment (ICE).
906:Micro-g environment
424:simulator prior to
266:Science experiments
236:spacecraft piloting
175:On-orbit operations
70:Purpose of training
3566:Robotic spacecraft
3492:Space and survival
3347:Space colonization
3243:Space architecture
3095:Outer Space Treaty
2924:2012-10-16 at the
1615:McDonald-, Terry.
897:
807:
733:
623:
580:
544:robotic operations
515:
461:for simulation of
437:the experience of
430:
353:
345:
326:Earth observations
300:Training by region
288:
200:
190:(external events)
106:Launch and landing
80:
44:Astronaut training
41:
35:Astronauts of the
29:
3804:Human spaceflight
3791:
3790:
3738:Flight controller
3515:
3514:
3273:Human spaceflight
3248:Space exploration
3174:Earth observation
2884:978-1-4419-1349-4
2862:978-1-4020-1341-6
2844:978-1-4020-3246-2
2822:978-0-387-98842-9
2780:978-1-5386-1892-9
2579:Acta Astronautica
2417:(12): 2121â2137.
2254:Acta Astronautica
2208:Acta Astronautica
2085:Discover Magazine
1489:978-80-903100-1-8
1428:978-3-319-91580-7
1326:978-0-7506-8580-1
1284:978-0-08-101869-9
1251:978-1-137-34093-1
1234:NASA in the World
1044:Human spaceflight
952:Andrew J. Feustel
948:Richard R. Arnold
402:mission planning.
382:parabolic flights
317:Orbital mechanics
220:earth observation
216:orbital mechanics
188:space environment
146:vestibular system
60:Apollo astronauts
3821:
3781:
3770:
3769:
3480:Space psychology
3305:Animals in space
3278:
3277:
3258:Space technology
3100:Rescue Agreement
2980:
2973:
2966:
2957:
2956:
2887:
2865:
2847:
2825:
2793:
2792:
2765:. pp. 1â5.
2758:
2752:
2751:
2739:
2730:
2729:
2719:
2687:
2681:
2680:
2678:
2677:
2662:
2656:
2655:
2639:
2628:
2627:
2625:
2624:
2609:
2603:
2602:
2574:
2563:
2562:
2541:
2535:
2534:
2524:
2514:
2490:
2484:
2483:
2481:
2480:
2466:
2460:
2459:
2453:
2444:
2435:
2434:
2406:
2400:
2399:
2397:
2396:
2381:
2370:
2369:
2367:
2366:
2351:
2338:
2337:
2335:
2334:
2319:
2313:
2312:
2310:
2309:
2294:
2288:
2287:
2285:
2283:2060/20090034232
2260:(7â8): 739â752.
2249:
2240:
2239:
2203:
2197:
2196:
2172:
2166:
2165:
2129:
2123:
2122:
2120:
2119:
2104:
2095:
2094:
2092:
2091:
2077:
2071:
2070:
2041:
2030:
2029:
2002:. pp. 1â7.
1991:
1985:
1984:
1952:
1946:
1945:
1943:
1942:
1927:
1921:
1920:
1918:
1917:
1907:
1901:
1894:
1888:
1887:
1860:
1854:
1853:
1851:
1850:
1836:
1830:
1829:
1827:
1826:
1811:
1805:
1804:
1802:
1801:
1786:
1780:
1779:
1768:
1762:
1759:
1753:
1752:
1750:
1749:
1740:. Archived from
1734:
1728:
1727:
1725:
1723:
1708:
1702:
1701:
1699:
1697:
1683:
1677:
1676:
1674:
1673:
1664:. Archived from
1658:
1652:
1651:
1645:
1637:
1631:
1630:
1628:
1627:
1612:
1606:
1605:
1599:
1591:
1582:
1581:
1579:
1578:
1563:
1554:
1553:
1551:
1549:
1530:
1524:
1523:
1505:
1494:
1493:
1473:
1467:
1466:
1442:
1433:
1432:
1405:
1399:
1396:
1390:
1383:
1377:
1376:
1340:
1331:
1330:
1304:
1289:
1288:
1262:
1256:
1255:
1229:
1223:
1222:
1212:
1202:
1178:
1172:
1171:
1151:
1145:
1144:
1142:
1141:
1126:
1120:
1119:
1117:
1115:
1080:
966:Boeing Starliner
878:Mission planning
660:Shenzhou vehicle
647:Shenzhou program
589:English language
524:human physiology
447:cockpit replicas
361:T-38 Trainer Jet
330:Space physiology
232:training for EVA
3829:
3828:
3824:
3823:
3822:
3820:
3819:
3818:
3794:
3793:
3792:
3787:
3757:
3724:
3696:Escape velocity
3677:
3629:
3596:Space telescope
3549:Reentry capsule
3511:
3451:
3356:
3327:Overview effect
3310:Bioastronautics
3267:
3155:
2989:
2984:
2926:Wayback Machine
2914:JAXA Astronauts
2899:NASA Astronauts
2895:
2890:
2885:
2863:
2845:
2823:
2802:
2800:Further reading
2797:
2796:
2781:
2759:
2755:
2740:
2733:
2688:
2684:
2675:
2673:
2663:
2659:
2640:
2631:
2622:
2620:
2619:. 27 March 2017
2611:
2610:
2606:
2575:
2566:
2542:
2538:
2491:
2487:
2478:
2476:
2468:
2467:
2463:
2451:
2445:
2438:
2407:
2403:
2394:
2392:
2383:
2382:
2373:
2364:
2362:
2353:
2352:
2341:
2332:
2330:
2321:
2320:
2316:
2307:
2305:
2296:
2295:
2291:
2250:
2243:
2204:
2200:
2173:
2169:
2130:
2126:
2117:
2115:
2105:
2098:
2089:
2087:
2079:
2078:
2074:
2053:(11): 912â920.
2042:
2033:
2018:
1992:
1988:
1953:
1949:
1940:
1938:
1928:
1924:
1915:
1913:
1909:
1908:
1904:
1895:
1891:
1880:
1861:
1857:
1848:
1846:
1838:
1837:
1833:
1824:
1822:
1812:
1808:
1799:
1797:
1787:
1783:
1770:
1769:
1765:
1760:
1756:
1747:
1745:
1736:
1735:
1731:
1721:
1719:
1710:
1709:
1705:
1695:
1693:
1685:
1684:
1680:
1671:
1669:
1660:
1659:
1655:
1643:
1639:
1638:
1634:
1625:
1623:
1613:
1609:
1597:
1593:
1592:
1585:
1576:
1574:
1564:
1557:
1547:
1545:
1532:
1531:
1527:
1520:
1506:
1497:
1490:
1474:
1470:
1443:
1436:
1429:
1406:
1402:
1397:
1393:
1384:
1380:
1341:
1334:
1327:
1305:
1292:
1285:
1263:
1259:
1252:
1231:
1230:
1226:
1179:
1175:
1152:
1148:
1139:
1137:
1127:
1123:
1113:
1111:
1095:(8015): 26â28.
1081:
1077:
1072:
1030:
1017:
1004:
975:
935:(TPS) repairs.
910:Virtual reality
902:
844:
839:
725:
713:Virgin Galactic
709:
704:
702:Future training
681:low Earth orbit
677:
643:
608:
572:
492:
411:
394:Virtual reality
378:vacuum chambers
307:
302:
293:
268:
244:
242:External events
183:
177:
108:
85:
72:
37:Artemis program
17:
12:
11:
5:
3827:
3817:
3816:
3811:
3806:
3789:
3788:
3786:
3785:
3774:
3762:
3759:
3758:
3756:
3755:
3750:
3745:
3743:Ground station
3740:
3734:
3732:
3730:Ground segment
3726:
3725:
3723:
3722:
3717:
3712:
3707:
3698:
3693:
3687:
3685:
3679:
3678:
3676:
3675:
3670:
3665:
3663:Interplanetary
3660:
3659:
3658:
3656:Geosynchronous
3653:
3643:
3637:
3635:
3631:
3630:
3628:
3627:
3626:
3625:
3623:Gravity assist
3620:
3615:
3610:
3600:
3599:
3598:
3593:
3588:
3583:
3578:
3573:
3563:
3558:
3557:
3556:
3554:Service module
3551:
3546:
3544:Orbital module
3536:
3531:
3529:Launch vehicle
3525:
3523:
3517:
3516:
3513:
3512:
3510:
3509:
3507:Space sexology
3504:
3499:
3497:Space medicine
3494:
3489:
3488:
3487:
3477:
3472:
3471:
3470:
3459:
3457:
3453:
3452:
3450:
3449:
3444:
3439:
3434:
3429:
3424:
3423:
3422:
3412:
3407:
3406:
3405:
3400:
3390:
3385:
3380:
3375:
3370:
3364:
3362:
3358:
3357:
3355:
3354:
3349:
3344:
3339:
3334:
3332:Weightlessness
3329:
3324:
3319:
3318:
3317:
3312:
3307:
3297:
3296:
3295:
3284:
3282:
3275:
3269:
3268:
3266:
3265:
3260:
3255:
3253:Space research
3250:
3245:
3240:
3235:
3230:
3225:
3224:
3223:
3218:
3213:
3208:
3198:
3197:
3196:
3191:
3189:Reconnaissance
3186:
3181:
3171:
3165:
3163:
3157:
3156:
3154:
3153:
3152:
3151:
3141:
3140:
3139:
3134:
3129:
3119:
3118:
3117:
3112:
3107:
3102:
3097:
3087:
3086:
3085:
3080:
3075:
3070:
3065:
3060:
3058:European Union
3055:
3050:
3045:
3035:
3030:
3029:
3028:
3023:
3018:
3013:
3003:
2997:
2995:
2991:
2990:
2983:
2982:
2975:
2968:
2960:
2954:
2953:
2948:
2943:
2938:
2933:
2928:
2916:
2911:
2909:ESA Astronauts
2906:
2904:CSA Astronauts
2901:
2894:
2893:External links
2891:
2889:
2888:
2883:
2866:
2861:
2848:
2843:
2826:
2821:
2803:
2801:
2798:
2795:
2794:
2779:
2753:
2731:
2682:
2657:
2629:
2604:
2564:
2553:(3): 182â191.
2536:
2485:
2461:
2436:
2401:
2371:
2361:. 16 June 2015
2339:
2327:blogs.nasa.gov
2314:
2289:
2241:
2198:
2167:
2140:(2): 103â109.
2124:
2096:
2072:
2031:
2016:
1986:
1967:(6): 520â526.
1947:
1922:
1902:
1889:
1878:
1855:
1831:
1806:
1781:
1763:
1754:
1729:
1703:
1678:
1653:
1632:
1607:
1583:
1566:Logan, Barry.
1555:
1525:
1519:978-1441913494
1518:
1495:
1488:
1468:
1457:(4): 352â356.
1434:
1427:
1400:
1391:
1378:
1351:(1â2): 77â79.
1332:
1325:
1290:
1283:
1257:
1250:
1224:
1173:
1146:
1121:
1074:
1073:
1071:
1068:
1067:
1066:
1061:
1059:Space medicine
1056:
1051:
1046:
1041:
1036:
1029:
1026:
1016:
1013:
1003:
1000:
974:
971:
901:
898:
889:
888:
885:
882:
879:
872:
871:
868:
865:
862:
859:
843:
840:
838:
835:
724:
721:
717:Xcor Aerospace
708:
705:
703:
700:
676:
673:
642:
639:
607:
604:
571:
568:
491:
488:
487:
486:
482:
478:
471:
463:weightlessness
418:Neil Armstrong
410:
407:
337:
336:
327:
324:
318:
315:
306:
303:
301:
298:
292:
289:
279:the baseline.
267:
264:
248:weightlessness
243:
240:
176:
173:
172:
171:
168:
164:
138:
137:
134:
131:
107:
104:
84:
81:
71:
68:
15:
9:
6:
4:
3:
2:
3826:
3815:
3812:
3810:
3807:
3805:
3802:
3801:
3799:
3784:
3780:
3775:
3773:
3764:
3763:
3760:
3754:
3751:
3749:
3746:
3744:
3741:
3739:
3736:
3735:
3733:
3731:
3727:
3721:
3718:
3716:
3713:
3711:
3708:
3706:
3702:
3699:
3697:
3694:
3692:
3691:Direct ascent
3689:
3688:
3686:
3684:
3680:
3674:
3673:Intergalactic
3671:
3669:
3666:
3664:
3661:
3657:
3654:
3652:
3649:
3648:
3647:
3644:
3642:
3639:
3638:
3636:
3632:
3624:
3621:
3619:
3616:
3614:
3611:
3609:
3608:Rocket engine
3606:
3605:
3604:
3601:
3597:
3594:
3592:
3589:
3587:
3584:
3582:
3579:
3577:
3574:
3572:
3569:
3568:
3567:
3564:
3562:
3559:
3555:
3552:
3550:
3547:
3545:
3542:
3541:
3540:
3539:Space capsule
3537:
3535:
3532:
3530:
3527:
3526:
3524:
3522:
3518:
3508:
3505:
3503:
3502:Space nursing
3500:
3498:
3495:
3493:
3490:
3486:
3483:
3482:
3481:
3478:
3476:
3473:
3469:
3466:
3465:
3464:
3461:
3460:
3458:
3456:Health issues
3454:
3448:
3445:
3443:
3440:
3438:
3435:
3433:
3430:
3428:
3425:
3421:
3418:
3417:
3416:
3413:
3411:
3410:Space Shuttle
3408:
3404:
3401:
3399:
3396:
3395:
3394:
3391:
3389:
3386:
3384:
3381:
3379:
3376:
3374:
3371:
3369:
3366:
3365:
3363:
3359:
3353:
3350:
3348:
3345:
3343:
3342:Space tourism
3340:
3338:
3335:
3333:
3330:
3328:
3325:
3323:
3320:
3316:
3313:
3311:
3308:
3306:
3303:
3302:
3301:
3298:
3294:
3291:
3290:
3289:
3286:
3285:
3283:
3279:
3276:
3274:
3270:
3264:
3263:Space weather
3261:
3259:
3256:
3254:
3251:
3249:
3246:
3244:
3241:
3239:
3236:
3234:
3231:
3229:
3226:
3222:
3219:
3217:
3214:
3212:
3209:
3207:
3204:
3203:
3202:
3199:
3195:
3192:
3190:
3187:
3185:
3182:
3180:
3177:
3176:
3175:
3172:
3170:
3167:
3166:
3164:
3162:
3158:
3150:
3147:
3146:
3145:
3142:
3138:
3135:
3133:
3130:
3128:
3127:Space command
3125:
3124:
3123:
3122:Space warfare
3120:
3116:
3113:
3111:
3108:
3106:
3103:
3101:
3098:
3096:
3093:
3092:
3091:
3088:
3084:
3083:United States
3081:
3079:
3076:
3074:
3071:
3069:
3066:
3064:
3061:
3059:
3056:
3054:
3051:
3049:
3046:
3044:
3041:
3040:
3039:
3036:
3034:
3031:
3027:
3024:
3022:
3019:
3017:
3014:
3012:
3009:
3008:
3007:
3004:
3002:
3001:Astrodynamics
2999:
2998:
2996:
2992:
2988:
2981:
2976:
2974:
2969:
2967:
2962:
2961:
2958:
2952:
2949:
2947:
2944:
2942:
2939:
2937:
2934:
2932:
2929:
2927:
2923:
2920:
2917:
2915:
2912:
2910:
2907:
2905:
2902:
2900:
2897:
2896:
2886:
2880:
2876:
2872:
2867:
2864:
2858:
2854:
2849:
2846:
2840:
2836:
2832:
2827:
2824:
2818:
2814:
2810:
2805:
2804:
2790:
2786:
2782:
2776:
2772:
2768:
2764:
2757:
2749:
2745:
2738:
2736:
2727:
2723:
2718:
2713:
2709:
2705:
2702:(1): 012015.
2701:
2697:
2693:
2686:
2672:
2668:
2661:
2653:
2649:
2645:
2638:
2636:
2634:
2618:
2614:
2608:
2600:
2596:
2592:
2588:
2584:
2580:
2573:
2571:
2569:
2560:
2556:
2552:
2548:
2540:
2532:
2528:
2523:
2518:
2513:
2508:
2504:
2500:
2496:
2489:
2475:
2471:
2465:
2457:
2450:
2443:
2441:
2432:
2428:
2424:
2420:
2416:
2412:
2405:
2390:
2386:
2380:
2378:
2376:
2360:
2356:
2350:
2348:
2346:
2344:
2329:. 10 May 2018
2328:
2324:
2318:
2303:
2299:
2293:
2284:
2279:
2275:
2271:
2267:
2263:
2259:
2255:
2248:
2246:
2237:
2233:
2229:
2225:
2221:
2217:
2213:
2209:
2202:
2194:
2190:
2187:(31): 58â59.
2186:
2182:
2178:
2171:
2163:
2159:
2155:
2151:
2147:
2143:
2139:
2135:
2128:
2114:
2110:
2103:
2101:
2086:
2082:
2076:
2068:
2064:
2060:
2056:
2052:
2048:
2040:
2038:
2036:
2027:
2023:
2019:
2017:9781450333139
2013:
2009:
2005:
2001:
1997:
1990:
1982:
1978:
1974:
1970:
1966:
1962:
1958:
1951:
1937:
1933:
1926:
1912:
1906:
1899:
1893:
1886:
1881:
1879:9781524731595
1875:
1871:
1870:
1865:
1859:
1845:
1841:
1835:
1821:
1817:
1810:
1796:
1792:
1785:
1777:
1773:
1767:
1758:
1744:on 2012-01-26
1743:
1739:
1733:
1717:
1713:
1707:
1692:
1688:
1682:
1668:on 2020-07-26
1667:
1663:
1657:
1649:
1642:
1636:
1622:
1618:
1611:
1603:
1596:
1590:
1588:
1573:
1569:
1562:
1560:
1544:on 2018-03-04
1543:
1539:
1535:
1529:
1521:
1515:
1511:
1504:
1502:
1500:
1491:
1485:
1481:
1480:
1472:
1464:
1460:
1456:
1452:
1448:
1441:
1439:
1430:
1424:
1420:
1416:
1412:
1404:
1395:
1388:
1382:
1374:
1370:
1366:
1362:
1358:
1354:
1350:
1346:
1339:
1337:
1328:
1322:
1318:
1314:
1310:
1303:
1301:
1299:
1297:
1295:
1286:
1280:
1276:
1272:
1268:
1261:
1253:
1247:
1243:
1239:
1235:
1228:
1220:
1216:
1211:
1206:
1201:
1196:
1192:
1188:
1184:
1177:
1169:
1165:
1161:
1157:
1150:
1136:
1132:
1125:
1110:
1106:
1102:
1098:
1094:
1090:
1086:
1079:
1075:
1065:
1062:
1060:
1057:
1055:
1052:
1050:
1049:Mercury Seven
1047:
1045:
1042:
1040:
1037:
1035:
1032:
1031:
1025:
1021:
1012:
1008:
999:
995:
992:
987:
983:
981:
970:
967:
962:
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